BASIC ANATOMY AND

PHYSIOLOGY
FBD0014
PRACTICAL 2
Skeletal System
Studentss Name:
1
2
3
4

Maye Yapp Hui Hui (012015091182)

Norhasliza binti Mohd Noor (012015091159)
Muhd Safiuddin bin Joon (012015091166)
Ahlam Awateef binti Badrul Hisham (012015050210)

Lecturers Name:
Madam Siti Noraishah binti Nor Rashidi

Date of Submission:
5th April 2016

Practical 2: Skeletal System

INTRODUCTION:
There are 206 bones in the adult skeleton, which can be separated into the axial and the
appendicular divisions. The axial skeleton is composed of 80 bones located along vertical line,
the longitudal axis at the body. The bones support and protect the organs of the head, neck and
torso. The appendicular skeleton is composed of 126 bones that are designed for a variety of
movements and form the upper and lower limbs. The three main parts of the axial skeletons are
the skull, vertebral column and thoracic cage.

OBJECTIVE
To observe the skeletal model and identify the bones in the human structure.

PROCEDURE:
1. The skeletal model was observed and the bones were examined in the following regions:
a) Axial skeleton

Skull

Vertebrae

Sternum

Ribs

Sacrum

Hyoid

b) Appendicular skeleton

Pectoral girdle

Upper extremity

Pelvic girdle

Lower extremity

2. The bones were drawn and labeled based on the observations.

DISCUSSION
There are 206 named bones in the body including the 22 bones of the skull. The skull is part
of the axial skeleton division. The skull can be divided into 2 parts, namely Cranial bones and
Facial bones. The Cranium have 1 Ethmoid bone, 1 Frontal bone, 1 Occipital bone, 1 Sphenoid
bone, a pair of Parietal bones, and a pair of Temporal bones. Whereas the Facial bones include
a pair of Inferior Nasal Conchae, a pair of Lacrimal bones, 1 Mandible, a pair of Maxillae, a pair
of Nasal bones, a pair of Palatine bones, 1 Vomer and a pair of zygomatic bones. The Cranium
have a total of 8 bones while the Face have 14 bones altogether.
The vertebral column, also called the spine, typically contains 26 vertebrae and this include
the 7 cervical vertebrae, 12 thoracic vertebrae, 5 lumbar vertebrae 5 sacral vertebrae that fused
into 1, and 1 coccyx. The atlas, C1, is the first cervical vertebra inferior to the skull. It articulate
with the occipital bone to allow head movement that signify yes. The second cervical vertebra,
axis or C2, permit side-to-side movement of the head, as if signifying no. The C3-C6
correspond to the structural pattern of the neck. The C7 cervical vertebra has a large, nonbifid
spinous process that may be seen and felt at the base of the neck. Meanwhile, the T1 through
T10 in thoracic vertebrae, are long, laterally flattened and directed inferiorly while T11-T12 are
shorter, broader and directed more posteriorly. The thoracic vertebrae feature articulation with
the ribs. Moreover, the lumbar vertebrae are stacked to form a continuous column in order from
superior, L1 to inferior L5. Together they create the concave lumbar curvature in the lower back.
Connecting each vertebra to its neighboring vertebra is an intervertebral disk made of tough
fibrocartilage with a jelly-like center. The outer layer of the intervertebral disk, the annulus
fibrosus, holds the vertebrae together and provides strength and flexibility to the back during
movement. Whereas the sacrum is a large wedge shaped vertebra at the inferior end of the
spine. It forms the solid base of the spinal column where it intersects with the hip bones to form
the pelvis. The sacrum is a very strong bone that supports the weight of the upper body as it is
spread across the pelvis and into the legs. Developmentally, the sacrum forms from five
individual vertebrae that start to join during late adolescence and early adulthood to form a
single bone. Last but not least in the bottom of vertebral column, the coccyx represents the
"tailbone" and consists of three or more very small bones fused together. The coccyx is made up of
between three and five separate or fused vertebrae.

There are twelve pairs of ribs and all articulate posteriorly with the thoracic vertebrae. The true ribs
(ribs 1-7) attach to the sternum by costal cartilages. The flexible (hyaline) cartilage makes the breathing
process easier. The false ribs (ribs 8-10) attach to the costal cartilage of rib 7, not directly to the sternum.
The floating ribs (ribs 11 and 12) have no anterior attachment with the sternum. Ribs 3-9 share many
structural characteristics. In comparison, the first two ribs are shorter and more curved. Rib 1 is also
flattened horizontally. The heads of ribs 1, 10, 11 and 12 have a single facet for articulation with the
thoracic vertebrae. Ribs 11 and 12 do not have tubercles and the anterior tips of their bodies lack an
articular surface.

The clavicle is the only bony attachment between the trunk and the upper limb. It forms the
front portion of the shoulder girdle and is palpable along its entire length with a gentle S-shaped
contour. The clavicle articulates at one end with the sternum (chest bone) and with
the acromion of the scapula at the other. This articulation between the acromial end of the
clavicle and the acromion of the scapula forms the roof of the shoulder. Whereas, the scapula is
a large, flat triangular bone with three processes called the acromion, spine and coracoid
process. It forms the back portion of the shoulder girdle.

