THE CAMBRIDGE HANDBOOK OF PHYSICS FORMULAS NYom. SVIOWUOA SOISAHd 10 MOOMANVH AOCIUGWVO FHLChapter 1 Units, constants, and conversions Chapter 2 Mathematics Chapter 3 Dynamics and mechanics Chapter 4 Quantum physics Chapter 5 Therm@dynamies Chapter 6 Solid dato physics Chapter 7 Electromagnetism: i i Bm ee ee Chapter 8 Optics Chapter 9 Astrophysics IndexThe Cambridge Handbook of Physics Formulas The Cambridge Handbook of Physics Formulas is a quick-reference aid for students and pro- fessionals in the physical sciences and engineering. It contains more than 2000 of the most useful formulas and equations found in undergraduate physics courses, covering mathematics, dynamics and mechanics, quantum physics, thermodynamics, solid state physics, clectromag- netism, optics, and astrophysics. An exhaustive index allows the required formulas to be located swiftly and simply, and the unique tabular format crisply identifies all the variables involved. The Cambridge Handbook of Physics Formulas comprehensively covers the major topics explored in undergraduate physics courses. Itis designed to be a compact, portable, reference book suitable for everyday work, problem solving, or exam revision. All students and professionals in physics, applied mathematics, engineering, and other physical sciences will ‘want to have this essential reference book within easy reach. Graham Woan is a lecturer in the Department of Physics and Astronomy at the University of, Glasgow. Prior to this he taught physics at the University of Cambridge where he also received his degree in Natural Sciences, specialising in physics, and his PhD, in radio astronomy. His research interests range widely with a special focus on low-frequency radio astronomy. His publications span journals as diverse as Astronomy & Astrophysics, Geophysical Research Letters, Advances in Space Science, the Journal of Navigation and. Emergency Prehospital ‘Medicine. He is co-developer of the revolutionary CURSOR radio positioning system, which uses existing broadcast transmitters to determine position, and he is the designer of the Glasgow Millennium Sundial.ESTE LIBRO ES UN BIEN PUBLICO. NADIE TIENE DERECHO A. ‘SUBRAYARLO NIA ANOTARLO. EL INFRACTOR DEBERA REPONER EL DOCUMENTO O REINTEGRAR EL IMPORTE DEL MISMO.K.122 6032 53(#) Wor; The Cambridge Handbook of Physics Formulas GRAHAM WOAN Department of Physics & Astronomy University of Glasgow S CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESSPUBLISHED BY THE PRESS SYNDICATE OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE ‘The Pit Building, Trumpington Stet, Cambridge, United Kingdom ‘canmRuDOs UNIVERSITY PRESS "The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 2RU, UK 40 Weet 20m Steet, New York, NY 10041-4211, USA 477 Wiliamstowa Road, Pot Melboarss, VIC 3207, Australia Ruiz de Alaroéa 13, 28014 Madrid Spain Dock Houee, The Waterfront, Cape Town S001, South AStica tp mweecambsdge ore (© Cambridge University Press 2000 “This book is in copyright, Subject to statutory exception and to the provision of relevant collective licensing agesmen's, so reprodeton of any part may take place without the writen permission of Cambridge University Pres. Fist published 2000 ‘Reprinted 2001, 2002, Printed in the United States of America Typeface Times Roman 1/12 pt, System IATXC2¢ (18) ‘A catalog record fortis bookie avilale from she British Library. Library of Congress Cotologing in Publication Data ‘Won, Graham, 1963- “The Cambridge handbook of physic formulas /Grabam Wosn, poem ISBN 0-51-57349-1, - ISBN 0521-57507-9 (pbk) 1. Physics Formulas, 1 Tie. Qc61.Ws7 1999 S907 00/12 ~€c21 99.15228 cP ISBN 0521 572491 hardback ISBN 0521 575079 paperbackContents Preface page vii How to use this book 1 1__ Units, constants, and conversions Ba 11 Introduction, 3 + 1.2 SI units, 4 + 1.3 Physical constants, 6 +14 Converting between units, 10 +15 Dimensions, 16 +16 Miscellaneous, 18 Mathematics 19 24 Notation, 19 +22 Vectors and matrices, 20 + 2.3 Series, summations, and progressions, 27 + 24 Complex variables, 30+ 25 Trigonometric and hyperbolic formulas, 32 +26 Mensuration, 35 +27 Differentiation, 40 +28 Integration, 44 +29 Special functions and polynomials, 46 +210 Roots of quadratic and cubic equations, 50 + 2.11 Fourier series and transforms, 52 +242 Laplace transforms, 55 + 243 Probability and statistics, 57 ©2414 Numerical methods, 60 3__Dynamics and mechanics 63 34 Introduction, 63 + 32 Frames of reference, 64 +3.3 Gravitation, 66 +34 Particle motion, 68 +35 Rigid body dynamics, 74 + 36 Oscillating systems, 78 + 37 Generalised dynamics, 79 + 38 Elasticity, 80 «3.9 Fluid dynamics, 84 4 Quantum physies 89 A Introduction, 89 + 42 Quantum definitions, 90 +43 Wave mechanics, 92°44 Hydrogenic atoms, 95+45 Angular momentum, 98 +46 Perturbation theory, 102 + 47 High energy and nuclear physics, 103 5__ Thermodynamics 105 54 Introduction, 105 + 5.2 Classical thermodynamics, 106 +53 Gas laws, 110 + 54 Kinetic theory, 112 + 5.5 Statistical thermodynamics, 114 +56 Fluctuations and noise, 116 + 5.7 Radiation processes, 118,6 Solid state physics 6.1 Introduction, 123 + 6.2 Periodic table, 124 +63 Crystalline structure, 126 + 6.4 Lattice dynamics, 129 + 6.5 Electrons in solids, 132 Electromagnetism 7A Introduction, 135 +72 Static fields, 136 +7.3 Electromagnetic fields (general), 139 +74 Fields associated with media, 142 +75 Force, torque, and energy, 145 +7.6 LCR circuits, 147 * 7.7 Transmission lines and waveguides, 150 +78 Waves in and out of media, 152 °7.9 Plasma physics, 156 8 Opties 81 Introduction, 161 + 8.2 Interference, 162 + 8.3 Fraunhofer diffraction, 164 84 Fresnel diffraction, 166 = 8.5 Geometrical optics, 168 +86 Polarisation, 170 + 8.7 Coherence (scalar theory), 172 +88 Line radiation, 173 9 Astrophysics 9.1 Introduction, 175 +92 Solar system data, 176 +93 Coordinate transformations (astronomical), 177 +94 Observational astrophysics, 179 +95 Stellar evolution, 181 +96 Cosmology, 184 Index 123 135 161 175 187Preface In A Brief History of Time, Stephen Hawking relates that he was warned against including equations in the book because “each equation... would halve the sales.” Despite this dire prediction there is, for a scientific audience, some attraction in doing the exact opposite. The reader should not be misled by this exercise. Although the equations and formulas contained here underpin a good deal of physical science, they are useless unless the reader understands them. Learning physics is not about remembering equations, itis about appreci- ating the natural structures they express. Although its format should help make some topics clearer, this book is not designed to teach new physics; there are many excellent textbooks to help with that. It is intended to be useful rather than pedagogically complete, so that students can use it for revision and for structuring their knowledge once they understand the physics. More advanced users will benefit from having a compact, internally consistent, source of equations that can quickly deliver the relationship they require in a format that avoids the need to sift through pages of rubric. Some difficult decisions have had to be made to achieve this. First, to be short the ‘book only includes ideas that can be expressed succinctly in equations, without resorting to lengthy explanation. A small number of important topics are therefore absent. For example, Liouville’s theorem can be algebraically succinct (6 = 0) but is meaningless unless ¢ is thoroughly (and carefully) explained. Anyone who already understands what ¢ represents will probably not need reminding that it equals zero. Second, empirical equations with ‘numerical coefficients have been largely omitted, as have topics significantly more advanced than are found at undergraduate level. There are simply too many of these to be sensibly and confidently edited into a short handbook. Third, physical data are largely absent, although a periodic table, tables of physical constants, and data on the solar system are all included. Justa sighting of the marvellous (but dimensionally misnamed) CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics should be enough to convince the reader that a good science data book is thick. Inevitably there is personal choice in what should or should not be included, and you ‘may feel that an equation that meets the above criteria is missing. If this is the case, I would be delighted to hear from you so it can be considered for a subsequent edition. Contact details are at the end of this preface. Likewise if you spot an error or an inconsistency then please let me know and I will post an erratum on the web page.Acknowledgments This venture is founded on the generosity of colleagues in Glasgow and ‘Cambridge whose inputs have strongly influenced the final product. The expertise of Dave Clarke, Declan Diver, Peter Duflett-Smith, Wolf-Gerrit Frith, Martin Hendry, Rico Tgnace, David Ireland, John Simmons, and Harry Ward have been central to its production, as have the linguistic skills of Katie Lowe. I would also like to thank Richard Barrett, Matthew Cartmell, Steve Gull, Martin Hendry, Jim Hough, Darren McDonald, and Ken Riley who all agreed to field-test the book and gave invaluable feedback, ‘My greatest thanks though are to John Shakeshaft who, with remarkable knowledge and skill, worked through the entire manuscript more than once during its production and whose legendary red pen hovered over (or descended upon) every equation in the book. What errors remain are, of course, may own, but I take comfort from the fact that without John they ‘would be much more numerous. Contact information A website containing up-to-date information on this handbook and contact details can be found through the Cambridge University Press home pages at http:/ /own-cup.org (North America) or hitp://www.cup.camacuk (United Kingdom). Production notes This book was typeset by the author in ISTpX 2, using the CUP Times fonts. The software packages used were WinEdt, MK TEX, Mayua Draw, Gnuplot, Ghostscript, Ghostview, and Maple V.How to use this book The format is largely self-explanatory, but a few comments may be helpful. Although it is very tempting to