Technical Terms of Textile Dyeing

TECHNICAL TERMS OF TEXTILE DYEING

Author: Muhammad Awais Imran

Indus University, Pakistan
IRC Coordinator
Email: awais_textilian@hotmail.com

ABSTRACT
This paper highlights the basic dyeing terminologies which are often used in dyeing process. The
central theme of this paper is to provide authentic knowledge to textile students and practical
dyers in complete scientific manner because most of the students & dyeing related people have
misunderstanding regarding basic dyeing terminologies. Some explanations of basic terms are
also
discussed
in
this
paper.

INTRODUCTION

TO

DYEING

Dyeing is process in which textile substrate is colored by suitable substances that is dyes or
pigment (pigment dyeing). The former is widely used in textile wet processing. A basic
knowledge of dyeing process and related terms are quite important to understand dyeing theory.
Dyeing can be done at any stage of the manufacturing of textile- fiber, yarn, fabric or a finished
textile product including garments and apparels. Textile materials can be dyed using batch,
continuous or semi-continuous processes. The type of process used depends on several things

including type of material (fiber, yarn, fabric, fabric construction, and garment), generic type of
fiber, size of dye lots and quality requirements in the dyed fabric [4].

DYE
A dye is an organic colored compound which when applies to textile for imparting color &
strictly adheres with the textile substrate [5]. Dyes should resistant to light, heat and wet
agencies. In textile terms, a soluble colorant that attaches in molecular form to the fibers [1]. All
dye is a colored substance whereas all colored substances are not dyes. The dyes applied to
textile fibers should possess the following characteristics,
1. Stable & attractive color i.e. should not undergo structural changes easily
2. Posses affinity to the fibers
3. Soluble in water or any suitable medium otherwise it should form stable dispersion with
water or solvents
4. Fastness to light, washing, perspiration, dry cleaning agents and rubbing
Dyestuff consist of the constituents named as chromophores and auxochromes. Chromophores
give the dye molecule its particular colour, while the auxochromes intensify the hue of the dye
molecules colour, makes the dye molecule more water soluble, and improve the colour fastness
of the dyed fabric or printed fabric. Some common chromophores groups are azo, quinonoid,
nitro and nitroso groups whereas auxochromes are acidic such as carboxylic and sulphonic
groups and in basic auxochromes includes amino and hydroxyl groups.

SUBSTANTIVITY
Tendency of a dye to move from a solution out of fibers in the dye solution [1]. It is a quality of
dye. Without substantivity, most of dyes would simply remain in solution or dispersion in the
bath.
The substantivity of dyes depend upon,
1. Molecular structure (shape)
2. Size of molecule dye
3. Dye bath conditions

MORE SUBSTANTIVE DYE

LESS SUBSTANTIVE DYE

Planar structure

Less Planar

Less soluble

More soluble

Poor leveling

Good leveling

High wash fastness

Low wash fastness

High r.m.m*

Low r.m.m*

This property of a dye determines how much dye is exhausted on to the fiber under neutral
conditions
[3].

AFFINITY
Attraction between two items, in dyeing affinity essentially means the preferential attraction of
the dye for the fiber rather than for the solution of the dye bath. It is quantitative expressing of
substantivity. Technically, affinity is expressed in term of energy [1]. Generally, more
substantivity dyes have low affinity characteristic, it is due strike or rush of dye molecule.

EXHAUSTION
The process of transfer of dyestuff from the dye bath on to the fiber or material is known as
exhaustion.The ratio between the amount of dye taken up by the substrate and the amount of dye
originally
available
[2].
* Relative molecular mass

Where,
Co
=
Cs
=

initial

concentration
concentration

of
during

dye

in
the

dye
bath
process

Exhaustion is overall broad term and can be further categorized into two phases.
Primary exhaustion is the phase where dye moves toward the substrate from the solution under
neutral conditions in the presence of electrolyte. It is also known as substantive phase. The term
secondary is typical movement of dye molecule after addition of dye molecules after addition of
suitable
alkali
for
the
completion
of
the
dye
fiber
bonding.

