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Network Elements
Active & Passive Elements
If any elements absorb, dissipate, waste, convert electrical energy it is called as passive element.
Eg. Resistor, Inductor, Capacitor.
If any elements energize, deliver, give out, drive the electrical energy it is called as active element.
Eg. BJT, MOSFET.
Network Technologies
Node : It is a point of interconnection or junction between two or more components.
Branch : It is an elemental connection between two nodes.
Mesh: A mesh is a close path which should not have any further closed path in it.
Loop : All possible close path.
Ohms law
At constant temperature and for uniform cross section of conductor.
J E
= conductivity,
1
resistivity .
V IR
l
R
A
l lenght of conductor
Circuit Symbol:
A = Area of conductor.
Conductance of circuit elements is
1
R
Sign Convention
To apply ohms law, we must apply following sign convention.
V2
I2R
R
Resistance always absorbs or dissipates power.
P VI
Kirchoffs laws
n in t 0
ientering ileaving
i1 i3 i5 i2 i4
V t 0
n
Vdrop Vrise
V1 V2 V3 V4 V5 0
V1
V2
V R1
R1 R 2
V R 2
R1 R 2
...........
R eq R1 R 2
RN
I1
I2
I R 2
R1 R 2
I R1
R1 R 2
Ra
R1R 2 R1R 3 R 2R 3
R1
Rb
R1R 2 R1R 3 R 2R 3
R2
Rc
R1R 2 R1R 3 R 2R 3
R3
5
R1
RbR c
R a Rb R c
R2
R aR c
R a Rb R c
R3
R aR b
R a Rb R c
Sources
Independent Voltage Source
An ideal independent voltage source maintains a specified voltage across its terminals. The
voltage is independent of current flowing through it.
Independent current source
An ideal independent current source maintains a specified current to flow through it. The current
through this is independent of voltage across it.
Dependent Source
Voltage controlled voltage source (VCVS) ; V AVX
Current controlled voltage source (CCVS) ; V AiX
Voltage controlled current source (VCCS) ; i AVx
Current controlled current source (CCCS) ; i Aix
Capacitor
A capacitor is a combination of a two conducting plates separated by a non-conducting material.
Capacitance is donated by C
A
C
d
= Permittivity of medium
A = Area of Plates
D = distance between the plates.
Charge on Plates,
Q = CV
i t
dq t
i t C
dt
dv t
dt
Sign Convention
Energy Stored in a capacitor
1
E cv 2
2
Q t
t
2C
1
Q t v t
2
If voltage across capacitor is constant (dc) then current through capacitor is zero & it acts as open
circuit.
dv t
dt
Ceq
1
1
1
1
.................
C1 C2
Cn
is infinite,
Inductor
It is a two terminals element consisting of winding of N turns.
N2 A
L 0 r
l
0 = Permeability of free space
r relative Permeability
N = number of turns
A = area of cross section of coil
l = length of inductor
Current voltage relationship
v t L
di t
dt
L is constant, called as inductance
Energy Stored
1
E L i t
2
.............
L eq L1 L 2
Ln
In series connection current in same, through all elements & in parallel connection voltage is same
across all elements.
Duality
Two circuits N1 & N2 are called dual circuit if the branches KCL, KVL & branch v - i relationship
becomes respectively KVL, KCL.
Resistance
Capacitance
Inductance
Open Circuit
Short Circuit
Voltage Source
Current Source
Dual Elements
Conductance
R
CF
LH
GR
L=CH
C=LF
VS
Inductance
Capacitance
Short Circuit
Open Circuit
Current Source
IS
Voltage Source
V IS
Series Connection
Parallel Connection
I VS
Parallel Connection
Series Connection
Eg.
Graph Theory
Network Graph:
If all elements of a circuits are replaced a line segment between 2 end points called as nodes.
Directed Graphs:
If the branches of a graph has directions then it is called as a directed graph.
Sub graph
It consists of less or equal number of verticals (nodes) & edges, as in its complete graph.
The set of branches of a network which are remove to form a tree is called co-tree of graph.
Twigs & Links
The branches of a tree are called as its twigs & branches of a co-tree are called as chords or links.
