[Nore hg coe P - Cambri ae Second Edition Paul Guinness Garrett Nagle HODDER ~y 6! EDUCATION ‘4 (oreNofol rand -N4 ae CAMBRIDGE P saree Cambridge Geography Second Edition Paul Guinness Garrett Nagle Gy HODDER ) EDUCATION ‘AN HACHETTE UK COMPANY(@ IGCSE is the registered trademark of Cambridge International Examinations. The questions, example answers, marks avarded and/or comments that appear inthis book/CD were writen by the aubors. In examination the way marks ‘Would be awarded to annvers like chese may be diffrent. Although every effore has een made to ensure thar website addresses are correcta rime of going ro pres, fodder Education cannot be held responsible forte content of any website mentioned in dis bok. Its sometimes posible to Sind a relocated Web page by esping inthe address ofthe home page fora website in the URL window of your bowser. 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Li, Pondicherry, Ini Painted and bound in Kay A catalog recotd fo thee i avilable from the Britis Libeary ISBN 978 1471 807 278Contents Theme 1 Theme 2 Theme 3 Theme 4 World Map Acknowledgements Introduction Population and Settlement 1.1 Population dynamics 1.2 Migration 1.3 Population structure 1.4 Population density and distrib 1.5 Settlements and service provis 1.6 Urban settlements 1.7 Urbanisation The Natural Environment 2.1 Earthquakes and volcanoes 2.2 Rivers 2.3 Coasts 2.4 Weather 2.5 Climate and natural vegetation Economic Development 3.1 Development 3.2 Food production 3.3 Industry 3.4 Tourism 3.5 Energy 3.6 Water 3.7 Environmental risks of economic development Geographical Skills and Investigations 4.1 Geographical skills 4.2 Geographical investigations: coursework and the alternative to coursework Glossary Index vi ix 19 27 31 35 43 62 80 96 us 140 147 162 182 193 198 207 216 228 248 266 282 290This page intentionally left blankWORLD MAP Tropic orcancer “gayeAcknowledgements Garrete Nagle would like to dedicate this book to Angela, Rosie, Patrick tnd Bethany — for ir help and patience im the prosction of the book Paul Guinness would ike ro dedicae this book ro Mit. ‘The Publishers would ike wo thank the following for permission to reproduce copyright materi Photo credits “Andrew Davis: p15, {Chris Guinness! p.10,p.185 +, p.216, 225, 9.234 stand oy p.299 ‘Paul Guinness pr, 9.2 6 al p.8, 112, p1550.17. p19. 9.21, .22, 24, p27,p31 alt p34, pil6l, p62 166, 9.167, p.170 ie, puA7y p73 neehp.173 p.177 alk p 182 p. 183 all p84, p85 b 2.190) p19, » 193,» 196, p.198 79.200, 9.201 ap 202,203 th p-207 ap 208, p12, p 213 sreer, p.214,p.219 al, p230, p22, 2.228, p.230, 231 ah p. 237. p.238, p.240,p 260, p.267,p 278, 9.298 ¢ Garreit Nagle p36 a p36 a p.38, 39, p40 all p43, p.50 all el al p85, p88, p60, p.62, 68, p66 al, p73, 0.74, 9.9, p80, PL, pS afk p86. p88 alk p89, p90, p92, p93 al, p96, p.104, 106, ATL ai p14 af p18, 121, p.122 ol, 124 oy p27, 128 al p 129 au p132,p.136 af p.138 af p.140 a p14 al, LAB ap 147, pelB1 1, p82, p54 all .186, 0.247, D248, 2.249, p.285 moron 287, 264, p.265 h ll Gtisa Gogolin~ Fowl, p14 © sipaudio/Geny Images/ 'Stockphowo/Thinksock,p.26 © Zuma/ Rex Features, p-30 © Antony SOUTER /Alamy, p.33 © Hemert Tectnologes/Geuy Imges/ “Thinksoxks p48. 6/0 Laura Wenes .49 © Dan Kiewood /Gery Images: p9 OT rey Campbell/upe// wicks com phos / sreyempbell/AB44687688/; p61 © Cheong Gy Cheon Museums 1.68 © David R.Frarir Phowaibrary, Ine Alam; p71 © Tom¥a0/ ‘Geary Images iStockphoto Thinkstock; p.72 © Peiee Slim hp: /commons wikimesa.org/iki/Ple-Shanghai_-_Pusong.— Taio jog/ep/ /eresivecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/Adeeden (21-Jan-2014); p-138 © Luis Marden /National Gcographic/Geuy Images; p.139 © Mattias Scie Rewters/ Corbis; p44 © Michacl Seaden Geary Images /Seockpiow /Thinkswxk; p83 70 Wayne Tyncy/All Canada Phovon Corts 153 7 © Fait Rerkovich = Folia, 1.162 r© Rubens Alreon/GettyImages/Hemery/ Thinkstock; P.173 br @ Igor Kalama For; p.181 © Jaguat Land Rover Ld .l87 © Frederic Solen/Sygma/Corbis; p-190 5 Anrony Njuguna// Revers Corbis; p-206 © AA World Travel Library/Alamys p218 © Pell, Mediendesign & Forograie/Gety Images /Stockphoo /Thinksock; 1.222 © James Randhley/Corbis p.224 © Andy Perick/USBR P.234 br James P.Bsir/Ntional Geographic /Gety Images, 235 {© George Esr//Reurery/Corbis p.272 © Chinch Gryniewiez encore. = top, = bowonn, f= left Hah, e~ conte Acknowledgements pw wodld map: © 2014 maprofwvorkd.com p.2 Figure 2: Wold population growth by each billion, World Population Prespects “The 2004 Revision, 2005 United Natons/ Population Reference Bureau,2005 2009}, Table 1: Worl population clock, 2012, World Prpulason Dara Sheer 2012 (Cited Nations Population Reference Bateau) p.3 Figure 3 Population row is more and less developed ouneies, 1950-2050, World Populaion Dara Sheet 2012 Uniced Nations/Popalaton Reference Bureau); p.4 Table 2: The world's fen largest counties in terms of population, 2012 and 2050, Worlé Population Data Sher 2012 (Cnieed Nations/Population Reference Bureau), Table 3: Bir and death rues 2012, World Populasion Dara ‘Sheet 2012 United Nasions/Populason Reference Bureau) pS. Figure 6; The demographic wanstion model, APalmer and W. Yates, Eee! (4) Aadnanced Geggrapiy (Philip Allan, 2005), p.7 Table 4: Counties ‘with che highese and lowes erly ates, 2012, WonldPaputavon Dasa ‘Slee 2012 (United Nations Population Reféreace Bureau); p8 Figure 10:4 comparison berween eal secondary education and eoal erly rates (Earth Policy Institute, 2001), repoduced by permission ofthe publisher, Figure 11: Toc fealty rate in indusoral, ss developed and Tease developed counies, 1950-2010 (Earth Policy institute, 2011), reproduced by permission of the publisher, Table 5: Life expectancy ar birth, 2012, World Popularon Dara Stet 2012 United Nations Population Reference Bureau); p.9 Figure 14: Projected population change by region, 2005-50, Poputaion Bales, Vo. 60 No. (Population Reference Burea, 2005); p11. Figure 17: The growth in ‘Kenys's pops berseen 1969 and 2080, Kenya Popuiasion Dasa ‘Sheet 2011( United Nations Populacion Reference Bureau), Figure 18 Population pyramid for Kenya trom Kenya Papulaton Dav Sheer 20t1(Unized Nations Population Reference Bureau), p12. Figure 20; Rossa’ population, 1950-2013, hep//omsokipetin. rami? ‘Demagraplus of Rasta; p-13 Figure 21: Opeimum population, over population and under population, G. Nagle and K, Speneet, Advanced (Ceograpi: Revision Handvak Oxford Univesity Pres, 1990), ‘eprinted by pension of Oxford University Pros p18 Figure 25 Dpulation density map of Australia Regional Population Growth, “Australia (3218.0), Australian Bure of Stee, © Commons: ‘OFAtsealiagp.16 Table 7: Comparing Bangladesh and Austral, rd Poputacion Dasa Shee 2012 (United Nations Populacon Reference Bureau); p.18 Figure 28: Population growth in France, 2004-13, wo. ‘adingcconomtic.com p.19 Figure - Push aod pull fctors, G. Nagle and K: Spencer, Advance Geagrapl: Revision Handvet (Oxford University Press, 1990), reprinted by permission of Oxford Univesity Dress, Figure 2: Types of migration and barrier so migration, G. Nagle and K. Spencer, Adhanced Geagraply: Revision Hanlboo (Oxford iversiy Press, 1996), reprinted by permission of Oxford Univers ress, p20 Figure $: Refugees and daplaed people inthe Mile Eat, ‘The Sunday Telegraph, Sepecrber, 201; p21 Figure 4: Ineeoatioal migrant stock by origin and destination, 2010 (United Nasons/ Department of Economic and Social Aftis, Population Divison, 2012), igure 5 Imemational migrant tock in the North and South, 1990-2010, (United Nations Department of Economic and Soxil ‘Afhis, Poplin Division, 2012); p.28 Figure 11: The cass and ‘return of migration (Pew Research Center) Figure 12: Therease inthe ‘Mexican-born population inthe USA. (Pew Research Centers p27 Bigure 1: Four populaion pyramids for 2013 ~ Niger, Bangladesh, UK, Japan, CIA World Facdook p.28 Table I: Population nd economic data for dhe four countries, selected data from Wor Pypudavion Daan ‘Slee 2012 United Nations Population Reference Bureau); 1.29 Figure 2: An annotated population pyramid, M-Harcoure and Warren, Tomorrow's Geqgay (Hodder Murray, 2012); p31 Figure 1 Doe map showing work! population densi, . Guinness and G, Nagle, AS Ceograpl: Conceps and Cases (Hide Murray, 2000); p32 Table 4: Variations in workd population denis, World Population Dara Sheet 2012 United Navions Population Reference Bureau); p-33 Figure 4 Population densiey of Nores America, P. Guinness and C.Nagle, AS Geagrapin: Cones and Case (Fiske: Murray, 2000) p.36 Figure 23: Vilage Shapes, G. Nagle, udnancl Ceagrapy(Ostord Universi Dress, 2000}, copyrigh © Garecre Nale 2000, reprinted by peision ‘of Orford University Press p.88 Figure 6: The relationship berween Population size and number of services, P. Guinness and G. Nagle, [AS Geegraply: Concspic and Case (Hodet Murray, 2000), Fire 7: Seelemene ses in the norh-east of the USA, G. Nagle, Geasrnphy _Homevoré Puck for Key Stage 3 (Heinemann, 2000), repreduced by permission of Pearson Educaons p-39 Figure 10: Cloke's model of rural change and aecessbiliry to large urban centres, G, Nagle, ORG GCSE Geapraply (Throyah Diagrams) (Oxford Universiy Pres, 1998), copyright © Garrete Nagle 1998, reprined by permission of Oxtont Uniersiy Press; poll Figure 15! Key wo 1-50000 map of Montego Bay, Jamaica Government of Jamaica/National Land Deparemest/ Survey Department}; p-42 Figure 14: Map of Montepo Bay, Jamaica (Government of Jamalea/Netional Land Agensy/Suvey Deparsment); pt Figure 1: Bid ren cheory and urban land use models, G. Nagle, “Thinking Ceograpiy (Hodder Murray, 2000); pA Figure 3: The core ame model, 5. Warn, Managing Change is Fan