14.4 14.2 143 INTRODUCTION S ‘The compression of gases is so important in industry that a separate brief eh devoted to this topic is deemed appropriate, Compressed air, at some pressure atmospheric, has many praetical uses, a few of which are operation of engines and pneumatic tools, operation of air hoists, cleaning by air blast inflation (every filling/service station has an air compressor!), paint spraying, lifting of liquids, and many other specialized industrial applications. Gas transmission pipelines that extend across our nation and move huge of gaseous fuels require booster compressor stations to maintain this daily flow. compression of certain gaseous chemical compounds to extreme pressures, of the order of 35,000 psi, for the making of plastics is common to the chemi industry. Although our discussion will center around the compression of (primarily air), the results obtained apply in part to the compression of vapors. TYPES OF COMPRESSORS Compressors are of two general types—the reciprocating piston-in-cylinder an¢ the rotary; the numbers of rotary type in operation predominate. Each of these vill be discussed later in some detail; however, it is not intended to cover completely ail the design aspects of either since this is a special course within itself, In order to g some familiarity with the mechanism of each, several compressors are shown in th figures that follow, Fig. 14/1-14/6. COMPRESSOR WORK If the compressor is of the rotary type Fig. 14/2, it would be treated as a steady-state, steady-flow system with flow through the control volume whose boun- daries are at the intake and discharge; apply the steady-fiow energy equation with negligible energy terms deleted. Let the process be adiabatic with AP = 0, AK ~ 0; which gives W = AHL Let the mass that enters and leaves be represented by m', oF se 1compressor Worle SDOGHP Giada Finned Cinders, Two-Stage, _Air-Cooled Compressor. Observe the finned intercooler, patty visible on the — left. ‘Two-stage compression is sometimes recom- mended for a discharge pressure as low as &0 psla, Several more stages of compression are needed for high dis- charge pressures, 9s os 2 100-200 atm. (Courtesy © spisth oling IngersollRand Co, New York, N.Y.) Centrifugal Compressor for Supercharger. Exhaust ‘gases from a Diesel engine (at some 1200°F) ex- pand through the nozzle passages, pass through the turbine wheel, and produce the work to drive the centrifugal compressor, With a greater mass of compressed air in the oylinder, the power output may be increased some 50% for a given size cylin- dor. (Courtesy Elliot Co, Jeannette, F Diffuser and Impeller. This is ac- tually one stage of a centrifugal pump, but a stage in a muhtistage blower or compressor would look much the same (Courtesy in- gersoli-Rand Co., New York, N.Y.) 289 Fig, 14/1 Fig. 14/2 Fig. 14/3 | | | | | | | | | |380 Fig.14/4 Two-Stage, __Water-Cooled — Waied Compressor. See Fig. 14/7 for : names of principal parts. (Cour- tesy Ingersoll-Rand Co., New York, N.Y.) Fig. 14/8 Positive Displacement Blower. Gas trapped between lobes and enclosing surface on the intake side (right) is compressed and delivered to the discharge side. This idea is also used asa liquid pump. (Courtesy General Motors Corp., Detroit, Mich.)mounted eccentric to the casing, gas entering on the side of greatest clearance is kept between the blades, compressed, ‘and delivered from the side with minimum clearance. (Courtesy Ful- ler Co., Catasauque, Pa.) cular rate is considered. Then W = ~AH = -m'e,(T. - fr, - mea (EF - 1) [ANY ADIABATIC, IDEAL GAS, AK = 0] duce into (a) the values in (b) and get equation (¢); Eo ae no pV = RT lan’ RTS (p\ tev pam ] wee -Pal : [isenTRoPIC ONLY, IDEAL Gas, AK = 0] c Vi is the volume measured at pi and T; corresponding to the mass m'. A ilar approach to a steady-flow polytropic yields an equation of the same form, "vis in place of k. the compressor is reciprocating, Fig. 14/7, the events within the cylinder are ribed in Fig, 14/8. If first we imagine the compressor with zero clearance, work ione on the piston from a to 1 by the constant pressure gas at p13 work is done by : piston from 2 to 6 on the gas at pz. The total work done on the gas is now seen Fig. 14/6392 Ghaptor 14 Gas Com, to be ~J Vap, the area behind the curve 1-2; that is, this integral accounts j work of drawing in, compressing (nonflow), and discharging the gas. By the logic, the area b-3-4-a is also —{ Vdp, but, of course, for a different mass, | areas on a pV plane represent energy, the area enclosed 1-2-3-4 represe work of this conventional compressor. Starting with equation (7-5), we find. e Ke(paVo = pis) _ kpsVil (pa\"™* @ ~ [ae = SB oe eee [s= where V2/Vi = (p:/p2)"”* was used in the brackets, Observe that this equatio, the same form as (c) above. The same final form naturally applies to proc Fig. 14/8; therefore an algebraic sum gives the enclosed area (work of the However, to avoid some extra algebra, we shall subtract [4 to 3] instead