L6 Cooling Tower

SOLTEQ
EQUIPMENT FOR ENGINEERING EDUCATION
EXPERIMENTAL MANUAL
WATER COOLING
TOWER
MODEL: HE 152
SOLUTION ENGINEERING SDN. BHD.

NO.3, JALAN TPK 2/4, TAMAN PERINDUSTRIAN KINRARA,
47100 PUCHONG, SELANGOR DARUL EHSAN, MALAYSIA.
TEL: 603-80758000 FAX: 603-80755784
E-MAIL: solution@solution.com.my
WEBSITE: www.solution.com.my
227-0110-HE
Table of Contents
Page
List of Figures............................................................................................................................... i
1.0 . INTRODUCTION .1
2.0. GENERAL DESCRIPTIONS
2.1 Components of the HE152 Basic Cooling Tower Unit ................ 2
2.2 The Process Involved in the Operation ... 5
2.3 Overall Dimensions.. 5
2.4 General Requirements. 5
3.0 SUMMARY OF THEORY
3.1 Basic Principle ............... 6
3.2 Evaporation from a Wet Surface .................................. 6
3.3 Cooling Tower Performance.. 6
3.4 Thermodynamic Property 7
3.4.1 Daltons and Gibbs Laws.. 7
3.4.2 Psychometric Chart 8
3.5 Orifice Calibration. 9
3.6 Application of Steady Flow Energy Equation.. 10
3.7 Characteristics Column Study.. 13
3.8 Useful Information 16
4.0 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
4.1 General Operating Procedures.. 17
4.1.1 General Start-up Procedures 17
4.1.2 General Shut-Down Procedure 18
4.2 Experiment 1: General Observation of the Forced Draught Cooling Tower. 18
4.3 Experiment 2: End State Properties of Air and Steady Flow Equations... 19
4.4 Experiment 3: Investigation of the Effect of Cooling Load on Wet Bulb Approach 20
4.5 Experiment 4: Investigation of the Effect of Air Velocity on Wet Bulb Approach
and Pressure Drop through the Packing. 21
4.6 Experiment 5: Investigation of the Relationship between Cooling Load and
Cooling Range .22
4.7 Experiment 6: Investigation of the Effect of Packing Density on
the Performance of the Cooling Tower 23
4.8 Experiment 7: Determination of Characteristic Equation of the Packing
Characteristic Column 24
5.0 REFERENCES. 25
APPENDIX A Experimental Data Sheets

APPENDIX B Sample Results and Calculation
APPENDIX C Components Properties and Diagram
APPENDIX D Process Flow Diagram
List of Figures
Page
Figure 1
Parts Identification and Equipment Set-up of Bench Top Cooling Tower
Figure 2
System A
10
Figure 3
System B
12
Figure 4
Schematic Representations of the Air and Water Streams

entering and leaving a Block of Packing
13
Figure 5
Graphical Representation of Tower Characteristics
15
SOLTEQ BENCH TOP COOLING TOWER UNIT (MODEL: HE152)
1.0
INTRODUCTION
The SOLTEQ Basic Cooling Tower Unit (Model: HE152) has been designed to
demonstrate students the construction, design and operational characteristics of a modern
cooling system. The unit resembles a full size forced draught cooling tower and it is
actually an "open system" through which two streams of fluid (in this case air and water)
pass and in which there is a mass transfer from one stream to the other. The unit is selfcontained supplied with a heating load and a circulating pump. Once energy and mass
balances are done, students will then be able to determine the effects on the performance
of the cooling tower by the following parameters:
a) Temperature and flow rate of water
b) Relative Humidity and flow rate of air
c) Cooling load
Additionally, a Packing Characteristics Column (optional) is available for SOLTEQ Basic
Cooling Tower Unit (Model: HE152). This column is designed to facilitate study of water
and air conditions at three additional stations (I, II and III) within the column. This enables
driving force diagrams to be constructed and the determination of the Characteristic
Equation for the Tower.
2.0
GENERAL DESCRIPTIONS
2.1
Components of the HE152 Basic Cooling Tower Unit

The unit comes complete with the following main components:
i) Load Tank
The load tank is made of stainless steel having a capacity of approximately 9
liters. The tank is fitted with two cartridge heaters, 0.5 kW and 1.0 kW each, to
provide a total of 1.5 kW cooling load. A make-up tank is fixed on top of the
load tank. A float type valve at the bottom of the make-up tank is to control the
amount of water flowing into the load tank. A centrifugal type pump is supplied
for circulating the water from the load tank through a flowmeter to the top of
the column, into the basin and back to the load tank. A temperature sensor
and temperature controller is fitted to load tank to prevent overheating. A level
switch is fitted to the load tank so that when a low level condition occurs, the
heater and the pump will be switched off.
ii) Air Distribution Chamber
The stainless steel air distribution chamber comes with a water collecting
basin and a one-side inlet centrifugal fan. The fan has a capacity of
approximately 251 CFM of air flow. The air flowrate is adjustable by means of
an intake damper.
iii) Column and Packing
Four packed columns (A, B, C and D) are available. Column A is a standard
column that comes together with this unit whereas column B, C and D are the
optional. The columns are made of clear acrylic with a square cross-sectional
area of 225 cm2 and a height of 60 cm. Columns A, B and C comes with eight
decks of inclined packing while column D is an empty column to allow user to
design own packing. A top column that fitted on top of the column comes
standard with a sharp edged orifice, a droplet arrester and a water distribution
system.
The Packing Characteristics Column (Column E) is also available as an
accessory for this Basic Cooling Tower Unit.
Packed column A: 110 m2/m3
Packed column B: 77 m2/m3
Packed column C: 200 m2/m3
Packed column D: Empty
Packed column E: Packing Characteristics Column
iv) Measurements
Temperature sensors are provided to measure the inlet and outlet water
temperatures as well as the make-up tank water temperature. In addition,
temperature sensors have been installed to measure the dry bulb and wet bulb
temperatures of inlet and outlet of the air. The followings show the list of codes
assigned to each temperature sensors.
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
T6
T7
T8
Dry Bulb Temperature of the Inlet Air