flick through the pages to find what you are looking for, the best starting ppoint is the index. I have tried to make this as extensive as possible, and many equations are indexed more than once. Equations are listed both with their equation number (in square brackets) and the page on which they can be found. The equations themselves are grouped into self-contained and boxed “panels” on the pages. Each panel represents a separate topic, ‘and you will fiad descriptions of all the variables used at the right-hand side of the panel, usually adjacent to the fist equation in which they are used. You should therefore not need to stray outside the panel to understand the notation. Both the panel as a whole and its individual entries may have footnotes, shown below the panel. Be aware of these, as they contain important additional information and conditions relevant to the topic. Although the panels are self-contained they may use concepts defined elsewhere in the handbook. Often these are cross-referenced, but again the index will help you to locate them if necessary. Notations and definitions are uniform over subject areas unless stated otherwise.Chapter 1 Units, constants, and conversions 1.1 Introduction The determination of physical constants and the definition of the units with which they are measured is a specialised and, to many, hidden branch of science. ‘A quantity with dimensions is one whose value must be expressed relative to one or more standard units. In the spirit of the rest of the book, this section is based around the International System of units (SI). This system uses seven base units (the number is somewhat arbitrary), such as the kilogram and the second, and defines their magnitudes in terms of physical laws or, in the case of the kilogram, an object called the “international prototype of the kilogram” kept in Paris. For convenience there are also a number of derived standards, such as the volt, which are defined as set combinations of the basic seven. Most of the physical observables we regard as being in some sense fundamental, such as the charge ‘on an electron, are now known to better than 1 part per million (ppm). The least well known is the Newtonian constant of gravitation (128 ppm) and the best the Rydberg constant (0.0012 ppm). The dimensionless electron g-factor, representing the magnetic moment of an electron measured in Bohr magnetons, has been determined to 1 part in 10" No matter which base units are used, physical quantities are expressed as the product of ‘a numerical value and a unit. These two components have more-or-less equal standing and can be manipulated by following the usual rules of algebra, So, if 1- eV = 160.218 x 10-*- J then 1 J = [1/(160218 x 10-)] - eV. A measurement of energy, U, with joule as the unit, hhas a numerical value of U/ J. The same measurement with electron volt as the unit has @ numerical value of U/eV = (U/1)(J/eV) and so on.4 Units, conscants, and conversions 1.2 SI units ‘SI base units Physical quantity name symbol length metre =m mass Kilogram kg time seconds electric current ampere A thermodynamic temperature kelvin = K amount of substance mole mol luminous inten candela od SI derived units physical quantity mame ‘Simba! equivalent waits electric capacitance farad F cv electric charge coulomb c As electric conductance siemens s ot clectric potential difference volt v Jet electric resistance ohm 2 vat energy, work, heat joule J Nm force newton N mkgs? frequency hertz Host illuminance lux bk odsem= inductance henry H vats Iuminous flux lumen Im cds magnetic ux weber Wo Vs magnetic lux density tesla 7 Ysm plane angle radian rd mor power, radiant flux watt sWattteec de pressure, stress pascal Poo Nm? radiation absorbed dose gray Gy Jkt radiation dose equivalent® _ sievert Sv (Jke“] radioactive activity becquerel = Bs solid angle steradian st mm? temperature? degree Celsius °C OK "To distinguish it rom the gray, unit of 2 he Ceisias temperature, To, is defined ftom the temperature in kelvin, Tx, by Te Ty ~ 273.6.1.2 SI units SI prefixes factor prefix symbol | factor 10 —yotta. -Y 10% zeta Z 10% exa E 10% peta P 10? tera so 10 sign G 10° mega M 10° kilo k 1? hecto bh 10° deca* da or deka Recognised non-SI units physical quantity name symbol SI value time minute min 60s hour h 3.6005 day d 864008 plane angle degree : (/180) rad minute ‘ (2/30 800) rad second . (2/648 000) rad Jength Angstrom A 10° m fermi? fm 10-5 m micron* pm 10m area barn b 10-7 mi? volume litre LL 107m mass tonne®® t 10°kg pressure bar bar 10°Nav energy electron volt eV = 1.60218 x 10-7 mass unified atomic mass unit u = 1.66054 x 10-" kg ‘These are non Si wae for ST quantities Sor “mete ton.”Units, constants, and conversions 1.3 Physical constants ‘The following values are in accordance with the 1986 CODATA Recommended Values for the fundamental physical constants (Journal of Research of the National Bureau of Standards, 92, 85, 1987). ‘The digits in parentheses represent the 1-¢ uncertainty in the previous two quoted digits. For example, G = (6.67259 + 0.00085) x 10-!' m? kg"! s~._ It is important to note that the uncertainties for many of the listed quantities are correlated, so that the uncertainty in any expression using them in combination cannot necessarily be computed from the data presented. Suitable covariance matrices are tabulated in the above article. Summary of physical constants speed of light in vacuum? © 299792458 xims permeability of vacuum? Pa x10 Hm 2566370614... x10 Hm permittivity of vacuum cy 1/(uoc*) 8,854 187817. constant of gravitation® 6.67259(85) x10-H m? ke Planck constant 6.626075 5(40) x10“ s h/(n) 1.05457266(63) x10“ 3s elementary charge 1.60217733(49) x10" C ‘magnetic flux quantum, h/(2e) 2.06783461(61) x10" Wb electron volt 1,60217733(49) 10-5 proton mass 1.6726231(10) x10-7 kg me 1836152701037) 1,660 5402(10) x10" kg 7.29735308(33) x10 proton/electron mass ratio unified atomic mass unit G h a e % ev electron mass me —-9.1093897(54) x10 kg mp Me) u fine-structure constant, yyce/(2h) inverse 1/a —137.0359895(61) Rydberg constant, meoz?/(2h) Ry 1097373153413) x10" mr Avogadro constant Nx 60221367(36)—x10® mol Faraday constant, Nye F 9648530929) x10*C mol molar gas constant R —_ 8314510(70) Jmol"! KY Boltzmann constant, R/Na k 1.380658(12) x10 IK meewaynuaet @ —— 567051(19) x10? Wm? K+ Bohr magneton, ef/(2m,) be _9274015431) x10" ‘By dein, the speod of Hight is exact. * Aloo exact, by definition. The standard sceeration due to gravity gi defined as exactly 980665ms-%,13 Physical constants 1 General constants 1 speed of light in vacuum ——~—~S~S~*«STONNSRSC TO ‘permeability of vacuum Ho on x107 Hm =12.566 370614. x107 Hm permittivity of vacuum: Cy A/(uye?) Fm 854 187817... x10-? Fm impedance of free space Z moe a =376.730 313462... constant of gravitation @ 6.672.59(85) x10“ m? ky Planck constant h 6.626075 5(40) x10“ s in electron volts 41356692112) x 10-SeVs h/(Q2x) A 1.054 572 66(63) x1O*Is in electron volts 6.5821220(20) x10-Sevs Planck mass, /he/ my 247671(14) x10 ke Planck length, W/(mne)= VAGTE I) —«1.616 05(40) x10" m Planck time, In/e = V/RG]E tm $39086(34) xis elementary charge e 1,602 177 33(49) 10-9 C ‘magnetic flux quantum, h/(2e) ® 2.067 83461(61) x10 Wb Josephson frequency/ voltage ratio 2ejh 4.835976 7(14) x104HzVv-t ‘Bohr magneton, efi/(2m.) oe 92740154(31) x10“ JT in electron volts 5.788 38263(52) xloev T+ ‘in kelvins, yp/k 0.671 709 9(57) a nuclear magneton, efi/(2mp) oN 5.050 786 6(17) xl027JT in electron volts, 3.15245166(28) x10-ev T-! in kelvins, jy/k 3.658 246(31) x04 KT Zeeman splitting constant He/(hc) 4.668643 7(14) x10¢'m T+! Atomic constants* fine-structure constant, woce"/(Qk) a 7297353083) x10 inverse 1/a 137.035 989 5(61) Rydberg constant, meca” /(2h) Ro 1.0973731534(13) x10’m=! in hertz, Roc 3.2898419499(39) x10" Hz in joules, Rohe 2.179874 1(13) x18 7 in electron volts, Rhc/e 1.360 569 81(40) x10'eV Bohr radius’, «/(4xR.) a 5.291 772.49(24) x10“! m pam es gee CC "Fixed mucous,8 Units, constants, and conversions Electron constants electron mass me 91093897154) x10 kg in electron volts 051099906(15) MeV ‘electron /proton mass ratio ma/my S44617013(11) x10~* electron charge e 16021773349) x10-8C electron specific charge e/m, —1.75881962(53) x10!" Cke* electron molar mass, Name M, — $48579903(13) x10~"kgmol™ Compton wavelength, h/(mec) Je 24263105822) x10-?m classical electron radius, ay re —--281794092(38) x 10~ m ‘Thomson cross section, (8x/3)r3 or 66524616(18) x10 m? clectron magnetic moment de 9284770131) x10-# Tt in Bohr magnetons, o/s 1.001 159652 193(10) in nuclear magnetons, o/s 1838.282000(37) electron g-factor, 2e/ten ge 2,002319304386(20) Proton constants proton mass m ‘L672623100) x in electron volts 93827231(28) MeV proton/electron mass ratio rmy/me 1836.152701(37) proton charge e 1.60217733(49) x10 proton specific charge efmy 9578830929) x10’ Ck proton molar mass, Nay My 1.007276470(12)_ x10-> kgmol™ proton Compton wavelength, h/(mpe) Jp _—-1.32141002(12). x10-m proton magnetic moment bp 410607 61(47) x10 IT in Bohr magnetons, #p/1s3 1,521.032202(15) x10? in nuclear magnetons, p/n 2.792847 386(63) proton gyromagnetic ratio ye __ 2.675221 28(81)_x108s1 Tt ‘Neutron constants ‘neutron mass 1674928610) x10 in electron volts 1939,56563(28) MeV reutron/electron mass ratio 1ma/m, 1838,683 662(40) neutron/proton mass ratio ‘ma/my 1.001 378404(9) neutron molar mass, Nims Mz —1.008664904(14) _x10-* kgmot“ neutron Compton wavelength, h/(mgc) Aca _—1.31959110(12) x10“ neutron magnetic moment Ha -9.6623707(40) 10-7 Tt {in Bohr magnetons polis 1.041875 63(25) x10 in nuclear magnetons Ha/tey 1.913042 75(45)1.3 Physical constants ‘Muon constants ‘muon mass mm, —«LS83S3270) x10 kg | in electron volts 105.658 389(34) MeV muon/electron mass ratio 1, / Me 206.768 262(30) ‘muon charge —e — ~1.60217733(49) x10“ C muon magnetic moment Me = 44904514015) x10-26 Tt in Bohr magnetons, 4/8 484197097(71) x10 in nuclear magnetons, 4/4, 8.890598 1(13) muon g-factor gu 2.002331 846(17) Bulk physical constants “Avogadro constant Na 6022136736) _x10% mol atomic mass constant® rm, 1.6605402(10) x10" kg in electron volts, 931.49432(28) MeV Faraday constant F 9648530929) x10'Cmot™ ‘molar gas constant R_ 8314510(70) — Smol Kt Boltzmann constant, R/Nx k 1.380658(12) x10 JK in electron volts 861738573) x10-SeVK-! molar volume (ideal gas at stp)? Vo 2241410(19)_ x10-?m? mol Stefan-Boltzmann constant, x?k4/(60Kc?) + $.67051(19)_— x10" Wm K+ ‘Wien’s displacement law constant,’ b=2qT _b _2.897756(24) x10? mK "mass of PC/I2. Alternative nomenclature forthe wailed atomio mass waite Standard temperature and preseuze (tp) are T = 275.15 K (0°C) and P = 101 525Pa (I standard atmosphere) Soe also page 121 Mathematical constants pit) 3.141 592 653 $89 793 238 462 643 383 279 ‘exponential constant (€) 2.718 281 828 459 045 235 360 287 471 352 Catalan’s constant 0.915 965 594 177 219 015 054 603 514 932 Buler’s constant® (7) 0.577 215 664 901 532 860 606 512 090 082 Feigenbaum’s constant (a) 2.502 907 875 095 892 822 283 902 873 218 Feigenbaum's constant (6) 4.669 201 609 102.990 671 853 203 820 466 Gibbs constant 1.851 937 051 982 466 170 361 053 370 157 ‘golden mean 1.618 033 988 749 894 848 204 586 834 370 Madelung constant® 1.747 564 594 633 182 190 636 212 035 S44 ‘See ho Equation DISD). NACL sretre10 Units, constants, and conversions 14 Converting between units ‘The following table lists common (and not so common) measures of physical quantities. ‘The numerical values given are the SI equivalent of one unit measure of the non-SI unit Hence 1 astronomical unit equals 149.5979 x 10° m. Those entries identified with a “*" ii the second columa represent exact conversions; so 1 abampere equals exactly 100A. Note that individual entries inthis lst are not recorded in the index ‘There is a separate section on temperature conversions after this table. wilt name ale in ST wits abampere 10.0" A abeoulomb 100° c abfarad 10° xIPF abhenry 10° x109H abmho 10° x10°S abohm 10° 107.0 abvolt 100° x10-°V acre 4.046856 x10°m? amagat (at stp) 44614774 molm~> ampere hour 36° x1@C Angstrm 1000" x10! apostilb 10° Imm=? arcminute 2908882 x10-®rad aresecond 4848137 x10-6rad are 1000" im astronomical unit 149.5979 x10°m atmosphere (standard) 1013250" x10°Pa atomic mass unit 1.660540 x10" kg bar 1000" x10° Pa barn 1000" x10 m? baromil 7504 x10-$m barrel (UK) 1636592 x10? barrel (US dry) 1156271 x10-3m? barrel (US oil) 1589873 x10->m? barrel (US liquid) 119.2405 x10->m? baud 10" st bayte 1000" x10 Pa biot 100 A bolt (US) 36576 om brewster 10" x10“? m? Nt British thermal unit 1.055056 x10°3 bushel (UK) 3636872 x10 m? bashel (US) 3523907 x10->m? butt (UK) 473304 x10->m? cable (US) 219.456" om calorie 41868 candle power (spherical) 4x Im continued on next page1.4 Converting between units n unit name value in SI units carat (metric) 20007 x10-*kg cental 45359237 kg centare 10" m centimetre of Hg (0°C) 1.333222. x10°Pa centimetre of HzO (4°C) 98060616 Pa chain (engineers’) 304s" m chain (US) 201168 m Chu 1.899101 x10°J clusee 1333224 x10-$W cord 3624556 om eubit 4572" x10 cumee 10" mst cup (US) 2365882 10m? curie 310" x10 Bq darcy 9369233 x10 Sm? day 864" x10s day (sidereal) 8616409 x10°s debye 3335641 x10-™Cm degree (angle) 1745329 x10-rad denies HLT x10 kgm igit 1905 x10? dioptre 10" mt Dobson unit 100" x10-6m dram (avoirdupois) LITIS4S x10 kg dyne 100" x10-ON ddyne centimetres 1000x1095 electron volt 1602177 x10 all 1.143" m em 4233333 x10->m emu of capacitance 10" x10 F emu of current 100° A emu of electric potential 10.0" x10-9V emu of inductance 10 x10°H emu of resistance 10° x10°0 Edtvés unit 10° x10? msm su of capacitance 1.112650 x10-2F esu of current 333.5641 10-2 A, esu of electric potential 299.7925. V esu of inductance 898.7552 x10°H esu of resistance 898.7552 x10°0 erg 3000" 10-8 faraday 964853 x10°C fathom 1.828804 m fermi 10° x10-m Finsen unit 100° x10 War firkin (UK) 4091481 x10-m? firkin (US) 3406871 x10-°m? continued on next pagen unit name fluid ounce (UK) ‘uid ounce (US) foot foot (US survey) foot of water (4°C) footcandle footlambert footpoundal footpounds (force) fresnel funal furlong g (standard acceleration) gal gallon (UK) gallon (US liquid) gamma gauss gilbert gill (UK) gill (US) gon grade grain gram gram-rad gray hand hartree hectare hefner hogshead horsepower (boiler) horsepower (electric) horsepower (metric) horsepower (UK) hour hour (sidereal) hhundredweight (UK long) bbundredweight (US short) inch inch of mereury (0°C) inch of water (4°C) jansky jar Kayser Units, consta and conversions value in ST units 2841308 x10-°m? 2957353 x10~6m? 304.8" x10->m, 304.8006 x10-?m 2.988887 x10°Pa 10.76391 3.426259 2.14011 1355818 J 10° x10? Hz 1.0" x10°N 201.168" om 9806s" ms? 100" x10 ms? 454609" x10? 3.785412 x10 m* 10° x109T 1000" x10~°T 798747 x10? Aturn 1420654 10-6 m? 1182941 106m? 2/200 rad 1370796 x10 rad 6479891" x10~kg 10° x10 ke 1000" Jig 10° Tg 1016" x10 4.359748 x10-85 100° x10 m? 02 x10 od 2386697 x10~>m? 9.80950 x10°W 746" w 7354988 W 43699 W a6" x10 3.590170 x10°s 5080235 kg 4535924 kg 2s x10 m 3.386389 x10°Pa 249.0740 Pa 10.0" x10" War? He 10/9" x109F 1000" mm ‘continued on next page14 Converting between units unit name Kilocalorie Kilogram-force Kilowatt hour knot (international) lambert langley Jangmuir Jeague (nautical, int) league (nautical, UK) Jeague (statute) light year ligne line line (magnetic flux) link (engineers’) link (US) jitre lumen (at $55 nm) maxwell mho mil (length) mil (volume) mile (international) mile (nautical, int) mile (nautical, UK) mile per hour nilliard millibar millimetre of Hg (0°C) minim (UK) minim (US) minute (angle) minute minute (sidereal) ‘month (lunar) nit noggin (UK) oorsted ounce (avoirdupois) ounce (UK fluid) ounce (US Suid) pace parse peck (UK) | Peck (US) value in SE units 41868" x10°J 930665" NN 36" 1065 5144444 x10 mst 10/x" x10 cd? 4184" x10 Im? 1333224 x10-*Pas 5556" x10? m 5559552 x10'm 4828032 x10 m 946073" 105m 2.256" «10m, 2.116667 «104m 10.0" x10"? Wb 304.8" x10 m_ 201.1680 x10-$m 10° x10 m? 1470588 x10 W 104 10° Wo 1.0° s 1.0" x10-%m 25a" x10~m, 10° 10-6 m* 1609344" ci? m 1,852" x10 m 1.853184 x10°'m 447.04" x10-3ms7! 10" 10°? 100.0" Pa 133.3224 Pa 5919390 x10"? m? 6161151 x10? m? 2908882 x10~Frad 60.0" 8 59836178 2551444 x108s 10" 142.0654 1000/(4)" 2834952 x103kg 2841307 xi0-Sm? 2957353 x10-*m? 7620" x10" 3085678 x10!5m 9.09218" x10->m? 8809768 x10-m? continued on next page 134 Units, constants, and conversions suit name pennyweight (troy) perch, hot pica (prnters’) pint (UK) pint (US dry) pint (US liquid) point (printers’) poise pole poncelot pote ‘pound (avoirdupois) pound pound-forse promaxwell psi puncheon (UK) quad ‘quar: (UK) ‘quart (US dry) quart (US liguid) uintal (metric) rad rayleigh rem REN rey he rod rope (UK) roentgen 00d (UK) rutherford rydberg seruple second (angle) second (sidereal) shake shed slug square degree statampere statcoulomb statfarad stathenry value in SI units 1555174 5.0292° 10.0" 4.217518 568.2612 50.6105 473.1765 351.4598" 100.0° 5.029 2* 980.665 2273065 453.5924 138.2550 4.448 22 10° 6.894757 3179746 1.055 056 1.136522 1.101221 946.3529 100.0* 10.0" loca) 10.0" 1/4000" 689.5 10.0" 5.0292" 6.096" 258.0 LOU7i4 10 2179874 1.295978 290.9498 4.848 137 997.2696 100.0" 100.0" 14,59390 (/180)* 333.5641 333.5641 1.112650 898.7552 continued on next page 10-3 kg m 10% Ix 103 m 10-6 m3 x10~6m? 10-6 m? x10-$m 1073 Pas w x10 m x10 kg x103N Wo x10 Pa 10-3 mi «1083 103m x1073 m 10m kg x1073 Gy X10? stm? 10-3 Sy s 10° Pas Pa“! s-t m 31076 Cg” x10 m? x10°Bq x10 87 «107 kg, x10 m? 10-6 rad x10 s, x10-Ms «10-4 m? kg Ps 10-2 A x1o-2e x10“? F x10H14 Converting between units unit name calue in ST units statmho 1112690 x10-2S statohm 898.7552 xi0’a statvolt 299.925 sthéne Lor x10'N stere 10" m stb 100" x10 ed a stokes 1000" x10? stone 6350293 kg tablespoon (UK) 1420653 10-6? tablespoon (US) 1478676 10-6? teaspoon (UK) 4735513. 10-6? teaspoon (US) 4928922 <10-Sm* tex 10° x10Skgm™! therm (EEC) 105506" x08 therm (US) 10sag04" 1083 thermie 4i85407 toes thou 234 x10-Sm, tog tooo 10 Wt K ton (UK long) 1.016087 xi10°kg ton (US short) 9071847 ke tonne (metric ton) 1 x10 kg ton (of TNT) dts 10° com 1333204 Pa townsend 10 x10“ Vm? troy ounce 31.0348 x10-Skg troy pound 3732817 x10-Fkg troy dram 3.887935 x10 kg tun 9546789 10m! xU 100209 10-8 m yard gig" x10 year (calendar) 31536 xi08s year (siderel) 3155815 10s year (tropical) 3155693 10s Temperature conversions Tk tempera fa From degrees es ie enh Te = Te + 27315 (|e ‘ce Peer Tem TES yarais (12) | 7 teaprnueia From depres, Te (ay | 7 temogatin 1516 Units, constants, and conversions 1.5 Dimensions The following table lists the dimensions of common physical quantities, together with their conventional symbols and the SI units in which they are usually quoted. The dimensional basis used is length (L), mass (M), time (), electric current (!), temperature (9), and luminous intensity (). Physical quant ‘mibol dimensions ST wits acceleration a LT ms? action s eet Js ‘angular momentum LJ eur mikes angular speed o oT rads! area 4s ov im Avogadro constant Neo 1 mol bending moment G UmT? Bobr magneton mw ot Boltzmann constant kke UMT207 ‘bulk modulus Kr vir? ‘capacitance c Leute charge (electric) 4 TI charge density e err ‘conductance 6 Leet pe conductivity « Laweine couple GT CMT? current Lit current density eo ot density ’ ey electric displacement DLT electric field strength E iMTrt electric polarisability « Mot Te electric polarisation pees rl electric potential difference V0 MT 31+ energy EU MT? energy density 0 ciMt entropy s UMTe74 Faraday constant aeceeecetl force F Lut frequency yf Tt gravitational constant Gee ita Hall coefficient Ro Btn Hamiltonian HO OMT? heat capacity c euTet Hubble constant? Heed impedance Zz BMT impulse I tut Ns continued on next page . ‘The Hubble constant is almost universally quoted in units of ams Me“! Thete are bout 31310" Kilometres ina megaparsec.1.5 Dimensions physical quantity inductance irradiance illuminance ‘Lagrangian length Tuminous intensity ‘magnetic feld strength magnetic flux magnetic flux density ‘magnetic dipole mor ‘magnetic vector potential magnetisation mass mobility molar gas constant ‘moment of inertia ‘momentum number density permeability permittivity Planck constant power Poynting vector pressure radiant intensity resistance Rydberg constant shear modulus specific heat capacity speed