The following graph shows the relation between changes in exhaustion percentage with respect
to time function. See fig. 1[2].

Curve
The exhaustion of dyestuff is depend on,

Concentration of dye

Concentration of salt

Temperature

Agitation

liquor ratio

ADSORPTION
Dyes molecules from solution are taken up by certain textile substrates which have porous
surface i.e. cotton by the process adsorption. Distribution of the dye stuff on to the surface of the
fiber is known as adsorption. Adsorption is depend on

Concentration

Temperature

Dye nature

Pressure

Surface area

ABSORPTION
Distribution of liquor containing is dye stuff on to the whole of the fiber that is on to the surface
and
inside
of
the
fiber
surface.
The some factor are mentioned below which affects the rate of absorption,

Time

Temperature.

Alkalis

Electrolytes

Dyeing Auxiliaries

Liquor ratio

DESORPTION
Transfer of dyestuff from the surface of the fiber in the liquor is known as desorption. Desorption
is reverse of dyeing process.

DIFFUSSION
This is a process by which dye move from a surface of the fiber in to the fiber itself and vise
versa. The diffusion of given dyestuff is heavily influenced by temperature the higher the
temperature the greater the degree and rate of diffusion. Diffusion rate is also depending on the
crystallinity
of
the
fabric
structure
[3].
The expression is known as Ficks law and it gives a quantitative value to the diffusion of dye
molecules from the outside layers into the interior of the fiber [14]:
ds/dt = -D dc/dx

Where,
s
=
amount
of
dye
t
=
a
small
c
=
concentration
of
dye
x
=
the

diffusing
interval
at
a
distance

across
unit
area;
of
time;
specified
point
x;
diffused;

D diffusion coefficient it is preceded by a negative charge b/c the amount of diffusion is

inversely
proportional
to
the
value
of
dc/dx.

MIGRATION
Migration is the process by which are dye move around the fiber or level itself. Transfer of
dyestuff from heavily dye to light dye portion of the same material during dyeing is known as
migration [3]. The migration process comprises adsorption of dye on to the fiber surface,
migration through the dye liquor, re-adsorption onto the fiber surface since diffusion is the rate
determining step, in this dynamic process, migration itself is also heavily influenced by
temperature.
Dye stuff in a solution
(Desorption)

Dyestuff on the surface of fiber

(Diffusion & Absorption)

Dyestuff in to the inside and whole the fiber

The above complete process of absorption, diffusion and desorption is known as migration. The
migration
properties
of
dyestuff
depend
on
dyes
nature.

ZETA

POTENTIAL

It is a difference in the electrical potential across the interface (a diffuse double layer) of a solid
surface contact with a liquid [6].

STRIKE
The initial rate of dyeing (the initial slope of exhaustion versus time) [2]. See fig. 1. Rapid strike
by a dye often results in initial unlevelness and must be avoided for those dyes that cannot
subsequently migrate from heavily to lightly dyed areas of the fabric.
The strike depends on the

Dyeing temperature

Dyeing pH

Addition of chemicals

FIXATION
Formation of the final bond between the dye and the fiber with the mechanisms such as ionic
bonding and hydrophobic forces. Disperse and vat dyes are fixed in the fibre largely by physical
entrapment of insoluble dye within the fibre. The bond that causes final fixation is not
necessarily the same type of bond is first made as the dye exhaust onto the fibre [1].

REACTIVITY
This term describes the rate at which a dye reacts with fibre. High reactivity dyes react rapidly at
relatively low temperature, where as low reactivity dyes generally require relatively high
temperature
for
dye
fixation
[3].

DYE

UPTAKE

Dye-uptake is a property or ability of textile fiber to capture the given amount of dye. This
property varies fiber to fiber and depends on dye sites, orientation in a fiber.