Wet Bulb Temperature of the Inlet Air
Dry Bulb Temperature of the Outlet Air
Wet Bulb Temperature of the Outlet Air
Inlet Water Temperature
Outlet Water Temperature
Make up Tank Temperature
Hot Water Tank Temperature
A differential pressure transmitter is provided for the measurement of pressure

drop across the packed column. On the other hand, the differential pressure
transmitter and the orifice are also used to determine the air flowrate.
A flowmeter is provided for the measurement of water flowrate. The flowmeter
is ranged at 0.4 to 4 LPM.
1
2
3
4
7
8
10
Figure 1: Parts Identification and Equipment Set-up of Bench Top Cooling Tower
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Orifice
Water Distributor
Packed Column
Flowmeter
Receiver tank
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Air Blower
Differential Pressure Transmitter
Make-up Tank
Control Panel
Load tank
2.2
The Process Involved in the Operation

i) Water Circuit
Water temperature in the load tank will be increased before the water is
pumped through a control valve and flow meter to the column cap. Before
entering the column cap, the inlet temperature of the water is measured and
then the water is uniformly distributed over the top packing deck. This creates
a large thin film of water, which is exposed to the air stream. The water gets
cooled down, while passing downward through the packing, due to the
evaporation process. The cooled water falls into the basin below the lowest
deck and return to the load tank where it is re-heated before re-circulation. The
outlet temperature is measured at a point just before the water flows back into
the load tank. Evaporation causes the water level in the load tank to fall. The
amount of water lost by evaporation will be automatically compensated by
equal amount from the make-up tank. At steady state, this compensation rate
equals the rate of evaporation plus any small airborne droplets discharged with
the air.
ii) Air Circuit
A one-side inlet centrifugal fan draws the air from the atmosphere into the
distribution chamber. The air flow rate is varied by means of an intake damper.
The air passes a dry bulb temperature sensor and wet bulb temperature
sensors before it enters the bottom of the packed column. While the air stream
passes through the packing, its moisture content increases and the water
temperature drops. The air passes another duct detector measuring its exit
temperature and relative humidity, then through a droplet arrester and an
orifice, and finally leaves the top of the column into the atmosphere.
2.3
Overall Dimensions
Height
Width
Depth
2.4
:
:
:
1.25 m
0.91 m
0.45 m
General Requirements
Electricity
Water Supply
: 230VAC/1-phase/50Hz
: Laboratory Water Supply
3.0
SUMMARY OF THEORY
3.1
Basic Principle
First consider an air stream passing over the surface of a warm water droplet or
film. If we assume that the water is hotter than the air, then the water temperature
will be cooled down by radiation, conduction and convection, and evaporation. The
radiation effect is normally very small and may be neglected. Conduction and
convection depend on the temperature difference, the surface area, air velocity,
etc. The effect of evaporation is the most significant where cooling takes place as
water molecules diffuse from the surface into the surrounding air. During the
evaporation process, the water molecules are replaced by others in the liquid from
which the required energy is taken.
3.2
Evaporation from a Wet Surface

When considering evaporation from a wet surface into the surrounding air, the rate
is determined by the difference between the vapour pressure at the liquid surface
and the vapour pressure in the surrounding air. The vapour pressure at the liquid
surface is basically the saturation pressure corresponding with the surface
temperature, whereas the total pressure of the air and its absolute humidity
determines the vapour pressure in the surrounding air. Such evaporation process
in an enclosed space shall continue until the two vapour pressures are equal. In
other words, until the air is saturated and its temperature equals the surface.
However, if unsaturated air is constantly supplied, the wet surface will reach an
equilibrium temperature at which the cooling effect due to the evaporation equals
the heat transfer to the liquid by conduction and convection from the air, which
under these conditions; will be at a higher temperature. Under adiabatic conditions,
this equilibrium temperature is the "wet bulb temperature".
For a cooling tower of infinite size and with an adequate air flow, the water leaving
will be at the wet bulb temperature of the incoming air. Therefore, the difference
between the temperature of the water leaving a cooling tower and the local wet
bulb temperature is an indication of the effectiveness of the cooling tower. Thus,
"Approach to Wet Bulb", an important parameter of cooling towers, is the
difference between the temperature of the water leaving the tower and the wet
bulb temperature of the entering air.
3.3
Cooling Tower Performance

A study on the performance of a cooling tower can be done with the help of a
bench top unit. Students shall be able to verify the effect of these factors on the
cooling tower performance:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
Water flow rates

Water temperatures
Airflow rate
Inlet Air Relative Humidity
The effect of these factors will be studied in depth by varying it. In this way,
students will gain an overall view of the operation of cooling tower.
3.4
Thermodynamic Property
In order to understand the working principle and performance of a cooling tower, a
basic knowledge of thermodynamic is essential to all students. A brief review on
some of the thermodynamic properties is presented below.
At the triple point (i.e. 0.00602 atm and 0.01C), the specific enthalpy of saturated
water is assumed to be zero, which is taken as datum. The specific enthalpy of
saturated water (h f ) at a range of temperatures above the datum condition can be
obtained from thermodynamic tables.
The specific enthalpy of compressed liquid is given by
h = h f + v f (p p sat )
(1)
The correction for pressure is negligible for the operating condition of the cooling
tower; therefore we can see that h h f at a given temperature.
Specific heat capacity (C p ) is defined as the rate of change of enthalpy with
respect to temperature (often called the specific heat at constant pressure). For the
purpose of experiment using bench top cooling tower, we may use the following
relationship:
(2)
h = C p T
and
(3)
h = C pT
Where C p = 4.18 kJ.kg-1