of B to 4]; i 1] pie ie tati= Vi (en 1] rewi eye _ [isewrroric processes] te een ala Water Head, ~ fetes Fj] Werks toe Causal Cran Bre ies Peking, Pision Connecting 4 "Red yi Fig. 14/7 Gas Engine Drive Compressor. This machine, designed particularly for na- tural-gas pumping stations, is built in sizes up to 8500 bhp (ICE), in which there are 16 power cylinders and 6 compressor oylindars. The nominal heat rate of ICE is 6500 Btu/bhp-hr. A few of the principal parts are named for informational Yalu; The inset atthe upper right isa typical indiestor car from a compressor eylinder.profervod Comproseian Curves 2 pe = piand ps = pa. For Vi — Va, the volume of gas drawn in, we use Vi faps V" ofm); and it will often be convenient to let pi Vi = mi'RT; and piVi = where 88 previously defined m’ is the mass of gas passing through the sot. If the processes 1-2 and 3-4 are polytropies with the same value of 1, jitute 2 for k in equation (14-1). An actual indicator card is shown in the inset ig. 14/7. Conventional Diagram for Compressor. An idéalized picture of the variation of p and V in the oylind Start at 4; 4-1 represents the intake and is called the suction line; 1-2 represents all vaives closed, and there is some kind of thermodynamic compression process (here s = C); 2-3 is the discharge, the piston ushing the gas from the cylinder through the open discharge valve; 3-4 is an expansion of the gas left in ‘the cylinder’s clearance space. A clearance between ‘the piston and cylinder head at the end positions is 2 necessity. Notice that the greater the clesrance volume Vs, the less gas drawn in Vs. f the compression is in two or more stages (Figs. 14/1 and 14/4), the work of the ntional diagram for each stage is given by equation (14-1), where p2/p: is the sure ratio for that stage and p; and V} are measured at the particular stage’s PREFERRED COMPRESSION CURVES Jasmuch as the isentropic curve 1-2', Fig. 14/9, is steeper than the isothermal on = pV-plane, it takes more work to compress and deliver @ gas when the com- ion is adiabatic than when it is isothermal, the difference being represented by jaded area. Compression curves with values of 7 between unity and k will fall the shaded area. Thus, it is obvious that the work necessary to drive a ressor decreases as the value of the exponent n decreases. > ovtee pvec 1 Comparison of Work for Isothermal v_and for Isentropic Compression. _ Polytropic compression and values of m Jess than k are brought about by titculating cooling water or air around the compressor cylinder to conduct away some of the heat generated by the compression work. In small, inexpensive com- ‘Ptewsors of the type found in automotive service centers, the cooling is always Madequate; values of n will be 1.35 or higher. Under favorable circumstances, a “Salue of n = 1,3 or less may be expected. Values of from 1.25 to 1.30 represent ‘the best results for water jacketed compressors, 398 Fig. 14/8 144 Fig. 14/2394 Chapter 14 Gas Comp, These observations are noteworthy: in isothermal compression, all the jjca equivalent of the compression work is carried away, the gas then leaving compressor with the same internal energy as it had upon entering; in isenti compression, no heat is carried away and the gas leaves with an increase in iniey energy equivalent to the compression work; and in polytropic compression, ihe, some heat carried away and some increase in internal energy and temperature, heat rejected during the polytropic compression process is Q = mcp(Ts — T,) vil 1m is the total mass of gas in the cylinder. We remark here that there is no advantage to compressed air leavin, compressor with an internal energy greater than that from isothermal compress ‘The compressed air is normally delivered to a storage tank (receiver) where it remain (and cool) for some tinie before it can be conveniently used. For this the isothermal compression process is considered ideal. Example—Comprecsor work A rotary compressor receives 6 m*/min of a gas (R = 410J/kgK, c, = 1.03 ki k = 1,67) at 105 kPaa, 27°C and delivers it at 630 kPa; AP = 0, AK = 0. Find the: the process is (2) isentropic, (b) polytropic with pV" = c, (c) isothermal. = Solution. For all parts we will use the steady flow energy equation Wer = Q- AH (a) Isentropic work (pV* = c, Q = 0) Solve first for the mass of gas being compressed. rt = p, Vi/RT, = (105)(6)/(0.410)(300) = 5.12 kg/min Next find T, Ta = Ti(ps/ps)*-™ = (300)(630/105)"-"" = 615.6K ‘Then W = ~ AH = ~ (5.12)(1.03)(615.6 ~ 300) = ~ 1664 kJ /min. (b) _Polytropic work (pV" = c) Find T: = Ts(p2/p:)""”" = (300)(630/105)"*""”"* = 500.5 K. ¢. = eg/k = 1.03/1.67 = 0.617 kI/kg Ue "= or Ht) = — caro utee W = ~ ritey(T, ~ Ty) + riteg(Ts ~ Tr) = vnlcy ~ GMT2 ~ Ts) a = ($.12)( ~ 0.416 ~ 1.03)(500.5 — 300) = ~ 1484 kI/min (© Isothermal work (pV = c). Here T,=7,=300K and AH =0 Therefore W = Q and also W = ~{ Vdp = [pV in this instance. [pay = p.viin Va/Vi = pyViinpv/ps‘free Ait W = (105)(6)In 1/6 = ~ 1129 kI/min