Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
CHAPTER
2. Discuss the difficulties encountered when trying to define both health and
disease.
Answer: When defining both of these terms, one of the difficulties encountered
is that when these terms are used in everyday conversation their meanings are
different.
A problem with the definition of health is that if the WHO definition is to
be taken literally then it would be very difficult to achieve a complete state
of physical, mental and social wellbeing at any one time. Another difficulty
encountered is the fact that different individuals have different perceptions of
what is healthy for them. Health is a fluid state that is constantly changing relative
to others and ourselves over a given time.
The definition of disease is very broad and, if followed closely, then something
as simple as a cut to our writing finger could be said to affect the functioning of
the body. Also to be taken into consideration is the fact that normal functioning is
at different levels for different people.
1
Copyright 2008 McGraw-Hill Australia. Permission is granted to reproduce for classroom use.
BIOLOGY IN FOCUS
Process/structure
Definition
Cell differentiation
Cell specialisation
Genes
Mitosis
4. Analyse the links between gene expression and the maintenance and repair of
b
d ti
l d an example
l iin your answer.
body
tissues. IInclude
Answer: Gene expression involves the switching on of genes so that the relevant
proteins that they code for are produced. Many genes code for proteins that are
responsible for the control of the maintenance and repair of body tissues. If these
genes are expressed properly then the maintenance and repair of body tissues
occurs as it should. Problems with the normal maintenance and repair processes
will occur if the relevant genes are not expressed properly due to such things as
mutation of the genes.
For example, the BRCA1 gene is responsible for coding proteins that repair
the PTEN gene. This PTEN gene controls the cell cycle and mitosis required for
the repair and replacement of dead and damaged cells. When the BRCA1 gene
is expressed properly, the damaged PTEN genes are repaired and the cell cycle is
controlled.
If the BRCA1 gene is mutated, then it is not expressed properly, the PTEN
gene is not repaired and the cell cycle is not controlled. Rather than the body
tissues being maintained and repaired, the cells undergo uncontrolled division
and tumours develop.
2
Copyright 2008 McGraw-Hill Australia. Permission is granted to reproduce for classroom use.
BIOLOGY IN FOCUS
CHAPTER
3
Copyright 2008 McGraw-Hill Australia. Permission is granted to reproduce for classroom use.
BIOLOGY IN FOCUS
5. Explain why precautions such as swabbing the bench with alcohol, sterilising the
inoculating loop and lifting the lid of the agar plate away from you at an angle of
no greater than 45C were all used in the investigation described in the previous
question.
Answer: These are all sterile techniques designed to reduce the risk of microbes
from sources other than those being tested from landing on the agar and being
cultured.
By swabbing the bench, any microbes will be killed and therefore the chance
of them contaminating the agar plate is reduced.
Sterilising the inoculating loop kills any microbes already on there and therefore
reduces the risk of contamination of the plate.
Opening the lid of the dish at a small angle and not allowing anyone to breathe
on it reduces the risk of microbes from the air falling on the agar plate and
contaminating it.
6. Explain how each of the following assists in the control of disease:
(a) cleanliness in personal hygiene practices
(b) cleanliness in food practices
(c) cleanliness in water practices.
Answer:
(a) (i) Personal hygiene practices are important because they involve keeping our
bodies and any openings into them clean to reduce the risk of pathogens
entering our bodies, or transmission of these pathogens to others, thus
causing disease. It also inhibits the build-up of micro-organisms on our
bodies.
Good personal hygiene practices that should be followed are the
washing of hands with soap before eating and after going to the toilet,
washing the body and hair regularly and cleaning the teeth daily.
Coughing or sneezing should also be done into a tissue or handkerchief.
(ii) Community hygiene practices are important as they help to prevent the
build-up of pathogenic organisms in the community and reduce the
spread of disease.
Good community hygiene practices involve the efficient removal of
waste and sewage, sterilisation and disinfection of equipment in hospitals,
doctors surgeries etc., and planning to prevent overcrowding.
(b) The more closely cleanliness in food practices is followed when storing,
preparing and serving food, the smaller the chance of bacteria in the food
multiplying and being transmitted to individuals consuming the food, thus
controlling the occurrence and spread of food-borne diseases.