DYEING

RATE

Rate of dyeing under any set of conditions (i.e. temperature, pH and time) is proportional to
concentration of dye in the solution at given time t. rate of dyeing can be written as [13]
Rate of dyeing = [Dye]s,t . kdye
Where,
Subscript
s
means
solution
Subscript
t
means
time
after
the
start
of
dyeing
kdye, it is a proportionality constant called the dyeing rate constant for the particular set of
conditions
of
dyebath.
Rate of dyeing curves can then be constructed similar to that shown in figure. 2 below, in which
different dyeing rates of three reactive Remazol dyes. By plotting percentage exhaustion against
time of dyeing; these are very useful indicators of dyeing efficiency.

Fig. Rate of dyeing of different dyes

DYEING

EQUILIBRIUM

Dyeing can be perceived as a two way process or equilibrium reaction, in which dye (D) and the
fiber
(F)
are
in
equilibrium
with
dyed-fiber
(DF).
i.e.
D + F DF
As dyeing proceeds, more dye is taken up by the fiber than is lost from it back into bath; i.e.
there is net increase of dye on fiber. Eventually dyeing reaches the equilibrium point, where there
is no further in dye on the fiber. However, this does not imply that dye movement has now
ceased; at the equilibrium point; dye still enter and leave the fiber but it does not at the same rate.

RATE

OF

DYEING

REACTION

The rate of reaction of dyes means the rate at which chemical bonds between dyes and textile
fibers are formed. Although the rate of reaction varies with dyes, it is largely affected by ,

temperature,

pH

time

In practical dyeing, the dye/water/cellulose system is heterogeneous, and affinity and diffusion
should be considered, so that there is much difficulty in measuring the rate of reaction [9].

HEAT

OF

DYEING

The heat of dyeing is the measure of the strength of the bonds by which the dye is held to the
fiber. Since the transfer of dye from the solution to the fiber involves a decrease in free energy of
the system, heat is given out, and the heat of dyeing is therefore a negative quantity. the
converser is, of course, also true, namely that the migration of dye from the fiber to the liquid
phase is accompanied by the absorption of heat. Thus an increase of temperature favours
desorprtion and consequently decreases the concentration of the dye molecules in the fibre at
equilibrium.
It is difficult to measure the direct calorimetric measurement of heat of dyeing b/c the thermal
change
is
so
small.

TINCTORIAL

STRENGTH

The effectiveness of a given amount of dye in coloring a given mass of fiber.

COMPATIBILTY
This decrease the ability of a dye combination usually with similar substantivity, exhaustion and
fixation profile to behave as a single dye combination of compatible dye will generally give good
reproducibility
and
sustainability
to
variable
in
the
process
[3].
Generally it can never be predicted whether the high or low substantive dyes will produce better
result the overall result are always based on S.E.F profiles of the combination use for desire
shades.
A dye would never be appropriate if it highly reactive and low in substantivity most importantly
there should be a minimum difference between the exhaustion and fixation curve irrespective of
its
high
or
low
substantive
character
[3].

CLOUD

POINT

The cloud point is the temperature at which the detergent reaches its limiting solubility and start
to precipitate out, causing the solution to appear cloudy. In general when comparing two
detergents with similar structures, the one have more hydrophilic will have higher cloud point
than
the
other.
This
is
most
common
in
non
ionic
surfactants.

DEPTH

OF

SHADE

(DOS)

It is a ratio of weight of dye to weight of goods dyed, usually expressed as percentage; amount of
dye, owf (over the weight of fabric). Depth of shade (DOS), in these terms, is not really a very
good way of comparing the darkness or intensity of color of finished fabrics, due to inherent
differences in the hues of different dyes within a family, difference
between dye families, and differences due to the nature of the fabric. Dye manufacturers shade
cards are typically show one or two depths of shade for a particular dye, often between 1% and
4%,
except
for
black,
which
is
typically
3%
to
6%
[1].

ANTI

MIGRATION

It is a reverse of migration, the dyestuff is move out from the fiber surface and goes into the dye
bath solution
Anti-migration decrease in affinity
Each dye class have its critical temperature, above this critical temperature the dye stuff antimigrate
instead
of
migration.
An additive use in dye or pigment mixture to prevent undesired movement or spreading of the
wet dye on fabric [1]. Sodium alginate is the anti-migrating agent used in reactive dyeing, retard
the rate of migration by producing physical hindrance and by increase of viscosity of solution.
The
function
of
levelling
agent
or
retarder
is
antimigration.