3.4.1
Daltons and Gibbs Laws

It is commonly known that air consists of a mixture of "dry air" (O 2 , N 2 and
other gases) and water vapour. Dalton and Gibbs law describes the
behaviour of such a mixture as:
a) The total pressure of the air is equal to the sum of the pressures at
which the "dry air" and the water vapour each and alone would exert if
they were to occupy the volume of the mixture at the temperature of the
mixture.
b) The dry air and the water vapour respectively obey their normal
property relationships at their partial pressures.
c) The enthalpy of the mixture may be found by adding together the
enthalpies at which the dry air and water vapour each would have as
the sole occupant of the space occupied by the mixture and at the
7
same temperature.
The Absolute or Specific Humidity is defined as follows:
Specific Humidity , =
Mass of Water Vapour

Mass of Dry Air
(4)
The Relative Humidity is defined as follows:

Re lative Humidity ,
=
Partial Pr essure of Water Vapour in the Air

Saturation Pr essure of Water Vapour at the same temperature
(5)
The Percentage Saturation is defined as follows:

Percentage Saturation
=
Mass of Water Vapour in a given Volume of Air

Mass of same vol of Sat Water Vapour at the same Temp
(6)
At high humidity conditions, it can be shown that there is not much

difference between the "Relative Humidity" and the "Percentage
Saturation" and thus we shall regard as the same.
To measure the moisture content of the atmosphere, this bench top
cooling tower unit is supplied with electronic dry bulb and wet bulb
temperature sensors. The temperature readings shall be used in
conjunction with a psychometric chart.
3.4.2
Psychometric Chart
The psychometric chart is very useful in determining the properties of
air/water vapour mixture. Among the properties that can be defined with
psychometric chart are Dry Bulb Temperature, Wet Bulb Temperature,
Relative Humidity, Humidity Ratio, Specific Volume, and Specific Enthalpy.
Knowing two of these properties, any other property can be easily
identified from the chart provided the air pressure is approximately
atmospheric.
In the Bench Top Cooling Tower application, the air inlet and outlet sensor
show the dry bulb temperature and wet bulb temperature. Therefore, the
specific enthalpy, specific volume, humidity ratio and relative humidity can
be readily read from the psychometric chart.
The psychometric chart provided with this manual is only applicable for
atmospheric pressure operating condition (1.013 bar). However, the error
resulting from variation of local atmospheric pressure normally is negligible
up to altitudes 500m above sea level.
3.5
Orifice Calibration
As mentioned above, the psychometric chart can be used to determine the value
of the specific volume. However, the values given in the chart are for 1 kg of dry air
at the stated total pressure.
However, for every 1 kg of dry air, there is w kg of water vapour, yielding the total
mass of 1 + w kg.
Therefore, the actual specific volume of the air/vapor mixture is given by:
va =
v ab
(7)
1 +
The mass flow rate of air and steam mixture through the orifice is given by
m = 0.0137
x
va
(8)
Where,
m = Mass flow rate of air/vapor mixture
v a = Actual specific volume and
x = Orifice differential in mmH 2 0.
Thus,
x (1 + )
m = 0.0137
v ab
(9)
The mass flow rate of dry air,

m a =
1
Mass flow rate of air / vapor mixture
1 +
m a =
1
x (1 + )
0.0137
1 +
v ab
m a = 0.0137
x
v ab (1 + )
(10)
A simplification can be made since in this application, the value of is unlikely to

exceed 0.025. As such, neglecting w b would not yield significant error.
3.6
Application of Steady Flow Energy Equation

Consider System A for the cooling tower defined as in Figure 2. It can be seen that
for this system, indicated by the dotted line,
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
Heat transfer at the load tank and possibly a small quantity to surroundings
Work transfer at the pump
Low humidity air enters at point A
High humidity air leaves at point B
Make-up enters at point E, the same amount as the moisture increase in the
air stream
m a
m E
m a
A
Work, P
Heat, Q
Figure 2: System A
From the steady flow equation,
Q P = H exit H entry
Q P = (m a hda + m s hs ) B (m a hda + m s hs ) A m E hE
(11)
Note: The pump power, P is a work input. Therefore it is negative.

If the enthalpy of the air includes the enthalpy of the steam associated with it, and
this quantity is in terms of per unit mass of dry air, the equation may then be
written as:
(12)
Q P = m a (hB hA ) m E hE
10
Note:
a) The mass flow rate of dry air ( m a ) through a cooling tower is a constant,
whereas the mass flow rate of moist air increases as the result of evaporation
process.
b) The term m E hE can usually be neglected since its value is relatively small.
Under steady state conditions, by conservation of mass, the mass flow rate of dry
air and of water (as liquid or vapour) must be the same at inlet and outlet to any
system.
Therefore,
(m a ) A = (m a )B
(13)
and
(m s ) A + m E = (m s )B
or
m E = (m s )B (m s ) A
(14)
The ratio of steam to air ( ) is known for the initial and final state points on the
psychrometric charts. Therefore,
(m s )A = m a A
and
(15)
(m s )B = m a B
(16)
Therefore,
m E = m a ( B A )
(17)
11
Say, we re-define the cooling tower system to be as in Figure 3 where the process
heat and pump work does not cross the boundary of the system. In this case warm
water enters the system at point C and cool water leaves at point D.
m a
m w
E
m E
m a
A
D
Figure 3: System B
Again from the steady flow energy equation,
Q P = H exit H entry and
P =0
Q may have a small value due to heat transfer between the unit and its
surroundings.
Q = m a hB + m w hD (m a h A + m w hC + m E hE )
(18)
Rearranging,
Q = m a (hB h A ) + m w (hD hC ) m E hE
= m a (hB h A ) + m w C p (t D t C ) m E hE
Again, the term m E hE can be neglected.
12
(19)
3.7
Characteristics Column Study

In order to study the packing characteristics, we define a finite element of the
tower (dz) as shown in Figure 4, the energy balances of the water and air streams
in the tower are related to the mass transfer by the following equation:
C pW m W dT = K a dV (h )
(20)
where
C pW = Specific heat capacity of water
= Mass flow rate of water per unit plan area of packing