(c) It is important that cleanliness in water is maintained in order to minimise the
risk of pathogens multiplying and to reduce the risk of the transmission of
pathogens in contaminated water. The treatment of water to destroy pathogens
and prevent further multiplication will reduce transmission of disease and is
very important in the successful control of disease.
7. Describe the processes involved in the treatment of water to ensure that it meets
the guidelines required by the National Health and Medical Research Council to
make it safe for drinking.
Answer: A combination of coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation; filtration
(to remove particulate matter); and disinfection (to kill or inactivate microbiological
organisms) is the most widely applied water treatment technology around the world.
4
Copyright 2008 McGraw-Hill Australia. Permission is granted to reproduce for classroom use.
BIOLOGY IN FOCUS
Infectious disease
1. Describe the contributions of:
(a) Louis Pasteur
(b) Robert Koch
to our understanding of infectious disease.
Answer:
(a) Louis Pasteur
Found that micro-organisms are responsible for the spoiling of wine and
beer and found that they could be killed by heating them to a certain
temperature, which led to the process of pasteurisation.
Disproved the theory of spontaneous generation and showed that the
micro-organisms that were responsible for causing disease and decay
came from the air and did not just appear out of nowhere. He showed this
with his swan-necked flask experiment.
CHAPTER
5
Copyright 2008 McGraw-Hill Australia. Permission is granted to reproduce for classroom use.
BIOLOGY IN FOCUS
6
Copyright 2008 McGraw-Hill Australia. Permission is granted to reproduce for classroom use.
BIOLOGY IN FOCUS
We also used another flask, with a straight tube that allowed microbes to enter,
to show what would happen when the broth was exposed to the air. This acted
as a control.
We ensured that all flasks, with their broth and their tubing, were heated and
the broth was boiled for at least 15 minutes so that all micro-organisms that
were present in both the broth and the tubing were killed and the equipment
was sterile.
We also ensured that sterilised water was trapped in the S-bend of the tube in
order to trap the micro-organisms so that they could not reach the broth.
One limitation of our model is that the corks would sometimes become loose,
which may compromise the sterile conditions and allow micro-organisms into the
flask.
4. Describe characteristics that could be used to distinguish between the following
pathogens and name one example of a disease caused by each type of pathogen:
(a) bacteria and viruses
(b) fungi and protozoans
(c) prions and viruses
(d) bacteria and fungi
(e) protozoans and macro-parasites.
Answer:
(a)
Bacteria
Viruses
(b)
Fungi
Protozoans
Cell wall
Single or multi-cellular
Single cell
Non-motile
Reproduce asexually/sexually
Reproduce asexually
(c)
Prions
Viruses
7
Copyright 2008 McGraw-Hill Australia. Permission is granted to reproduce for classroom use.
BIOLOGY IN FOCUS
(d)
Bacteria
Fungi
Cell wall
(e)
Protozoans
Macro-parasites
Microscopic
Macroscopic
Single cell
Multicellular
Disease
Prion
Variant Creutzfeld-Jacob
Virus
Influenza
Bacteria
Meningococcal disease
Fungi
Tinea
Protozoa
Malaria
Macro-parasite
Tapeworm disease
Development
1000 CE
240 CE
Mid-1600s
Quinine, extracted from the cinchona tree, used to treat malaria in Europe.
1880
1885
Golgi established that there were at least two forms of the disease.
1897
Ronald Ross discovered the main steps in the transmission of malaria and
identified the Anopheles claviger mosquito as the vector of the malaria parasite.
1898
1898
8
Copyright 2008 McGraw-Hill Australia. Permission is granted to reproduce for classroom use.
BIOLOGY IN FOCUS
Time
Development
1901
1930
Anti-malarial drug called Atebrin developed, but its use was discontinued due
to side-effects.
1944
Late 1940s
Chloroquine developed.
Late 1950s
1970s
1971
1970s on
Mid-1980s on
1981
2000 to present
Influenza
Cause
Influenza is caused by infection with the influenza virus. Influenza A and influenza
B virus are the two main types of influenza viruses that infect humans and each
contain RNA surrounded by a protein coat.
Transmission
direct contactthe viral particles are inhaled through the nose and mouth in
droplets that have been exhaled by an infected person when they sneeze or
cough.
indirect contactthe infected person touches their respiratory tract and then
something else, such as a handrail. A second person touches the handrail
soon afterwards and then places their hand on their nose or mouth.
continued . . .