DISPERSION
A system consisting of finely divided particles and the medium in which they are distributed.

COLOR

FASTNESS

The resistance ability of dye molecule to any agency named as washing. Light, rubbing and
crocking. The different terms comes under this term such as wash fastness, light fastness etc.

FADING
Fading is seen as a colour loss by the dyed or printed fabric textile material. It is result of some
changes in the structure of dye molecule due to absorption of light, reaction with air pollutants,
laundering,
dry
cleaning
and
other
agency.

GAS

FADING

Fabrics dyed with certn blue & violets disperse dyes conaining anthraquinone structure become
fade in presence of nitrous oxide. This nitrous oxide may be made in nature from various sources
such
as
open
gas
fire,
electric
heating
arrangement.

OLIGOMERS
During the exhaust dyeing process the oligomers may diffuse out of the Polyester ber and form
grey deposits (white dust) on the ber surface and also on machinery and pipes during cooling
down
of
the
dyebath.

During the production of polyethylenterephthalate (PET) bers short chains, consisting of only a
few monomers units, are also formed, these are so called oligomers.The maincomponent is a
cyclic trimmer. All Polyester bers contain small quantities of oligomers, Approx. 0.5% - 3% of
the
ber
[12].

LEVEL

DYEING

Uniform in shade over the surface of a piece of dyed fabric or along the length of dyed yarn
Level
dyeing
is
usually
the
objective
in
commercial
processes.
Some dyes, such as leveling acid dyes, are easy to accomplish level results with. They do not
bind tightly to the fabric in the dye bath, and dye can leave the fibre and re-enter the dye bath.
Other dyes, such as reactive dyes, dont level as easily, and greater care is required to achieve
level results. In general, level dyeing is promoted by good agitation, careful control of the rate of
rise of the temperature of the dye bath, control of pH, and sometimes by use of special leveling
agents or retarders. It is often the case that the dyes that level most easily are the least washfast
[1].

RESERVING

AGENT

It is also called restraining agents; a dye bath auxiliary that is typically used to prevent one fiber
in a blend from taking up dye intended for the other fiber, or to equalize the uptake When blends
are dyed, one fiber may be truly dyed while the other is stained (colored, but with very poor
fastness). Reserving agents can be used to significantly reduce the undesired staining. In blends
such as wool nylon, reserving agents can act to reduce the dye uptake by the nylon, so that the
nylon
and
wool
ultimately
are
colored
similarly
[1].

OWB

(or

O.W.B)

On weight of bath; usually expressed as percentage; omb is on mass of bath - preferred modern
usage. The amount of some constituent of a dyebath or other process bath based on the weight of
the bath. For example, something specified as 6% owb would require 0.06 pounds of that item
per pound of bath. Since the bath is invariably mostly water, which weighs 1 kilogram per litre,
calculations
in
the
metric
system
is
much
easier.

OWF

(or

O.W.F.)

On weight of fibre, usually expressed as percentage; omf is on mass of fibre - preferred modern
usage often this is synonymous with owg but distinction may be appropriate when considering a
particular
fibre
in
a
blend.

OWG

(or

O.W.G.)

On weight of goods; usually specified as percentage; omg is on mass of goods - preferred

modern usage. The amount of dye or auxiliary chemicals used is often based on ratio to the
weight of the goods to be dyed. For example, if a formula calls for 3% dye owg, and 400 grams
of fabric are to be dyed, the required amount of dye would be 3% of 400 grams, or 12 grams.

Owf

may

be

more

accurate

when

blended

fibres

are

considered.

PADDING
This is the most important component of semi or continuous dyeing machines. It is a dyeing
method with very low liquor to goods ratio, where typically only enough strong dye solution is
used to saturate the fabric. Padding can have the advantage of high dye yield. Padded goods are
usually batched - wrapped in plastic and left for some period of time for the dye to attach to
the
fibre,
or
steamed
to
fix
the
dye
quickly.