Eniransuents (Philip Allan Updates, 2001); p47 Figure 4: Location of Woodstock and Blikkesdorp, Cape Town (CO-BY-SA"3 0, bra //en-wikpei.ory/wiki/Filk:2009Ribhosorp TPC. [Relesed under che GNU Free Documentation License; p.48 Figure 5: Road neswork in Woodstock, Juar's General Schl Aras juta Gaiep) p84, 85, 56. igure 12: Land ws in New York, wor.yegon hom? {phim andar landefacomas mt (New York Gy / Department (OF Gey Planning); p.57 Figure 13: Land us in Seoul, Young: Han Park tala Asa of Seon (Sung Ji Mun Ha Co. Led, 2000); .89 Figure 16: Dopulaion change in Dewoit, Tie Exonomis, 27 July, 2013; p.60 Figure 17: ‘Manufseturing Employment in Deir, Federal Reve econrcdatabae, spi//aecmrsfactsbagrpocotk/2010/03/hea-charecbemi, © 2009 (Charice, yuiyechartats com; p.64 Figure 2: Slums in Rio de Janciro,GeaFacesbers, 121, reprinted by permision of Curiclum Press sw curriculum press.co Uk; p69 Figure 7: Transport systems in Rio de Janeiro, GeoFties, 121 eprnted by permision of Curiam Press, wucurriculum:pressco.uk;p.78 Figure 1: Population by world ‘region 2013 and 2080, Car Haub and Toshiko Kaneda, 2013 Pipulasion ‘Daca Shee (Waited Navions Population Reference Bureau), Fguee 2: ‘Main international migration corridors, hen xn onan? wallears2013 him, Figare 3: Change in US Population (in thousands) by Age Group, 2012 World Population Daca Sher Unive Saves Census Bureau Population Estimates Program); p.76 Figure 4a: Population “dense and dstabucion ip Bangladesh, 2000, ‘ap /feda.csin columbin.edn/ovnlonds/mapslaramp-vI(arump (NASA), Figure db: Increase in population density in Bangladesh, Jup://orwe index com/ fees /bangiadesi/populaion-densiey, 1.77 Figure 6: Map HIMSOCT - Fong Kong Special Adminisracve Region (Map Publicaons Cease, Hong Kong/Survey 8 Mapping (Office /Lands Department), © 2011; p.80 Figure 1: Two spas of | volcano, GeaFactiee, 121 reprinted by permission of Curriculum Press, ‘ww crim press cok: pale Figare 9. Distribution of plates and ‘ecto hazards in the Caribbean, Philip's Cersicare Asas fr che ‘Caribtean, Sth edition (George Philip Maps, 2004}, p.00 Figure 13: Buildings designed for eardhquakes, G. Naph, Foca: Geng. Hasarde (Nelson Thomes, 1998), copyright © Garret Nagle 1998, reprinted by permission of Oxford University Pres p92 Figare 16:1-28,000 map of Soutitre and Pimouth (Ditecrorate of Overseas Surveys/eparement {for International Development), © Crown copyright p.96 Fgure 1: (Changes ina rver dowmnsteaty G. Nagle, AS &-A2 Geygrply for Eaexe!B (Oxford University Press, 2003), copysighe © Garret Nagle 2008, reprinted by permission oF Oxford University Pres; p.99 Figure 6: ares of etal and porentialevaporranspiracion for South Aca, ‘espe orenagoayle 20m, p.101 Figure 9: Groundwater, P. Gunes and G. Nagle, A8 Geapraply: Concepts and Cass (Hodder Murray, 2000}, .102 Figure 10: Types of anspor ina river, P Guinnes and G, Nagle, “utomaced Geagrapby Coneres and Cares (xider Stoughton, 2002); 1.103 Figure 13: Formation ofa naterill, G, Nagle, Revers and Waser ‘iswagemons (Heder Arnold, 2008); p-108 Figure 16: 1:25000 map of the Niagara Fal area (Government of Canada/Capada Centre for “Mapping and Earth Observation /Natural Resources Canada), © Crown — PUL barriers - mmipaten

| Suburbanised Figure 10 Cloke’ model of rural change and accessbilty to largo urban centres Other centres have become important due to political roles. Other planned cities, such as Putrajaya in factors, New capital cities such as Brasilia, Canberra Malaysia and Incheon in South Korea, have become and Ottawa have developed central administrative centres of high-tech indust1.5 SETTLEMENTS AND SERVICE PROVISION (er 3'T\') Population size and number of services in Lozére Figure 11 Loztre environment ‘Table 4 Services in Lorine Table 2 Population change in t-André-Capcéze, 1800-2005 Year | Population 1800 a7 1221 455 Tet 79 1861 a7 1881 383 1901 6 1921 22 1931 190 1962 ae 1982 108 1999 a5 2006 18 ‘able 3 Population change at Lozée Year| Population | Year| Population vaor_| 130000 | 1921 | 108000 vazt_| 135000 | 1981 | 94000 weat_| 142000 | 1961 | 82000 te6_| 138000 | 1981_| 74000 vas1_| 144000 | 2001_| 76000 w901_| 130000 [2011 | 73000 estimate) = TTL pa $s| 2 / Fl sl2)slelslslale./2 E2lele|sleale Numbers show distance in km to nearest service, |e. 25 = 25km distant Lozere is a department in south-east France. It isa ‘mountainous region, and the main economic activities ‘are farming and tourism (Figure 11). However, due to ‘the mountainous relief and poor-quality soil, farming is ‘mainly cattle rearing. Surprisingly, the region has a very low rate of unemployment. This is due to a long history ‘of out-migration of young people in search of work. ° Table 2 shows how the population of St-André-Capcéze fell between the 1860s and the end of the twentieth century. However, in recent years the population has increased slightly. This is due to improved communications and easier travel - but the population is an ageing one. Tourism offers some employment, but the jobs are seasonal, part- time, unskilled and often quite poorly paid.Factors affecting the size, growth and function of settlements Case study analysis 1 Describe the landscape of Lozere as shown in Figures 11a and b. Suggest the economic opportunities and difficulties that these landscape produce for their inhabitants. 2 a Drawa line graph to show the change in population in Lozére between 1801 and 2011 (Table 3). bb Describe the changes in population in the graph you have drawn. ‘< Suggest reasons for the changes in population between: | 1801 and 1881 |i 1881 and 1981 lil 1981 and 2011. Activities = @. Figure 12 Key to 1:50000 map of Montego Bay Study Figure 13, a 1:50000 map of Montego Bay, Jamaica. Use the key (Figure 12) to help you. 1. What is the grid square reference of (a) the hospital In Montego Bay and (b) the factory on Torboy (Bogue Islands)? Compare the population changes in the Lozére department with those in St-André-Capceze able 2). 3. Table 4 shows data for services in seven settlements in Lozére, 8 Choose a suitable method to plot population size against the number of services. bb Describe the relationship between population size and the number of services for the region. © Identify one exception to the pattern and suggest how, and why, it does not fit the pattern, Suggest a hierarchy of settlements based on the information provided. What is the grid square reference for (a) the hotel (H) at Doctors Cave and (b) the Fairfield Estate? What is the length of the longest runway at Sangster International Airport? 2 How far it, ‘as the crow flies’ (in a straight line), from the hotel (H) on Bogue Islands to the main buildings at Sangster International Airport? b_ How far is it, by road, from the hotel (H) on Bogue Islands to the main buildings at Sangster International Airport? Inwhich direction is Gordons Crossing from the settlement of Montego Bay? Describe the site of Montego Bay. Suggest why the ‘area grew into an important tourist destination. ‘What types of settlement are found at Pitfour Pen (5598) and Wales Pond (5296)? Suggest reasons for the lack of settlements in grid squares 5497 and 5199, Suggest reasons far the growth of settlements at Bogue (5198) and Granville (5599) 10 Find an example of (a) dispersed settlement and (©) nucleated settlement on the map. Suggest why each type of settlement has that pattern in the area where it is found, Using the map extract, work out a settlement hlerarchy for the area. Name and locate an example: of (2) an area of isolated, individual buildings, (b) a village, (¢) a minor town, (d) a town and (e) a large ‘town. Use the key (Figure 15) to help you decide what type of settlement each one is.1.5 SETTLEMENTS AND SERVICE PROVISION Figure 13 1:50000 map of Montego Bay, Jamaica(1.6) Urban settlements land uses. Retail land uses are attracted to more ae expensive central areas. Land at the centre of a city fe is the most expensive for two main reasons: it is the most accessible land to public transport, and there is only a small amount available. Land prices generally decrease away from the central area, although there are secondary peaks ar the intersections of main roads and ring roads. Change in levels of accessibility, due to private transport as opposed to public transport, explains why areas on the edge of town are often now more accessible than inner areas Burgess's concentric model (1925) Cowtown Seoul This is the basic model (Figure 1b). Burges assumed that new migrants to a city moved into nner city areas where housing was cheapest and i was closest to the sources of employment. Over time residents move out of the inner city area as become wealthier. In his model, housing ty and social class increase with distance from centre. Land in the centre is dominated s this sector is best able to afford the high land prices, and requires highly accessible @ Urban land use sites. In the early twentieth century, public transport made the central city the most accessible part of town. Beyond the centre is a manufacturing zone that also includes high-density, low-quality housing to accommodate the workers. As the city grows and the central business district (CBD) expands, the concentric rings of land use are pushed further out. The area of immediate change next to the expanding CBD is known as the sone in transition (usually from residential to commercial). Key questions ‘© What are the characteristics of urban land use? How does urban land use vary between countries at different levels of development? ‘© What is the effect of change in land use and rapid urban growth? ‘The growth of cities in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries produced a form of city that was casily recognisable by its urban land use. It included central commercial area, a surrounding industrial zone with densely packed housing, and outer zones of suburban expansion and development. Geographers have spent a lot of time modelling these cities to explain ‘how they work’, Every model is a simplification. No city will ‘fi’ these models perfectly, but there are parts of every model that can be applied to most cities in the ‘ developed world. All models are useful because they HOYt'S Sector model (1939) Homer Hoyt’s sector model emphasised the focus our attention on one or two key factors. : aan i importance of transport routes and the incompatibility of certain land uses (Figure 1c). Sectors develop along, important routeways, while certain land uses, such, as high-class residential and manufacturing industry, deter each other and are separated by bufier zones or physical features. Interesting note Hong Kong is the only city in the world with more completed skyscrapers than New York City. Land value (bid rent) The value of land varies with different land uses. For example, it varies for retail, office and residential1.6 URBAN SETTLEMENTS due to immigration and hatural increase + the area around the CBD has t bb concentric zone model (Burges, 1925) J] \ etal + model based on Chicago in 7 g the 19205 5 + the city is growing spatially E 6 ‘the lowest status and highest Residential density housing + residents move outwards with Increasing social class and thelr Offer prices of retail, office and residential ses with distance from the ety centre section across the urban valve surface Ui plan of the urban value surface «Sector model (Hoyt, 1939) Figure 1 Bid rent theory and urban land use models Urban land use in developing countries There are a number of models of cities in developing countries. One of the most common is the model of a Latin American city (Figure 1d). The CBD has developed around the colonial core, and there is a commercial avenue extending from it. This has become the spine of a sector containing open areas and parks, and homes for the upper- and middle-income classes. These areas have good-quality streets, schools and public services. Further out are the more recent suburbs, homes are taken by nev migrants Key to diagrams b and ¢ 1 CBO (central business district) 2 Zone in transitionlight manufacturing 3 Low-clas residential 4 Medium Increased dependence on cars |» Less dependence on the car, aspublictransport declines | but growing = Majorconcentration of | |* Mary cars are poorly economic activities in C80 | maintained and are heavy polluters ‘Growing centralization and development of CBDs Increases traffic in urban Inadequate provision of | roads and parking + Frequent roadworks + Heavy reliance on affordable public transport = Roads overwhelmed by shear |» Journeys are shorter but volume of traffic ‘getting longer Rapid growth has led to ‘enormous urban spraw and longer journeys ‘+ Urban spraw results inlow- |« density built-up areas, and increasingly lng jouneysto * Development of out oftown | + ‘etal and employment leads teccosscity commuting ‘Out-of town developments are beginning as economic ‘development occurs, eg. Bogota, Colombia ‘Table 5 Attempts to manage the transportissue "Garrat "Sticke > Park-and-ride schemes — * High ear parking charger parking at the terminal for Incity centres, eg. a major bus or train route, Copenhagen (Denmark), fe, Oxford (UK, Brisbane London, Oxford (Australia) "Subsidised public transport systems, e.g. Oxford, Zurich (Gwitzerland), Brisbane Restricted ctycentve parking, e9, Copenhagen, Cambrtige (UX) Road tolls and road pricing: congestion charges, eg. Durham (Uk, Bergen (Norway) ‘and central London, 39 that people have to pay to drive through congested ‘areas of the city centre J Modern electronic bus systems |» ‘vith consumer information on frequency ©. Brisbane, Gurtba (rae; rapid wart systems -supertrams on dedicated tracks, 9, Zurich, crunderrourdirsin ec Newcastle, Cairo (Egypt) + Providing bus lanes to speed Lup buses, eg. Oxford, London Sustainable development in Curitiba Curitiba, a city in south-west Brazil, is an excellent model for sustainable urban development (Figure 5). Ir has experienced rapid population growth, from 300000 in 1950 to over 2.1 million in 1990, but has managed to avoid all the problems normally associated with it. This success is largely due to innovative planning: «© Public transport is preferred over private cars. @ The environment is used rather than changed © Cheap, low-technology solutions are used rather than high-technology ones. Development occurs through the participation of citizens (bottom-up development) rather than top- down development (centralised planning). — National borders Provincial boundaries Figure 5 Location of Curitiba in Sra ‘Table 6 Sustainable solutions to Roading Solutions (late 1960s onwards) Natural drainage was preserved — these natura floed plains are used Problems (19505/60s) ‘Many steams had been covered ‘0 form underground canals which restcted water flow. a5 parks, Houses and other buldings had | Certain owlving aeas are off been bul t00 cose to rivers. | mis, ‘New buildings were bull on poorly rained land onthe periphery of the cy Patks have been extensively planted with tres; existing bulkings have ban converted into new sports and leisure facts. ‘An increas in roads and concrete | Bus routes and cycle paths surfaces accelerated runatt integrate the parks into the urban le ofthe city Transport ‘Transport in Curitiba is highly integrated. The road network and public transport system have structural axes. These allow the city to expand but keep shops, workplaces and homes closely linked. There are five main axes of the three parallel roadways: © express routes —a central road with two express bus lanes « direct routes « local roads.1.7 URBANISATION Curitiba’s mass transport system is based on the bus. Interdistrict and feeder bus routes complement the express bus lanes along the structural axes Everything is geared towards the speed of the journey and convenience of passengers: ‘© a single fare allows transfer from express routes to interdistrict and local buses © extra wide doors allow passengers to crowd on quickly © double loads. cs allow for rush hour and triple-length bu The rationale for the bus system was economic as Well as sustainability. A subway would have cost up to $80 million per km whereas the express busways were ‘only $200000 per km. The bus companies are paid by the kilometre of road they serve, not the number of passengers. This ensures that all areas of the city are served Rio de Janeiro Housing Areas of spontaneous housing in Rio used to be bulldozed without warning. However, the authorities were unable to offer enough alternative housing with the result that the favelas grew again. The authorities have now allowed these areas to become permanent. ‘The Favela Bairro Project (Favela Neighbourhood Project) began in Rio in 1994. It aimed to recognise the favelas as neighbourhoods of the city in their own right and to provide the inhabitants with essential services. Approximately 120 medium-sized favelas (those with 500-2500 households) were chosen. ‘The primary phase of the project addressed the built environment, aiming to provide: ‘© paved and formally named roads ‘© water supply pipes and sewerage/drainage systems © créches, leisure facilities and sports areas relocation for families who were currently living in high-risk areas, such as areas subject to frequent landslides © channelled rivers to stop them changing course. ‘The second phase of the project aimed to bring the favela dwellers into mainstream society and keep them away from crime. This is being done by: ‘© generating employment, for example by creating cooperatives of dressmakers, cleaners and construction workers, and helping them to establish themselves in the labour market © improving education and providing relevant courses such as ICT. idents access to credit so that they can buy on materials and improve their homes, ‘The project has been used as a model of its type. The government is also helping people to become home- owners. ‘The mountainous relief of Rio means there is not a great amount of building space available. Development has consequently moved out (decentralised) 10 create ‘edge towns" such as Barra da Tijuca (see page 54). Barra is an example of decentralisation of the rich and upper classes Education A number of developments have taken place to try and improve the quality of the education system. Amigos da Escola (schoo! friends) encourages people from the community to volunteer their skills to. improve opportunities offered by their local schools Bolsa Escola (school grants) gives monthly financial incentives to low-income families to keep their children at school, Rocinha isa central favela with a population of about 200.000 inhabitants (Figure 6). Over 90 per cent of the buildings are now constructed from brick and have electricity, running water and sewerage systems, Rocinha has its own newspapers and radio station. There are food and clothes shops, video rental shops, bars, a travel agent and there was even a MeDonald’s at one stage. Figure 6 Rocinha, Rode Janeico Many of these improvements and developments are the result of Rocinha’s location close to wealthy areas such as Si Conrado and Copacabana. Many of theManaging urban problems residents work in these wealthy areas that surround Rocinha, and although monthly incomes are low, they are not as low as elsewhere in the city and in Bra ‘These regular incomes have allowed improvements to be carried our by