9
Copyright 2008 McGraw-Hill Australia. Permission is granted to reproduce for classroom use.
BIOLOGY IN FOCUS
Disease
Influenza
Host response
The immune response is initiated by the presence of the virus in the body. This
produces antibodies and other immune response cells specific for the particular
strain of influenza virus that has infected the body. The immune response is
responsible for destroying the viral particles that have invaded the body.
Major
symptoms
Treatment
The main method of treatment is to relieve the symptoms and get plenty of bed
rest and drink extra fluids.
Bed rest allows the body to fight the disease and then recover. Aspirin or
paracetamol can be given to help alleviate headaches, sore throat and muscle
pain and to reduce fever.
Antibiotics are ineffective in the treatment of viral diseases, but can be used if
secondary bacterial infections develop.
Prevention
Control
Fever
Headache
Inflammation of the upper respiratory tract
Sore throat
Myalgia (muscle pain)
Nasal catarrh (inflammation of the mucous membrane causing excess
production of mucus)
Coughing and sneezing.
10
Copyright 2008 McGraw-Hill Australia. Permission is granted to reproduce for classroom use.
BIOLOGY IN FOCUS
capable of passing this resistance on to other bacteria they come into contact
with, further building the population of resistant bacteria.
(b) Colds are not caused by bacteriathey are caused by viruses. Antibiotics
are used to treat infections caused by bacteria and therefore would not be
suitable to treat a cold. If the doctor were to prescribe them, Michael would
be increasing the chance of bacteria developing a resistance to the drug that
is being used.
10. Discuss some problems related to antibiotic resistance.
Answer: Antibiotics were hailed as a miracle cure when they were first introduced.
As bacteria began to develop a resistance to these first antibiotics, more were
developed. Strains of bacteria resistant to many of the antibiotics that are in use
today have now developed. One problem with the resistance of bacteria to the
more common antibiotics is that the diseases will be more severe and, because
they take longer to cure, there is a greater chance of them spreading throughout
the community. Another problem is that, in order to destroy the bacteria, more
toxic and expensive antibiotics have to be used. If the individuals or countries
cannot afford to use this more expensive cure, the disease will spread throughout
the population. For example, a multi-resistant strain of the bacteria that causes
tuberculosis is very hard to treat and many countries cannot afford the antibiotics
required to cure this disease. This leads to a large increase in the incidence of the
resistant strain of the disease.
There are now several infectious bacteria that are resistant to vancomycin,
one of our strongest antibiotics. Vancomycin-resistant enterococci (VRE) and
vancomycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus are superbugs that resist all treatment
and if they were to become widespread in the community it would cause great
problems.
The current trend indicates that, unless there is a breakthrough in the
development of more effective drugs, our inability to successfully treat antibioticresistant bacteria could lead to the spread of the diseases they cause throughout
populations.
Factors that are increasing the development of antibiotic-resistant bacteria are:
the overuse of antibiotics for many diseases and not just bacterial diseases
not completing the course of antibiotics when they are prescribed
feeding antibiotics to food-producing animals such as pigs and chickens to
enhance their growth
using cleaning products that contain antibacterial substances.
CHAPTER
11
Copyright 2008 McGraw-Hill Australia. Permission is granted to reproduce for classroom use.
BIOLOGY IN FOCUS
mucous membranes
cilia
chemical barriers
other body secretions.
(b) The mucous membranes produce mucus, which traps the pathogens, and
the cilia beat in an upwards direction to move the mucus containing the
pathogens out of the respiratory tract.
(c) If a pathogen makes its way past the saliva in the mouth and enters the
stomach, it will most likely be destroyed by the concentrated acid in the
stomach. If the acid in the stomach doesnt kill it then the alkaline conditions
of the intestine may destroy it.
py the following
g table and complete
p
it to summarise the first line of defence.
2. Copy
Barrier
Skin
Digestive, respiratory,
reproductive and urinary tracts
Chemical
barriers
Alimentary canal
continued . . .
12
Copyright 2008 McGraw-Hill Australia. Permission is granted to reproduce for classroom use.