= Water Temperature
= Mass Transfer Coefficient
= Area of contact between air and water per unit volume of packing
= Volume occupied by packing per unit plan area
h = Difference in specific enthalpy between the saturated boundary layer and
the bulk air
m W
T
K
a
V
WATER
INLET
T2
H2
mw
t2
h2 AIR
ma OUTLET
dz
WATER
OUTLET
T1
H1
mw
t1
AIR
h1
INLET
ma
Figure 4: Schematic Representation of the Air and Water Streams entering and
leaving a Block of Packing
In this equation, we assume that the boundary layer temperature is equal to the
water temperature T and the small change in the mass of water is neglected.
Thus, from Equation 20,
K a dV C pW dT
=
h
m W
(21)
13
Integrating Equation 21,

Ka V
= C pW
m W
T2
T1
dT
w ha
(22)
The numerical solution to the integral expression Equation 22 using Chebyshev

numerical method gives,
Ka V
= C pW
m W
T2
T1
T T
dT
= 2 1
hw ha
4
1
1
1
1
+
+
+
h1 h 2 h 3 h 4
(23)
Where
Ka V
= Tower Characteristic
m W
h1 = value of h w h a at T2 + 0.1(T1 T2 )
h 2 = value of h w h a at T2 + 0.4(T1 T2 )
h 3 = value of h w h a at T1 0.4(T1 T2 )
h 4 = value of h w h a at T1 0.1(T1 T2 )
Thermodynamics state that the heat removed from the water must be equal to the
heat absorbed by the surrounding air. Therefore, the following equation is derived:
L(T2 T1 ) = G (h a 2 h a1 )
(24)
or,
L (h a 2 h a1 )
=
(T2 T1 )
G
(25)
Where,
L
G
T1
T2
ha 2
h a1
= Liquid to gas mass flow ratio

= Cold water temperature
= Hot water temperature
= Enthalpy of air-water vapour mixture at exhaust wet-bulb temperature
= Enthalpy of air-water vapour mixture at inlet wet-bulb temperature
14
hw2 (Hot water Temp)

Enthalpy
Driving Force
(hw-ha)
Enthalpy
Water Operating Line
C
ha2 (Air out)

hw1 (Cold water Temp)
Saturation Curve
ha1 (Air in)
Air Operating Line

A
L/G
Approach
Range
Twb (In)
T1
Twb (Out)
T2
Temperature
Figure 5: Graphical Representation of Tower Characteristics

The following represents a key to Figure 5:
BA = Initial enthalpy driving force
AD = Air operating line with slope L/G
Referring to Equation 22, the tower characteristics could be found by finding the
area between ABCD in Figure 5. Increasing heat load would have the following
effects on the diagram in Figure 5:
1. Increase in the length of line CD, and a CD line shift to the right
2. Increase in hot and cold water temperatures
3. Increase in range and approach areas
The increased heat load causes the hot water temperature to increase
considerably faster than does the cold water temperature. Although the area
ABCD should remain constant, it actually decreases about 2% for every 10 0F
increase in hot water temperature above 100 0F. To account for this decrease, an
"adjusted hot water temperature" is used in cooling tower design.
15
3.8
Useful Information
1.
Orifice Calibration Formula:

Mass flow rate of air and vapor mixture,
x(1 + )
m = 0.0137
v ab
The mass flow rate of dry air,
x
m a = 0.0137
v ab (1 + )
Where,
x = orifice differential in mmH 2 0,
v aB = specific volume of air at the outlet
= humidity ratio of the mixture
2.
Pump Work Input = 80W (0.08kW)
3.
Column Inner Dimension = 150 mm x 150 mm x 600 mm
16
4.0
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
4.1
General Operating Procedures

4.1.1
General Start-up Procedures

1. Check to ensure that valves V1 to V6 are closed and valve V7 is
partially opened.
2. Fill the load tank with distilled or deionised water. It is done by first
removing the make-up tank and then pouring the water through the
opening at the top of the load tank. Replace the make-up tank onto
the load tank and lightly tighten the nuts. Fill the tank with distilled or
deionised water up to the zero mark on the scale.
3. Add distilled/deionised water to the wet bulb sensor reservoir to the
fullest.
4. Connect all appropriate tubing to the differential pressure sensor.
5. Install the appropriate cooling tower packing for the experiment.
6. Then, set the temperature set point of temperature controller to 50C.
Switch on the 1.0 kW water heater and heat up the water until
approximately 40C.
7. Switch on the pump and slowly open the control valve V1 and set the
water flowrate to 2.0 LPM. Obtain a steady operation where the water
is distributed and flowing uniformly through the packing.
8. Fully open the fan damper, and then switch on the fan. Check that the
differential pressure sensor is giving reading when the valve manifold
is switched to measure the orifice differential pressure.
9. Let the unit run for about 20 minutes, for the float valve to correctly
adjust the level in the load tank. Refill the makeup tank as required.
10. Now, the unit is ready for use.
Note:
i. It is strongly recommended that ONLY distilled or deionised water be
used in this unit. The impurities existing in tap water may cause the
depositing in cover tower.
ii. Check that the pressure tubings for differential pressure measurement
are connected correctly.
(Orifice pressure tapping point to V4; Columns lower pressure tapping
point to V6; Columns higher pressure tapping point to V3; V5 leave to
atmosphere)
iii. To measure the differential pressure across the orifice, open valve V4
and V5; close valve V3 and V6.
iv. To measure the differential pressure across the column, open valve V3
and V6; close valve V4 and V5.
v. Always make sure that no water is in the pressure tubings for accurate
differential pressure measurement.
17
4.1.2
General Shut-Down Procedure

1. Switch off heaters and let the water to circulate through the cooling
tower system for 3-5 minutes until the water cooled down.
2. Switch of the fan and fully close the fan damper.
3. Switch off the pump and power supply.
4. Retain the water in reservoir tank for the following experiment.
5. Completely drain off the water from the unit if it is not in used.
4.2
Experiment 1: General Observation of the Forced Draught Cooling Tower