sr that the cooling of the gas during compression lowers the work requirement. FREE AIR air is air at normal atmospheric conditions in a particular geographical . Since both pressures and, temperatures vary with altitude, a compressor ied and adjusted to deliver a particular mass of air at a certain discharge ire from a sea level location will not deliver the same mass when intake is af a it location; also, without valve changes, the delivery pressure will be lower. the compressor on a jet engine inducts and delivers less mass of air at high jes than at low altitudes. variation of the NASA (USA) standard atmospheric pressure is given in Fig. ), The NASA standard temperature varies linearly from 59°F at sea level (40° ide) to -67°F at 35,332-ft altitude; this amounts to 0.003566°E/ft, or aT/dz = 0.003566 Army Summer Standard temperature averages a little over 40° higher at a cular altitude. The NASA standard temperature in the stratosphere is assumed ant at 67°F (there is no fixed line of division, but the atmosphere up to about 32 ft is called the moposphere; next is the stratosphere). Observe in Fig. 14/10 228 8 8 # B ze ee 2 50 Be uM we w I We id 12 10 Atmospheric Pressure, in. Hg abs. Variation of Standard Atmospheric Pressure with Altitude at Latitude 40°. Enter chart at the ordinate, which represents altitude, Move to curve, as along the dotted line, then downward to the abscissa and road the standard atmospheric pressure at that altitude. $6 4 2 0 388 148 Fig. 14/10446 Fig. 14/14” Chapter 14 Gas Compresy that the pressure approaches zero asymptotically. At 400 mi from the surface of i) earth, a molecule travels an average distance (mean free path) of 40 mi befor colliding with another; at 30 mi, about 1 in, : VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY Since a reciprocating compressor has a clearance volume V5, the volume of g intake is always less than the displacement volume of the piston; the larger clearance volume, the less gas discharged. The actual volumetric efficiency isi actual volume drawn in at po, To (say, as measured by an orifice at intake) divided | the displacement volume (§ 14.7), a dimensionless ratio. Since for “displace volume” we may say ‘the’ volume of gas at po, To that would occupy the placement volume Vp,” the ratio as defined may be stated in terms of mass mass drawn in (say, per stroke or per min) mass at po, To that would occupy Vo @ which is sometimes the more convenient definition. : ‘The conventional volumetric efficiency, that is, from the conventional dia Fig. 14/11, is Vi/Vp = (Vi — Vs)/ Vo. The clearance ratio c = Vs/ Vp; ot V; Vp. Then Mn = ni By evn : if o dl)" = ul) : Since the total volume Vi = Vp + ¢Vp, we have J _ Vir Vs _ Vo + cVp ~ eVo(pa/ps)""" . oe Vo an v; 14-2) = -(2) = =e (14-2) te =1+e (22) lte-ey Ii the compression process is isentropic, let n = Kk. The actual volumetric effi may be much lower than the conventional because of fluid friction of flo' pressure in the cylinder is Jess than the pressure of free air) and because the cylil walls, being relatively hot, heat the incoming air (less mass of hot air can o¢2 given space). Since, in equation (14-2), p2 is greater than pi, the volumel efficiency decreases as the clearance increases; and as the volumetric efficiene) compressor decreases, the capacity decreases. The clearance may become £0 that no air is discharged by the compressor. This characteristic is used to cont output of a compressor by increasing the clearance when a reduced output is a eG Conventional Diagram, Observe that if stats 3 were coincident with 2 and if 1-2 were an internally reversible process, the reexpansion 3-4 would coincide with 2-1 if t were the same kind of process and internally reversible (same n in this case), The volume swept by the in one stroke is V;~ Vs, called the displacement volume Vo.“jp compressor Efficfonoy fae-work of compressing and delivering a certain quantity of gas is theoretically spendent of the clearance volume (and volumetric efficiency), as is seen from tion (14-1). But as the pressure ratio goes up for a particular clearance ratio, © mount of gas that can be delivered decreases. This effect can be counteracted ili-stage compression, breaking down the overall compression ratio into two or “parts, compressing in a series of cylinders. It happens too that for high sure ratios in a single cylinder the gas being discharged may be hot enough to “the lubrication, even to get an explosion if air and lrydrocarbon lubricants are ved. Moreover, in large installations, considerable power can be saved in stage compression jusi’ by cooling the gas between stages (for air, ap- rately back to its original intake temperature). The foregoing remarks dirécted ieal-gas compressors are easily adapted to the compression of imperfect gases pter 10). = DISPLACEMENT VOLUME e displacement volume Vp corresponding to one diagram, as in Fig. 14/8 or 11, is the volume swept by the piston in one stroke. If D is the diameter