Stefan-Boltzmann constant stress surface tension temperature thermal conductivity time velocity viseosity (dynamic) viscosity (kinematic) volume wavevestor weight work ‘Young modulus = = PR Geo E se oes RAR SR ~ BR meget dimensions GMT MT Ly MT L J ra eure MT vt uMtrt oy M MoT UMTe+ UM cut LMT LIne Te eMT UMT MT iM uMTs eur ci ciMt LTret it MTF 0 Lim Tt MT? ° Lute fe ure iM vr GB ct umT GMT ciMt cg mev-ist Jmol K-! kgmst Wy18 Units, constants, and conversions 1.6 Miscellaneous Greek alphabet Aa alpha | Ny m BOR beta [EE xi roy gamma | 0 0 omicron A 6 gta | x opi E © « epsilon | Pp ho Zu ma |Z o sigma Hon eta roe tau @ 6 98 theta |Y o upsilon aa iota | O 6 @ phi Kx kappa | Xx chi AR lambda | Yow psi Miu mu 2 0 omexa Pi (®) to 1000 decimal places [SHMLSHRSSS TSB RASSESDD SDNEALOT GOHETTSIO SEDOTASLA SORIOTELGA CDSN DSOHEDS 21170679, auanaest S220? oF3846ans 545623172 $359481284B11174802 BS10270198 RSZ110S59 64229489 5493138196 “2510975 e€s9334461 2847564823 STEGTSIES 271215081 456485682 3e0B46I0 44826642 119556076 OB141273 "ausO066 O€SS8S17 488150520 962522540 917159626 7992590340 011330505 48205652 1A ASSL 915114098 ‘SwOs720N6 £755591953 (521861179 819226179 310548 074452599 67408675 18575278 112z7981 801194912 SRSSOTIE2 H0eSC3DeD13454 6395224737 1NTORLIG GOMSTON? OSEDATIS 2931767528 86TeB 1846 76605152 onsesz7i 4s2essone TRsTTI2 7STE9GOL T6ETETET AGRA ZAESBAOI 464958537 1050782279 692519295 “4016 2128021960 Sanat 5981362977 «7730960 S1FOTRLS 50500837 2OTEOARIST 0597317328 1609601859 SDes5455 34590525 425220825 BSESERS 261911981 THOLODOSLS TESETSOS96 5875352083 8142061717 760147903 585254504 28735873 1159562969 BR2B50TETS 957519578 1857780582 1712266066 100192787 61119590 21601989 ¢ to 1000 decimal places ‘RTLSDIEDM 590453536 OB5741352 GEDITTSTD SBDIS SSTASGEGT ITTDAOIES 303535799 ATIREITS S2S1G612 ‘2r4e69188 20059921 817435946 2504397290 295280 BSESOTBL 8286279 HHITEDS 894MNTS 9525101901 Soe? 9807021540 S94999488ALSTSONDEATELASGESD SIIGAOOIG B47 TAIIESS 742345424 3710753907 TRIO SSInrTeL8 386006133 138442000 7S204N858 268602760 673715200 TOHIISBL 274ASTTU 730596977 MBBS ‘2568s S5L08657 497721112 STAROTEAAD SOS6S3636 TUTSAHDD BBE TEEG 4351005987 931636882 SOBETSI2 ‘rsa 4349992295 1695145220 EDEDBSINS GeR0S15N8 28269949 565105820 93P25984 $8790 2OBEAIT ‘soissisro e@4tanss 701987679 Sa0622425 T64EOO $311002528 72509184 58159075 67361832 098112509 ots88159 S04L6UR51 SHEBSSISDaseOTZTING 67SESAz2 STHZ2EHNE DNREDSED SHIZIGIO AHLDEHS 64622405 58383 2409 7862320500 216090235 IASERAIS 491463400 H3I73IAS 6MSHERD1 SBGLAEO OSETITONS _essgez4s 914059215 4562549061 SSIOTNRS 1058975061 O1LST47O8 TL8PB6IOG STEPEESS 12715468 9SMESOSSAChapter 2 Mathematics 21 Notation ‘Mathematics is, of course, a vast subject, and so here we concentrate on those mathematical smethods and relationships that are most often applied in the physical sciences and engineering, Although there is a high degree of consistency in accepted mathematical notation, there is some variation. For example the spherical harmonics, ¥/", can be written Yiy, and there is some freedom with their signs. In general, the conventions chosen here follow common practice as closely as possible, whilst maintaining consistency with the rest of the handbook. Tn particular: sala general vectors 7 unit vectors sealar product ob vector crost-product gradient operator = Laplacian operator derivative Lee, ayes derivative of r with partial derivatives oe: ' nth derivative dlosed loop integral fa h. closed surface integral matrix Ror ay mean value (of x) binomial coefficient (’) factorial unit imaginary (®=—1) i exponential constant modules (of x) lal natural logarithm Jog to base 10 lose20 2.2 Vectors and matrices Veetor algebra Scalar product lalb|cose fen) Bp e Veetor product? axb=[alb|sina=|ax a, 22) be by be @) ee 04) Sere ae a-(b+c)=(a-b)+(a-e) (25) ax(b-+6)=(axb) + (axe) (26) Lagrange’s = (a-e)(b-d)—(a-d)(b- ie (xb) (exd) =(a-e)-€) —(a-d)\b-0) en (xb) (28) Scalar triple product as) = volume of parallelepiped 10) ‘Vector triple b—(b-e)a (2.41) product (2.12) 2.13) (2.14) Reciprocal vectors 15 (2.16) stor ab respect to a see 7 sreettnogenal OT Me Heh alent aes (17) The prime () denotes a recprocl vector. is unit vector making a rghtbanded set with a and 6. Mathematics2.2 Vectors and matrices ‘Common three-dimensional coordinate systems pores = eig eecesoe “ x= peos¢=rsinBcos ie a sing=rsindsing (2.19) racy +2) eee arccos(z/r) (2.23) z=rcos8 (220) arctan(y/x) 224) coordinate system: rectangular spherical polar cylindrical polar coordinates of P: (x,y,z) (8,9) (e.9,2) volume clement: dxdydz PsinBdrd0dp pdpdz do metric elements* (yssfs): (L1)—(arrsin®) (Lp) +(hsdas?. "In an orthogonal coordinate ssi (parametaried by coors q.qnash the Gieenal line clement dis obained from (di? (i dg.) + bs dg a coordinates Gradient coos Watt gy et e29 |! ce Gites =e he Le 29 |? Sgr tonee er w= Sort oe 27 oriogoad (22) | 1h, meri elements2 Mathematics Divergence kenga vandt oo aie Aaa Tr opit Qs) ene Spherical polar y-4= coordinates 1 aa rand sind) , 1 By 06 sind 06 231) é General vedm [2 (ayhntn)+ 2 abo) bass orthogonal peers Lia - fh mee coordinates + Zushin| (2.32) elements Curl Rectangular A eo el coordinates @3y)4 ree aa oe 6 4 Cylinsica sues from coordinates WA=|0/Cp 0/0 ats cay]? sored 4p Aly Ae ind) Ofrsin®) —3i/r en P/e*sind) 8/¢rsind) or Pat ved=| afer af fap | 235) 4 rdy —rAgsind General a ak itn a orthogonal Yxd=—*—|3/2q, G/2q2 @/0as 236) | iy mat : ak satis coordinates ee lds ada ads a Radial forms* vat 237) (241) Vr=3 (2.38) (2.42) via2r 239) cS Veer) =4r (240) VeiriP)=4n5(r) (2.44) ‘Nowe thatthe Gur of any purely radial Function is ara Sp) isthe Dae deta Function,22 Vectors and matrices 2 Laplacian (scal Rectangular 7 coordinates (2.45) | 5 sata sg Cylindrical 1@f OF p diane | coordinates tag et CP eee ‘Spherical a 1 é/. af 1 &e | polar ‘ ) aaa (so + into 50? coordinates (247) 2 (tah af General +f (Met ates ae Fee) oa dinates SB (hile Of y ts 8 Z (i )| tate Differential operator identities Vie)=sVe+eVs (249) V-(fA)=fV-A+ AVE (2.50) Vx(fA) =f VKA-+(Vi nA esr) V(A- B)= Ax(VxB)+(A -V)B+ Bx(VxA)+(B-V)A (2.52) V-(dxB)=B-(Vxd)—A-(VxB) eso) eae Ve(AxB)= A(V-B)— B(V-A)+(B-V)A—(4-V)B (254) | Am vector lds VwN=Vf=aaf (2.55) | (256) V-(VxA)=0 (2.57) Vx(Ved) =V(V-A)—V?A (2.58) YVeetor integral transformations Gauss’s aces ee Divergence) fw -ayar =f a-as Cs) fee eee z = Y olume econ S suface : ds surface element ewes [0s an fa a (2.60) | £ oop bounding $ | a te cement Grevsint — $UVO-de= | V-UVIEY 80) aa oe UVe+(VA)(eav (2.62) Green's cond f tVe)-a(V I ae= [Vg —ev'Nay theorem ls o osMathematics AA FAAP Esse E eee Matrix algebra® an an ain ] Matrix ay on an ‘A om by n matrix definition : ' 2) | ccm nt nd “an Matrix addition C=A+B if cy=ay+by (2.65) of C=AB if cy=auby (2.66) trix 2.6 multiplication (aByc=A(eC) (267) A(B+C)=AB+AC (2.68) ‘Transpose Bymag (2.69) | ay, sranspove matrix matrix? (AB..N)=A..BA (2.70) | sometimes a, or 2) 7 + comperconuete (of Adjoint matrix A’=! QM) | Xi onponent (definition 1f — (AB...N)t (2.72) | * adjoint (or Hermitian cous) tHe H Hein (or ‘Hermitian matrix’ H'=H 273) self-adjoint) matrix erannplest fay a2 as by biz bys) A=|a a2 an B=|bn ba bs st 3 33 bs, ba bas, (ayy Gay faytby ath, a3+br3' A=|a2 on on A+B=| a+b ant+bn an+bs 433 G23 33, 45, +b31 stds 33+bss faybytaaby+arsbs, aub+arbata;sbs2 abs tarbes+asbss AB=|anbutanba+arsbs aybatanbatanbs anbstambastanbss asi biitaxbutaxsbs, aybatanbat+asbe abst abo tassbss Peeve teen AEE eee "emg ar imply summed over repeated suis; hence ghey eGuals Deby. Soe algo Equation 25). coe “Hormidon conjogate mate.” The term “adjoint” is used in quantum physics forthe transpese conjugate of hati and in her algsbra for the transpose matric of ts cofactors. These definitions are act compatible, but both are widely used [ef Equation (280). ‘Trenmitian matrices must also be square (Gee next table).22 Vectors and matrices 25 Square matrices? 1 trA=ay (2.74) | A ss race ay mats cements a y wr(AB)="(BA) @79|% Seayera detA Seip ayar/a3,.. (2.76) | trace ity (1) ag Ma, (2.77) | det determinant (or |) Determinant a Ci, (2.78) | My miso of semeat ay de(AB..N)=detAdetB...detN (2.79) | Gemeat ay “Adjoint matrix z 4} adjoint fometines eeiien ay AARC y= Cy (290) |" sae 81) Jverse matrix 1 (A240) 282) amie 2383) Orthogonality 284) | 5, rected ot condition (285) fim j, 0 otherwise) ' (286) fea 287) i pase) aes ee ae + Hermitian conjugate examples ay aa a au tu bo e-(™ bas ban a1 am ass trAmay +an+as3 teB=by +bn et A= ays ara ~ a 0230322, 012039 + M1352 F512 des —Ay O52 6etB= bub —biaba 1 [ cBtemanea ~enastasen —anas—aisen Atay [ena tanan —anan—aisan —an+a33001 Qudn—andn —ayantandx — ayd2—a120%, pia l(b be) tB lb bys ‘Terms are implicitly summed over repeated sutices; beace andy equals Spada "eye is defined as the natural extension of Equation (2448) 10 mtimensions (se page 50). My isthe determinant ‘of the mates A with te fth row and the jth column deleted. The cofactor Cy=(—1)”/ My Or “adjugate matrix.” Se the footnote to Equation (2.71) fora disession ofthe term “adjoint”Mathematics mo Mateos Commutators Commutator (4,6) = AB—BA~ (B.A) (2.89) | (1 commutator Adjoint (ae) =(8',A") (2.90) | + aajoint Distribution [A+B,C]=[A,C] +[B.C) (291) Association [AB,C] =A[B.C] +[A,C]B (2.92) Jacobi identity [A,[8,C]] = 1B,[A,C]]—IC.