Objective:
To observe the processes within a forced draught cooling tower
1. Perform the general start-up procedures and observe the forced draught
cooling tower proves.
2. As the warm water enters the top of the tower, it is fed into channels from
which it flows via water distribution system onto the packing. The channels are
designed to distribute the water uniformly over the packing with minimum
splashing.
3. The packing surfaces are easily wetted and the water spreads over the
surfaces to expose a large area to the air stream.
4. The cooled water falls from the lowest packing into the basin and then is
pumped to the simulated load in the load tank.
5. During the process, some water is lost due to the evaporation. Thus, "makeup" water must be supplied to keep the amount of water in the cooling system
constant. The make-up is observed flowing past the float-controlled valve in
the load tank.
6. A droplet arrester, or mist eliminator is fitted at the tower outlet to minimize
loss of water due to escape of droplets of water (resulting from splashing, etc.)
which is entrained in the air stream. This loss does not contribute to the
cooling, but must be made good by "make-up". The droplet arrester causes
droplets to coalesce, forming drops that are too large to be entrained and
these falls back into the packing.
7. The fan drives the air upward through the wet packing. At air outlet, the air
leaving the cooling tower is almost saturated, i.e. Relative Humidity is ~100%.
The Relative Humidity at the air outlet is much higher than the Relative
Humidity at the air inlet. The increase in the moisture content of the air is due
to the evaporation of water into steam and the "latent heat" for this account for
most of the cooling effect.
8. When the cooling load is switched off and the unit is allowed to stabilize, it is
found that the water leaves the basin at temperature close to the wet bulb
temperature of the air entering. Wet bulb temperature is lower than the dry
bulb temperature and this varies according to the local atmospheric conditions
(i.e. pressure and relative humidity).
9. With no load, the water would be cooled to the incoming wet bulb temperature.
However, the condition cannot be achieved since the work done by the pump
transfers about 40W to the water.
18
4.3
Experiment 2: End State Properties of Air and Steady Flow Equations

Objective:
To determine the end state properties of air and water from tables or charts
To determine Energy and mass balances using the steady flow equation on the
selected systems
Procedure:
1. Prepare and start the cooling tower with according to Section 4.1.1.
2. Set the system under the following conditions and allow stabilizing for about 15
minutes.
Water flow rate
: 2.0 LPM
Air Flow
: Maximum
Cooling load
: 1.0 kW
Column installed
: A
3. Fill up the make-up tank with distilled water up to zero mark at the level scale,
and then start the stop watch.
4. Determine the make-up water supply in an interval of 10 minutes.
5. In this 10 minutes interval, record a few sets of the measurements (i.e.
temperatures (T1T7), orifice differential pressure (DP1), water flowrate (FT1)
and Heater Power (Q1)), then obtain the mean value for calculation and
analysis.
6. Determine the quantity of make up water that has been supplied during the
time interval by noting the height reduction in the make-up tank.
7. The observation may be repeated at different conditions, i.e. at different water
flow rates, or different air flow rates and with different load.
Assignment:
1. Calculate the make-up rate.
2. Calculate the energy and mass balances by using the steady flow equation.
19
4.4
Experiment 3: Investigation of the Effect of Cooling Load on Wet Bulb

Approach
Objective:
To investigate the effect of cooling load on Wet Bulb Approach
Procedure:
minutes.
Water flow rate : 2.0 LPM
Air Flow
: Maximum
Cooling load
: 0 kW
Column installed : A
3. After the system stabilizes, record a few sets of measurements (i.e. air inlet
dry bulb and wet bulb temperature (T1 and T2), water outlet temperature (T6),
orifice differential pressure (DP1), water flowrate (FT1) and Heater Power
(Q1)), then obtain the mean value for calculation and analysis.
4. Without changes in the conditions, increase the cooling load to 0.5 kW. When
the system stabilized, record all data.
5. Similarly, repeat the experiment at 1.0kW and 1.5kW.
6. Finally, measure the cross sectional area of the column.
7. The four tests may be repeated at another constant airflow.
8. The observation may also be repeated at different conditions, i.e. at different
water flow rates, or different air flow rates and with different load.
Assignment:
1. Calculate the wet bulb Approach and total cooling load.
2. Plot a graph to show that the relationship between cooling load and approach
to wet bulb temperature.
20
4.5
Experiment 4: Investigation of the Effect of Air Velocity on Wet bulb

Approach and Pressure Drop through the Packing
Objective:
To investigate the effect of air velocity on:
(a) Wet Bulb Approach
(b) The pressure drop through the packing
Procedure:
minutes.
Water flow rate
: 2.0 LPM
Air flow rate
: Maximum
Cooling load
: 1.0 kW
Column installed
: A
3. After the system stabilizes, record a few sets of measurements (i.e.
temperature (T1-T6), orifice differential pressure (DP1), water flowrate (FT1).
heater power (Q1) and pressure drop across packing (DP2)), then obtain the
mean value for calculation and analysis.
4. Repeat the test with 3 different sets of orifice pressure drop values (75%, 50%
and 25% of the maximum value) without changing the water flow rate and
cooling loads.
5. Finally, measure the cross sectional area of the column.
6. The test may be repeated:
i. At another constant load
ii. At another constant water flow rate
Assignment:
1. Calculate the nominal velocity of air and find the approach to wet bulb.
2. Plot a graph to show that the relationship between approach to wet bulb and
packing pressure drop versus nominal air velocity.
21
4.6
Experiment 5: Investigation of the Relationship between Cooling Load and

Cooling Range
Objective:
To investigate the relationship between cooling load and cooling range
Procedure:
minutes:
Water flow rate
: 2.0 LPM
Air flow rate
: Maximum
Cooling load
: 0.0 kW
Column installed
: A
3. After the system stabilized, record a few sets of measurements (i.e.
temperature (T1-T6), orifice differential pressure (DP1), water flowrate (FT1)
and heater power (Q1)), then obtain the mean value for calculation and
analysis
9. Without changes in the conditions, increase the cooling load to 0.5 kW. When
the system stabilized, record all data.
4. Similarly, repeat the experiment at 1.0kW and 1.5kW.
5. The tests may be repeated:
i.At other water flow rates
ii.At other air flow rate
Assignment:
1. Plot a graph to show that the relationship between cooling loads and cooling
range.
22
4.7
Experiment 6: Investigation of the Effect of Packing Density on the