Each upper limb has 30 bones in three locations, the humerus in the arm, the ulna and
radius in the forearm and the 8 carpals in the carpus (wrist), the 5 metacarpals in the
metacarpus (palm), and the 14 phalanges in the hand. The humerus or arm bone is the longest
and largest bone of the upper limb. It articulates proximally with the scapula and distally with the
two bones, ulna and radius, to form elbow joint. The ulna is located on the medial aspect of the
forearm and is longer than the radius. The radius is the smaller bone of the forearm and is
located on the lateral aspect (thumb side) of the forearm. In contrast to the ulna, the radius is
narrow at its proximal end and widens at its distal end. The carpus is the proximal region of the
hand and consists of eight small bones, namely the carpals, joined to one another by ligaments.
Articulations among carpal bones are called intercarpal joints. The carpals are arranged in two
transverse rows of four bones each. The carpals in the proximal row, from lateral to medial are
the, scaphoid, lunate, triquetrum, pisiform, trapezium, trapezoid, capitate and hamate. The
metacarpus or palm is the intermediate region of the hand and consists of five bones called
metacarpals. Each metacarpal bone consists of a proximal base, an intermediate shaft, and a

distal head. The metacarpal bones are numbered I to V, starting with the thumb, from lateral to
medial. The bases articulate with the distal row of carpal bones to form the carpometacarpal
joints. The head articulate with the proximal phalanges to form the metacarpophalangeal joints.

The pelvic girdle is a ring-like structure, located in the lower part of the trunk. It connects the
axial

skeleton

to

the

lower

limbs.

The

bony

pelvis

consists

of

the

two hip

bones, sacrum and coccyx. There are four articulations within the pelvis which are the Sacroiliac
Joints that is between the ilium of the hip bones, and the sacrum. The sacrococcygeal
symphysis which is between the sacrum and the coccyx. And also, the pubic symphysis that is
between the pubis bodies of the two hip bones. The strong and rigid pelvis is adapted to serve a
number of roles in the human body. The main functions being transfer of weight from the upper
axial skeleton to the lower appendicular components of the skeleton, especially during
movement. It also provides attachment for muscles and ligaments used in locomotion.

Each lower limb has 30 bones in four locations the femur in the thigh, the patella
(kneecap), the tibia and fibula in the leg and the 7 tarsals in the tarsus. The femur (thigh bone),
is the longest, heaviest, and strongest bone in the body. Its proximal end articulates with the
acetabulum of the hip bone. Its distal end articulates with the tibia and patella. The patella is a
small triangular bone located anterior to the knee joint. The patellar ligament attaches the
patella to the tibial tuberosity.

The patella increases the leverage oof the tendon of the

quadriceps femoris muscle, maintains the position of the tendon when knee is flexed and
protects the knee joint. The tibia (shin bone) is the larger, medial, weight-bearing bone of the
leg. The tibia articulates at its proximal end with the femur and fibula, and at its distal end with
the fibula and the talus bone of the ankle. The fibula is parallel and lateral to the tibia, but it is
much smaller. Unlike tibia, the fibula does not articulate with the femur but it does help stabilize
the ankle joint. The tarsus (ankle), is the proximal region of the foot and consist of seven tarsal
bones. They include the talus and calcaneus (heel), located in the posterior part of the foot.

Compact bone tissue contains few spaces and is the strongest form of bone tissue. It is
composed of repeating structural units called osteons, or haversian systems. Each osteon

consists of concentric lamellae arranged around a central canal. The lamellae are circular plates
of mineralized extracellular matrix of increasing diameter, surrounding a small network of blood
vessels, lymphatics and nerves located in central canal. The lacunae contain osteocytes. The
canaliculi are slender fingerlike processes of osteosytes. The canaliculi connect lacunae with
one another and with the central canals, forming an intricate, miniature system of
interconnected canals throughout the bone.

The spongy bone tissue does not contain osteons. It is located in the inferior of the bone,
protected by a covering of compact bone. It consists of lamellae that are arranged in an irregular
pattern of thin columns called trabeculae. The macroscopic spaces are filled with red bone
marrow in bones that produce blood cells, and yellow bone marrow (adipose tissue) in other
bones.

QUESTIONS

1. Differenciate between an adult skull and a fetal skull.

The

adult

skull

is

The

fetus

skull

is

birth

while

adult

skull

fused

flexable
is

the

rigid

while

fetus'

"fontanels

are

and

hard

not

skull
soft

is

to

help

flexable but

still

unfused.
mom

in

breakable.

The fetus skull is smaller, thinner and composed of deformable bones while adult's skull
is bigger thicker and not deformable.

2. Based on your observation, compare between the appendicular skeleton and axial
skeleton.
The axial skeleton is the skeletal structure including the Skull, vertebrae, rib cage, that
comprises the medial part of a body, also known as the trunk. In humans, much of the
axial skeleton acts as a protective encasement for central nervous system tissue. The
appendicular skeleton is the peripheral skeletal structure that includes scapula and
clavicle, pelvic girdle, upper limb and lower limb. It too, like the axial skeleton, is primarily
comprised of bones and is held together with ligaments, with cartilage as the connective
tissue that performs various functions essentially relating to making the joints run
smoother.

CONCLUSION
In conclusion, by the end of this experiment we are able to observe the skeletal model and
identify the scientific name and characteristics of each bones of the axial skeleton, appendicular
skeleton bones and the bone landmarks.

REFERENCE
1. Gerard J. Tortora, Bryan Derrickson, Principles of Anatomy and Physiology;
Organization, Support and Movement, and Control Systems of the Human Body (13 th
Edition), John Wiley & Sons (Asia) Pte Ltd, 2011
2. Gerard J. Tortora, A Brief Atlas of the Skeleton, Surface Anatomy, and Selected Medical
Images, John Wiley & Sons Inc. 2006
3. https://quizlet.com/73357660/differences-in-fetal-and-adult-skull-flash-cards/
4. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5n-sNpwb3Jk