Chapter 12.

Gases
Section 12. 1 Gases

Composition and structure determine the chemical properties of matter

Composition and structure affect the physical properties of matter
Ludwig Boltzman and James Maxwell proposed the kinetic-molecular theory
The kinetic molecular theory describes the behavior of matter in terms of
particles in motion

Particle Size

Gases consist of small particles separated from one another by empty

space
The volume of the particles is small compared with the volume of the
empty space
Due to separation they do not experience significant attractive or
repulsive forces

Particle Motion

Gas particles are in constant and random motion

Particles move in straight line until they collide with other particles or with
the wall of their container
Collisions are elastic. An elastic collision is one in which no kinetic energy is
lost. The kinetic energy is transferred between particles but the total kinetic
energy does not change

Particle Energy

The kinetic energy of a particle is determined by its mass and velocity

KE = mv2
Velocity reflects both the speed and the direction of the motion
Particles of the same gas have the same mass but they can move at
different velocities so they do not kinetic energy will not be the same

Behavior of Gases
Low Density

They are in a low density state due to the empty space in between particles

Compression and expansion

Gases are compressible

Motion and empty space allows gas particles to expand

Diffusion and effusion

Diffusion is a term used to describe the movement of one material through

another
Particles diffuse from an area of high concentration to one of low
concentration
Effusion is a process related to diffusion. During effusion a gas escape
through a tiny opening.
Thomas Graham conducted experiments to measure the rates of effusion of
different gases at the same temperature
Grahams law of effusion states that the rate of effusion for a gas is
inversely proportional to the square root of its molar mass

molar mass

Rate of effusion

The rate of diffusion depends on the mass of the particles involved

Lighter particles diffuse more rapidly than heavier particles
Grahams law compare the diffusion rates of two gases

Rate A
Rate B

1/

Molar Mass B
Molar Mass A

Example:
Ammonia has a molar mass of 17g/mol (NH3 = 14 + 3= 17 using PT); hydrogen
chloride has a molar mass of 36 g/mol. What is the ratio of their diffusion rates?
S1. Since the molar masses are given for both gases (remember diffusion relates to
gases) use Grahams formula.

Rate NH 3
Rate HCl

36 g /mol
17 g /mol

1. 46 lighter particles diffuse more rapidly

than heavier ones

Gas Pressure

Pressure is defined as force per unit area.

Gas particles exert pressure when they collide with the walls of the container.

Air Pressure

Particles in air move in every direction exerting pressure in all directions. This
pressure is called atmospheric pressure or air pressure.
Air pressure varies at different points on Earth.
Gravity is greater at the surface of the Earth so there are more particles than
at higher altitudes where the force of gravity is less.
At higher elevations fewer particles exert less force bc they are in less
concentration as compared with the number of particles at lower altitudes

Air pressure is higher at sea level, around 1 kg pr square centimiter

Measuring Air Pressure

Evangelista Torricelli was the first to demonstrate that air exerted pressure
Barometer, invented by Torricelli, is an instrument used to measure
atmospheric pressure.
The height of the mercury is about 760mm and it is determined by two forces
gravity and ari pressure. Gravity pushes the mercury down in a column but
this downward force is opposed by air pressure. Changes in air temperature
or humidity cause air pressure to vary
Manometer, it is an instrument used to measure the gas pressure in a
closed container.

Barometer

Manometer

Units of Pressure

The SI unit of pressure is the Pascal (Pa)

Named after Blaise Pascal
One Pascal is equal to a force of one Newton per square meter or 1Pa= 1N/m 2
Pounds per square inch (psi)
Millimeters of mercury (mmHg)
Torr
Bar
1 atm = 103.3 KPa = 760 mmHg= 14.7psi =1.01 bar = 760 torr

Daltons Law of Partial Pressures

States that the total pressure of a mixture of gases is equal to the sum of
the pressures of all the gases in the mixture.
Partial pressure is the total pressure contributed by a single gas. It depends
on the number of moles of gas, the size of the container, and the
temperature of the mixture.
It does not depend on the identity of the gas
At a given temperature and pressure the partial pressure of 1 mol of
any gas is the same.
Daltons law can be used to determine the amount of gas produced by a
reaction.

DALTONS LAW OF PARTIAL PRESSURES

PTOTAL = P1 + P2 + P3Pn
Example: A mixture of oxygen, carbon dioxide and nitrogen has a total pressure of
0.97 atm. What is the partial pressure of oxygen if the partial pressure of CO 2 is 0.70
atm ant the partial pressure of N2 is 0.12 atm?
S1. Read the information and identify the data given to you in the problem
Total pressure = 0.97 atm
Partial pressure of CO2 = 0.70 atm
Partial pressure of N2= 0.12 atm
Partial pressure of Q2 = unknown
S2. Rearrange your formula to solve for O2
Ptotal = PCO2 + P N2 + PO2
PO2 = Ptotal Pco2 + P N2 = 0.97- 0.70- 0.12 = 0.15 atm

Section 12.2 Forces of Attraction

Intermolecular Forces

The attractive forces that hold particles together in ionic, covalent and
metallic bonds are called intramolecular forces. Intra= within molecular=
atoms, molecules, or ions
Inter = between or among
Intermolecular forces hold together identical particles, such as water
molecules in a drop of water.