| [A,B] (293) Pauli matrices = ( ‘) (° *) aes a= an(% Pol spin mates areas te es : ae on 2 1 FP a) G1) emt Ansommute 6.5, +0j64= 2541 (298) | 64 Kronecker deta Cyclic a0) =i (2.96) permutation (;)’=1 297) Rotation matrices* itt OfeeceeeO: RG) matrix for rotation Rota Rotation y(@)= (0 cose sind (29m) |“ Sout nha it 0 =sin@ cosd, e rotation angle feos 0 —siné ee) ee cos? sind 0 4 sotation about 9 Shout Ry(9)= | -sin® cosd 0 (2.100) | 6 rotation about x; x foes OnE 7 rotation about 3 [eukranges SYR nn ti cosycosBeosa—sinysina _¢0s7cosfsina-+sinycosa —cosysinf R(cp.y)= | —sinycosBcosa—cosysina —sinycosBsinatcosycose — siny sin sinBcosa sinfsing cos @.101) hagles ar inthe right-handed sess for votation of axes, or the left-handed sense Tor rotation of vectors Ls, a (eater pen head fon of ao he ng (ere, Comet, =.2.3 Series, summations, and progressions 23 Series, summations, and progressions Progressions and summations 27 SOSH, SmaH(atdH(a+2a)+ 2.102) Arithmetic tla +(n—1)d) (2103) progression = Fat in—1)d} (2.104) =Fe+) (2.105) arborea! te pose (2107) progression (2.108) aati (2109) ae 10 Harmonic mean aay Relative mean Relative mean (),>(sle>(a)s ifm>O forall (2112) 2113) 2114 (211s) oe FOHDn+DEF+3n—1) 2.116) m2 117) (218) (its) constant a) numberof ers Sy sum of m successive a frst term 4 common diference 1 ast tem (Qe arithmetic mean (he geometric mean On barmoaic mean 1 dummy integer 7 Balers constant2B Mathematics Binomial (ppt pn MOTD 2p ME MEN) 34 en Binomial sce ("\ =—t Oe emmy Binomial obras ("\ar4 iecea (a+by E(i)" oF (2.123) Talore paasyeporarPone Meret A-1)(q) 4 1 (auout oF Mayt (2124) WP gg EP (2125) Taylor series cal a aad SS 6D) Slats)=fla)+(eVflet Sp Sle Gy ggg gece CEP eee eeS eee Maclaurin = 2 - FO) =JO)+ XH POF FIMO +, (f+: (2.126) [ifs pou Intager We seis terminates and i ald Tor all Otherwise the (inate) sere is eonvergent for pple Phe coetient of x in the binomial serie cqfta) is» tines the nth derivative ofthe fnccon f(x} with respect to x evaluated ato, taken as well bebaved around (£-V)fi ist extension to three dimeasions. Limits Wee as nove if [x 3) (5+) (2.151) ei__\et_/ \wi an a : aly (Des) sheye 2152) Schwarz . De inequality | f Fos) a| =f torre fi (eG de (2.153) 2.4 Complex variables Complex numbers 7 complex variable Cartesian form = =x++iy (iss) |i Pet yal variables pa amplitude (rel) Polar form =r(cos0+isind) 2159) | 5 eee) Cay (2.156) Modulus* ais | estoeot @.158) Argument - tof: ‘gument iso) | emma 2.160) aio 161) | * comps connate of oe (2.162) Logarithm’ = Inz=Inr-+i(@-+2nn) (2.163) |» inser "Or mamivode™ The pincpal value of Inz is given by n=0 and —n <8#24 Cmmplereisertables --E-E-E-eeCeCeCeCeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeseseseeeeeeeeeeeereeettettO ‘Complex analysis* eee if f@)=uexy)-+ 0%) = complnvaisbe -auchy- du _ dv i Pet Riemann, fhe Ey (2.164) | sy real vatabes D equations? due f(z) function of = er (2.165) | ue ral fection: aye ¢ Cauchy= Goursat ficrae=0 (2.166) theorem i: Cauety fled 34 $ FO ae ep re 4 residue of f(z) at x0 oe (2.168) | 2 dummy variable Lanrent S$@)= Y> anle—20)" 2.69) | |? e expansion® fae ( wie om fe = aim Means —— file)de=20iSDencbsedresies 17D = ‘Cloed contour iatograls are alien i the connterloelwive se, 56 Necessary condition for f(2) tobe analytic ata given point If f@2)'s analytic within and on a simple closed curve Sometimes called “Cauchy's theorem.” “I fg) is analytic within and on a simple closed cuve ¢ encircling = “OF f(2, analy) inthe annular region between concentric cies, c) and c, centred on zo. cfs any closed curve in this region encircling rp2 ‘Mathematics 2.5 Trigonometric and hyperbolic formulas ‘Trigonometric relationships sin(AB)=sinAcosB Leos Asin B ein) cos(A-+B)=cosAcosBFsinAsinB 73) tan4ttanB tan(atp)= 74) coscosB =} feos 4+B)+cox(4—B)] 175) sinAcosB = 5 [sin(A-+B)+sin(A—B)] (2176) sindsinB = 5 [eos(A—B)—o0s(4~+B)] 77) cos Asin? Amt ara) se A—tan?A=t 79) (2.180) (2.181) 2.182) (2183) is 2.185) sind-+sinB=2sin “23 cos (2.186) sind—sinB =2c0s478 sin 4 (2187) cosd-+eos8 =2c0s 42? cos 48 (2188) cos cos 8 =—2sin 8 sin 958 (2.189) cos A= 3(1-+60824) (2190) sit 1(1—con2) aus E 608 A=} Be0sd-+e0834) (2.192) ssta~Hvina ono ew(2.5 Trigonometric and hyperbolic formulas 33 ‘Hyperbolic relationships# sinh(x+y)= sinh xcoshy +coshxsinhy (2.194) cosh(x+y)=coshxcoshy-tsinhxsinhy (2.195) tanhx+ttanhy tanbis$))= 7 enksxtanky (2.196) coshxcoshy= 5 [coshix+y)+eoshlx—y)] (2197) sinhxcoshy: liane +y)+sinitx—y)) (2198) 1 sioh-sinhy= 5 feosh(e-+y)—eosh(a—y)] (2198) ‘cosh? x—sinh?x= (2.200) | , Re sech?x+tanh?x: (2201) | | a th? x —csch? x: (2202) |. > sinh?; 'sinhxcoshx (2.203) iy ‘cosh2x=cosh?x+sinh?x (2.204) tanh? (2.205) sinh3x=3sinhx-+4sinh? x (2.206) ‘cosh3x=4oosh?x—3coshx (2207) sinhx-+sinhy =: 2sinh=$> oo sh: 3 (2.208) sinhx—sinhy=! 2oosh =S sinh $ (2208) | .! os ~y eae coshx+ cosh; cosh = cos pee (2210) snr cty kak 2 |, cos? x= (cosh2x+!) icon) eee sinh?x = =(cosh2x—1) (2.213) cost? x= 4(coshx-+ costs) (2214) sint?x—1(6inh3x—3sinhx) 21s) These can be derived From gone subatitatioas cots" cosh and sina isi. ‘elation by wrng the‘Trigonometric and hyperbolic definitions de Moivte’s theorem —_(cosx-tisinx)*=e =cosmx-+-isinn 2216) cosx=} (e+e) (2217) cohen} (e+e) 2218) Cae tragic ae sinx= 3 (ee) 2219) sinhx=} (ee) (2220) sinx in tanx= SBE 2221) tanhx= SS a2) cosix=coshx (2.223) coshix=cosx (2.224) sinix=isinhx (2.225) sinhix=isinx (2.226) cotx=(tanx)! (2227) cothx=(tanhx)* (2.228) secx=(cosx)* (2.229) sechx=(coshx)* (2.230) (2.231) eschx: inhx)~* (2.232) (serscprss cesses sess sets esse SE errr) Inverse trigonometric functions* a 7 as * 2.233) 1 arcsinx arctan [5573 2233) ws (=x y arecosx = aretan | O—= (234) 1 . i areesx=atetan| (2235) : areseex=arctan [(x—1)*"] 2236) arccotx=arsan (+) 2237) arecosx= 5 —aresinx (2.238) ‘Valid in the angle ange 0055/2, Note that aresinxc=sin Tx ete. ors sas26 Mensuration ds ge gee cease EEC Inverse hyperbolic functions arsinhxssinhtx—tn [x+62+1)!"] 2.239) | fora x arcoshz cost“!x=tn [3-42 xl (2.240) (2241) | a oxxsi 2243) 1a i & +2! x0 2244) 2.6 Mensuration Moiré fringes? Parallel pater dy a | Rotational a ‘ ope {16\5%/2) ‘From overlapping linear gratings. From identical gratings, spacing d, witha relative rotation 6,‘Mathematics Plane triangles Plane triangles Sine formula® 4 ot at (2247) (2.248) Cosine formulas rahe 2289) a=beosC +ccosB (2.250) Tangent foc 2251) area (2.252) Area 2 sind (2283) =[s(s—a)(s—b\(s—o)] (2.254) where s=H(otb+0 (2255) ‘The dameter of the Groumscibed cle qual o/3in 4. Spherical triangles’ sina _ sinb Sine formula S24 SB a Sind sinB ~ sin€ a Cosine cosa=cosbeose-+sinbsinccosA (2.257) formulas cosd=—cosBeosC+sinBsinCoosa (2.258) Analogue sinacosB=cosbsine—sin! y i faa 1cosB =coshsine—sinbeosccosA (2.259) Four-parts os aetoes ane ieosC=sinacotb—sinCcotB (2.260) : Area? E=A+B+C—% (2261) Ona wath ‘also called the “spherical excess”26 Mensuration Perimeter, area, and volume Perimeter of circle P=2nr (2262) |P Peineer ‘Area of circle (2263) | 4 ara Surface area of sphere® (2.264) | re spoere radius ‘Volume of sphere (2265) | ¥ volume 2 semismajor axis P =4aE(n/2,0) (2.266) | 5 semiminor aie rimeter of ellipse* in Eelipic integral of the Perimeter of ellipse’ oe ( =") fe ae isu ea 2 . Area of ellipse A=nab (2.268) Volume of ellipsoid® man SBE (2.269) | ¢ third emia Sareea of aaron) 227) | mi Volume of cylinder Vanrh 2m) Area of circular cone =arl (2.272) | 1 stant height ‘Volume of cone or v. ae pyramid tgh/3 (2.273) | Ay dase Sarface area of torus Rothman) (2m) | Nr ade we set eee ‘Volume of torus vaF-in-n) (2275) 7 ‘Area! of spherical cap. 4 >. eg (2276) | a cap cept depth d slid anule Volume of spherical ys ad? (e 2277) | =” distance fom cent ‘cap, depth d 2 alfangle subtended Solid angle of acircle = Q=2n fe (2.278) Sea Ir from a point on its Ss axis, 2 from centre 2n{1—cosa) (2279) z phere delined by Bayh 3 = RE "The approximation is exact when e= and e091, giving a maximum error of 11% at e=1 Slipsoid defined by déion Diffusion (2341 |? Stason Helmholtz (2302) | «constant Wave (2.343) | ¢ ave sped Legendre 2344) | 1 ine “Associated Peas y=O (2345) | m integer Bessel (0346) Hermite 7 ‘Laguerre (2.348) Associated 4 toga +04+k-x) 2 +oy=0 (2349) | kinteser yay Chebyshev (1s?) £2 Ys ye ia ys (1-3) xP 4 rtymo (2.350) eer Euler (or @y Gat) Pte tye se) (2351) | ab constants Bernoulli 2 sy0y=a0* (2352) | pq. functions of x airy wy (2353) me "Rio iowa as the “conduction equation” For thennal conduction, f=T and D, the thermal diay, 2p, where T isthe temperature distribution, 2 the thermal conductivity, p the density, and ep the specs beat capacity ofthe materi“4 Mathematics (384 faves [use| (Joss) Sax 0339 aH 1 [ee-Z5 oF 2356 [5aemiais (2357) [oonte (2358) [oetoenen( (2359) Jiooav=ninas—) (236 f FBax—tnpcs) 236) [onmtee® (a!) a0) fren, orm as Tai 1 Jatgentworm — 036 [actes xs L 1 Janay 00 [abate sen 1 (2.369) fata ey | sine} Tose 030 [oe pera 237) /wr arcin(®) 2372) J ear Beebe (2373) ea wre 1 beef se ant, 0315) arigmeeser ane factgmteelim(t) enn ‘and baie non-zero Coastal28 Integration Trigonometric and hyperbolic integrals | sinx dx=—cosx (2376) / sinhx d= coshx 37 / cosxdx=sinx (2378) J coshxdx—sinhx 2379) [ranxdx=—tn\cosx (2.380) J ssnas In{coshx) 2381) fosaratajan’] 2m) fextsavenfam?] ae [oeovdx=tniscxtians) (2384) | secuxdsx=darciante?) (2.388) [eotaxin sina 2386) [oth ae=in)siohx (2387) iome-sinna ay = i0™—Ae_ sinfm-en)x ; J siam sinred ea IE OP AM) 2388) x-cosmedyef08OM=NE _coslm-tnbe ya fio 8 mE nt at) 2389) xdyen CMM, sinlmME ga za [eosms-cosmas= SHB 5 HMMM Gm2send) (2390 Error function af one 2391) satiate se ree ge Compleme -rrOr 2 f° pes ootamat =1-erf)= 25 [ exp(-P) dt (2.392) ae 7 ae cas [cos at; s(x)= [sin ar (2393) Cee) +4800)= Feat Pas] 2.39 2 Exponentalimegal —Biay= /" Lar @>0) (2395) Gamma fosstion ——r)= [rear (e>0) (2396) F=f? + _ 40 (rst king) Elliptic integrals eu = [ (1-# sin? ay? eo eae ae (trigonometric form) BG 6 (1—-Ksin?6)"? 0 (second kind) (2.398) See ao page46 Mathematics Definite integrals axa} (2)" ero) (2399) (a>0) (2.400) (a>0;n=0,12...) (2401 [erptabn—ax%yax~(2)"" (7) (a>0) (2402) -(n—1)(2a)"97(x/2)'? n> 0 and even n—1)2ay-ree n>tendoad = 409) (04 integers > 0) (204) = = Lpayn if ‘cos(ax?) dx= if sinfax)ox=5(Z)"" (a>0) (2.405) sox ge 8 de [3 5 (2.406) [ Tee ae Oa (2.408) b nlaPint =n (a) (0=0,1,2...) (2.409) Relations (2410) re+!) WEDNE—wFD eee ee Te)me*e O29)! (14 5 (2.412) ae (asta) (for |z).n>1) nto *2/M—n(2u)!/2 2.413) In(n!)