Performance of the Cooling Tower
Objective:
To investigate the effect of packing density on the performance of the cooling
tower
Procedure:
minutes:
Water flow rate
: 2.0 LPM
Orifice differential : Maximum
Cooling load
: 1.0kW
Column installed
: A
temperature (T1-T6), orifice differential pressure (DP1), water flowrate (FT1).
heater power (Q1) and pressure drop across packing (DP2)), then obtain the
mean value for calculation and analysis.
4. Without changing condition, change the column packing to column B. When
stability is achieved, repeat the observation.
5. Repeat step 4 with column B and C.
6. The tests may be repeated:
i. At other water flow rates
ii. At other air flow rates
Assignment:
1. Calculate the wet bulb temperature approach.
2. Plot a graph to show that the relationship between approach to wet bulb and
packing density.
23
4.8
Experiment 7: Determination of Characteristic Equation of the Packing

Characteristic Column
Objectives:
To determine the Characteristic Equation of the cooling tower using Packing
Characteristic Column
Procedures:
1. Install the Packing Characteristic Column (Column E) properly.
minutes:
Water flow rate
: 1.5 LPM
Orifice differential : Maximum
Cooling load
: 1.0kW
Column installed : E
temperature (T1-T6 and T8-T15), orifice differential pressure (DP1), water
flowrate (FT1) and heater power (Q1)), then obtain the mean value for
calculation and analysis.
5. Without changing the air flow rate, and cooling load, change the water flow
rate to 2.0 LPM. When stability is achieved, repeat the observation.
6. Similarly, repeat the observations at 2.5 LPM.
Assignment:
1. Plot the Column driving Force
KaV
m
2. Calculate L/G,
and w
m w
m a
24
5.0
REFERENCES
Perry, R.H., Green, D.W. and Maloney, J.O., Perrys Chemical Engineering Handbook, 6th
Edition, McGraw Hill, 1984.
25
Appendix A
Experimental Data Sheets

Results:
Column Installed
Initial water level
Final water level
Time Interval
: _______
:
cm
:
cm
:
minutes
Packing Density
m-1
Air Inlet Dry Bulb, T1
Air Inlet Wet Bulb, T2
Air Outlet Dry Bulb, T3
Air Outlet Wet Bulb, T4
Water Inlet Temperature, T5
Water Outlet Temperature, T6
Water Make-Up Temperature, T7
Orifice Differential, DP1
Pa
Water Flow Rate, FT1
LPM
Heater Power, Q1
Watt
Experiment 3: Investigation of the Effect of Cooling Load on Wet Bulb Approach

Results:
Column Installed
_________
Description
Unit
Packing Density
m-1
Pa
LPM
Heater Power, Q1
Watt
0.0kW
0.5kW
1.0kW
1.5kW
Experiment 4: Investigation of the Effect of Air Velocity on Wet bulb Approach and Pressure
Drop through the Packing
Results:
Column Installed
_____
Description
Unit
Packing Density
m-1
Pa
LPM
Heater Power, Q1
Watt
Pressure Drop Across Packing, DP2
Pa
Air Flow
100 %
75 %
50 %
25 %
Experiment 5: Investigation of the Relationship between Cooling Load and Cooling Range
Results:
Column Installed
____
Description
Unit
Packing Density
m-1
Pa
LPM
Heater Power, Q1
Watt
0.0kW
0.5kW
1.0kW
1.5kW
Experiment 6: Investigation of the Effect of Packing Density on the Performance of the

Cooling Tower
Results:
Description
Unit
Packing Density
m-1
Pa
LPM
Heater Power, Q1
Watt
Pa
Column
A
Experiment 7: Determination of Characteristic Equation of the Packing Characteristic

Column
Result:
Description
Unit
Top
Station III
Air Dry Bulb, T8
Water Temperature, T14
Station II
Air Dry Bulb, T10
Station I
Air Dry Bulb, T12
Bottom
Pa
LPM
Heater Power, Q1
Watt
Water Flowrate (LPM)

1.5
2.0
2.5
Appendix B
Sample Results and Calculation
Column A

Results:
Column Installed
Initial water level
Final water level
Time Interval
:
:
:
:
A .
0
cm
4.0 cm
10 minutes
Description
Unit
Value
Packing Density
m-1
110
31.6
27.1
30.2
29.5
37.4
30.8
Water Make-Up Temperature, T7
30.2
Pa
88
LPM
2.0
Heater Power, Q1
Watt
883
Calculation:
By plotting the air inlet dry bulb and air inlet wet bulb (point A) and air outlet dry bulb and air
outlet wet bulb (point B) on the Psychrometric chart, the enthalpy and humidity of air mixture is
obtained and the result is showed as below:
hA
wA
hB
wB
vaB
= 88.0 kJ/kg
= 0.023 kg water/kg dry air
= 96.0kJ/kg
= 0.0268 kg water/kg dry air
= 0.950 m3/(kg dry air)
From the orifice calibration,
x
v aB (1 + wb )
m a = 0.0137
x
= 88Pa x 1mm H2O / 10.13Pa

= 8.69 mm H2O
8.69
0.950(1 + 0.0268)
m a = 0.0137
m a = 0.0409kgs 1
Water Mass Loss,
mE =
D 2 (h1 h2 )
4
Where,
D
= 74mm (I.D of Make up tank)
= 1000kg/m3 (Water Density)
and h1, h2 are level water units in cm
mE =
.74 2 .(40 0 ).1000
4.10 9
= 0.172 kg
Make-up rate,
m
m = E kg.s 1
t
0.172
kg.s 1
600
= 2.867 x 10-4 kg.s-1
Specific enthalpy of make-up,

hE = 126.586kJ/kg (at T7)
Applying the Steady Flow Equation to the system indicated by the chain the (System A)
P = H
K E
Q
Now, solving the left side,
Q P = 883W ( 65W )
= 948W (Work by pump is estimate 65W)
On the right side of the equation,
K E 0 (change of air velocity is negligible)
H = H EXIT H ENTRY
= m a (hB h A ) m E hE
= [0.0409 (96.0 88) 2.867 x 10-4 x 126.586] kW
= 0.2910 kW
The discrepancy between the right hand side and left hand side of the equation may be attributed to
errors and heat lost from the system.
Mass Balance
m E = m S B m S A
m E = m a (wB w A )
m E = 2.867 x10 4 kg.s 1
m a (wB w A ) = 0.0409(0.0268 0.0230 )
= 1.554 x 10-4 kg.s-1
The values for both sides of the equation differ. This discrepancy may be attributed to leak, and
errors.
Experiment 3: Investigation of the Effect of Cooling Load on Wet Bulb Approach