PICK

UP%

It is a ratio of amount pick or uptake by fabric when it passes through the solution or dye liquor.
Pick

up

Where,
W2
W1

%
=
=

after
before

(W2

padding
padding

LIQUOR

W1

weight
weight

W1]
of
of

100

fabric
fabric

RATIO

It is the ratio of the weight of the dyebath or other processing bath to the weight of the goods
being dyed or processed for immersion dyeing in art dyeing processes, common liquor to goods
ratio is 20:1. That is, for each kilogram of fiber to be dyed, 20 kilograms
of dyebath are used. In the metric system, this is easy to calculate, since one liter of water weighs
one kilogram. High liquor ratios are generally avoided, since they often cause poor exhaustion of
the dye, though this is not true for all dye types. Modern commercial dyeing equipment often
works with low liquor ratios. Very low ratios may be used for methods where essentially all of
the dye solution is to be absorbed by the fiber, such as padding [1].

STOCK

SOLUTION

A solution of known strength, made up with the intent of dilution or mixing before final use
Stock solutions are a convenient way of avoiding the need to weigh chemicals each time you
need to use some. For example, you need 2% shade of Red of 5 gram of fabric and you have 1%
stock solution of dye. Use this formula and take amount of dye in ml.
Dye

(ml)

DYE

(Wt.

Of

fabric

Shade

%)

Stock

Solution

BLOCKING

The term dye blocking is used when one dyestuff blocks the exhaustion of the other dyestuff on
to the fabric when combined in the same bath. It is due to the different r.m.m and affinities of
dyes
molecules
in
combination
shades.

TOPPING

It is a process of redyeing of dyed fabric in response of faulty dyeing or increse the dpth of
shade.

TAILING
Tailing is refers to a phenomenon in which depth & shade occur on dyed fabric owing to worst
distribution of dyes from top to bottom (first meters and last meters). This is a problem of semi
& continuous dyeing. Tailing behavior is dependent upon the following factors [7],

Kind of fibers

Padding operation & substantivity of dyes

Particle size of dyes

Concentration of dyes

Dispersibility or solubility of dyes

Tailing is also cause by incompatibility of dyes with auxiliaries. High substantive dyes are liable
to tailing. In vat/disperse dyeing the dispersion stability; change in concentration is very
important to avoid this problem. In blends fabric such as polyester/cotton the chances of tailing is
reduced as only in cotton, it also depend on the blend ratio [7].

LISTING
Listing refers to a phenomenon in which variations in depth & shade occur on dyed fabric owing
to uneven dye uptake from side to side and side to center. As causes of listing, the following may
be given [7]:

Uneven drying before padding of the fabric from side to centre

Uneven squeezing

Inadequate pretreatment

Uneven padding liquor temperature

Uneven fabric temperature

Variation in dye migration due to air speed

Temperature dependence of dyes of thermosoling

For preventing listing during padding, padding liquor should be taken up uniformly onto t5extile
substrate from side to center, while the textile substrate are immersed in padding liquor for a very

short time & then squeezed. Inadequate pretreatment is hot issue for listing problem; the low
absorbency rate can influence this problem. In drying by means of heat, air speed has large effect
on the rate of drying, and as a result, it has also effect on migration. As the air speed increased
the
rate
of
migration
increased
[7].

SPECKS
This problem occurs due to improper dissolution of dye powder while preparing the dye solution
[8]. Formation of specks during padding is mostly attribute to the particle size of dyes,
compatibility with migration inhibitor & penetrating agents, re-dispersibilty of dispersion liquor
(Vat/disperse
dyes)
[7].
A larger factor causing specks in practical dyeing is compatibility of dyes with auxiliaries used
together. When poor compatibility, dye aggregation is caused and solubility or dispersibility of
dyes markedly lowered, a formation of specks but also the tailing are caused.

COLOUR

SPOTS

BLOTCHES

This is formation of dark colored area on the dyed fabric, which causes faulty dyeing. The
probable reasons are [8],

Filtration of dye solution is not carried out, especially when mixture of dyes are used,
before adding into the machine or padding trough.