BIOLOGY IN FOCUS
Barrier
Other body
secretions
Urine
Tears
Saliva
3. Draw a flow chart to show how the disease candidiasis can develop from an
i b l
i flora.
imbalance
off microfl
Answer:
Normal balance of microflora in the mucous membranes of the vagina
13
Copyright 2008 McGraw-Hill Australia. Permission is granted to reproduce for classroom use.
BIOLOGY IN FOCUS
5. Describe how each of the following defence adaptations help to protect the body
against invasion by foreign particles:
(a) the inflammation response
(b) phagocytosis
(c) the lymph system
(d) cell death to seal off pathogens.
Answer:
(a) Inflammation response:
The inflammation response is non-specific and occurs at the site of
infection.
When the cells are infected or injured in some way, they release chemical
alarm signals such as histamines and prostaglandins.
These chemicals cause the blood vessels to dilate, increasing the blood flow
to the site of infection or injury and causing the area to become red and
warm.
These chemicals also increase the permeability of the blood vessels,
allowing the movement of phagocytes from the blood into the tissues so
they can attack the invading pathogens.
Plasma also moves into the tissues, bringing more phagocytes and
producing swelling in the area of the infection, thus forcing tissue fluid into
the lymph and taking debris with it.
Other chemicals that increase the temperature, which inhibits the growth of
bacteria, are released.
When the pathogens are destroyed, they are removed along with any toxins
and the tissues are repaired.
(b) Phagocytosis:
White blood cells called neutrophils and macrophages are two types of
phagocytes.
They are capable of changing their shape so that they can surround any
foreign particle, such as a bacterium, and completely enclose it within their
cell.
Once inside the cell, enzymes are released to destroy the foreign material.
This process is known as phagocytosis.
(c) Lymph system:
The lymphatic system is made up of the lymph vessels, lymph nodes,
lymph and spleen, the thymus, the tonsils and the adenoids.
As the blood circulates around the body, some of the plasma moves out
of the capillaries into the tissues, especially at the site of infection, and
becomes part of the tissue fluid.
The lymph vessels form a one-way drainage system from all parts of the
body back to a point near the heart where clean lymph fluid is drained
straight into the blood. The muscles that surround the vessels squeeze the
fluid in a one-way direction. Valves prevent the fluid moving backwards.
If there is an infection in the tissues, the foreign particles, along with dead
cells and other debris, move with the tissue fluid into the lymph vessels.
At different points along the lymph vessels, there are structures called
lymph nodes where the waste particles are filtered and the foreign particles
are destroyed by macrophages.
14
Copyright 2008 McGraw-Hill Australia. Permission is granted to reproduce for classroom use.
BIOLOGY IN FOCUS
CHAPTER
2. Outline some of the features of each of the following components of the immune
response:
(a) T cells
(b) B cells
(c) antibodies.
Answer:
(a) T cells are produced in the bone marrow and mature in the thymus gland.
From here they move to the blood, lymph nodes, spleen and tonsils. Each
T cell has a surface receptor protein that recognises only one type of
antigen. T cells are involved in the cell-mediated immune response in which
cytotoxic T cells move to the site of the infection and release chemicals that
destroy the infected cell and the antigens contained within it.
(b) B cells are produced and mature in the bone marrow and then move to the
blood, lymph nodes, spleen and tonsils. Each B cell has, on its surface, its
own unique antibody that will identify only the antigen that matches it. B cells
are involved in the antibody-mediated immune response and, once activated,
produce plasma cells that make antibodies specific to the antigen. These
antibodies move to the infection site and combine with the antigen to render
it harmless.
15
Copyright 2008 McGraw-Hill Australia. Permission is granted to reproduce for classroom use.
BIOLOGY IN FOCUS
(c) Antibodies are proteins, called immunoglobulins, that are produced by the
plasma cells in the antibody-mediated immune response. Each antibody has
the shape that corresponds to the antigen that it is specific for, and joins with
that antigen to render it harmless by forming the antigenantibody complex.
3. Identify the different types of T cells and outline the role of each type.
Answer: The four main types of T cells are:
1. helper T cells
2. cytotoxic T cells
3. memory T cells
4. suppressor T cells.
Helper T cells: Each helper T cell will recognise only one type of antigen and
when it is present the helper T cell becomes activated. It then releases a cytokine
chemical called interleukin-2, which activates the cytotoxic T cells and B cells.