10
Incidence Matrix
The dimension of incidence matrix is (nxb)
N = no. of nodes
B = no. of branches
It is represented by A
aij = + 1 ,
If jth branch is oriented away from ith node
aij = -1 ,
aij = 0 ,
a b
c
d e f
0 0 1
1 1 0 1
A 2 1 1
0 1
0 0
1
0 0 1 1
3 0
4 0
0 1 1 1 0
If one of nodes is considered as ground & that particulars row is neglected while writing the
incidence matrix, then it is reduced incidence matrix. Order n 1 b
T
Number of trees of any graph det Ar Ar
Circuit Theorems
Linearity
A system is linear if it satisfies the following two properties.
1. Homogeneity Property
It requires that if input is multiplied by constant hen output is multiplied by same constant.
eg. V = IR
is I becomes KI
V = KIR = KV
So, resistance is a linear element & so are inductor & capacitor.
2. Additivity Property
It requires that response to sum of inputs is sum of response to each input applied separately.
V1 I1R
V2 I2R
If we apply
We get
V3 I1 I2 R V1 V2
I2
11
Superposition
It states that, in any linear circuit containing multiple independent sources, the total current
through or voltage across an element can be determined by algebraically adding the voltage or
current due to each independent source acting alone with all other independent source set to
zero.
Source Transformation
It states that as independent voltage source VS in series with a resistance R is equivalent to
independent current source IS Vs / R in parallel with a resistance R.
Or
An independent current source IS in parallel with a resistance R is equivalent to a dependent
source VS ISR in series with a resistance R.
Thevenins Theorem
It states that any network composed of ideal voltage and current source, and of linear resistor,
may be represented by an equivalent circuit consisting of an ideal voltage source VTH in series
with an equivalent resistance R TH .
Methods to calculate thevein equivalent
The therein voltage VTH is equal to open circuit voltage across load terminals.
Therein resistance is input or equivalent resistance at open circuit terminals (load terminals) when
all independent source are set to zero (voltage sources replaced by short circuit & current source
by OC)
Case 1 : Circuit with independent sources only
12
VTH
2
24 12V
22
To calculate Rth
Short I & V sources & open 6mA source
R th 1 2
1 1 2k
13
Remove load & put a test source Vtest across its terminals, let current through test source is Itest .
Thevenin resistance ,
R TH
Vtest
Itest
Methodology 2:
RN R TH
To calculate IN we short circuit load terminals & calculate short circuit current.
14
ZL Z*th
RL Z Th
RL R2Th XL X Th
XL XTh 0
Transient Analysis
Time Constant :
It is the time required for the response to delay by a factor of 1 e or 36.8 % of its initial value.
It is represented by .
For a RC circuit
RC
For a RL circuit
LR
R is the therein resistance across inductor or capacitor terminals.
15
x t0 initial value of x t at t t0
x final value of x t at t
Algorithm
1. Choose any voltage & current in the circuit which has to be determined.
2. Assume circuit had reached steady state before switch was thrown at t t0 . Draw the circuit at
t t 0 with capacitor replaced by open circuit and inductor replaced by short circuit. Solve for
3. Voltage
across
v C t0 & iL t0 .
capacitor
V t V t
i t i t i t
VC t
L
and
inductor
current
cannot
change
instantaneously.
4. Draw the circuit for t t with switches in new position. Replace a capacitor with a voltage source
of variable x t .