Inadequate pretreatment

Presence of contaminants in water, salt, alkali etc

Incompatibility of dyes with auxiliaries

PHOTOCHROMISM
Photochroism is refers to the phenomenon in which dyed substrate changes in color under
irradiation of light but returns to original color when the irradiation stops. This is said to be
tautomerism occurring to molecules under exposure to light [9]. However, the color is restored
after
the
substrates
are
left
overnight.
This phenomenon appears markedly in viscose rayon and tends to occurs increasingly easily as
the concentration of urea formaldehyde resin increases. The reversion of color is depending on
the
relative
humidity
and
light
intensity.

THERMOCHROMISM
Thermochromism is refers to phenomenon in which dyed substrate changes in color under
application of heat but returns to original color when the heat stops or reduced.
As

to

reactive

dyes,

this

phenomenon

varies

from

dye

to

dye

[9].

STRIPPING
Stripping is refers to the removal of dyestuff either partial or complete from the dyed fabric in
case of too high dye in depth, unlevel dyed or faulty dyeing.
Complete removal of dyestuff is generally difficult. The stripping of dyes can be done by
reducing agents or oxidizing agents, in most cases reducing agents are preferable.

WASHING

OFF

As the name indicate the term washing off is to remove the unfix dyes (in or on the substrate)
and other auxiliaries from the dyed substrate. Substances in the second category can often be
swollen & removed quite quickly by vigorous washing at low temperature, but removal of dyes
from within the fiber will be much slower unless high temperature are used [10]. The removal of
soluble materials from the fabric is accomplished by two mechanisms,
1. Diffusion
2. Liquid interchange
The following factors are unfavorable for washing off,

Hard water

Electrolyte content of water

Washing process at a low liquor ratio

Too Low temperature

PIGMENT

DYEING

Coloring fabric with ground pigments mixed with a binder rather than a true dye. Pigment Dyes
although pigments are not dyes in a true sense, they are extensively used for coloring fabrics like
cotton, wool and other manmade fibers due to their excellent light fastness. They do not have any
affinity to the fibers and are affixed to the fabric with the help of binder. After dyeing, the fabrics
are
subjected
to
high
temperatures.

AGGREGATION
Clustering of individual particles of a substance that is dyes r pigment to colloidal properties [6].
Aggreagtion of dyes is the dye-dye self association in solution, called dye aggregation, which is
importants term where dye molecules or inos takes part. In general, the term aggregation is used
for dye-dye interaction & dye association for interaction of dyes with other compounds e.g
polymers. Generally, dye molecules form aggregatiom in aqueous solution at room temperature
and to extent which depend on size of molecules, No. of solubilzing groups in the dye molecule.
In dye aggregation multiple equilibria need to be considered i.e. diametric, trimetric etc,
aggregates
are
formed.

The reasons of aggregation of dyes are,

1. Dyes are consists of, a.Hydrophobic aromatic portion b.Polar groups (OH, amino etc.) for
water solubility and charged groups (sulfonic or positive charged groups) for rendering
molecule water soluble
2. When dye molecules dissolved in water a new interface is created between the
hydrophobic portion and water. Dye can reduce the size of the interfacial water by
overlapping of the hydrophobic areas and there will be a tendency to aggregate.
3. Usually linear and planar dye molecules should tend to stack one molecule upon another
with the ionized groups arranged so as to give minimum free energy condition causes
aggregation.
4. Dyes with long aliphatic chains form micelles of a spherical form in which the flexible
chains associate in the interior with the sulfonic acid groups exposed on the surface of
sphere.
5. Aggregation of dimer is more obvious as aromatic ring system have maximum overlap
(van der waals forces) because the distance between the anionic charges is larger
(minimum electrostatic repulsion).
As dye concentration increases there will be an increased tendency for trimers, tetramers etc. to
be formed.

UNION

DYE

A dye that is a mixture of two or more different classes of dye, used typically to dye blends of
fibres Household dyes, of the sort sold in grocery stores, are usually union dyes containing a
direct dye which will work on cellulose fibres, and an acid dye which will work on wool or
nylon. Industrially, union dyes may be other combinations, such as reactive and disperse dyes for
dyeing cotton-polyester blends (often with two distinctly different sub-processes).