=ninn—n aid)29 Spectal functions and polynomials Bessel functions *OF the fret nd : eaae Te BS ian i Series Jom (5)" es whet) P15) | v6) pet fnction of he expansion cepa cient eats) | ro) Canoe ttn sin(z) + ener 20) “Approximations Int sx») a, 009 ee (ee ay qva—#) >») seated) Ec) =a ) bance Betear 4,6 8 @ Modiied Besse I) =(-0' (3) ais) |“ Seeieyeae ten of functions Kolx)= Fi i) +i¥oGGx)]_ (2.420) | XC) modied Bese! function of these tind Spherical Bessel z\ia 4slx)spbercal Bessel function en ee Legendre polynomials? Pw , Legendre SAO _p MPO ary ymo |? Sey equation (2.422) | 1 order (120) Rodr : aa feet ecttve) mage (2.423) RERRReBCE DP osGe) = (1+ N)xPix)~1P. aCe) (2424) 7 Ontogonatty —[’ PesyPrO)de~ 5250 (2425) | br Krooeker dette im Explicit form Poor Scar(!) Cy) (2426) | (4) iaomi!coeticients k wavenumber xyunsion of | 20!) exnrens0) (2a | + oman ax plane wave =Le1+ Ary (cos0) (2428) | spel Reel ‘2 ind (oder Pat Py) (3x2 1)/2 Pax) = (35x — 3032 +3)/8 Pica Pa(x)= (5x? —3x)/2 Ps(x)=(63x* — 70x? + 15x)/848 Mathematics Associated Legendre functions? “Associated are] om 2p asosited eas = EO) + tary 7 a] oreo 7 equation 2425) | actos 7 From PP(xy=(1— "7 Pls), Om! 2.450) | Leen Legendre (=m)! polynomials Polynomials Pe") =—Y TE AMO) (2.431) PM s(x)=x(2m+ 1)Pa(x) (2.432) Recurrence pm) —(—1)"(2m—1)!(1—x2)" (2433) |p sres-3-tete relations 7 (em DPC) CLD APLC) = (+ MPF 9) (2.434) ieaeeears seas by Kronesker ontosoaiy 'ereorrme GM 2g, aay | Bat PRE)=1 Pi(x)=x PIQ)=Ge -D/2 P(x) =— 3x1)? OF te Gat Kid. P(e can be dened with & (-i)” foto in Equation (2450) as wal as Equation (2430, Legendre polynomials _tsosated Legendre fonctions Be 2 Y 0 ‘ zi 20 3s ° 1 4 °29 Special functions and polynomials 0 Spherical harmonies pitewatal [152 (anod) 4, S] vm snoenat =o tes aiaton las Stag) + Sato age| M+ DY a9 |) = Desnitont —¥@.#) (1 [At (cose 7 io i (=m)! Le (2437) fae - ¥ coaples Orthogonality L ifs YP"O,G)¥P"(0,e)sin0 04> —Samvb (2438)| 5, oveey pis =a £(0.8)= > Yo aim ¥i"(0,8) (2439) Laplace series ee F setts where an= [" [" 1e"0.0910,d)sin0 a0 46 i! 2440) Solution to if W'y(r,0,4)=0, then eee Laplace ot : function equation l8.8)= > YMO.4): [aint +biar | (2.441) | 8 constants ma rT ica ¥$0.0) ~ ¥910,6)= groosd 1 aula 9 pee ¥80,9)=Fy Zsinde rod = (Gow i) ¥346.)=Fy B sindcosde® ¥$50,6)= [sink [7 186.6)= 4 Zecose-scoss —_ ¥340,0)=F4. snotseas?o—nyet eo= Fy 1 sn Geos! woot sin? 025 "Detned for “TZ, ing he ign convention of te Condon-Shoricy phase Other aga convenions are posseMathematics Delta functions 1 ifimy w"\o ifi 5y Kronecker deta Kronecker delta i 43 van, | noe 6m =e=e2=1 Three- an (2.444) dimensional _all other ey. =0 Levi-Civit . cua Sab en Bib pe —Sad as) |% Lekota amber (Permutation —Syeiz=0 (2.446) tensor) int jin = 251) (2447) einen =6 2.448) hs 1 ifa1) (2454) ‘The general symbol eq_ ie defined wo be $1 for even pemnutations of the sifices —F for odd permutations, and (ita sux is repeated. The sequence (2.3...) is taken to be even. Swapping adjacent suices an odé (er even) umber of tines gives an od (or even) permutation 2.10 Roots of quadratic and cubic equations Quadratic equations : = a" Equation actbxte=0 (a40) 2455) | Tat constants be Pane yates 2.456) Solutions e age quadratic roots = 437) Solution 2.458) combinations — x1x2=¢/a 2.459)2.10 Roots of quadratic and cubic equations Cubic equations Equation aac) |= vale a e460) abcd real constants (2461) Intermediate definitions (2462) | > scioane (2.463) st If D<0, also define: (2.464) o-oo = (8) ] (2.468) 2 (2.465) w\?_ 6 nas n=2(#) cos (2.466) 2 (2.467) ys=-a(f) cos 2% (2470) 1 real, 2 complex roots (if D=0: 3 real roots, atleast 2 equal) | 3 distinct real roots Solutions* Xe cubic roots onan any (1,23) xbate=—b/a (2472) Sotuti east AXE $H1%5-+22%3 =C/a (2.473) xixxy——d/a (2.474) jy a whi WW wo epg pV FE=D82 ‘Mathematics 2.11 Fourier series and transforms Fourier series F0)=F +). (axcos E+ bysin =) are) et Realform ee oT ae 2.476) pero 2 Ly eat L G Gaba ie [ fle)sin = ax (477) Complex O47) cope aa ae : mee 1 ‘confficient one J seoe( i 2.479) ee 2g, aoe [erro x (2.480) theorem il modutas (2.481) IEEE eee Fourier: transform* Pp smg owtatimy 7" [tow ax easy 12 es foo)= [Fie as (eugyy | 72) Poe tation o 00 Fo [fojeax (2484) Definition 2 it fO=3 [ Foe ds (2.485) Tae Fo) | fie™adx 2.486) Definition 3 ee I0)= Fe |] Feeds (2487) ‘Ril tee (andl mow) delaiuoas are wed, bat deinition 1s probably he best‘2.11 Fourier series and transforms a 3 Fourier transform theorems* onan eto [fs (ote | £# Sotto Convolution (2.489) | 5 rales sth (2490) | « Convolution F(x)g0d=F()* G09) 24s) | * ‘Autocorrela- a oa a reason [Fr o—nftodu 492) | 5 comes fe ce] Khintchine TO*FO RIF? (2.493) theorem ‘Cross 7 fe Seaton PNK fF o—vatw du 494) Coneiaton ape tay aR Corelation —jyayaj(x)e2 16.) (2495) Rae [_Ser'enax= [Feces (2.496) al ee aie toeee — [WerPax= J" eras ean 2) ar ea Derivatives AF), — S80) E00) 2091= LE -g9= BE jo) (2.499) Sihsig ie Ru aon 0 P= TO "Rl ele be “pore roe" ‘Ait cad “Rap eae” Fourier symmetry relationships Fe FG) "| eefinitions even = even odd = odd real, even’ real, even. real, odd imaginary, odd imaginary, even imaginary, even Hermitian: f(@)=f"(-x) complex, even <= complex, even ant Hermitian: /( complex, odd complex, odd real, asymmetric <= comples, Hermitian imaginary, asymmetric = _ complex, anti-Hlermitian[ee aay eauuuutennEEEEaauuuuuuuuuUuNInmEEE Co Fourier transform pairs? Jo) = Fo=["fee™ax e500 flex) = ERG /a) (a#0,rea) 2501) flx—a) = oP (5) (a real) (2.502) Sr) = (2nis)"F(s) (2.503) ae) = (2504) B(x—a) = eee (2.505) on lg @ aa ree os ne (a>0) (2507) ee ane 508) sinax = 4{6(s-Z)-0(s+2)] aso cour = $f6(-2)46(n8)] e519 Een = EX 36-2) est) ses) {° ES) (ssep") = HO z siz) s0={h aie top hat) = 8282S —2asinc2as 213) jxl>a —Hl) se ro-{(r8 ) IS@ (etiangle”) t =Iy(1—cos2as)asinctas (2.514) ‘Eauation (2500) eines the Fourier tansfoom wed fr these pais. EVD.2.12 Laplace transforms 2.12 Laplace transforms Laplace transform theorems Definition® F)=£f@}= [ ” fen dt 515) =f [” je~z)g(eyae 6 PEF (t) *g(t)} (2517) f= [eree 218) Inverse! i = SCresidues (for t>0) (2519) Transform of gf SFO) _ wotyay Fre FI0| tamer 2( Ge }-eevin Lee, (2.520) cater of SEO ot oryen) (2s) Substitution F(s—a)=#{e*f(0)} (2522) ©*F()=L{ult—a)f(t—a)} (2523) ‘Translation 0 (<0) wee w= f0 69 20 Fo) 6) wl) Laplace ‘wansform 20) (80) convolution integer >0 anit sep SIf]e-F0 is fe for saiceady large, the Laplace Wanton exe for sw. ‘Also known as the “tung (o folding) theorem” ‘Also known as te “Bromwich integral” is ehosen so that the singularities in F(s) are lft ofthe iategal lise56. Mathematics Laplace transform pairs f= Fo)=Z1H0)= [Hota 525 st 2526 Imi/s (>0) (2.527) ea 2 62on>-1) (2528) ae (2529) ree exo ea (s>a) (2531) tet = (>a) (2532) (1—atjen# ae (2533) rt ey 2 fetes (2.534) sina 325 (6>0) (2.535) cosa sis (650) (2.536) sinha 5" (s>a) (2.537) cotharme 55 (s>a) (2.538) eMsinat— re (2.539) oe stb Mesa (2540) ef(Q— Fist) (2.541)2.13 Probability and statistics 2.13 Probability and statistics : : ; |S ea fe pc vegeeeeee eC E EE x data senses (2542) | Nseries eth ) me vale (2543) | 0 abit ‘Standard i aes deviation (sep | ¢ sded en N i=)? a sewll = RN ae ) (2.545) Kurtosis kurt{x] = Focs® 2) ieee i Coniation setae a O.-O) Veal eel eae ea [Ehe-WPVELO- OM 7 aman WF (i derived fom he ae (ji, the relation is as howa If (3) W Know Indopendendy, then an wabiaved stnate is obtained by dividing the right-hand side by N rather than N= alo known a5 “Pearion's».” Discrete probability distributions distribution pox) mean variance domain Binomial ()p*(1—p* mp mplt—p) (=O...) (2548) | © Bama Geometric (1—p)*"'p Vp (1=p)/p? (=1,2,3,...) (2.549) Poisson #exp(—A)/x! Ak (1,23...) (2.550)Mathematics Continuous probability distributions distribution pr(x) ‘mean a+b 2 Wa » Ayer PATE is variance (b—ay @ ya domain (asx ee ete it ren 2NP_ a (most probable distance)! ay f) mean distance fom start Mean distance (7) eS) ‘NI (2.566) | % gn dsane from toms ms etme Sane rms ditance Tams = N11 (2567) |r poems Bayesian inference Conditional Pie) probability Gensity) of x frobatiicy, —PG)= [peely’v'D€y" 568) | pr anne probability of =—_ ey Fein ney Peapod 56 | gates) it pity of ad y Pr(xly) priy) rt 2570) “Ta this expression, prijs) le Knowa as the porenor probably, pe(=)) Whe Bkaoed, aad pri) We prior probebiity, Bayes’ theorem* —pr(yixMathematics 2.14 Numerical methods Straight-line fitting’ Data (Ga}.{%)}) 1» points (2571) Weights’ {wi} (2572) Model yemete (2573) Residuals di=yi—m—e (2574) Sen eres Eo) e515) | ese D=S wm(xi— 3? (2.576) oe m= wicei—B 1 2577) (2.578) (2579) Tee igs (gine) EE ase “Tastaquars tof data to y=mxFe Eeom on values only tf te erors on yy ae uncorrelated, then w;=1/ Var{l Time series analysis* Discrete wa mp fate Discrete y= S5 gum (258) | tween 1 eon fon daton Bait ee vy noving on vist (2.582) | gto ne en Weick fz : (quadratic) (2.583) 08 window w 96 Ne Hanning aH Bartlett window osesy| 3) wessing aa ° sin a ony aa window vep=054—046c0s (252 (2.585) 8 ‘The time series runs from =0..(N—1), and the windowing Functions peak at j= N/E14 Numerical methods a Numerical integration 4 fe Fes) * XN f A atau yn Se es (robe rapide nin fy FOS} AIH or +2fuatfy) (2.586) | fF : i beer - i jae [ , FEdx= FUoH Aft 2 taf +4fxatin) (2.587) Sma Bt aR AE a ta Numerical differentiation® a ae a F(x+2h) +8 f(x +h) —8f(x—h) +f (x—2h)] (2.588) a x [foe+h)—foe—h)] (2.589) af ot BR = Pops P+ 2M) + 16f e+ h)—30f (x) + 16f Oh) — F(x 2] (2.590) ~ pe +-2709+ F621) 2s) oF 1 SE Pet 2 DF b+) +2F(e—W)—Fe—2H)] (2.592) ‘SDerivatives of Gat x his a opal atonal ia = Relations containing "=" are O(H); those containing "~" are 00) Numerical solutions to f(x)=0 Fy ae cae 7 osm Secant method meme slo) (2585) | Ramen | Newion-Raphson a posto dient Set =X a (2594) | =apaxa Mathematics Numerical solutions to ordinary differential equations* it Besa 2595) Euler's method and = h=Xps1—Xn (2.596) then Ynst =Ye thf nda) HOOF) (2.597) if 2 fly) (2.598) and tet Xn (2.599) Runge-Kutta ky =hf Gnd) (2.600) method ka =hf oat h/2yeth/2) (2.601) (fourth-order) ky hf (q+ /2,ye + he/2) (2.602) kg hf oy +ynbhe) (2.608) then yet tty By MOGs 0s) "Ordinary Gifereatal equations (ODER) of te form & = f(y). Higher onder equations should be reduced io a set of eouple first-order equations and Solved in parallelChapter 3 Dynamics and mechanics 3.1. Introduction Unusually in physics, there is no pithy phrase that sums up the study of dynamics (the way in which forces produce motion), kinematics (the motion of matter), mechanics (the study of the forees and the motion they produce), and statics (the way forces combine to produce equilibrium). We will take the phrase dynamics and mechanics to encompass all the above, although it clearly does not! To some extent this is because the equations governing the motion of matter include some of our oldest insights into the physical world and are consequentialy steeped in tradition One of the more delightful, or for some, annoying, facets of this is the occasional use of arcane vocabulary in the description of motion. The epitome must be what Goldstein! calls “the jabberwockian sounding statement” the polhode rolls without slipping on the herpolhode lying in the inoariable plane, describing “Poinsot’s construction” ~ a method of visualising the free motion of a spinning rigid body. Despite this, dynamics and mechanics, including uid mechanics, is arguably the most practically applicable of all the branches of physics Moreover, and in common with electromagnetism, the study of dynamics and mechanics has spawned a good deal of mathematical apparatus that has found uses in other fields. Most notably, the ideas behind the generalised dynamics of Lagrange and Hamilton lie behind much of quantum mechanics. HL Goldstein, Clasial Mechanics, od ed, 1980, Addison-Weley.