of the der and L is the length of the stroke of the piston, Vp = (#D7/4)(L). If the ie is double acting, a diagram is made on each side of the piston. While a nressor diagram is completed in 2 strokes, or one revolution, some internal istion engines take 4 strokes to complete a diagram and in addition are cylinder, Since it is often convenient to express the displacement volume in ic feet per minute, multiply the displacement for one stoke by N diagrams per ite (cfm = ft*/min); 2 2 Vp 2 oe or Vo == iw etm [DIAGRAM] LN piacrams/any] jine the value of N to accord with the actual engine being studied. COMPRESSOR EFFICIENCY here are a number of defined efficiencies of compressors, basically of the form — ideal work, W actual work, W" Te difference being in where the actual work is measured and what ideal work is the lard of comparison. Unless we define it otherwise locally, we shall use the abatic compressor efficiency, as = isentropic work actual fluid work (ta = hay Te 77 iefe, for steady-flow machines, it is presumed in (14-4) that the kinetic energy 147 148 | | | | |Fig. 14/12 149 “Fig. 14/13 Chapter #4 Gas Comp, change is negligible (or that stagnation enthalpies, §7.23, are used), where 4 numerator is — Ah, for an isentropic process and the denominator is the enthalpy change, say, along the adiabatic 1-2', Fig. 14/12, Equation (14-4) is appli to reciprocating compressors when W" is the actual work of an indicator diagram. the shaft work input. = 7 - Examplo—Air Compressor = ‘A 14 x 15+in,, double-acting air compressor, whose clearance is 4%, runs at = 150i ‘At state 1, Fig. 14/13, the air is at 14 psia and 80°F; discharge is at $6 psia; compressio reexpansion are isentropic. The state of the surrounding atmosphere is ps = 14.7 ps f, = 10°F. (a) Estimate the amount of free air (cfm), using the conventional volt efficiency. (b) Compute the horse-power for a compressor efficiency of 75% based on Solution. (a) Since one diagram, Fig. 14/13, is completed by each side of the piston revolution for a double-acting engine, there are 2 diagrams per revolution; and N (2)(150) = 300 diagrams per minute, By equations (14-3) and (14-2), with ¢ = 0.04, (14?)(15)(300) _ i ve Pow Dea (ayayas) gee arcee ®) nalte= (2) = 1.04 - ooa(58)"* = 0.963 or 96.3% ‘The volume drawn in as measured at state 1 is © vi Vo (0.963)(401) = 386 cfm ‘Measured at Pay fa the volume of free air is, 1 WATe 7 Veo Te. G80)04T) of CONSTANT k, (b) We observed that equation (14-1), obtained from the analysis © conventional diagram, is the same as equation («), §14.3, obtained from W = — m'c, AT. Therefore, we may if we wish use — AHL27 1b/min one amas = s40(3) = 802°R, 342°F () ip Ws ~ AH = ~rile,(Ts ~ T)) = ~ (27)0.24)802 ~ $40) = ~ 1698 Btu/min GAS TABLE. At T; = S40°R, from Item B2, find fy = 129.06, py = 1.386. For ty = so/14 = 4, we get pz = 4p = (4)(1.386) = 5.544. Entering Ttem B 2 with this value of Pra fad Ts = 801°R and fh, = 192,05, to the nearest whole degree, . W = ~ AH = ~ (27(192.05 — 129.06) = 1700 Btu/1 the gas table answer is more accurate, we find (ne = W/W") W170 ne (0.73)42.4) = 53.3hp lie power to be delivered to the compressor's shaft to meet the requirements. Examplo—Finel Stato and Entropy Change from Efficionoy tary type of compressor compresses air from 14 psia and 525°R through a compression jo of 5 and with @ compressor efficiency of 75%. What is the discharge temperature if é = 0 (game as stagnation temperature) and the change of entropy of the actual process? olution. From the air table at 525°R, we get i = 125.47 and vm = 154.84, For _ = vi/02 = 5, we have pn, ing the air table with this value of v2, we find properties at 2, Fig. 14/8, of _= 238.37 Btu/Ib (by interpolation) and T; = 990°R (to the nearest whole degree). From ¢ definition of compressor efficiency, fy — hy | 125.47 ~ 238.37 Te 0.75 sitet = 125.47 ~ hy n which hy ~ 275.97 Btu/Ib. Interpolate for this value of hand find T, = 1139.6°R, say R. the change of entropy is found either from equation (6-12) or by noting that s}— s, = = 3, = $4 ~ ga, the last expression being valid because p2 = pz. Look up at 1140 and O'R and get sh ~ s, = 0.78326 ~ 0.74792 = 0.03534 Btu/Ib°R OTHER EFFICIENCIES addition to volumetric efficiency, § 14.6, and compressor efficiency, § 14.8, Here are several other efficiencies that are pertinent to the compressor. Mechanical efficiency is defined by the Compressed Air and Gas Institute in two (1) when the drive is by internal combustion engine or by reciprocating steam 14.10 14.41 | |14.42 Chapter 14 Gas Comprosaor, = engine, cs ihp of the compressor @ inp of the compressor ®) 7m = Shp of the compressor ‘The frictional horsepower of the compressor proper may be estimated by empirical equation,” fhp = 0.105(Vp)"* where Vp is the piston displacement in cfm. ‘Another efficiency similar to compressor efficiency (adiabatic) as defined in § 1 is isothermal compression efficiency defined as, o ‘a __ isothermal ideal work ‘me =~ getual fiuid work a value