Cytotoxic T cells: When the helper T cells activate the cytotoxic T cells, they
are stimulated to produce many copies of themselves. These activated cytotoxic
T cells then move to the site of the infection, bind with the infected cells and
release chemicals that destroy the antigen-infested cell, stimulate the inflammatory
response and increase phagocytic activity.
Memory T cells: These cells are produced at the same time as the cytotoxic
T cells and are specific for the antigen that stimulated their production. They
remain in the body so that the body can respond more quickly the next time the
same antigen enters.
Suppressor T cells: When the infection has been defeated, the suppressor T cells
are responsible for stopping the immune response.
4. Interactions between the B cells and T cells are important for the correct
functioning of the immune system.
(a) Explain how the helper T cells are activated in the immune response.
(b) Describe how the activated helper T cells interact with both the B cells and
the cytotoxic T cells.
(c) Outline the process by which the immune system is turned off.
Answer:
(a) Helper T cells can be activated in two ways. One of these involves the
macrophage attaching a portion of the antigen to its surface and transporting
it to the lymph nodes. When this antigen-presenting macrophage encounters
a helper T cell that has a receptor that corresponds to the particular antigen
being presented, the helper T cell is activated.
Helper T cells can also be activated when a B cell that has encountered an
antigen and has attached it to the surface of their cell presents it to the helper
T cell that has a receptor that matches the antigen.
(b) The activated helper T cells release chemicals called cytokines, which activate
more helper T cells and cause the production of clones of the B cells that are
specific to the particular antigen. The cytotoxic T cells that are specific to the
antigen are also activated to produce clones of themselves.
(c) Suppressor T cells suppress the activity of the B cells and the T cells when the
infection has been defeated.
16
Copyright 2008 McGraw-Hill Australia. Permission is granted to reproduce for classroom use.
BIOLOGY IN FOCUS
5. MHC molecules are an important part of the mechanisms that allow interaction
between the B and T cells.
(a) Outline the structure and function of the MHC molecules.
(b) Identify the two different types of MHC molecules and outline the function
of each.
(c) Identify two other mechanisms that allow for interactions between B and
T cells.
Answer:
(a) MHC molecules are glycoprotein molecules composed of a carbohydrate
molecule and a protein molecule. These molecules occur on the surface of the
cells and allow the B and T cells to recognise that they belong to the body and
prevent them from attacking each other. This system allows the identification
of foreign cells, as these cells will have different MHC molecules.
(b) MHCI molecules are present on all cells that have a nucleus and are involved
in the recognition of antigens by T cells. MHCII molecules are present only on
B cells and macrophages; they are involved in the recognition of antigens on
macrophages by helper T cells and the recognition of antigens by B cells. This
then leads to the activation of the B and T cells by the helper T cells.
(c) Two other mechanisms that allow for interactions between B and T cells are:
the close proximity of the cells to each other
the regulation of their activities by the secretion of chemicals by the helper
T cells.
6. Explain,
Explain with the aid of a flow chart, how each of the following types of immune
response destroy the invading antigens:
(a) cell-mediated immunity
(b) antibody-mediated (humoral) immunity.
Answer:
(a) Cell-mediated immunity:
Foreign material is engulfed by macrophages, which then display the antigen
attached to their MHCII molecules.
These helper T cells then activate the cloning of millions of cytotoxic T cells
and memory T cells that are specific for this antigen.
The cytotoxic T cells leave the lymph nodes and migrate to the site of the
infection, where their antigen receptors bind with the antigen displayed on the
infected cell.
They then release chemicals that destroy the cell and any pathogens within it.
These chemicals also increase the inflammation and attract more macrophages
that carry out phagocytosis to help destroy the pathogens and clear up any
debris.
17
Copyright 2008 McGraw-Hill Australia. Permission is granted to reproduce for classroom use.
BIOLOGY IN FOCUS
Once the infection has been defeated, the suppressor T cells release other
chemicals to stop the production and action of the cytotoxic T cells.
The memory T cells that are produced at the time and are specific to that
particular antigen remain in the body in the lymph nodes and, on re-exposure
to the same antigen-containing pathogen, cause the rapid production of more
of the same cytotoxic T cells. This prevents the body from developing the
symptoms of the disease again.