Results:
Column Installed
Description
Unit
0.0kW
0.5kW
1.0kW
1.5kW
Packing Density
m-1
110
110
110
31.5
31.7
31.8
27.1
27.2
27.3
29
30.6
32.1
Pa
89
89
89
LPM
2.0
2.0
2.0
Heater Power, Q1
Watt
471
899
1359
Calculation:
The pump transfer approximately 65W to the water, and this should be added to the load imposed
in the load tank. For example, when cooling load of 0.5kW was applied,
Total cooling load = Applied load + Pump input
= (471 + 65) W
= 0.536kW
Approach to wet Bulb = Water Outlet Temperature - Air Inlet Wet Bulb
= 29.0 27.1
= 1.9 K
Specific volume at outlet = 0.950 m3/kg

( x = 89 Pa x 1mm H2O / 10.13 Pa = 8.786mm H2O )
m a = 0.0137
x
vB
8.786
0.950
= 0.0417 kg/s
= 0.0137
Cross sectional area of column (A) = 0.15 x 0.15 m2

= 0.0225m2
a
m
A
0.0417
=
kgs 1 m 2
0.0225
= 1.853kg s-1 m-2
Air mass flow per unit area =
W
m
A
1kg min
( m w = 2.0 LPM
= 0.03333 kgs-1)
L 60 s
Water flow rate per unit area =
W 0.03333
m
=
kgs 1 m 2
A
0.0225
= 1.48 kgs-1m-2
Results:
Description
110
110
110
Air Flow per Unit Area, kgs-1m-2
1.853
1.853
1.853
Total Cooling Load, kW
0.536
0.964
1.424
Approach to Wet Bulb, K
1.9
3.6
4.8
Packing Density, m-1
Experiment 4: Investigation of the Effect of Air Velocity on Wet bulb Approach and Pressure
Drop through the Packing
Results:
Column Installed
Description
Unit
Air Flow
100 %
75 %
50 %
25 %
Packing Density
m-1
110
110
110
110
29.5
29.9
30.2
31.0
26.3
26.5
26.8
27.2
29.4
29.8
30.4
31.8
28.4
28.7
29.5
30.7
37.8
36.4
37.1
38.8
30.6
30.1
31.3
32.7
Pa
89
79
47
25
LPM
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
Heater Power, Q1
Watt
873
875
868
873
Pa
19
16
10
Pressure Drop across Packing, DP2
Calculation:
By taking the data obtained when 100% of air flow was employed,
Inlet wet bulb temperature
= 26.3oC
Outlet water temperature
= 30.6 oC
Approach to wet bulb
= 30.6 26.3 K
= 4.3K
Specific volume of air at outlet (by plotting Air Outlet Dry bulb and Air Outlet Wet bulb on the
Psychometric Chart)
= 0.890m 3kg-1
Air mass flow rate = 0.0137
x
vB
(x = 89 Pa x 1mm H2O / 10.13 Pa = 8.786 mm H2O)
8.786
0.890
= 0.04049 kgs-1
= 0.0137
Air volume flow rate

v
v
vB
=m
= 0.04049 x 0.893 m3s-1
= 0.0362m3s-1
Cross sectional area of empty tower A

Air velocity
v
A
0.0362
0.0225
=1.609 ms-1
= 0.15 x 0.15
= 0.0225 m2
Results:
Nominal Velocity of Air, ms-1

Pressure, mm H2O
1.7027
1.609
1.2387
0.9064
4.3
3.6
4.5
5.5
0.3949
0.8885
1.4808
1.7769
Experiment 5: Investigation of the Relationship between Cooling Load and Cooling Range
Results:
Column Installed
Description
.
Unit
0.0kW
0.5kW
1.0kW
1.5kW
Packing Density
m-1
110
110
110
30.5
30.8
30.9
27.2
27.3
27.4
28.6
29.3
30.9
28.3
28.7
29.9
32.9
35.4
39.4
29
30
31.4
Pa
91
90
90
LPM
2.0
2.0
2.0
Heater Power, Q1
Watt
455
864
1321
Experiment 6: Investigation of the Effect of Packing Density on the Performance of the

Cooling Tower
Results:
Description
Unit
Column
A
Packing Density
m-1
110
77
200
30.1
30.2
31.0
27.4
27.3
27.5
29.7
30.1
30.4
29.4
29.6
29.7
37.7
38.6
37.4
31.6
32.3
31.3
Pa
91
97
65
LPM
1.9
1.9
1.9
Heater Power, Q1
Watt
864
895
800
Pa
19
15
90
Results:
1
Packing Density, m-1
77
110
200
4.2
3.8
Experiment 7: Determination of Characteristic Equation of the Packing Characteristic

Column
Results:
Description
Unit
Water Flowrate (LPM)

1.5
2.0
2.5
Top
29.9
30.3
30.3
29.1
29.8
29.7
39.3
38.5
36.2
Air Dry Bulb, T8
31.6
32.1
31.7
29.6
30.0
29.8
35.5
35.6
34.2
Air Dry Bulb, T10
29.7
30.5
32.5
28.5
29.2
29.0
33.3
33.7
33.0
Air Dry Bulb, T12
28.8
29.1
28.9
30.0
30.0
30.2
30.2
31.3
30.7
31.6
31.7
31.8
27.1
27.1
27.1
31.8
32.2
31.5
Pa
50
48
49
LPM
1.5
2.0
2.5
Heater Power, Q1
Watt
864
861
870
Station III
Station II
Station I
Bottom
Calculation:
By taking the data obtained when 2.50 LPM of water was used,
1kg min
m w = 2.50 LPM
L 60s
= 0.04167 kg s-1
vaB
wb
=
=
m a = 0.0137
0.8980 m3/(kg dry air)