that often falls within the range of 70-75%. The overall efficiency 1 is the product of the mechanical efficiency and | particular compression efficiency, adiabatic or isothermal, B @ ‘No = Mme where efficiencies based upon adiabatic compression are usually favored. MULTISTAGE COMPRESSION Multistaging is simply the compression of the gas in two or more cylinder of a single-cylinder compressor. It is used in reciprocating compressors in ¢ (1) save power, (2) limit the gas discharge temperature, and (3) limit the p! differential per cylinder. The latter reason is very important because volum efficiency not only is affected by clearance but also by the pressure ratio acto cylinder; see equation (14-2). Moreover, excessively high temperatures oats compression of the gas to high pressures may cause difficulty in the i lubrication of the cylinder and piston. Finally, much power can be saved multi-staging if the discharge pressure is above 75 psia and if the displace” above 300 cfm. Study Fig. 14/14 and read the caption carefully. a It is common practice to cool the gas between stages of compressio# intercooler—see Figs. 14/1, 14/14, and 14/15; and it is this cooling considerable saving in power. * Suggested by Arthur Korn in a private communication.eating Wa ater (@) Without Pressure Drop () With Pressure Drop “in Tntercooler ‘in Interoooler Conventional Cards for Two-Stage Compressor. In (a), ‘~lM-G-H outlines the conventional card for single-stage compression to p4 for a given per cent clearance. If the per cent clearance is the same in both cylinders, re-expansion in ‘the high-pressure cylinder starts at some point F instead of @. Reexpansion in the low-pressure cylinder starts at 8, where Vs ~ Ve. For a two-stage ‘machine, suction starts et A, For a single-stage machine, suction starts at H. The capacity of the two-siage compressor is greater than that of the single-stage by the amount Vy~ Va. Observe that itis possible to make the clearance so lerge that no ait would be delivered. As 8 matter of fact, varying the clearance is an efficient manner of governing the output of the compressor. The work saved by the two-stage compression is represented by the shaded area 2-M-4-, Since there is some pressure drop during the flow of air through the intercooler, the conventional cards may show this drop as in (b). The shaded area between B ‘and 3 in (b} represonts lost (or repeated) work due to this pressure drop. SE Typical horizontal duplex arrangement for engine-type synchronous motor drive, 400 to 1000 HP. Fig. 14/15,402 Chapter 14 Gas Compreasa, Figure 14/14 shows the events of the conventional indicator cards of a twonsase machine (Fig. 14/15), with the high pressure (HP) superposed on the low pressize (LP). Suction in the LP cylinder begins at A and the volume V} is drawn in Compression 1-2 occurs and the gas is discharged along 2-B. The discharged ga passes through the intercooler and is cooled by circulating water through ihe intercooler tubes. Conventionally, it is assumed that the gas leaving the intercoo and entering the HP cylinder has the same temperature as it had upon entering LP cylinder; see state point 3. The gas is then drawn into the HP cylinder along E is compressed 3-4, and finally discharged from the compressor unit 4-F. Note | residual gas always remains in each cylinder because of clearance and must Feexpa F-E (HP cylinder) and B-A (LP cylinder). ‘Equation (14-1) gives the work of an indicator card like 1-2-B-A ot 3-4-F-E an may be used to obtain the total work for this two-stage compressor; We simply the LP work to the HP work and have maRh (14-5) W= (p2/p" - 1 +4 23 pe/psy™* ~ 1) for the two polytropic compression processes. It is common practice to adju operation of multistage compressors so that approximately equal works are the cylinders, a practice that results in minimum work for compressing a amount of air.* Thus for the particular case of T; = Ts and of p2 = ps have the work of the LP stage equal to that of the HP stage, or, nim omg nm'RTy @ BERT. (pyp,y-P* — 1} = MERE tepaip"™ — 1) from which we find (b) pip. = palpi or pu = (apal”* which is the proper value for the intermediate pressure for the conditions sp' Allso, since the work of each cylinder is the same, the total work for the two: machine is twice the work in either cylinder, or, w = MRT p/p?" = 1] _2nm' RT © ce [(palp)"-P?"