(b) Antibody-mediated immunity:
Antigen-presenting B cells or macrophages move to the lymph nodes.
They are inspected by helper T cells that have the antigen receptor that
corresponds to the antigen being presented.
At the same time, millions of memory B cells that are specific for that antigen
are cloned. The activated B cells produce plasma cells that remain in the
lymph nodes.
These plasma cells secrete antigen-specific antibodies that then move via the
blood and lymph to the infected areas.
The antibodies then combine with the antigens to form the antigenantibody
complex that inactivates the pathogen or its toxin.
18
Copyright 2008 McGraw-Hill Australia. Permission is granted to reproduce for classroom use.
BIOLOGY IN FOCUS
particular antigen. This confers immunity on the body so that the next time the
antigen enters the body, the secondary response will occur and the body will
not suffer the symptoms of the disease.
(b) Active acquired immunity is the process by which the immune response
occurs and memory cells are produced.
It is naturally induced when an antigen enters the body, causes symptoms
of the disease and produces memory cells for that antigen.
Artificially induced acquired immunity is produced when a vaccine is
introduced into the body, causing the production of memory cells without the
body experiencing the symptoms of the disease.
8. Figure 5.16 is a graph that shows the amount of antibodies produced as a result
of the immune systems first exposure to a particular antigen.This person was
again exposed to the same antigen at six weeks. Complete the graph by drawing
in the expected shape to show the number of antibodies produced as a result of
this secondary exposure. Explain this process.
Figure 5.16
The primary
response to
the exposure
to an antigen
Concentration
of antibodies
in blood
10
Answer:
When the antigen first enters the body, the process involved in fighting the
disease is quite lengthy as it takes some time for the numbers of B and T cells to
increase. Time is also required for the plasma cells to produce enough antibodies
to successfully fight the infection. In the process of the immune response, memory
cells specific to the antigen are also produced and remain in the body. This is the
primary response.
When the same antigen enters the body two weeks later, the memory cells react
quickly to its presence. Appropriate B cells, which form many plasma cells that
secrete a large quantity of antibodies very quickly, are produced. This destroys
the antigen before any symptoms of the disease are produced in the body. This is
known as the secondary response. See Figure 5.16a.
19
Copyright 2008 McGraw-Hill Australia. Permission is granted to reproduce for classroom use.
BIOLOGY IN FOCUS
Figure 15.6a
The primary and
secondary response
to an initial exposure
to antigen and then
a second exposure
to the same antigen
six weeks later
Concentration
of antibodies
in blood
10
second exposure
to antibodies
20
Copyright 2008 McGraw-Hill Australia. Permission is granted to reproduce for classroom use.
BIOLOGY IN FOCUS
special immunisation days. People who missed out on the routine immunisations
were then targeted and special surveillance teams were sent out to all possible
cases of smallpox infection.
In 1979, WHO declared that it had eliminated the virus from the world
population and eradicated the disease smallpox.
Diphtheria is a deadly disease, often killing its sufferers within a week. Mortality
rates were very high, with two-thirds of the deaths being children under 5 years
of age. In 1921, there were 206 000 cases with 15 500 deaths in the United States
of America. Immunisation programs introduced in Australia, Europe and other
developed countries in the 1930s and 1940s resulted in a rapid decrease in the
incidence of diphtheria.
When the WHO introduced the EPI program in 1974, only 5% of children in
the world were immunised against diphtheria. By 1990, the percentage of children
immunised had increased to 80% and this resulted in a greatly decreased mortality
rate worldwide.
Polio is an extremely serious disease with death occurring in 50% of the cases
and nerve damage and paralysis in 50% of sufferers. After a safe vaccine was
developed by Albert Sabin, and following widespread immunisation, there was
a 6070% reduction in the incidence of the disease. Polio had become very rare
in industrialised nations, and the incidence further decreased after the EPI was
introduced in 1974.
A global Polio Eradication Initiative was launched in 1988 by the World Health
Assembly. When this program began there were 350 000 cases in 125 countries
of the world, with more than 1000 children being paralysed each day. In 1997,
almost 450 million children under 5 years of age were immunised during National
Immunisation Days.