the residents themselves. Transport © An efficient bus service, which covers all areas of the city, has been developed and the prices are within reach of most people, being US$0.50 for each journey made, Alongside the organised bus services, vans operate along the most popular routes and charge the same price. ‘© A metro system has been built and is currently being expanded (Figure 7). A one-way ticket costs US$0.66. Currently the metro does not provide an alternative mode of transport for much of the population, as it is not extensive enough. © The Linha Vermelha and the Linha Amarela are two major roads that have been built to try and ease traffic congestion. However, there are indications that the number of private cars on the road has increased since these roads were built, which will reduce the long-term impact they have on traffic congestion. ‘hado 229" Riot co, Y Rlotersl a Thue Elevado do jod — Wajrroads——-— Uinhas Vermetha and Amara = Metro tines Tunnels [Waterareas i Figure 7 Transport systems in Ria de Janeiro Water pollution ‘Much work has already taken place in Rio to improve the sewerage systems. Improving sanitation will also help revive the Lagoa Rodrigo de Freitas, where 4 km of new sewage pipes are currently being installed Urban change ii Shanghai For 700 years Shanghai has been one of Asia's major ports, and it has a varied history. It thrived until 1949, when China closed itself to trade with the west. This changed Shanghai from an international centre of production and/trade to an inward-looking city, During the 1970s, China began slowly reopening its economy to the world, and Shanghai was designated one of 14 open cities. The Shanghai Economic Zone was established in 1983, and in the early 1990s an ambitious major programme of redevelopment was started, especially in the eastern hinterland around Pudong. Since economic reforms began in China in 1978, between 150 million and 200 million Chinese have migrated from rural to urban areas. This may be the largest population movement in human history. China now has over 100 millionaire cities. Shanghai has a population of over 17 million and it is expected to reach 23 million by 2020. Site H{ © nor chins ee Indutatone shal tenankne © Man Dea toro ° Region @Yanaeeoaka eglon Fear er Dea Zane (@ Sanghi enor Zar Figure @ The stuation of Shanghal in China1.7 URBANISATION Shanghai developed on a flat, low-lying alluvial plain on the banks of the Yangtze river. Shanghai is also located ‘at the confluence of the Huangpu and Suzhou rivers ~s0 it has an excellent location for shipping and trade. From 1844 British, French, American and Japanese traders ‘owned land in Shanghai. By 1920 it was China's largest and ‘most important city but after the end of the Second World War and following the Communist Revolution in 1949, the foreign influence declined. Economic change Between 1949 and 1976 political influences, such as the Great Leap Forward (1958-60) and the Cultural Revolution (1966-76) focused attention away from rural areas, foreign influence and capitalist development. During this period. ‘one million people were returned to the countryside, However, in 1979 the first generation of Special Economie Zones was created, Although Shanghai was not, ‘one of them, it benefited from relaxed housing restrictions such as the subdivision and subletting of housing, In 1984, Shanghai was declared open to foreign development (Figure 8). For much of the next twenty years, Shanghai's economic growth rate was over 12 per cent per ‘annum. In 1980, a new CBD was created in the Pudong area (Figure 9). Banks, stock exchanges and insurance ‘companies moved in. By 2000, over 3000 skyscrapers had been bull, including the Shanghai Financial Centre. Easton | © Beton Figure 9 Land use in Shanghs Having by 1990 established a strong industrial base, the city was well placed to take advantage of the new ‘opportunities offered by globalisation. It became a major centre for export manufacturing based on automobiles, biotechnology, chemicals and steel, and its service industry sector (trade, finance, eal estate, tourism, e-commerce) helped to diversify its economy. Between 1990 and 2000, Shanghai began to re-emerge as a world city. Foreign investment was attracted. Over half the world’s top 500 transnational corporations and 57 of the largest industrial enterprises set up in Shanghai, contributing to an annual regional growth rate of over 20 per cent, more than twice the national average. In 2009, Shanghai was ranked the seventh largest city in the world, with a population of 15 milion Since 1990, the city's manufacturing sector has steadily, contracted, shedding almost a milion jobs, while the business services finance and real estate sectors have ‘expanded. Rising demand for highl skilled labour has led to further in-migration, resulting in an increasing disparity in wealth between rich and poor. Shanghai’s experience does lend support to the general hypothesis that world city status inevitably leads to a widening gap between rich and poor. ln 2006, Yangshan deepwater port was opened in ‘order to accommodate larger ships than could enter the Huangpu and Suzhou rivers. Yangshan was built on an island about 40km south-east of Shanghai and connected by a 35km bridge. tis now one of the world’s largest ports. Today, Shanghai isa city-state within China. its part of the Yangtze River Delta, the fastest growing urban area in the world, containing 16 megacities including Shanghai. The region has 75 million people and earns 25 per cent of China's GNP ~ 50 per cent of its foreign direct investment. The city has been described as the largest construction site in the world: 4000 buildings with more than 24 storeys were under construction in 2010. Housing and demographic issues Housing shortages and overcrowding problems are acute. Almost half the population lives in less than 5 per cent of the total land area, and in central Shanghai population density reaches 40000-16000 people per square kilometre (Figure 10). Population pressure is caused by In-migration, overcrowding, disparities in wealth and the social insecurity of Shanghai's poor ‘floating population’. From the 1990s whole neighbourhoods were demolished. Over two million residents were moved to the outer suburbs to live in better-quality accommodation. Many poorer people are unaware of their property rights. ‘As property prices increase, they are given insufficient compensation. They cannot afford alternative housing in their old neighbourhoods. The Shanghai government has established a series of important policies to address these problems: ‘© a combination of widespread family planning and. ‘medical care, which has controlled fertility levels among the young immigrant population © compulsory work permits © educational initiatives to improve immigrant job ‘opportunities.Managing urban problems Density (people?) -<2000 3200"2099 4000-2699 10000-19999 20000-2999 20000 ale nah Sy i Figure 10 Population density in Sangha ‘These initiatives have reduced population density in the heart of the city and increased it in the suburban satellite cities such as Songjiang. This has been a successful strategy, although for many who have been moved out under the decentralisation policy, the journey back to the centre for work is no advantage. Economic growth has attracted an increasing number of Chinese living overseas and foreign migrants to live in Shanghai. Many of these live in luxury, gated apartments. Water and air quality Water quality in Shanghal is a concern: less than 60 per cent of waste water and storm water and less than 40 per cent of sewage flows are intercepted, treated and disposed of. Waste disposal is also a major problem: the Huangpu river receives 4 million cubic metres of untreated human ‘waste every day. The construction industry generates 30000 tonnes of building waste per day, and municipal landfill sites have almost reached capacity. Nevertheless, since the 1990s there have been marked improvements in sanitation, and almost all households have access to piped. water electricity and a means of waste disposal. Municipal organic waste is naw used as fertiliser in the surrounding rural areas. Shanghai has the highest cancer mortality rate in China, and until recently had the reputation of being the tenth ‘most polluted city in the world. Industry generated over 72 per cent of carbon dioxide emissions, 9 per cent coming from transport systems, and the remainder from domestic use. Coal-fired power stations provide 75 per cent of China's electricity, but contributes to serious emissions of suspended particulate matter, nitrous oxides and sulfur dioxide. Motor vehicle emissions are particularly harmful in the presence of strong sunlight, when photochemical smog is formed, A product of this is low-level ozone, a harmful inritant responsible for breathing difficulties. Efforts to reduce air pollution levels have been moderately successful: ‘emissions of nitrous oxides have fallen from around 40 ppm to 32, and sulfur dioxide emissions from 50 ppm to around 32 over the same period. Reducing particulate matter has proved to be a much more difficult task. ‘The government has responded to pollution problems by ‘upgrading the city’s transport systems and attempting to limit the growth in car ownership. Transport The Shanghai authorities have invested heavily in transport. Eight tunnels and four bridges have been built over/under the Huangpu river. Shanghai's underground system, with a daily capacity of 1.4 million, is ow linked to Pudong airport by the world’: fastest commercial magnetic levitation train = MAGLEV-- capable of reaching 431 km per hour. Other