0.0266 kg water/kg dry air
x
v aB (1 + wb )
x = 49 Pa x 1mmH2O / 10.13Pa = 4.84 mmH2O
m a = 0.0314 kgs 1
For Air Operating Line,
T1 = Water Outlet temperature, T6 (31.5C)
T2 = Water Inlet temperature, T5 (36.2C)
h1
= value of h w h a at T2 + 0.1(T1 T2 )
h 2
= value of h w h a at T2 + 0.4(T1 T2 )
h 3
h 4
= value of h w h a at T1 0.4(T1 T2 )
= value of h w h a at T1 0.1(T1 T2 )
T2 + 0.1(T1 T2 ) = 35.73C
T2 + 0.4(T1 T2 )
= 34.32C
T1 0.4(T1 T2 )
= 33.38C
T1 0.1(T1 T2 )
= 31.97C
Therefore, from the graph,

h1
= 15.92 kJ/kg
h 2
= 14.23 kJ/kg
h 3
= 12.93 kJ/kg
h 4
= 10.09 kJ/kg
L (h a 2 h a1 )
=
(T2 T1 )
G
Referring to the Driving Force Diagram Plotted

110.84 93.96
36.2 31.5
= 3.59
L/G =
KaV T2 T1 1
1
1
1
=
+
+
+
m w
4 h1 h2 h3 h4
36.2 31.5
(0.3095)
4
= 0.3637 (Tower Characteristic)
m w
= 1.33
m a
Appendix C
Components Properties and Diagrams
Appendix D
Process Flow Diagram
WATER COOLING TOWER (MODEL: HE152)
Air Out
T3
T4
Orifice
T5
Water
Distributor
V4
V5
V6
Atm
High
Low
DP 1
V3
Test Section
(Packed Column)
FT1
Flowmeter
V1
Make-up
Tank
T1
T2
T7
V2
T6
Air In
V7
T8
Hot Water
Tank
Heater
TC
Air Blower
Receiver Tank
Temp
Controller
V8
Pump
Drain

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SOLTEQ

EQUIPMENT FOR ENGINEERING EDUCATION

SOLUTION ENGINEERING SDN. BHD.

APPENDIX A Experimental Data Sheets

Parts Identification and Equipment Set-up of Bench Top Cooling Tower

Schematic Representations of the Air and Water Streams

Graphical Representation of Tower Characteristics

SOLTEQ BENCH TOP COOLING TOWER UNIT (MODEL: HE152)

SOLTEQ BENCH TOP COOLING TOWER UNIT (MODEL: HE152)

Components of the HE152 Basic Cooling Tower Unit

SOLTEQ BENCH TOP COOLING TOWER UNIT (MODEL: HE152)

Dry Bulb Temperature of the Inlet Air

A differential pressure transmitter is provided for the measurement of pressure

SOLTEQ BENCH TOP COOLING TOWER UNIT (MODEL: HE152)

SOLTEQ BENCH TOP COOLING TOWER UNIT (MODEL: HE152)

The Process Involved in the Operation

SOLTEQ BENCH TOP COOLING TOWER UNIT (MODEL: HE152)

Evaporation from a Wet Surface

Cooling Tower Performance

Water flow rates

SOLTEQ BENCH TOP COOLING TOWER UNIT (MODEL: HE152)

Where C p = 4.18 kJ.kg-1

Daltons and Gibbs Laws

SOLTEQ BENCH TOP COOLING TOWER UNIT (MODEL: HE152)

Mass of Water Vapour

The Relative Humidity is defined as follows:

Partial Pr essure of Water Vapour in the Air

The Percentage Saturation is defined as follows:

Mass of Water Vapour in a given Volume of Air

At high humidity conditions, it can be shown that there is not much

SOLTEQ BENCH TOP COOLING TOWER UNIT (MODEL: HE152)

The mass flow rate of dry air,

A simplification can be made since in this application, the value of is unlikely to

SOLTEQ BENCH TOP COOLING TOWER UNIT (MODEL: HE152)

Application of Steady Flow Energy Equation

Note: The pump power, P is a work input. Therefore it is negative.

SOLTEQ BENCH TOP COOLING TOWER UNIT (MODEL: HE152)

SOLTEQ BENCH TOP COOLING TOWER UNIT (MODEL: HE152)

SOLTEQ BENCH TOP COOLING TOWER UNIT (MODEL: HE152)

Characteristics Column Study

= Mass flow rate of water per unit plan area of packing

SOLTEQ BENCH TOP COOLING TOWER UNIT (MODEL: HE152)

Integrating Equation 21,

The numerical solution to the integral expression Equation 22 using Chebyshev

= Liquid to gas mass flow ratio

SOLTEQ BENCH TOP COOLING TOWER UNIT (MODEL: HE152)

hw2 (Hot water Temp)

ha2 (Air out)

Air Operating Line

Figure 5: Graphical Representation of Tower Characteristics

SOLTEQ BENCH TOP COOLING TOWER UNIT (MODEL: HE152)

Orifice Calibration Formula:

= humidity ratio of the mixture

Pump Work Input = 80W (0.08kW)

Column Inner Dimension = 150 mm x 150 mm x 600 mm

SOLTEQ BENCH TOP COOLING TOWER UNIT (MODEL: HE152)

General Operating Procedures

General Start-up Procedures

SOLTEQ BENCH TOP COOLING TOWER UNIT (MODEL: HE152)

General Shut-Down Procedure

Experiment 1: General Observation of the Forced Draught Cooling Tower

SOLTEQ BENCH TOP COOLING TOWER UNIT (MODEL: HE152)

Experiment 2: End State Properties of Air and Steady Flow Equations

SOLTEQ BENCH TOP COOLING TOWER UNIT (MODEL: HE152)