=1] an equation that applies only when T; = T3 (Fig. 14/14) and p2 = ps as fou &). For three or more stages of compression (more than three stages are unco the method of analysis is similar to that given for the two-stage machine. * This may be proved for the case of no pressure drop between cylinders and 2, t letting, in equation (14-5) 2 = ps = py, a variable intermediate pressure to be Heir Then differentiate W from equation (14-5) with respect to this pressurg p and oust at to zero. The value of p, found after this differentiation Is p; = (ppe)", the same 2° by equating the work ofthe first stage to that of the second stage. :| {614 Bxamplo—Two-Stago Compressor a HEAT TRANSFERRED IN INTERCOOLER | [f the intercooler (see Fig. 14/15) is analyzed as a steady-flow steady-state device, equation is obtained that gives the transferred heat whether the process is “eversible (p = ¢) or irreversible (with pressure drop). Consider the steady-state, “eady-flow energy equation applied to the intercooler process B-E shown in Fig. fi. Hp + Kp +Q=He+Ke+W ror the process, W = 0 and AK = 0. It follows that ie Q = Hz ~ Hy = AH -since we are analyzing the compression of a gas, 2 Q = m'es(Te ~ To) here m’ is the mass of gas passing through the intercooler (also the mass drawn in the LP cylinder and delivered by the HP cylinder), Exemple—Two-Stage Compressor two-stage, double-acting compressor operating at 150 rpm takes in air at 14 psia, 80°F. = LP cylinder is 14 X 15-in., the stroke of HP cylinder is 15 in., and the clearance of both finders is 4%. Air is discharged at 56>psia from the LP cylinder, passes through the lercooler, and enters the HP cylinder at 53.75 psia, 80°F; it leaves the HP cylinder at 215 psia. The polytropic exponent n = 1.3 for both cylinders. Neglect effect of piston rods on e crank end. Environmental atmospheric conditions are 14.7 psia, 70°F. See Fig. 14/16. = 535] @ o Two-Stage Compression. In figure (b) are shown the compression processes 1-2 and 3-4 and the cooling in the intercoolar 2-3. Since 2 pressure drop due to friction has occurred ter-cooler, this process is irreversible, and for this reason is shown dotted. ind (a) volume of free air compressed, (b) heat transferred during compression to cooling “Water around the LP cylinder, (¢) heat rejected during intercooling, (d) diameter of HP Silinder, and (e) work required for the compressor. 208 14.43 14.14 Fig. 18/16Chapter 14 Gas Ce Solution. (@) For the LP cylinder, the displacement is, Vou = 22 ayn) = (14)°(15)(2)(150) (01728) 401 cfm ‘The volume drawn in is, Vim meVen = Lh +6 ~ e(p2/ps)"" Vor = [1.04 — 0.04(56/14)'/"*}(401) = (0.924)(401) = 370 cfm measured at 14 psia, 80°F. From pV/T = C, the volume of free air is, (b) The heat transferred in the LP cylinder during compression is shown in Fig. 14/1 Process 1-2; further, the air rejecting the heat is that drawn in plus that in the clearance. Ta = Ty(palp.)"""* = 540(56/14)" "9 = 744°R and Vs = (1 + €)(Vpr) = (1.04)(401) = 417 cfm from which = Vs _ (14\144)(417) ™ "RT, (53.3)G40) = 29.21b/min and the heat transferred during the compression process, LP cylinder is - @9.ayo.1715) eras ~ $40) = ~ 341 Btu/min =13 (©) The mass of air rejecting heat in the intercooler corresponds to vollime Vi = 371 and equals ie p¥s _ 04)044)370) RT, 7 G3ayeany 7 25-9 1b/ min and the heat rejected is Qas = ABs = tithcg(Ta — Ts) = (25.9)(0.24(S40 ~ 744) = — 1268 Btu/min5.9 Ib/min: & (a) The mass of air passing through the HP cylinder is uc} jeaponding volume is = WRT: Pe V5 Vor = V3), = 96.3/0.924 = 104.2 cfm EAE a)em 1m which Dy = 0.595 ft = 7.1in, or say Thin. ~ (¢) From the LP cylinder, the work is, ran RT; Wor = 7 Meslay" = 1 (an _ 4.3)(28.9)(53.3 (540) War = Sood 13 seis tl — 37 bp The negative sign indicates that work is done on the air, Since the pressure ratio for the HP "cylinder is p./p: = 215/53.75 = 4 (same as for LP cylinder) and T; = T, = 540°R, then the War = Wor = 37 hp. So, the total work for the compressor is W = 2(-37) = -74hp according to the conventional card. PISTON SPEEDS The piston speeds may be as much as 350 fpm for small compressors, say, with a stroke of about 6 in., to more than 700 fpm in large compressors, say, with a stroke of about 36 in. CLOSURE It would be remiss if this chapter closed without focusing attention on two matters. - First, the conventional card for a reciprocating compressor is not a thermodynamic cycle. The two constant pressure lines for suction and discharge do not represent p= heating or cooling thermodynamic processes. They depict no more than a change of location of the mass of gas with no change of thermodynamic properties. Secondly, if the compression is an irreversible adiabatic (and all rotary compressors are) then we must forego the use of either —[ Vdp or [ pdV to solve for work. However, don't forget that the steady-flow, steady-state energy equation is always good, reversible or irreversible, and is useful even in analyzing reciprocating com- | pressors; that is, we can always move the system boundaries away from the piston/cylinder arrangement and thus avoid using these two integrals. 14.18 14.46408 PROBLEMS SI UNITS 14.1 A steady flow compressor handles 113.3 m?/min of nitrogen measured at intake where p,=97.22kPaa and t, = 26.7°C. Discharge is at 310.27kPaa. The change of kinetic energy is negligible, For each of the following cases, determine the temperature f2 ‘and the work if the process is (a) an isen- tropic, (b) an internally reversible polytropie with 1 = 1.34, (©) an irreversible adiabatic with a compressor efficiency of 7. = 80%, @ an isothermal, Solve this problem from the view point of energy diagrams. Does —[ Vad represent anything asked for? Ans. (a) 15,454, (b) -15,168, 19,318, (@) ~12,783 ki/min. 142 There are required 1902.3KW of compressor power to handle air adiabatically from 1 atm, 26.7°C to 304.06 kPaa. The in- itial air velocity is 21 m/s; the final is 85 m/s. (@) If the process is isentropic, find. the volume of air handled, m?