The intermolecular forces are dispersion forces, dipole-dipole forces and

hydrogen bonds.
Intermolecular forces are weaker than the intramolecular forces involved in
bonding

Dispersion Forces

Weak forces that result from temporary shifts in the density of electrons in
electron clouds. Dispersion forces are also called London forces after Fritz
London
Electrons in an electron cloud are in constant motion. When molecules collide
the cloud of one molecule repels the electron cloud of the other molecule
making the density around each nucleus greater in one region while the
collision takes place. This creates a temporary dipole due to that dispersion
forces.

Dipole-dipole forces

Polar molecules contain permanent dipoles, meaning that the polar molecule
always have a partially negative and a partially positive region.
Dipole-dipole forces are the attraction between oppositely charged regions of
polar molecules
Polar molecules posses an orientation so that oppositely charged regions
align
A Hydrogen bond is a dipole-dipole attraction that occurs when hydrogen is
bonded to fluorine, oxygen, or nitrogen. These atoms are electronegative
enough to form a partial positive charge on the hydrogen atom

Section 12.3 Liquids and Solids

The particles in solids and liquids have a limited range of motion and are not
easily compressed

LIQUIDS

A liquid can take the shape of the container because the particles can flow to
adjust to the shape of the container
A liquid has a fixed volume because it cannot expand to fill its container
Forces of attraction between particles in the liquid limit their range of motion
so that the particles remain closely packed in a fixed volume

Density and Compression

At 25C and 1 atm of air pressure, liquids are much denser than gases.

The density of a liquid is much greater than that of its vapor at the same
conditions
The higher density of liquids is due to the intermolecular forces that hold
particles together
Liquids are incompressible

Fluidity

Gases and liquids are classified as fluids because they can flow and
diffuse
Liquids diffuse more slowly than gases due to the intermolecular
attractions

Viscosity

It is a measure of the resistance of a liquid to flow.

Particles in a liquid are close enough for attractive forces to slow their
movement as the flow past one another
The viscosity of a liquid is determined by the type of intermolecular
forces in the liquid, the size and the shape of the particles and the
temperature
The stronger the intermolecular forces the higher the viscosity
Molecules with long chains have higher viscosity
Heat allows to overcome the intermolecular forces and allows for rapid
motion thus decreased viscosity

Surface Tension

Intermolecular forces do not have an equal effect on all particles in a

liquid. The particles in a liquid will be affected by neighbor particles
(above, below, side to side).
For particles at the surface the only interaction with among liquid
particles is of those underneath, so there is a net attractive force
pulling down on particles at the surface
The energy required to increase the surface area of a liquid by
a given amount is called surface tension
Surface tension is a measure of the inward pull by particles in the
interior
In general the stronger attraction between particles the greater the
surface tension
Compounds that lower the surface tension of water are called
surfactants

Cohesion and Adhesion

Cohesion describes the force of attraction between identical

molecules
Adhesion describes the force of attraction between molecules that
are different
Capillary action; the liquid is drawn upward into small spaces

SOLIDS

Strong attractive forces acting between particles in a solid limit the motion of
the particles to vibrations
Particles arrange within certain order thus not flow occurs
Particles in a solid are closely packed. Solids are more dense that most liquids
Crystalline Solids

A crystalline solid is a solid whose atoms, ions, or molecules are

arranged in an orderly geometric structure.
The particle organization in a solid is known as the crystal lattice
Crystalline solids can be organized as a simple cubic cell unit, bodycentered cubic unit cell, or face-centered cubic unit cell
A unit cell is the smallest arrangement of atoms in a crystal lattice. Can
be thought as a building block whose shape determines the shape of
the crystal

PHASE CHANGES

Matter changes phase when energy is added or removed

Phase changes that require energy
-Melting: heat transfer of energy takes place from the object at a high
temperature to an object at a lower temperature.
-The melting point is the energy required to disrupt the bonds producing
instability which causes the atoms to move apart and enter in the liquid face
-The amount required to melt 1 mol of a solid depends on the strength of the
forces keeping the particles together in a solid
- The melting point of a crystalline solid is the temperature at which
the forces holding its crystal lattice together are broken and it
becomes a liquid
-Vaporization: it is the process by which a liquid changes to a gas or vapor
-Evaporation: occurs only at the surface of a liquid, molecules a t the
surface are attracted to fewer other molecules
-vapor pressure: the pressure exerted by a vapor over a liquid

- Boiling point: temperature at which the vapor pressure of a liquid equals

the external or atmospheric pressure. Molecules throughout the liquid have
enough KE to vaporize as the emerge to the surface and equal the
atmospheric pressure
-Sublimation: process where a substance change directly from the solid
phase to the gas phase.

Phase changes that release energy

-freezing is the reverse of melting. The freezing point is the temperature at
which a liquid is converted into a crystalline solid
-condensation is the reverse of vaporization. Condensation is the process
by which a gas or vapor becomes a liquid
-Deposition is the process by which a substance changes from a gas or
vapor to a solid without becoming a liquid. Deposition is the reverse of
sublimation (snow).

Phase diagrams
- The phase of a substance is controlled by temperature and
pressure
- A phase diagram is a graph of pressure versus temperature that
shows in which a substance exists under different conditions of
temperature and pressure
- The diagram has three regions representing solid, liquid, and vapor phases
- Some regions represent the points at which to phases coexist
- Triple point is the point on a phase diagram that represents the
temperature and pressure at which all phases coexist (freezing-melting,
evaporation and condensation, sublimation and deposition)
- Critical point indicates critical pressure and temperature above which
water cannot exist as a liquid.
- Different substances behave differently at certain temperature and
pressure so different phase diagrams are plotted for different substances.
The importance of a phase diagram is that it explains the behavior of a
substance