By 2000, there were only 719 cases of polio, a 99% reduction in cases. At the
end of 2006, only four countries that have experienced uninterrupted transmission
of polio remained and fewer than 700 cases were reported.
The WHO aims to completely eradicate polio by the year 2010.
It can be seen from the success of the vaccination programs introduced for
smallpox, diphtheria and polio that vaccinations programs are one of the most
effective methods of reducing the spread and occurrence of diseases.
11. Our understanding of how the immune system functions led to the
development of vaccination programs to prevent infectious disease. Assess the
impact of the use of vaccination programs on society (include the financial,
health and social justice impacts on society).
Answer: Historically, infectious disease has been a major cause of death in our
communities. There was no treatment for these diseases until the development of
antibiotics, used to treat diseases caused by bacteria. The monetary cost of treating
these diseases was quite high for both the individual and the public health system.
The effect of these diseases on the sufferers and their families was in many cases
devastating. The burden on the public health system was very high. Inhabitants
of developing countries and poorer areas were disadvantaged in terms of having
a greater chance of contracting the diseases and a lesser chance of being able to
access any available treatments or cures.
As our understanding of how the body develops immunity to a disease
increased, methods of producing artificial immunity were investigated. Vaccines
21
Copyright 2008 McGraw-Hill Australia. Permission is granted to reproduce for classroom use.
BIOLOGY IN FOCUS
that conferred immunity to the body without the body suffering symptoms of the
disease were developed.
Due to the success of vaccines in preventing the occurrence of disease,
vaccination programs were implemented to ensure that all children were
immunised against many once-common diseases, such as measles, diphtheria,
whooping cough and polio. These programs have had a positive impact on society
in many ways. They have decreased the incidence of diseases in the community.
This has led to a much higher level of overall health in society and decreased the
death rates from these diseases. Individuals do not have to suffer the symptoms
of these diseases and have a much better quality of life, free of any possible side
effects.
Vaccination programs have prevented many diseases. This has dramatically
reduced the financial burden for the treatment of these diseases and for the
continued support of individuals who have suffered side effects from the disease.
Families have a reduced financial burden, as does the public health system. Money
does not have to be spent on costly treatments for these diseases as the disease
has been prevented in the first place.
The WHO has implemented vaccination programs in many developing
countries so that all individuals, regardless of their socioeconomic status, are
provided with immunity to many diseases. This reduces the incidence of disease
in areas that are more susceptible to the spread of infectious disease because of
their crowded, unhygienic conditions. This also decreases the costs associated with
treating disease in the communities that can least afford it.
There have been many positive impacts on society due to the introduction
of vaccination programs. These impacts include a lowering of the incidence and
death rate of a disease, a decrease in the financial burden on individuals and the
public health system and providing equality across all levels in society in terms of
immunity to disease.
12. Outline reasons why drugs are given to suppress the immune response in organ
transplant patients.
Answer: When a donated organ is transplanted into a recipient, the organ has, on
its surface, marker molecules that are different to the marker molecules on the
cells of the recipient. The immune system recognises that the donated organ is
not self and treats the organ as a foreign invader. It mounts an immune response
involving the T cells and, if drugs are not given to suppress the action of cytotoxic
T cells, the transplanted organ will be rejected.
Non-infectious disease
1. Define epidemiology.
Answer: Epidemiology is the study of the patterns of disease in the population
and the factors that affect these patterns. It not only describes the disease and its
patterns, but also statistically analyses these patterns and then suggests reasons as
to the cause of the disease.
CHAPTER
22
Copyright 2008 McGraw-Hill Australia. Permission is granted to reproduce for classroom use.
BIOLOGY IN FOCUS
23
Copyright 2008 McGraw-Hill Australia. Permission is granted to reproduce for classroom use.
BIOLOGY IN FOCUS
those who did not smoke. His study also showed that the higher the number
of cigarettes smoked per day, the greater the chance of dying from lung cancer.
The possible cause of the disease is identified. From Doll and Hills studies, as
well as many others, it has been found that smoking causes lung cancer.
5. The rates of a certain type of cancer are much higher in a particular area of a big
city. Identify the main features you would have to include in an epidemiological
study to try to determine why this is the case.
Answer:
A large study group from a broad range of people both in the area of concern
and outside the area should be used. Information concerning all aspects of their
lives should be collected.