/min measured at inlet conditions. (b) If the compression is an irreversible adiabatic to a temperature of 157.2°C, with the capacity found in (a), find the power input. Ans. (a) 899 m? /min, (b) 237.9 kW. 143 A small blower handles 43.33 m*/min of air whose density is p 1.169 kg/m*, The static and velocity heads are 16.38 and 1.22. cmwg (at 15.6°C), res peetively. Local gravity acceleration is g 9.741 m/s*. (a) Find the power input to the air from the blower. (b) If the initial velocity is negligible, find the final velocity. Ans, (@) 1.24 kW; (b) 854 m/min, 14.4 A large forced draft fan is handling air at Latm, 43.3°C under a total head of 26.6 cmwg (at 43.3°C). The power input 10 the fan is 224kW and the fan is 75% efficient. Compute the volume of air handled each minute. Local gravity acceleration is g = 9.71 m/s? Ans. 3908 m?/min, 145 Find the cylinder dimensions of a single-cylinder, double-acting compressor handling 28.32 ¢/revolution of air from 99.975 kPa to 723.954 kPa. Compression and reexpansion are in accordance with pV" = C. Use the conventional volumetric efficiency; ¢ = 5% and L/D = 1 Ans, 26.77 ¥ 26.77 em. © Chapter 14 Gas Comprestors 14,6 There are compressed 6.542 m/min of oxygen from 1 atm, 26.7°C to 310.27 kPag by a 35.56 x 35.56-cm single-stage, double- acting compressor operating at 100rpm. Compression and reexpansion processes are isentropic and AK = 0. Find the volumetric efficiency, the work done on the oxygen, and. the heat removed, Solve first by using the conventional indicator card; check by using an energy diagram and considering steady flow. Ans. 92.6%, 14.53 kW, 14.57 kW. 14.7 Find the volumetric efficiency and estimate the approximate clearance of 45.75 x 45.75-om, double-acting, single cylinder compressor that is turning at 150 rpm and pumping 19.82 m? of a gas from Latm, 26.7°C to 675.7 kPaa. Compression and reexpansion are polytropic with pV" c 14.8 A reciprocating air compressor with a clearance of 6% draws in 4.25 m°/min of air measured at suction conditions of 100 kPaa, 57.2°C. For a discharge pressure of 300 kPaa and an overall adiabatic efficiency of 68%, determine the power of the di motor. Ans, 13.434! 14.9 For a two-stage reciprocating com: pressor with intercooler, prove that the work. will be minimum when the pressure between cylinders (intercooler pressure) isp, = (psp2)**. Here p: is compressor inlet pres sure and pz is compressor discharge pressure Further, let the intercooler return the air ( the compressor inlet temperature, 14.10 Air is compressed in a two-state double-acting compressor which is ele trically driven at 165 rpm. The low pressure cylinder (30.5%35.5-cm) receives 6.8: m°/min of air at 96.53 kPaa, 43,3°C, and the” high pressure cylinder (20.3%35.5-cm) dis. charges the air at 717.06 kPa, Piston rods are 5.1m in diameter and the isothermal overd efficiency is 74%. Find (a) the volumett efficiency, (b) the power of the driving moto! 14.11 There are compressed 11.331) min of air from 103.42 kPaa, 26,7°C 10 827.36 kPaa. All clearances ate 8%. (a) Find 1 isentropic power and piston displacemet! required for a single stage compression. (0) Using the same data, find the minimum id=?) power for two-stage compression when the intercooler cools the air to the initialature. (©) Find the displacement of each Finder for the conditions of part (0). (@) iP nuch heat is exchanged in the inter _ zooler? (©) For a compressor efficiency of _ gi, what driving motor output is required? —— Ans. (@) S5AKW, 15.88m°/min, (b) 414K, (©) 12.43 m/min, 4.39 m?/min, __(d) 1423 kI/min, (e) 61.5 KW (2-stage) {412 Write this computer program. The fect of the polytropic exponent on the "conventional volumetric efficienty of a given - foinpressor is under study. Select a specific _jeteentage clearance ¢ and an anticipated essure ratio p2/p; and calculate the volu- witic efficiencies letting n vary in the range 4.13. The steady flow compressor of Brayton-cycle gas turbine breathes (000 cfm of air at 15 psia, 60°F and com- “presses it through a pressure ratio of 9.5; the gompressor efficiency is 82%. Use Item B 2 JOP. (@) Let the process be polytropic, eglect the change in kinetic energy, and find he power. What mass of water is circulated if ie temperature rise of the cooling water is 6F? How much is J Vdp in this system and What does it represent? (b) Consider the Drocess as an irreversible adiabatic (no water jacket) with a final temperature of 130°F (instead of 110°F) and find the value of m in pV" = C, and the work. What does ~| Vdp fepresent in this system? Compare works. Ans, (a) — 129,000 ft-lb/min, 3.64 1b/min of HO, -{Vdp = - 165.8 Btu/min. (b) _ 1577, ~ 216 Btu/min. 14.18 Air is removed from a large space _ and given a velocity of 63 fps by a fan. The fir density is p = 0,0751b/ft? and the work done on the air is 0.0155 hp-min/lb air, Find the static head on the fan, in. wg (at 100°F). 