strategies to improve safety have been pedestrianiation and a reduction in the number of bicycles, currently ‘estimated at 9 million and a cause of many road accidents. Bus lanes have been introduced and over 150km of ‘yclefmoped lanes have been created. Shanghai developed metro system in 1995 (Figure 11). An intemational airport was built in 1999 and a second terminal added in 2008. It is planned to expand fourfold by 2015. Figure 11. The Shanghal metro stem Coastal flooding Like many global ports, Shanghal is under threat from. coastal flooding, partly due to its low elevation at only “A metres above Sea level, but also from monsoons and tropical cyclones. Future hazard events will be aggravated, bby climate change and the possibility of a rise in sea level. ‘The problem is compounded by subsidence, which has been. ‘caused by over-abstraction of groundwater and the weight of high-rise buildings. shanghai sank by 2.6 metres between 1921 and 1965, and in 2002 alone by 10.22 millimetres.1.7 URBANISATION Figure 12 Shanghat landscape Shanghai master plan In 2000 Shanghai introduced the New Master Plan for ‘Shanghai (2000-20). This includes the whole area and the development of three satellite cities (new towns). This isto reduce congestion and high population densities in central ‘Shanghai. Dongtan Dongtan is located on the alluvial island of Chongming, Iisa new city planned to produce zero waste, and using ‘energy from clean renewable sources such as wind, solar and biofuels. Grasses will be grown on rooftops and rainfall will be harvested. The city was planned to be compact and, car-free - its residents cycling or walking to schoolhwork or to the shops and services. Links to downtown Shanghai ~ ‘over 50km away ~ include new bridges and tunnels, However, these links threaten to replace the sustainable ‘eco-city with a middle-class suburb for Shanghai workers. It ‘could also attract holiday homes and retirement homes. Advantages of Dongtan: ‘© Housing will include affordable housing as well as luxury flats. @ Urbanisation and the environment Managing environmental problems Environmental issues that most cities have to deal with include: ‘© water quality © dereliction © air quality © noise © environmental health of the population. © Waste will be treated, rather than discharged into the Yangtze. Landfills are to be allowed, and sewage will be processed for irrigation and composting. © Renewable energy will be used — especially solar panels and wind turbines, © Food will be locally sourced from local farmers and fishermen - about one-third of the land in Shanghai is currently used for food production and about one million people still work on the land there. ‘© Farming will be made more efficient by the introduction of organic fertilisers. «© Direct links between farmers and Shanghai restaurants. are being developed, ‘© Farm tourism is being encouraged through weekend breaks. Problems associated with Dongtan: ‘© There may be conflicts over water resources ~ planned golf courses may use vast amounts of water. © Dongtan’s first phase ~ by 2010 — housed mainly tourist industries: hardly a sustainable use. Commuting to Shanghai is inevitable, leading to a ‘middle-class’ ghetto. © The extensive natural areas of freshwater marshes, saltmarshes and tidal creeks will experience major pressures for development. The rapid development of Shanghai has presented the government and planners with some challenging problems, only some of which have been resolved, The question is whether Shanghai can maintain the principles, of sustainability while growing at such a rapid pace. Case study analysis 1) On what river is Shanghal situated? 2 What are the advantages of Shanghai’ site for its economic development. 3 Describe the situation of Shanghai as shown in Figure 8. 4 Suggest reasons to help explain the rapid growth of Shanghai's population 5 Explain why Shanghai has a problem with air quality and water quality “There are a range of environmental problems in urban areas (Table 7). These vary over time as economic development progresses. The greatest concentration of environmental problems occurs ities experiencing rapid growth (Figure 13). concentration of problems is referred to as the Brown Agenda. It has two main components: « issues caused by limited availability of land, water and services © problems such as toxic hazardous waste, pollution of water, air and soil, and industrial ‘accidents’ such as that at Bhopal in 1985.Urbanisation and the environment ‘Table 7 Environmental problems in urban areas Problems (and examples) [Causes osble solutions 1 ‘Waste products and waste '* Solids from paper, packaging and toxic waste» Improved public awareness: recycling etc., landfill isposa~2 percertof al | increase as numbers and ving standard rie sites, Incineration plants frtandalersin developing |» Uquid sewage and industrial waste Both rise |» Development of effective sanitation systems and counts have no adequate’ | exponentially ‘weatmert plants ineluding recycling of brown water sanitation andno means of |» Contamination and heath hazards from poor | for Industral use sewage deposa systems of deposal, eg. rat infestation and + Rubbish management Waterborne dieases ‘Aicpotsion~airin exo |» Taff, factories, waste Indneratarsand | Cloture of old factories and importation of ean city acceptable’ on fewer | power plants produce pollutants technology, 9, filters than 20 days annually + Some specialist chemical pollution + Use of deaner fuels + bsues of acid deposition + Resiting of industrial plant e.g oll refineries in areas dovnwand of settlements Waterpoliaion (untested |» Leaking sewer, landfill and industrial waste |» Control of sources of polutien a source by wage nt the Ganga fem | tnsome developing countries agrcatural | regulation and fing, development of mans problem + Removal of contaminated land stes | ‘Water supply (overuse of |» Aquifer depletion, ground subsidence and + Construction of reservoirs, pipeline construction from srounevater edt subsidence | low flow of ever tongelstancecatenmert, desalination of ak water sr loading in Bangkok) + Water conservation strategies, Transpor-eatedisues |» Ring vehile annerihipleads to congestion, |» Introduction of cleaner car technology unleaded (average speed of vac in Sao |" nolse pollution, accidents and HLneath due to | petrol ataytc converters), monitoring and Paulo & akmitou) feleace of carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxide | guidelines forvariou: pluton leek; movement ‘nd, indirectly lowlevel ozone ‘rom private car to puble transport green transport + Photochemical smog formation coely related | planning to urban sprawl + Gratlon of compact and more sustainable cies Figure 13 Environmental probs: (a) Seoul ~ a city experiencing rapid economic growth1.7 URBANISATION Figure 13 Environmental problems: (b) Castres ~a city in a developing country Attempts to turn cities green can be expensive. Increasingly local governments are monitoring the environment to check for signs of environmental stress, and then applying some form of pollution management, integrated management, or conservation order to protect the environment. Activities 4. Describe the environmental problems shown in Figure 13. 2. Outline the causes of environmental problems in cities. b Suggest why these problems might be increasing. Suggest reasons why the potential solutions might not work,End of theme questions ‘AllAfrica Sub-Stharen Latin America! Aela Nath Amerci Europe ‘sia Caribbean Figure 1 Population by world region 2013 and 2050 1 a Describe the distribution of the world’s population by region in 2013. b Using the data provided calculate the total population of the world in 2013 and the world's. projected population in 2050. 2 a To what extent does the projected population ‘growth to 2050 vary by world region? ‘to be much higher in some world regions than others. 3 Suggest why these population forecasts might turn out, to be inaccurate. Topic 1.2: Destination: developing counties Origin Destination 2013 ngladesh India 32 India United Arab 29 Emirates usslan Federation Kazakhstan 24 Afghanistan Pakistan 23 ‘Afghanistan Iran star 23 Republic of) China, HongKong 2.3, SAR Jordan 2A Myanmar Thailand 19 Ini Saudi Arabia 18 Burkina Faso Cote dIvoire 15. ‘Destination: developed counties Wexko USA 750 Russian Federation Ulraine 35 Russian Federation 29 Russian Federation 25 Usa 22 USA 2 USA 20 Usa 7 Germany 15 France 15. Figure 2_ Main international migration corridors (total migrant populations in millions) ‘© What is the total increase in population forecast to be? b Examine the reasons why population growth is forecast @ End of theme questions te Topic 1.1: Population dynamics Populations man 2a b 3a b Define international migration. Identify the three largest flows of migrants ‘to destinations in developing and in developed countries. ‘Which country is the major destination for international migrants? What are the reasons for the popularity of this destination country? Suggest why India appears as both a country of origin and destination. ‘What isa refugee? Suggest and justify one migration corridor that has been a route for refugees. 4 Discuss the barriers to international migration. Topic 1.3: Population structure thousands) ‘change in population Under Age 18) 2000 to 2001 2005 to 2006 "“2010t0 2011 Figure 3_changes in US population (in thousands) by age group 2000-2001, 2005-6, 2010-11 1a By how much did the total population of the USA increase between’ '). 