PREPARED

FOR

DYEING

It is a term used for a fabric or garment that is specially made to be dyed; sometimes preferred

for dyeing; usually abbreviated pfd or p.f.d. PFD fabrics have been desized, scoured, and fully
bleached, but have been processed without optical brighteners or softeners which can interfere
with
dye
uptake.

SOME

MISCELLANEOUS

DYEING

METHOD

Color is applied to fabric by different methods and at different stages of the textile manufacturing
process.
The
processes
are
given
below,

SOLUTION

PIGMENTING

OR

DOPE

DYEING

Dye is added to the solution before it is extruded through the spinnerets for making synthetic
filaments. Simply, Coloration of the polymer prior to manufacturing of fibers.

GARMENT

DYEING

Garment dyeing Dye is applied to finished products such as apparels and garments.

STOCK

DYEING

Stock dyeing is used to dye fibers. In this process, the staple fibers are packed into a vessel and
then dye liquid is forced through them. Although the dye solution is pumped in large quantities,
the dye may not penetrate completely into the fibers and some areas may be left without dyeing.
However, the following blending and spinning processes mix up the fibers in such a thorough
way that it results in an overall even color. Woolens are usually stock dyed.

TOP

DYEING

Top is the combed wool sliver. It is wound on perforated spools and the dye solution is circulated
through
it.
This
method
results
in
very
even
dyeing.

YARN

DYEING

When dyeing is done after the fiber has been spun into yarn, it is called yarn dyeing. In this
method, the dyestuff penetrates the fibers to the core of the yarn. There are many forms of yarn
dyeing- Skein (Hank) Dyeing, Package Dyeing, Warp-beam Dyeing, and Space Dyeing.

SKEIN

(HANK)

DYEING

The yarns are loosely arranged in skeins or coils. These are then hung over a rung and immersed
in a dyebath in a large container. In this method, the colour penetration is the best and the yarns
retain a softer, loftier feel. It is mostly used for bulky acrylic and wool yarns.

PACKAGE

DYEING

The yarns are wound on spools, cones or similar units and these packages of yarn are stacked on
perforated rods in a rack and then immersed in a tank. In the tank, the dye is forced outward from
the rods under pressure through the spools and then back to the packages towards the center to
penetrate the entire yarn as thoroughly as possible. Mostly, the carded and combed cotton which
are
used
for
knitted
outerwear
is
dyed
through
this
method.

WARP-BEAM

DYEING

It is similar to package dyeing but more economical. Here, the yarn is wound on to a perforated
warp beam and then immersed in a tank for dyeing it applying pressure.

SPACE

DYEING

In this method, the yarn is dyed at intervals along its length. For these two procedures- knitdeknit method and OPI Space-Dye Applicator- are adopted. In the first method, the yarn is
knitted on either a circular or flat-bed knitting machine and the knitted cloth is then dyed and
subsequently it is deknitted. Since the dye does not readily penetrate the areas of the yarn where
it crosses itself, alternated dyed and undyed spaces appear. The OPI Space-Dye Applicator
technique produces multi coloured space- dyed yarns. The yarns are dyed intermittently as they
run at very high speeds through spaced dyebaths. They are continuously subjected to shock
waves
produced
by
compressed
air
having
supersonic
velocities.

PIECE

DYEING

The constructed fabrics are piece dyed for the flexibility they provide. The textile manufacturer
can dye the whole fabric in batches according to the fashion demands of the time thus avoiding
wastage and resultantly loss. There are several methods prevalent or piece dyeing.

PIECE

DYEING

In this method, small batches of constructed natural colored fabric are dyed according to the
demands
for
a
given
color.

BECK

DYEING

It is used for dyeing long yards of fabric. The fabric is passed in rope form through the dyebath.
This rope of the fabric moves over a rail onto a reel which immerses it into the dye and then
draws the fabric up and forward and brings it to the front of the machine. This process is repeated
many times until the desired color intensity is obtained.