From this a pattern of the disease could be formed.
Two large groups of similar people should be followed over a long period of
time (e.g. 10 years). One of these groups should be exposed to the possible
cause of the disease and the other group should not.
Large amounts of data should be collected and statistically analysed.
The possible cause of the disease is then suggested.
6. Refer to Figure 6.10 and identify the relationship between each of the following:
(a) smoking and the death rate from lung cancer
(b) the number of cigarettes smoked per day and the death rate from lung
cancer
(c) age and the death rate from lung cancer.
Answer:
(a) Smoking causes an increase in the death rate from lung cancer.
(b) The more cigarettes smoked per day, the higher the risk of dying from lung
cancer.
(c) As age increases, the death rate from lung cancer increases.
Figure 6.10 Annual
death rate from lung
cancer
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
3544
5564
4554
6574
7584
Age
Key
all smokers
24
Copyright 2008 McGraw-Hill Australia. Permission is granted to reproduce for classroom use.
BIOLOGY IN FOCUS
Description
Examples of diseases
Inherited
Nutritional
Environmental
Cardiovascular disease,
melanoma, lead poisoning
9. Identify the non-infectious disease that you have studied and provide information
about its:
occurrence
symptoms
cause
treatment/management.
Answer: Scurvy
Occurrence:
Previously in sailors
Now in developing nations where diet is lacking in vitamin C
Also found in elderly people and those (such as alcoholics) whose diet is
unusual.
Symptoms:
Pain and tenderness in the legs
Swelling of the long bones
Swollen, purplish and spongy gums
Gangrene (degeneration of tissue)
Reopening of old wounds
Spontaneous haemorrhaging
Purple/black spots on the skin, indicating haemorrhaging
Separation of once-healed broken bones
Bleeding of the membrane covering the front of the eyes or the eyelids
Cause:
Lack of a sufficient amount of vitamin C in the diet
Treatment:
Inclusion of sufficient amounts of vitamin C in the diet
25
Copyright 2008 McGraw-Hill Australia. Permission is granted to reproduce for classroom use.
BIOLOGY IN FOCUS
CHAPTER
26
Copyright 2008 McGraw-Hill Australia. Permission is granted to reproduce for classroom use.
BIOLOGY IN FOCUS
27
Copyright 2008 McGraw-Hill Australia. Permission is granted to reproduce for classroom use.
BIOLOGY IN FOCUS
(b) Plants that have been infested by pests may show holes where they have been
eaten, and webbing or trails left by burrowing insects.
6. Describe the quarantine measures that are in place to prevent the spread of footand-mouth disease into Australia and evaluate the effectiveness of these measures.
Answer: The normal quarantine measures that involve inspection of cargo,
passengers, containers and ships at all entry points to Australia are followed.
X-rays, detector dogs and quarantine officers are used to inspect all entries into
Australia. Animal quarantine is also carried out. In addition to these measures, all
cloven-hoofed animals and their products are banned from entry into Australia.
People entering Australia from infected areas are subject to thorough processing
and may even have their shoes washed to remove any traces of soil. Mail from
infected areas is checked and travellers to infected areas are asked to be especially
vigilant when travelling to rural areas in the infected countries.
These measures have proved to be very effective, as Australia has been free of
foot-and-mouth disease since 1872.
7. Explain how the different strategies used in public health programs can control
and/or prevent disease.
Answer:
Regulations that govern hygiene practices in the food and health industries
ensure that pathogens are not transferred from one person to another. This
prevents disease.
Regulations governing the maintenance of a disease-free community by
treatment of drinking water, removal of rubbish and removal and treatment of
sewage all prevent the movement of pathogens throughout the community and
therefore prevent disease.
The notification of the occurrence of certain diseases enables swift responses
to be put in place in order to control the spread of disease throughout the
population.
Public education programs that encourage regular monitoring for diseases
such as breast cancer and prostate cancer allow for the early detection of these
diseases so that the chance of recovery from the disease is increased.
Childhood immunisation programs prevent the development of these diseases
in the population.
Public awareness programs attempt to educate the public about the dangers
of some activities and encourage a change in lifestyle in order to prevent the
development of the disease associated with the risk activity.
28
Copyright 2008 McGraw-Hill Australia. Permission is granted to reproduce for classroom use.