“4 3.2. Frames of reference Galilean transformations Dynamics and mechanics ; 7? polion ia framers) $ Time and aa en | Ras position? 2) |* vebiy ofs'ins i we timeiesana | SY fey sof velo names S Velocity Ww 3) |e whet pa! arise manent Momentum: p=p'+me (3.4) in frames S and 5 [seared eee | er ee ‘Angulat eenea ore Jd! saga nomestaa momentum a oeae tet 5) in frames S and S’ Kietic sear Ti int enya — TaT'tmi-et 5m? (36) | 77" Wnt ee i ‘*Frames coincide at t=O Ee Lorentz. (spacetime) transformations 7 awe or toute y=(1-8) ay eres é © speed of tight | ‘Time and position | 7 xay(et0t); ¥=y(e-00) 68) x peaiionin ames yey 9) | ** Shas casey ° ous aio tater ete, oo 7 time names $ and tata) aan | | ee ea |* “For frames Sand S coineiieat at 0 a ative motion along = ‘yansfomations of electromagnetic quanties covariant components, using the (1,—1,—1,—1) signature ‘Velocity transformations* ‘Sez page TAT forthe Velocity wete ty 3.13) “Te me/e =uge]e eee waa) ON) x " G15) Toate facor steer? velocity of Sin $ speed of ight parte velosiy ‘components in frames S and 5° ‘For frames 5 and §”colacdeat at (0 ia lative motion slong =3.2 Frames of reference Momentum and energy transformations” ‘Momentum-and energy (e+0E'/A); p= H(Pe—vE/e*) (3.16) G17) G.18) G.19) Ps (3.20) Four-vector? P=(E/c—Piy—PysP:) (3.21) 7 Levent facor =0-0/rr velocity of $'in S © speed of ight Pal, x components of momentum in $ and "(Gin for y and 2) 2 EE! coergy in S and S! m (vest) mass total momentum in $ P momentum Toursvector wo For fanes Sand conceal at /=0 in wate motion along x "cova component ig the (i=l) Sanat : Propagation of light? 7 aap mad Doppler 2 iran (1+2cosz) (3.22) | v’ frequency emitted in 5 2. arial ange in 7 Larat factor cox x £080'te/e aay |) Ebr 7 loi of $a Aberration! ae cos’ (3.24) | 6,6” emission angle of light insans Relativistic 70) anpas distin of beaming —— PO aR =(ejeyeosoF 95) | photo ins ‘For Frames 5 and comeldent at ¢=0 in relative moti along X ‘Tight taveling in the opposite sense has a propagation angle of x48 cadans ‘Angular distribution of photons from a soure, isotopic and stationery in .. (f PCO) A= Four-vectors* Stain +) ° covariant vector contravariant components. 20: ec Scalar product. y= yotxtx te — G2) Lorentz transformations oe aoe e te P=7ix*+/0x"]; Marh—(/dx'] 628) |, Loren fagor [x +@/ox}; xtaybt—(/e)x2] 6.29) =U ei? a Aag3 # vloiy of in all vise 230) |e sped or ight "For ames S and SY colnddent at F=0 ia ative motion along the (I) dresioa, Note Gat dhe (=i —1,—1) signature used here is common in special relativity, whereas 1,11.) i8 often wied i connection with genera relativity (page 67.Dynamics and mechanics Rotating frames aay ee Vector trans- 7 ae tomaooe” [Ge],-[G]_ret oan | Fmt of Sin S su seeks in$ Acceleration $=W-H2ox'tox(onr') — 32)| , poston i? Coriolis force Foe =—2marxe’ 33) | (ove ane in peri ae - Fyne fre ee ae 30 | Fi emeadnee to force =tme7r, (3.35) | Particle from m= F,+2man(Jsind—20084) Bee natom Motion 636) |. eitate relative to *)—Imasind 37) | = docs vera ani Earth mi =F, —mg+2ma,kcosi (3.38) | oae Bae = canny ais ou : Oy pends te pendulum* ans el &% ees "The sig i uc a fo make the Toulon cocks in the northern Hemisplere. 3.3. Gravitation Newtonian gravitation mig tases ‘Newton's law of |, _ Grima, Force on my (=—F2) gravitation may te 340) | a veto from my 10 my 6 constant of gravitation ‘Newtonian field Gal) | gravitational fel strength cequations* (6:42) | gravitational potential pease density vector from sphere centre Fields from an aan ot eee ar): G43) isolated radius of spre uniform sphere, mass M, r from oo (>a) | & the centre ote) r 44) Geese) rca) oy ‘ravitaional Tce on @ mass m 8 mg.3.3 Gravitation a General relativity’ Ge avarat itenad Line element ds?=g,,dx"dx’ =—de? (3.45) | de proper time interval fete tensor i Gee ferential of # ead Typ = 38 eon +86.0- B08) B46) | 1%, Christel eymbols symbols and $y 1/830 ean 2 erase oe AL=AS +I AP B48) | scalar lifferentiation “ Bay =Bay—T?,Bp (349) | 4° contravasint vector Be covariant vector Rys=T gl pss +P )-Tys 50) Riemann tensor Bysxig —Buitse=Rpap By G51): oem error: Rapys=—Repsys Rgms=—Repys (3.52) Ragys + Rasp, + Raysg =O (3.53) Der a ae tangeat vector Geodesic DA ° G54) (= dx"/d2) uation Da* _ dA¥ ey affine parameter (eg, + a where Sos Se 55) for material parices) odesie pee ae ree Rig ottho? (6.56) | © proses deviation Ricci tensor sop = 8° Roaxp =Ro (3.57) | Rag Ricci teasor ae Om instcn tensor Einstein tensor G" =RP—3 g"R 058) | F Receaerca"Re) Einstein's eld a (ase | TP seesenesytesor equations > presue a rest fame) Spee pee > density ares frame) eee (P+ put" + pe! thd Soervaocity Schwarzschild (1 +( Mint Seton 93) solution r r 64) pce poar coords (exterior) +77(d0+sin@ dg?) (en) eee Kerr solution (outside a spinning black hole) asin? 2 momen 6 AER a 2g ME ap aa eee nae «se (P+@P—@ Asin 94424 Sap eae? in pe Ret sin? dg? + dr? + 79" (3.62) | 0 SP —2Mr+a? e ia creado ipitieeeeats SGeamil wlahiy comveatonaly was “yrometrind wile” i which G=T aad c=. Thus Teg= 7m ce, Contravariant indices are writen as superscripts and covariant indies as subscripts. Note alo tht ds? means (yee3.4 Particle motion Dynamics definitions’ F tie (3.63) | m mass of particle + partie position vector ‘Newtonian force = F =i Momentum pam (3.64) |» momeotum Kinetic energy ieee 3.65) 2 particle wlociy Angular momentum J=rxp (3.66) | 7 angular momentum Couple (or torque) GaraF (367) | @ coune | Centre of mass w Ro. positon vector of cate of mast (ensemble of N Ry a (3.68) | mm maze of th paride particles) Dem 14 position vector of th parte “In the Newtonian ia 0 assuming m is conan. Relativistic dynami 7 oi Lorentz factor (3.69) | * particle velociy © teeter Momentum: (3.70) | 2 Tlativstic momentum rome (G70) ‘mo particle (rest) mass Foxe amy] Fee mite Rest entgy 7) | 5 petit ey Kinetic energy T =moc*(y—1) (3.73) | T relativistic kinetic energy E=ymyc? (3.74) Tooter TOMO ye |e emtemnenen “Tes now common fo regard mais as a Lovents invariant property and (o Grop the erm “ew mana” The ‘symbol mp i ued hereto avoid confusion withthe idea of “relativistic mass” (=y7) used by some author ‘Constant acceleration omutat (376) inital wodiy vai? +2as G77) | 5 sal velocity 1 a sautt Sar Gora) Eames “8, ay |* elmo.34 Particle motion Reduced mass (of two interacting bodies) Reduced mass w= rn rt a arte n= G81) | "Postion vectors fom centre of Distances from"! mtg nas centre of mass =m, Saren 2 ackm 82) | i cistance berseen masses Moment of 2 ir 883) | 1 moment ofa inertia T= alr (3.83) | 1 at of inertia Total angular yyy im momentum 7 WF 84) | J angular momentum 1 > Le Leprasian Laemncie im juP—uo ” 088) |b ER uence Ballistics" Ta voy earocosat+(osine—gp | es Velocity (3.86) |. cevation angle (3.87) | z gravitational fearon | ———— i v Trajectory y= xtana. Gb areca Maxtor 8 in? hk meximum beght N= psiata Gas) |" me Horizontal) e i 3.90) ] 1 ae Spsin2a (3.90) ange “Tgnoring the curvature and voution of the Ear and Trond lous. assumed constant woDynamics and mechanics Rocketry fa weap WT Escape constant of gravitation velocity 39D) | yy mass of cena body 1 cental body adios ; Tip specie impune —_ (3.92) |v" focive exhaust eociy 7 g acceleration due to gravity R molar gs constant Exhaust 1 nto ofa capaiin velocity (into (3.93) | Te combustion temperature a vacuum) - ‘effective molecular mass of chau sho octet velo increment Rocket Mi prun rocket mast, cont (394) | gj pot-burn rocket mass i= mass ratio : N number of sags ‘Multistage x A0= und, (3.95) | of; maser forth brn In a constant “ete 1 turns hae jonal §= Av ln. —-grcos@ (3.96) ie eae le aaa Ang, velo increment, 2104 foun (BE) (( aa fw yy inca hb Te rere rads of inner obit eel B97) | radius of outer orbit cae ae ease eipe,b oe Ge ’ 3.98) ‘From the surface of a spherically gmmetic,nonrotaing body, mass M. ‘Transfer between coplanar, circular orbits @ and b, va ellipse h with a minimal expenditure of enersy.34 Particle motion Gravitationally bound orbital motion n | Potential energy GMm __« ponael ee 0G: < 6.99) Total energy 6.100) Virial theorem = E = (U}/2 G.101) (/r potential) (Y) = -2(7) 6.102) guts oasis a (Kepler’s ist aa law) “eS @.108) Rave of Sweeping area (Kepler’s “4 = = constant ‘@.105) 2nd law) eee c Semicmsjoraxis a a 6.106) Gk + rat HIE 7 7 Semi-minor axis od | ju-= Afm/(M -+m) aad M —> (Mm) and with r taken a the body separation The distance of mass from the centre of mat i then rju/m (ee eae able on Reduced mas) (Other onital dimensions sale snialy, Note that ifthe toa enerzy, E, is < O thon e ~< 1 and te orks isan ellipse (a cite ife = 0). IPE = 0, then e = 1 and he oi is a parabola. If > O then ¢ > 1 and he ot becomes & hyperbola (00 Rucherford searing on neXt pare.n Rutherford scattering? Dynamics and mechanics any Scattering potential eee (3.115) Scattering angle 116 eu ‘Closest approach (3.118) Semi-axis 119) ae 4B? a x Eecen eee tricity (8 +1) 04 G19 ‘Motion trajectory* (3.121) Scattering centre (6.122) Rutherford G.123) scattering formula! (a)? at (qe) (3.124) UG) potential enerey particle separation 2 seauering angle wal energy (20) > impact perameter rain closest approach a hyperbola semiaxis coventry ‘5 postion with respect 19 hyperbola centr $ext catering beam Bux density AN numberof pares eateed soto e solid angle “Nonrelaivisic weatment for an iaversesquare fore law and a fed catering cents Similar scaring Feats fom either an attractive or repulsive force. See also Conie sections on page 38. The comet branch can be chovea by inspection. «Also the focal points of the hyperbola “nis the numberof partis per socond pasing through unit area perpendicular to the beam.34 Particle motion B Inelastic collisions” @ €@:1@ 6 Ray | Sey il Before collision 1 After collision : hot e012) 3125) |. couticient of setition Gocficent of cat if perfety caste (3.126) | 5, preollsion velocities fees €=0_ if perfectly inelastic (3.127) | 9% Posteoltiion velocities T,T" total KF in 2e19 Loss of kinetic © T—T" ‘momentum frame energy? tone (3.128) before and afer . a | cation moe, Germ, (3.129) Final velocities sete eer my pce mass gamer, Crem, 3.130) 2 ite mem i “Along he Hnw of ene, mr3 Ee , 8p nero momen fame Oblique elastic collisions" | 65°? m; | Before collision "| After collision mo m/ | H, @ ange becween asin conte fine and Directions of 88° 5, — 0820 30) | Soin eocty motion %=8 (3.132) | 6; fina trajectories rm sphere masses >ax/2 itm m g—2mymcos20)$? j= bE Pmummcos28)" | 613) |» ae wey Final velocities mt cfm cos (3.135) | of Aina velocities Collison between wo peHecy dastc spb" my Hay at Fe velocities €e.4. 