14.16 The adiabatic work input required ‘© compress 50 b/min of air from 14 psia, 80°F to a higher pressure is 60.4 hp where AK = 0. (a) If the process is reversible, find the discharge pressure. (b) If the compression to this pressure is imeversible, where fe = 84%, find the adiabatic work input. (¢) Which of these two processes will cause the sgreatest increase in availability? 14.17 Water, circulating at the rate of 52Ib/min around the cylinder of an air compressor, enters at 70°F and leaves. at 80°F, all heat received coming from the air in the cylinder, The compression is internally reversible from 14.7 psia, 80°F to 30°F; AK = 0. For an air flow of 50lb/min, find (a) the power, (b) AS for the air, (©) the available part of the heat with respect to the ir and again as it was received by the water if ty = 60°F. Ans. (@) 83hp, (b) ~0.791 Btu/*R-min, (©) 109, 14.3 Btu/min. 1418 A 14 x 14-in,, horizontal double- acting air compressor with 5% clearance operates at 120xpm, drawing in air at 144psia and 88°F, and discharging it at 57.6 psia. The compression and reexpansion processes are polytropic with » = 133. Sketch the conventional card and determine (a) the conventional volumetric efficiency, (b) the mass of air discharged, (e) the horsepower input to the air. (€) How much is — | Vap for the compression process? Ans. (B 1), (@) 90.8%, (b) 19.3 Ib/min, (@) 29 hp. 1419 A 14% 12+in., single-cylinder double-acting air compressor with 5.5% clearance operates at 125 1pm. The suction pressure and temperature are 14>sia and 100°F, respectively. The discharge pressure is 42psia. Compression and reexpansion pro- cesses are isentropic. Considering the con- ventional compressor and neglecting the pis- ton-rod effect, determine (a) the volumetric efficiency, (b) the mass and volume at suction conditions handled each minute, (¢) the work in horsepower, (d) the heat rejected, and (e) the indicated air horsepower developed if the compression efficiency is 75%. 14.20 Carbon dioxide is handled by rotary type compressor from 15 psia, 90°F through a compression ratio of 7 with a compressor efficiency of 75%; AK = 0. Find the discharge temperature. Solve using Item B 1 and check answer using gas tables. Ans. (B 1) 1100°R, (B 3) 1009°R.14.24 A compressor handles 3500 cfm of carbon dixoide measured at intake where py = 14.2psia and f, = 75°F, At discharge, pa = 28.4 psia and = 178°F. The initial velocity is 40fps and the final velocity is 150 fps. The process is an irreversible adi- abatic. Find (a) AH’, AU, AS', (b) W’, () Me ‘Ans. (a) 8150, 6400 Btu/min, 2.06 Btu/°R-min, (b) ~8309 Btu/min, (€) 82%. 14.22 A steady flow compressor com- presses 2300cim of methane from 15 psia and 75°F to 15 psig. The process is an ir- reversible adiabatic and the change of kinetic energy is negligible. If the compression effi- ciency is ne = 82.7%, find (a) t2, (b) AS, (€) W. (@) How much is -[ Vdp? What is the change of availability per pound of methane flowing if the lowest available temperature is to = 40°F? 14.23 A compressor is to be designed with 6% clearance to handle 500 cfm of air at 14.7 psia and 70°F, the state at the beginning of the compression stroke, The compression is isentropic to 90.3 psig, (@) What dis placement in cfm is necessary? (b) If the compressor is used at an altitude of 6000 ft, and if the initial temperature and the dis- charge pressure remain the same as given above, by what percentage is the capacity of the compressor reduced? (¢) What should be the displacement of a compressor at the al- titude of 6000 ft to handle the same mass of air as in (a)? 14.24 A two-stage air compressor without clearance delivers 90 1b/mi 140 psia. At the intake, p: = 14.3 psia a t = 60°F. Compression follows pV!" and the intercooler cools the air. bacl 60°F. Find (a) the optimum intermedi pressure, (b) the conventional power, (¢) heat of the various processes (sketch th processes on the 7S plane). (d) horsepower would be required for isent compression in a single-stage machine? What is the saving due to the cool process? Does this appear to be worth (@) If the temperature of the cooling wat the intercooler rises 15°F, what mass of wate is required? Ans. (2) 44.75 psia, (b) ~198 hp, (€) =7 3483, ~717Btu/min, (@) -243hp, | 45 hp, (£) 232 Ib/min. 14.28 A single-cylinder, double-a ‘compressor running at 200 rpm has pi speed of 600 fpm. It compresses 60 hj from 14 psia and 60°F to 95 psia. Cl ig 5.5%. For an isentropic compression, (@) tm» Vo, and W; (b) Pa of the o ventional card; and (c) the bore and: the compressor. Solve for W twice: using properties from both Item B 1 and Item} Compare. a ‘Ans. 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