VC t0 VC t0 and inductor with a current source of value iL t0 iL t0 . Solve for initial value
16
Solution
Step 1 :
For t < 0
30u t 0 & 3u t 0
V1 0 0V
For t
V1 3mA 10k
= -30 V
Step 2 :
At t 0
V1 0 30
20k
3mA
V1 0
3
V1 0 1.5mA
20k
V1 0 10V
10k
V1 t 30 10 30 e
0.3
u t V
V 0
1
i t dt V0
C
i o I0
By KVL
Ri t L
di t
dt
1
i t dt 0
C
R di t
1
i t 0
L dt
LC
17
Substitute i t Aest
Aest S2 R s 1
S1 R
LC
S2 R s 1 0
L
LC
2
R
R
S2
1
LC
2L
2L
R
1
,
2L
LC
2L
S1 ,S2 2 w 02 ; R 2L ; w 0
1
LC
i t Aes1t Bes2t
i t A Bt et
v t VS Ae 1 Be 2 (Over-damped)
st
s t
v t VS A Bt et (Critically damped)
i 0
1
v t dt
L
v 0 V0
By KCL
dv t
1
1
v t v d C
0
R
L
dt
t
18
Characteristics equation
s2
1
1
s
0
RC
LC
1
, w0
2RC
1
LC
S1 ,S2 2 w02
v t Ae 1 Be
st
S2t
over damped
v t A Bt et critically damped
v t et A cos wdt Bsinwdt under damped
With a step input
i t Is Ae 1 Be
st
S2 t
Over damped
i t Is A Bt et Critically damped
i t Is A cos wdt Bsinwdt et Under damped
Steps:
1. Write differential equation that describe the circuit.
2. From differential equation model, construct characteristics equation & find roots.
3. Roots of characteristics equation determine the type of response over-damped, critically damped
& under-damped.
4. Obtain the constant using initial conditions.
Both V1 t & V2 t are expressed in form of either sine function or cosine function.
Both V1 t & V2 t are written with positive amplitude though they may not have same amplitude.
Both V1 t & V2 t have same frequency.
19
If V1 t A sinwt
V2 t Bsin wt ; 00
V2 t leads v1 t by an angle
V1 t lags v 2 t by an angle
PHASORS
A phasor is complex number that represents the amplitude & phase angle information of a
sinusoidal function.
v t Vm sin wt
Networks Elements
1. Resistor
V RI
2. Inductor
V jl I
2f ; f frequency of source
3. Capacitor
I j c V
Impedance , Z
V Vrms
v i
I Irms
R = resistive component
X = relative component
20
Z R2 X2
For Resistor ZR R
For Inductor ZL jL
For Capacitor Z C
1
j
c
j L
Inductive reactance, XL L
Capacitive reactance, XL
1
c
1
G jB
Z
G = Capacitance
B = Susceptance
Impedance in AC circuits behave like resistance in DC circuits and all the laws remain same like
Series combination
Zeq Z1 Z2 ................ Zn
Parallel combination
1
1
1
1
......................
Z eq Z1 Z 2
Zn
Yeq Y1 Y2 ......... Yn
21
Power analysis
Real Power
P VrmsIrms cos v i
In a resistance
P
2
Vrms
2
Irms
R
R
Complex Power
*
S VrmsIrms
Vrms Irms v i
Reactive Power = Q
Q = 0 for resistive loads.
Q < 0 for capacitive loads v i .
Q > 0 for inductive loads v i
If the current goes into an element, then it absorbs power and if current comes out it delivers
power.
Hence, a capacitor absorbs leading reactive power. We can also say it delivers lagging reactive
power.
Same way, inductor absorbs lagging reactive power & delivers leading reactive power.
Power Factor
pf
P
cos v i
S
22
Resonance
Series resonance
For resonance
Im Z 0
Z R j L 1
L 1
LC
rad s
The frequency at which impedance of circuits is purely resistive is called resonant frequency.
LC
rad s
At resonance
I
VS
R
VR IR VS
VS
R
j
j VS
I
0c
oC R
VL joL I joL
Vc
1 2
1 2
Average power
I R
I R
2
2
XL
R
XC
R
1 L
R C
23
Parallel Resonance
Y1
1
j C
j L
At resonance
Im Y 0
LC
rad s
At resonance V IS R
IR IS
IL
IR
V
S
j0L j0L
1
RC
Quality factor, Q
V
Q
2 XC
V
2R
2 XL
V
Re active Power
Average Power
R
R
C
R
XL
XC
L
2R
24
Inductor
sL
Capacitor
Or I(s)
1
V(0 )
I(s)
sC
s
Methodology
1. Draw circuit in s-domain by substituting s-domain equivalent for each circuit element.
2. Apply circuit analysis to obtain desired voltage or current in s-domain.
3. Take inverse Laplace transform to convert voltage and current back in time-domain.
25
In matrix form
Z11
Z12
Z 21
Z 22
V1
I1
V1
I2
V2
I1
V2
I2
V1 Z11
V2 Z 21
Z12 I1
Z 22 I2
Admittance parameters
I1 y11 V1 y12 V2
I2 y 21 V1 y 22 V2
In matrix form,
I1 y11
I2 y 21
y11
y12
I1
V1
I1
V2
y12 V1
y 22 V2
= short circuit input admittance.