2000 and 2001 i) 2005 and 2006 Uil) 2010 and 20117 ‘To what extent did population change vary between the three age groups? What demographic trend do the data and your analysis of it illustrate? Explain the reasons for this trend. Explain a simple calculationvratio that could be used to compare the working and non-working populations of the USA. What concerns might the US government have about ‘the changing population structure of the country?1.7 URBANISATION Topic 1.4: Population density and distribution Topic 15: Settlements and service provi Figure 4a Population density and distribution in Bangladesh wna to174 7020 508.7 2543 Rei 196s 1875 1982 1990 1997 008 2011 Figure b_ Increase in population density in Bangladesh 90 kemnwe noe $1 Figure 5 Map of Kenmare 1 a Define the terms i) population density i) population distribution b Describe the population density and distribution in Bangladesh (Figure 4a), Suggest likely reasons for the variations in population density. 2. a Describe the changes in the average population density in Bangladesh between 1961 and 2011. bb Discuss the reasons for such significant change in population density. Suggest where the largest increases in population density occurred. 1 a Suggest why 2 settlement developed at Kenmare (9070, 9171) ‘What type of settlement is Kenmare? Describe the nature of the settlement in 9075. Suggest reasons for this. Identify the services that are found in Kenmare, © Suggest a simple hierarchy (with three layers) of settlements in the Kenmare area,End of theme questions [Topic 1.6: Urban settlements ay oF Main road ark or Sports ground Footpath Figure 6 1250000 map of part of Kowloon and Hong Kang Island1.7 URBANISATION Study Figure 6. Suggest two contrasting ways in which physical geography 1 Give a four figure square reference for the Central § Fe rtenenes tia yslapoeentot ong ore on Business District, Hong Kong island, the map, " 2. Describe the location of the built environment on Hong 4 dentify an area that is likely to have industrial activity. Kong Island. 3 Describe the road pattern (network) in grid square ages,» Suggest why this area has potential for economic Topic 1.7: Urbanisation 1970) [1 Urbanization ‘20ce) oo Bowe Bea Bae owes Figure 7 Urban population and urbanisation in South Korea in 1970 and 2000 1 Define the term urbanisation. 2a Describe the changes in urbanisation in South Korea between 1970 and 2000. 'b Describe the changes in urban growth in South Korea between 1970 and 2000. 3. What factors led to an increase in urbanisation? 4 Outline the positive economic and social effects of urbanisation, 5. Comment on the negative effects of urbanisation.The Natural Environment Earthquakes and volcanoes Rivers Coasts Weather Climate and natural vegetationImpacts ofthe Soutrite His voeano, Montserrat Key questions ‘© What are the main types and features of volcanoes and earthquakes? ‘@ Where do earthquakes and volcanoes occur? ‘© What are the causes of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, and what is their effect on people and the environment? ‘© What are the hazards and opportunities posed by ‘volcanoes? ‘© What can be done to reduce the impacts of, earthquakes and volcanoes? @ Types and features of volcanoes and earthquakes Volcanoes A voleano is an opening in the Earth’s crust through Which hot molten magma (lava), molten rock and. ash are erupted onto the land. Most voleanoes are found at plate boundaries although there are some exceptions, such as the volcanoes of Hawaii, which are located at an isolated hotspot. Some eruptions let out so much material that the world?s climate is affected for a number of years. Magma refers to molten materials inside the Earth’s interior. When the molten material is ejected at the Earth’s surface through a volcano or a crack at the surface, it is, called lava. ° Earthquakes and volcanoes Interesting note © The greatest volcanic eruption in historic times was Tambora in Indonesia in 1815. Some 50-80kmm? of. material was blasted into the atmosphere. © In 1883 the explosion of Krakatoa was heard from as far away as 4776 km! @ The world’s largest active volcano is Maun Loa in Hawail, 120km long and over 100km wide. Types of volcano ‘The shape of a volcano depends on the type of lava it contains. Very hot, runny lava produces gently sloping shield volcanoes, while thick material produces cone volcanoes (Figure 1). These may be the result of many volcanic eruptions over a long, period of time. Part of the volcano may be blasted away during an eruption. The shape of the voleano also depends on the amount of change there has been since the last voleanic eruption. Cone volcanoes are associated with destructive plate boundaries, whereas shield volcanoes are characteristic of constructive boundaries and hotspots (areas of weakness in the middle of a plate). ‘The chamber refers to the reservoir of magma located deep inside the volcano. A erater is the depression at the top of a volcano following a volcanic eruption. It may contain a lake. A vent is the channel which allows magma within the voleano to reach the surface in a volcanic eruption. Id vokano Composite or cone voleana —— Volcanic Figure 1 Two types of volcanoTypes and features of volcanoes and earthquakes Active volcanoes have erupted in recent times, such as Mr Pinatubo in 1991 and Montserrat in 1997, and could erupt again. Dormant volcanoes are voleanoes that have not erupted for many centuries but may erupt again, such as Mt Rainier in the USA. Extinct voleanoes are not expected to erupt again. Kilimanjaro in Kenya is an excellent example of an extinct voleano. The Le Puys region of France is an area of extinct voleanoes which continue to influence settlements and tourism. Earthquakes Earthquakes involve sudden, violent shaking of the Earth’s surface. They occur after a build-up of pressure causes rocks and other materials to give way. Most of this pressure occurs at plate boundaries when one plate is moving against another. Earthquakes are associated with all types of plate boundary. The focus refers to the place beneath the ground where the earthquake takes place. Deep-focus earthquakes are associated with subduction zones. Shallow-focus earthquakes are generally located along constructive boundaries and along, conservative boundaries. The epicentre the point on the ground surface immediately above the focus. ‘Some earthquakes are caused by human activity such as ‘© nuclear testing «© building large dams ¢ drilling for oil /natural gas (fracking) @ coal mining, Earthquake intensity: the Richter and Mercalli Scales In 1935, Charles Richter of the California Institute of Technology developed the Richter Seale to measure the magnitude (strength or force) of earthquakes. These are measured on a seismometer and shown on a seismograph (Figure 2). By contrast the Mercalli Seale (Table 1) relates ‘ground movement to things that you would notice happening around you. Its advantage is that it allows ordinary eyewitnesses to provide information on. the strength of the earthquake. The Richter Scale is logarithmic. This means that an earthquake of 6.0 is, ten times greater than one of 5.0, and one hundred times greater than one of 4.0. Figure 2 A seismogeaph reading Table 1 The Mercall Scale ‘Strength | Observations 1 Rarely felt n Felt by people who are not moving, especialy on upper floors of buildings. Hanging object may swing Ww The effects ae noticeable indoors, especialy upstairs. The \ibration i like that experienced when a truck passes v ‘Many people el itindoors, afew ouside Some ae awakened at ight. Crockery and dors are csturbed and tae cas rock Vv Felt by nearly everyone ~ most people are awakened. Some windows are broken, plaster becomes cracked and unstable objects topple. Tees may sway and pendulum clocks stop. ra Felt by everyone - many are fnghtened. Some heavy furniture moves, plastr fl, Stuctural damage is usually quit sight. ‘Vil Everyone runs outdoors. Neticed by people ving cars, Poorly designed buildings are damaged, Vid | Damage to ordinary buldings- many collapse. Well designed ones survive but suffer slight damage, Heavy furniture is overturned and chimneys fal % Damage occurs even to bulldings that have been well designed. Many are moved from their foundations, Ground cracks and pipes break x ‘Most masony structures are destroyed, wooden ones may survive, Railway tracks bend and water slops over banks, Landeldes and! sand movements occur x No masonry structure remain standing, ridges are destroyed. Large cracks occur in the ground. [ai [ Total damage, Waves ate seen on the surface ofthe ground — objects are thrown into the a. ‘Table 2 The word largest earthquakes (Richter Scale) Place Date [Strength Chie 1965 [95 Alaska i961 | 92 ‘SouthEast Asia | 2004] 9.1 Honshu, Japan [2011 | 9.0 Kamchatka, Russia | 1952 | 9.0 Chile 1960| 89 Karsu.japan [1920/86 Tokyo, Japan |1923 | 83 Mexico City [1985 | 8.1 Tangshen, china _|1976 | £0 fraincan, Turkey [1939] 79 Noah Peru 1970 | 7.7 Tam, Turkey [1999] 7.22.1 EARTHQUAKES AND VOLCANOES Activities 41 Describe the main characteristics of (a) a shield volcano and (b) a cone volcano. 2 What is the difference between an active volcano and. ‘a dormant vokano? 3 What are the advantages of the Richter Scale over ‘the Mercalli Scale? What are the advantages of the Mercalli Scale over the Richter Scale? 