RECENT DYEING TERMINOLOGIES [11]

ULTRASONIC

ASSISTED

DYEING

The use of ultrasound in the dyeing of textile can be explained as: when ultrasound waves are
absorbed in the liquid system the phenomenon of cavitations takes place. Cavitations can liberate
entrapped gases from liquid or porous material like textiles, dyebath etc. The influence of
ultrasound on dyeing is explained to have thee-ways effects:
1. Dispersion
2. Degassing
3. Diffusion

MICROWAVE

DYEING

Microwave dyeing takes into account only the dielectric and the thermal properties. The
dielectric property refers to the intrinsic electrical properties that affects the dyeing by polar
rotation of the dye & influences the microwave field upon the dipoles.
The aqueous solution of dye has two components which are polar, in the high frequency
microwave field oscillating at 2450MHz. It influences the vibrational energy in the water
molecules and the dye molecules. The heating mechanism is through ionic conduction, which is
a type of resistance heating. Depending on the acceleration of the ions through the dye solution,
it results in collision of dye molecules with the molecules of the fiber. The mordant helps and
affects the penetration of the dye and also the depth to which the penetration takes place in the
fabric. This makes microwave superior to conventional dyeing techniques.

ELECTROCHEMICAL

DYEING

The vat and sulphur dyes are insoluble in water; therefore for their application it is necessary to
convert them into water-soluble form using suitable reducing agent and alkali. Different reducing
agents use for vat and shulphur dyes are briefly reviewed with emphasis on the emerging
technique
of
electro
chemical
reduction.

PLASMA APPLICATION FOR DYEING OF TEXTILE

SUBSTRATE
Dyeability

of

Cotton

Substrate

It has been reported that plasma treatment on cotton in presence of air or argon gas increases its
water absorbency. This report was concerned with the effect of air and oxygen plasma on the rate
and extent of dye uptake of Chloramine Fast Red K on cotton print cloth. The effect of plasma
treatment in two different gas atmospheres (air and oxygen) for different treatment times was
studied
by
applying
2%
of
Chloramine
Fast
Red
K.
The effect of plasma treatment in air and oxygen appears to increase both the rate of dyeing and
the direct dye uptake in the absence of electrolyte in the dye bath. Oxygen treatment is more
effective than air plasma treatment. This shows that the increase in the rate and extent of dye
uptake for the direct dye studied depends more on the oxygen component of the air than on the
nitrogen component, which supports an oxidative mechanism of attack on the cotton.
The contributory factors leading to this increase in dye uptake can be:
1. The change of the fabric surface area per unit volume due to the surface erosion.
2. The etching effect of the plasma effect on the fibred mages the fiber surface and also
removes surface fiber impurities (e.g. cotton wax or any remaining warp size, etc.)
3. The chemical changes in the cotton fiber surface (leading to carbonyl and carboxyl
groups in the fiber.

4. The possibility of the formation of free radicals on the cellulosic chains of cotton.
5. Thus the action of oxygen and air plasma treatments modifies the surface properties of
cotton and leads to an increase in the rate and extent of uptake of direct dye.

SUPERCRITICAL CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2) DYEING

Water is a valuable raw material which is not unlimitedly available. It must be protected by
appropriate legal measures. Usage of water as solvent for chemicals is mostly because of its
abundant availability and low cost. Problems associated with usage of water are effluent
generation and additional step is needed to dry the fabrics after each step. The amount of energy
spent to remove the water is also huge adding to the woes of processors, making processing the
weakest link among the entire textile chain. The unspent dyestuffs remain in liquor, thus
polluting the effluent. It leads to additional pollution of waste water.
To eliminate the disadvantages it is proposed that certain gases can replace water as solvating
medium. High pressure and temperature are needed to dissolve the dyes. Of all the gases being
possible of converted into super critical fluids, CO2 is the most versatile and prominently used.
Because of their high diffusion rates and low viscosities that allow the dye to penetrate into the
fiber. Moreover, by reducing the pressure at the end of the process, dye and CO2 can be recycled.
Read more: http://textilelearner.blogspot.com/2013/04/technical-terms-of-textiledyeing.html#ixzz3uw0alJO7