V2 0
26
y 21
y 22
y11
y
21
I2
V1
I2
V2
y12 Z11
y 22 Z 21
Z12
Z 22
Hybrid parameters
V1 h11 I1 h12 V2
I2 h21 I1 h22 V2
In matrix form,
V1 h11 h12 I1
I2 h21 h22 V2
h11
h12
h21
h22
V1
I1
V1
V2
I2
I1
I2
V2 I
1 0
g11
g
21
g12 V1
g22 I2
g12 h11
g22 h21
h12
h22
27
Transmission parameters
V1 AV2 BI2
I1 CV2 DI2
V1 A B V2
I C D I
1
2
B
C
V1
V2
V1
I2
I1
V2
I1
I2
AD BC 1
g12 g21
A=D
g11g22 g21g12 1
28
Z a & Zb
Z Z Z
eq a b
ya & yo
yeq ya yb
Y Parameter matrices are added.
For a cascade connection of two networks Na & Nb having transmission parameters matrices
Ta & Tb
Teq Ta Tb
Transmission parameter matrices are multiplied.
v 2 t M21
v1 t M12
di1 t
dt
di2 t
dt
M12 M21 M
29
Dot convention
If a current enters the dotted terminals of one coil, then induced voltage in second coil has a
positive voltage reference at dotted terminal of second coil.
If a current enters undotted terminals of one coil, then induced voltage n second coil as a positive
voltage reference at undotted terminals of second coil.
Leq L1 L2 2M
Leq L1 L2 2M
L eq
L1L 2 M2
L1 L 2 2M
Coefficient of coupling k
L eq
M
L1L2
30
L1L 2 M2
L1 L 2 2M
La L1 M
Lb L 2 M
LC M
- equivalent circuit
LA
L1L 2 M2
L2 M
L1L 2 M2
LB
L1 M
LC
L1L2 M2
M
Van VP00
Vbn VP 1200
Vcn VP 240 VP1200
31
Van VP00
Vcn VP 1200
Vbn VP 2400 VP1200
For both phase sequence,
Van Vbn Vcn
Connections
Star Connection
VL 3VP 300
IL Ip
Vab = line to line voltage or line voltage
32
Delta Connection
VL VP
IL 3IP 300
Line current is 3 times phase current & lags respective phase current by 30 0 .
Q1 Q2
4 R
aR
33
F
Q
aR
q 4 R 2
Electric field direction is away from a positive charge & towards negative charge.
Charge densities
1) Linear charge density
It is denoted by ' ' . It is equal to charge per unit length.
q
c m
l
2) Surface charge density
It is denoted by ' ' . It is equal to charge per unit area.
q
c m2
A
q
c m3
V
a
2o r r
E
a ; a n Normal unit vector
2 n
3) Conducting sphere
If a conducting sphere of radius R is charged with a charge Q then electric field.
E Q
4 r2
r R
r R
34
is
Electrical potential
The amount of work done in bringing a unit positive charge from infinity to a certain point in an
electric field is called electric potential.
A
VA E.dL
E V
= represent gradiant
For vector operations, refer engineering mathematics k-notes.
Electric Flux Density
D E
Electrical flux
D.dS
S
S D.dS b dV
By Gausss Divergence theorem
.D
Magnetic flux Density
Magnetic flux per unit area is called magnetic flux density. It is a vector quantity and denoted by
B & its unit is tesla (T).
Flux B. dS
35
B H
= permeability.
or
r = relative permeability
o = permeability of free space
o 4 107 H m
d H
I
4 R
dL a
R
I
a
2
H . dL I
enclosed
H . dL J . ds
By stokes theorem
H J
36
Maxwell equations
d
B . dS
dt
B
t
1)
E . dL
2)
E . dS dv
3)
B . dS 0
4)
B . dL 0 J . ds o o dt E . ds
or
or
or
. E
.B 0
or
B o J o
37