4 The Richter Scale is logarithmic. How much stronger is an earthquake of 7.0 compared with one of 5.0 on the Richter Scale? @ Distribution of earthquakes and volcanoes The distribution of the world’s voleanoes and earthquakes is very uneven (Figure 3). They are mostly along plate boundaries which are regions: of crustal instability and tectonic activity. About 500.000 earthquakes are detected each year by sensitive instruments, Most of the world’s earthquakes occur in linear chains (such as along, the west coast of South America) along all types of plate boundary. Some earthquakes appear in areas away from plate boundaries such as in the mid west of the USA. These earthquakes could still be related to plate movement as the North American plate is moving westwards. Some earthquakes are the result of human activity. The building of large dams and deep reservoirs increases pressure on the ground. Mining removes underground rocks and ‘minerals which may cause collapse or subsidence of the overlying materials. Testing of nuclear weapons underground has been known to trigger certhquakes Figure 3 World distribution of volcanoes and earthquakes Figure 4 The veld’ main tectonic plates ° AleutianPlate tectonics Volcanoes ‘There are over 1300 active voleanoes in the world, many of them under the ocean. Three-quarters of the world’s active voleanoes are located in the “Pacific Ring of Fire’, the area around the Pacific Ocean. Good examples include Mr Pinatubo (Philippines), Krakatoa (Indonesia) and Popacatapeth (Mexico). These volcanoes are related to plate boundaries, notably destructive plate boundaries (for example Mr St Helens in the USA and Soufritre in Montserrat in the Caribbean) and constructive boundaries (for example Eldfell volcano on Heimaey, Iceland). The continuing eruption of Souftiére in Montserrat occurs at the boundary of the North American and Caribbean plates. Some volcanoes such as Mauna Loa and Kilauea in Hawaii, and Teidi ‘on Tenerife, are located over hotspots. These are isolated plumes of rising magma that have burned through the crust t0 create active volcanoes. Activities 41 Describe the global distribution of earthquakes as shown on Figure 3. 2 What is the difference between shallow-focus and deep-focus earthquakes? @ Plate tectonics Plate tectonics is a set of ideas that describe and explain the global distribution of earthquakes, ‘Oceaniecrust voleanoes, fold mountains and rift valleys. The of earth movement is huge convection currents in the Earth’s interior, which rise towards the Barth’s surfac drag continents apart and cause them to collide. These happen because the Earth’s interior consists of semi- molten layers (magma) and the Earth’s surface or crust (plates) moves around on the magma. There are seven large plates (five of which carry continents) and, a number of smaller plates (Figure 4). The main plates are the Pacific, Indo-Australian, Antarctic, North American, South American, Afiican and Eurasian plates. Smaller ones include the Caribbean, Iranian. Arabian and Juan de Fuca plates. These move relative to one another and when they collide create tectonic activity and new landforms, cause The structure of the Earth ‘There are four main layers within the Earth (Figure 5): © The inner core is solid. It is five times more dense than surface rocks. ¢ The outer core is semi-molten. The mantle is semi-molten and about 2900km t! © The crust is a solid and is divided into two main types: oceanic crust and continental crust. The depth of the crust varies between 10km and 70 km. Continental crust is mostly formed of granite. It is less dense than the oceanic crust. Because itis more dense the oceanic crust plunges beneath the continental one when they come together. Vertical and horizontal scales are the same = 100: 200 Continental cust vertical scale greatly ‘exaggerated inthis kllometres . quadrant 2 Mesosphere IMesoaphere hat but stronger due t0 high pressure Temperature and pressure increase with depth Lithosphere: cool, Figure 5 The svucure ofthe Earth ‘Asthenosphere: hot, weak, plastic so kilometres rigid, brittle2.1 EARTHQUAKES AND VOLCANOES Activities ‘1 Name the type of plate boundary located: ‘2 off the west coast of central America b in the south Atlantic Ocean < where the Turkish plate meets the Aegean plate. 2 Where in the world is plate movement most rapid? Plate movement and boundaries ‘There are a number of different types of plate boundaries (Table 3 and Figure 6). These include: ‘Constructive boundary Pate 2 J fae? _ Mid-ocean ridge Pate 1 Rift valley Oceanic crust ‘Convergent (destructive) boundary Plate 1 Plate 2 Oceanic tench Continental crust Oceanic crust Figure 6 Types of pate boundary Table 3 Types of plat boundary Constructiveldivergent boundary ridges; volcanic activity is common Two plates mave apart from each other causing seafloor spreading; new ocearic crusts formed, aesting mid-ocean 2.9, Mic-Atlantic Ridge (Europe is moving avay from North America) constructive boundaries in which new oceanic crust is being created; destructive boundaries in which older crust is destroyed; collision zones where plates are folded and crumpled; and conservative plates where plates slip past each other, causing earthquakes to occur. Different plate boundaries are associated with different tectonic activities: volcanic eruptions, folding and earthquake activity (Figure 7). «Convergent boundary (clision) Pate te ate Pte 2 \ Continental crust Conservative boundary Plate 2 Plate 1 | ‘Transform faut Convergent (destructive) boundary The aceanic crust maves towards the continental cust and sinks beneath lt due to is greater deny, deep sea trenches ‘and island ats are formed the continental crusts folded into fold mountains; volcanic activity is common 2.9, Nazca plate sinks under the South American plate Fw continental crusts collde; a nether can sink they are folded up ino fold mountains 6.9, The Inka plate colided with the Ewasian plate to frm the Himalayas wo plates sip sideways past each other but land s neither deswoyed nor created e.g, San Andkeas fault in Calfornla Convergent (clision) boundary ‘Conservative boundaryFigure 7 Tectonic activites 23 Folded landscape, Himalaya footils bb Thingvelie it vatey sland Volcanic eruption f Sourrére, Mentserat with the former capital ety Pymnouth inthe foreground dd Toursts standing by the boling mad springs, Souter, St Lucia Study Table 3. 2 Describe what happens at a subduction zone. > At what types of plate boundary are volcanoes likely to occur? © Which types of plate boundary produce fold mountains? 2 Study Figure 7 which shows a variety of tectonic landscapes. ® Describe the general appearance of the land in photo (a). Suggest how it may have been formed. b Photo (b) shows a rift valley at Thingvellirin Iceland. ‘At which type of plate boundary are rift valleys found? How might they be formed? © Photo (c) shows a volcanic eruption of Soufriére, Montserrat with the former capital city Plymouth in the foreground. Suggest the likely hazards of living, close to a volcano, d Photo (d) shows tourists at the boiling mud springs at Soufriére in St Lucia, Suggest some of the advantages of living in a tectonically active region, © Suggest why the volcano on Montserrat and the mud springs in St Lucia have the same name: Soufriere. What does this tell us about the processes involved in these tectonic boundaries?2.1 EARTHQUAKES AND VOLCANOES @ Causes of earthquakes ‘There have been 17 eruptions in recorded history: Mr Pelée (1902) accounted for most deaths and the and volcanoes Souftidre Hills voleano has been active since 1995, : . Kick ’em Jenny is an active submarine volcano, north Hanus ae cased Oy the buktup of rest"© of Grenada. Allo the vokeanoes are asocited With many tarthquakes are found dove to plate boundaries, UDductian’zones ‘This is illustrated clearly by tectonic activity in the Caribbean (Figure 8). The Caribbean plate is one of the smaller surface plates of the Earth. Earthquakes ‘occur all around its periphery, and volcanoes erupt on its eastern and western sides (Figure 9). The Caribbean plate moves more slowly, at about 1-2cm a year, while the North American plate moves westward at about 3-4em a year. Many earthquakes and tsunamis have occurred in the north-eastern Caribbean region, where the movement of plates is rapid and complicated There are a number of hazards related to earthquakes (see Table 7 on page 88) and the impact on the death rate has been significant (Table 4), Figure 8 St John’s Cathedkal, Antigua rebuilt following the devastating ‘There are 25 potentially active voleanoes in the Segue af teas Caribbean, all of them in the eastern Caribbean. = sow as 20 10 os oo" se Spon NORT AMERICAN LATE Puerto a Divergent plate boundary (plates moving apart) Aa. Convergent plate boundary (Em Ocean trench (Gl Volcanic are cocos PLATE Convernert oi A Active voleano I Trarsform plate margin © Major earthquake ° 00 km (platesstiaing pas eachother) —— 4= Direction of plate movement Figure 9 Distibution of plates and tectonic hazards in the Caribbean °Natural hazards Table 4 Major earthquakes in the Caribbean Date [Location Deaths | Magnitude 1902 | Guatemala 20075 1907 Jamaica 1600/65 1918 Puerto Rico 1675. 1931 Nearagua 2400 5.6 1946 [Dominican Republic | 100/80 1972 Nearagua S00 62 1976 Guatemala 23000 | 75 1985 [Mexico 9500 80 1986 | El Savador 000 | 55. 2001 El Salvador ma) 77 [2001 El Salvador a5 | 66 2010 Hai 300000 | 7.0 Volcanic eruptions eject many different types of material Pyroclastic flows are supethot (700°C) flows of ash and pumice (volcanic rock) moving at speeds of over 500km/hr. In contrast, ash is very fine-grained but very sharp voleanic material. Cinders are small rocks and coarse volcanic materials. The volume of material ejected varies considerably from volcano to voleano (Table 5) ‘Tele 5 The worlds biggest volcanic eruptions Eruption Date _| Volume of material ejected (cms) Mtst Helens, USA | 1980 7 Vesuvius, aly 72 3 MtKatmai, USA | 1912 2 Krakatoa, indonesia | 1883 18 Tambora, Indonesia | 1815 20 Volcanic strength ‘The strength of a volcano is measured by the Volcanic Explosive Index (VET). This is based on the amount of material ejected in the explosion, the height of the cloud it causes, and the amount of damage caused Any explosion above level 5 is considered to be very large and violent A supervolcano is a volcano with a VEI8. The scale is logarithmic so a VEI8 is 10 times more powerful than a VEI7, 100 times more powerful than a VEI6 and 1000 times more powerful than a VEI5 (Mt Pinatubo, 1991). The last VEI8 was. 74000 years ago (Mt Toba, Indonesia). Supervolcanoes tend to be much larger than ‘normal’ volcanoes — the Yellowstone magma chamber is over 50km wide. The likely impacts of a VEI8 eruption include: ¢ almost complete loss of life within about 1000km of the eruption @ destruction of al crops and livestock, leading to a global famine # economic and social devastation. Activities 1 Study Figure 9. ‘2. What are the two plates responsible for tectonic activity in Montserrat? 'b Which two plates are likely to have caused the earthquake that affected Mexico City in 1985? Describe what happens when the North American plate meets the Caribbean plate. Choose a suitable diagrammatic method to show. ‘the relationship between the magnitude of an earthquake and the loss of life, as shown in Table 4. Describe the relationship shown in your diagram. Suggest reasons for the relationship (or lack of) in, your answer to 2(a). @ Natural hazards All natural environments provide opportunities and challenges for human activities. Some of the challenges can be described as ‘natural hazards’. A natural hazard is a natural event that causes, damage to property and/or disruption to normal life and may cause loss of life. Natural hazards involve hydrological, atmospheric and geological events. Natural hazards are caused by the impact of natural events on the social and economic environment in which people live. Some groups of people are more vulnerable to natural hazards and have greater exposure to them, Since the 1960s more people have been affected by natural hazards, Reasons for this include: a rapid increase in population, especially in developing countries «@ increased levels of urbanisation, including more shanty towns which are often located in hazardous environments ¢ changing land use in rural areas which results in flash floods, soil erosion and landslides ¢ increased numbers of people living in poverty who lack the resources to cope with natural hazards © changes in the natural environment causing, increased frequency and intensity of storms, floods and droughts. A hazard refers to a potentially dangerous event or process. It becomes a disaster when it affects people and their property. Risk suggests that there is a possibility of loss of life or damage. Risk assessment is the study of the costs and benefits of living in a particular environment. @2.1 EARTHQUAKES AND VOLCANOES ‘There are two very different ways of looking at people’s vulnerability: @ One view is that people choose to live in hazardous environments because they understand the environment. In this situation people choose to live c they feel the benefits outweigh in an area becau the risks, @ Another view is that some people live in hazardous environments because they have very little choice over where they live, as they are too poor to move. Volcanic eruptions People often choose to live in volcanic areas because they are useful. For example © Some countries, such as Iceland and the Philippines, were created by volcanic activity. © Volcanic soils are rich, deep and fertile, and allow intensive agriculture to take place. © Volcanic areas are important for tourism. © Some volcanic areas are seen by people as being symbolic and are part of the national identity, stich as Mr Fuji in Japan. Figure 10 Tourists gather around the geyser at Gey, Iceland - one ofthe benefits of tectonic activity £2 SS oat Figure 11. buling buried by a mudtiow in Pymouth, Montserat-one of the disadvantages of tectonic activity 3° Table 6 Hazards associated with volcanic activity Direct hazards |Indivect hazards [Socio-economic impacts = Pyroddastc flows | Atmospheric |« Destucton of settlements Volcanic bombs | ashalout | Lossof ite (projects) |» Landsides | Loss of farmland and forests ‘savaflows |e Tsunamis | Destruction of infrastructure | ‘sAshlfallou’ — | Acid rainfall | roads, astips and port Volcanic gases facites + ahass (mudfows) + Disruption of communications Earthquakes Earthquakes Teble 7 Eathaate hazard and nosets ‘Secondary hazard = Ground fale and) Primary hazard * Ground Impacts + Total or partial destruction of shaking soilliquefacion | building structures surface |e Landslides and | interruption of water faulting rockalls supplies + Debris flows and_ |» Breakage of sewage disposal smudtions systems Tuna + Los of public utils such as electicty and gas + Foods from collapsed dams ‘+ Release of hazardous material Fes Spread of chronic ines ‘The extent of earthquake damage is influenced by a number of factors: © Strength of earthquake and number of aftershocks ~ the stronger the earthquake the more damage it can do. For example, an earthquake of 6.0 on the Richter Scale is 100 times more powerful than one of 4.0; the more aftershocks there are, the greater the damage that is done. © Population density —an earthquake that hits an area of high population density, such as in the Tokyo region of Japan, could inflict f more damage than one that hits an area of low population and low building density © The type of buildings ~ developed countries generally have better-quality buildings, more emergency services and the funds to cope with disasters. People in developed countries are more likely to have insurance cover than those in developing countries. © The time of day —an earthquake during a busy time, such as rush hour, may cause more deaths than one at a quiet time. Industrial and commercial areas have fewer people in them on Sundays, and hhomes have more people in them at night. © The distance from the centre (epicentre) of the earthquake ~ the closer a place is to the centre of the earthquake, the greater the damage that is done.Natural hazards © The type of rocks and sediments — loose materials may act like liquid when shaken; solid rock is much safer and buildings should be built on level areas formed of solid rock. © Secondary hazards — the tsunamis (large sea waves), fires, conta water, disease, hunger and hypothermia. include mudslides and nated The South Asian tsunami, 2004 “The term tsunamis the Japanese for ‘harbour wave’ About 90 per cent of these events oceur in the Paci Basin. Tsunamis are generally caused by earthquakes (usually in subxtuction zones) but can also be caused by volcanoes, for example Krakatoa (1883), and landslides, for example Alaska (1964), Tsunamis have the potential to cause widespread disaster as in the case of the South Asian tsunami 2004 (Figure 12). Ir became a global disaster, killing people from nearly 30 countries, many’ of them foreign tourists. Between 180000 and 280000 people were killed in the 2004 tsunami The cause of the tsunami was a giant earthquake and landslide caused by the sinking of the Indian plate under the Eurasian plate. Pressure had built up ‘over many years and was released in the earthquake, which reached 9.0 on the Richter Scale. The main impact of the 2004 tsunami was on the Indonesian island of Sumatra, the closest inhabited area to the epicentre of the earthquake. More than 70 per cent of the inhabitants of some coastal villages died, Apart from Indonesia, Sri Lanka suffered more from the tsunami than anywhere else ~ at least 31000 people are known to have died there, mostly along the southern and eastern coastlines. Figure 12 The 2004 tsunam caused widespread damage around the ‘counties bordering the Indian Ocean Activities 41 What is a natural hazard? 2 Suggest reasons why natural hazards appear to be increasing in frequency. 3 How may volcanic activity be a benefit to people? 4 Describe the direct and indirect hazards associated with volcanic activity in the Caribbean, 5 What are the potential impacts of volcanic activity on people's lives and livelihoods? 6 Why was the 2004 tsunami considered to be a ‘global disaster’? 7.2 Describe the main hazards associated with earthquakes. 'b_ Briefly explain any three of the impacts of earthquakes. Managing volcanoes ‘There are a number of ways in which the impacts of voleanic eruptions can be reduced. These include «© spraying lava flows with water to cool them down and cause them to solidify ~ this was successfully carried out in Heimacy, Iceland digging diversion channels to divert lava flows anvay from settlements ~ this has been successful on Mt Etna, Sicil @ adding ‘cold’ boulders to a lava flow in an attempt to cool the lava and stop it moving. However, if the eruption is a pyroclastic flow, there is little that can be done to prevent the impacts apart from evacuation. Predicting volcanoes ‘The main methods of predicting voleanoes include « scismometers to record swarms of tiny earthquakes that occur as the magma rises «chemical sensors to measure increased sulfur levels «@ lasers to detect the physical swelling of the volcano © measurement of small-scale uplift or subsidence, changes in rock stress and changes in radon gas concentration @ ultrasound to monitor low-frequency waves in the magma, resulting from the surge of gas and molten rock, as happened at Mt Pinatubo, El Chichon and Mt St Hel Dealing with earthquakes People cope with earthquakes in a number of ways. The three basic options from which they can choose are: © do nothing and accept the hazard adjust to living in a hazardous environment — strengthen your home « leave the area, ®