35. Rigid body dynamics ‘Moment of inertia tensor Dynamics and mechanics ‘Moment of | A r Poe Pae inerea ears 29 f(6)—32)dm C19 | ter de ‘Jor+24)ém —fxydm — —fxzdm eee eee t=| —foydm — f(xt+e*)dm — —Syzdm ‘dm mass clement —Jxzdm —fyzdm — fo2-+y2) dm, 2 position vetor af 7 (337) iat iy components of Ig=Thy—masaa (2.138) | 5 er nh mip Parallel axis ates neem eae In Tit (ci +a) (3.139) | axe aston rector of Iy=Tj+m(ia?5y—aa)) G40) | rie “Angular Faas Gist | 2 aner momcatn momentum © angular velocity Rotational Kinetic energy 77 3OF = plyorey @.142) | 7 dace every “Ig aie the moments of inna of tbe body. Ty ([A]) are Ws products of inertia The inegrale ave over the Body "The elipsoid is tied by the varce of consaat T. slums Principal axes Principal Th 0 0) fa eae moment of oho 3143) | 5, etapa mamma of inertia tensor 0 0 hs, Inertia J angular momentum aoe J=(harhorlses) (B44) | oy components of » ‘momentum long pineal axes Rotational Line? 3 doe ex Kinetic energy T(t thoi +103) (3.145) | 7 kinetic energy Moment of T= T(1,02,05) (3.146) inertia iT i iL clipsoid® Jom 5p, Wis ellipsoid surface) (3.147) " h us Perpendicular 21s generally = 3.148) axis theorem nen{eP fiat lamina 1 to axis O48) i L#¢h#l; asymmetric top ‘Symmetries I=hh#l; symmetric top (3.149) Js spherical top3.5 Rigid body dynamics 18 Moments of inerti Thin rod, length 1 (3.150) SE : Is Ty b=0 (3.151) Solid sphere, radius? h=h=ty= 2m? @usy |) ALY Sn 1 ALES) Spherical shell, radius 7 Solid cylinder, radius r, length f cm =m _ G55) L ham@+e)/12 (3156) Solid cuboid, sides abc T= m(c? +a)/12 1s) | gly, Js (+B?) /12 158) 2 P 2 Sold ira one, base i" (r+4) G59) ius, radius r, height bed? a hen +-ay/s (161) Solid ellipsoid, semi-axes 2 ~ mica) 3.162) ma? +B?)/5 (3.163) mb /4 (3.164) Elliptical lamina, mat/4 G.165) semi-axes a,b 3.166) i iE Pes ; (167) eh Disk, radius r ia @ ‘Triangular plate® HHH +2) 16) | hie “With sept Wo pina aos For ods of mass wand ulform Geniy. The radus of gyrnon is Olinwd a kam) SOniein of anes is atthe centre of mass (h/4 above the bas) “Around an ats through the centre of mass and perpendicular tothe plane ofthe plate, wo16 Dynamics and mechanics ‘Centres of mass Solid hemisphere, radius r -d=3r/8. from sphere centre (3.170) Hemispherical shell, radius r d=r/2_ from sphere centre feral) Soo a, eae 42 eat ete cam a ‘sof eel radius rangle 280 om cic ote a Arbitrary triangular lamina, ae ea et| ee i/3. perpendicular from base 3.174) Solid cone or pyramid, bight 4.4/4 perpendicular from base (175) Qr— hy Spherical cap, height h, solid: d= 7S =" from sphere centre (3.176) sphere radius r shell: d=r—h/2 from sphere centre 177) Semi-elliptical lamina, 4h eae d= from base (3.178) ‘Tris te perpendicular distance between the base and apex ofthe Wand Pendulums P paiod Simple Fa. # sravttonal acekraton on P=mli(te fhe) um | Ra a Va" t6 maximum angular place Conical se)” Pain 3.180) | = cone bleangle pendulum ( @ (3.180) Torsional i? moment of inera of bob iulume P= 2n (2) (3.181) | C torsional sigidity of wire —Z e (seepage 81) 4 dstane of rotation axis L F ftom cence of mass Saad Pat | 1 tnt +c 1 See nan pendulum? : 272 1, principal moments of : > feria Sr theo 7 +1300: )| aie) eee ee [eee Shan pincpa ser | 7 foal eeepc eae] io 1 m double Px2n i Po Tet G89) 2, precession angulae velocity 21 1 c0S0—-QpJs+mga=0 (3.190) | @ anal fom vertical Steady gyroscopic 911 inet i ita angular momentum around precession wf Meal (Slow) ia joy) | tame as P™ [us/M{cos8) (fast) im mass gravitons acceleration 4. disaoe of centre of mass Gyroscopic Mapai 192) | _ tom support point stability FReATimg. (3192) | oe noment of inertia about ‘apport polat Gyroscopic mit 2193) (sleeping top") Nutation rate (3.194) | 9, nutation angular velocity Gyroscope Te 5) |e ae released from rest 2 Js (cost) (3.195) “co) where af)! (3201) Logarithmic A logarithmic decrement decrement* (3.202) a, mth displacement maximum Quality factor % if O>1] 6203) | 0 quleyesor "The devanan unl he ato of aucotve nglaconent nasa bats somtins fc beat wma displacement exroms, reducing by & factor of 2 Logins re smmtine taken fo bas 10 itroding further factor of loge Forced oscillations 7 oag vac Differential x dx 1 time equation gi 127g tebe Foe" 209 | 4 separ eet x= AeK-9), where (3.205) | ep undamped angular frequency Steady. A=Foll@3—af)°+Qyan711? 2.206) | 7 fee amps (pr wnt state os) (3207) | & foeng angular foqueney solution* scored ? A amplitude ‘ of response behind 6208) | ° Sarioxe Amplitude x, amplitude resonant forcing resonance? (3.208) | Sora egueney Velosity 2 eee resonant forcing Neleaty , @u= Oy (6210) | & wai masean Quality ae i factor 2 2y G21) | quality fete oo} Impedance Z =2y4i7t (3.212) | Z impedence (per unit mass) ‘Bicading te fee ofcllation tome "Forcing frequency for maximum displacement. “Forcing frequency for maximum Wlocty Note 7/2 at thi frequency3.7 Generalised dynamies 3.7 Generalised dynamics Lagrangian dynamics action =O forthe motion Action [ vaane (2213) | ¢ generalized coordnatss Is generale veloc EnerLagange 4 (2) 2g aay|t toe equation Ea) ag? G2] me Lagrangian of 4m? —U(n) 215) |! esc particle in 3 { (3215) |» position vector external field =T-0 3.216) | U Potential ners Tet energy smo (ont) ass Relativistic 7 Lovet factor Lagrangian ofa L= e(—A-v) (3.217) | +2 positive charge charged particle 7 electric potential: A magnetc vector potenti Generalised OL gaan" (2.218) | px generalised momenta Hamiltonian dynamics T Tagrandian | Hamittonian = )pdi—L (3.219) | py generalised momenta 7 generale veloc Hamilton's H Hamiltonian equations (3.220) | 4 generatod condones pai speed Lees = Fret + Ue) (2221) |? Paton tenor external field = =T+U (3.222) | U Potential energy 1 Miaeic exergy Relativistic ai Hamiltonian = (mict +p —eAl2e2)¥?. fetter ect earned H=Umbet Hip —eaPe"?-+e6 (3293) | epee tare pa 4 secre potent A. vestor pote (3224) ‘p particle momentum Poisson fee brackets (3.225) | fog arbitrary functions Ty] Poisson bracket (also see fang | coms on rae ‘Hamilton— Tacobi 227) | 8 action equationDynamies and mechanics 38 Elasticity Elasticity definitions (simple)? FA = ae tz Stress t (3.228) | F spnlied fore A crocsoctionst |] Strain ft (8.229) | 51 cnange in egth 1 enh ea ‘Young modulus p—~ jp —cons eae (Hooks aw) z/e=constant (3230) | F Young modut aie a Potton rao Poisson ratio? f (8.231) | Sw change in width out ve wit "Tes apply To a thin wive under Tongitadinal aes ‘Solids obeping Hook's law are restricted by thermodynamics to ~1<0 1/2, but one are known with ¢-<0, Non-Hookean materials can show @>1/2 Elasticity definitions (general) ; force {direction saaees Sires tort «y= SS eee 6232) | sy fume = usin emer (amen) Strain tensor a3 (He 7) (8.233) | me dsplacement | 1024 iO cordate yen Elastic modulus =y=2uew (6.234) | isu cate modes Bhatic energy? U= P/aueyeu (3.235) |v —potena energy fe Volume strain av. Volume sian ceatay 289] 3 Swe volume = (eui— Fevbul+ deb 8.237 Shear strain aur ar— seu) goede 237) | iy, Kronecker delta pear anion Faisal py con ee ‘eg aie ponmal ree, oF) aS toRTonal TS, as usual, products are implicitly summed over repeated indies.3.8 Elasticity 81 Isotropic elastic solids aS (8.239) | 42 tam cooticients ‘Lamé coefficients i E Young modulus (8.240) | «Poisson ratio. Longitudinal ‘My longitudinal elastic modulus* 3241) modulus: usin in ition (3.242) | cj sess int iseton Diagonalised strain tensor equation? 6243) | tear ener (6244) [1 uit max 0) wace 24 |x emai Bulk modulus modulus (compression (8.246) | votume modulus pesmi G27) T temperature = ee olume sain shear modulus = 3.248) 7 ii sid M ite) (3.248) ‘# shear modulus Asser drcecee eS (9.249) | samsene soos eer iz iy shear strain 9uK modulus a 8.250) ‘Young modu OE (3.250) ; 3K—2u ison ratio = 51 Poisson rat ORD G21) faa ae Aes lige! along eigenvector ofthe stress and sain tenors. Torsion 7 owing cn (fora =ct 3.252) ‘homogeneous Sar (3282) i anes rod) ae t : 2 mts juan ewer C= 2na? ut (3.253) | ¢ wall thickness cylinder ‘a shear modulus ‘Thick circular al ay inner radius alec C= 5umtah—aty (3254) | SAR mae Arbitrary tat oa [4 ee thin-walled tube aed pera Xt Long flat ribbon (3296)| | eager2 Dynamics and mechanics Bending beams* bing momar (2257) | me sau or cema z : sof exis a now cocaine a (3.258) | € distance to neutral, aimee” | Sarmey moment of area Light beam, Aisplacement from horizontal at 1 ’ hozontl (3.259) | 7 endewcight x=0, weight beam length atx! x stance along beam ey vw beam weit per —, Heavy beam BIE =w() (3.260) suit length nd PEL/P ree ends) | seats RK Euler strut = da2B1/l? (fixed ends) |* fee ayaa failure SEI/(A) (1 free end) | 1 set kage (3.261) fixed "The radius of curvature is approximated by 1/R.= @y/=" Elastic wave velocities sped of tee wave m= (n/p)? (3.262) | ny speed of fongitudinal wave In an infinite = (Mi/p)'? (3.263) | # shear modulus isotropic solid® 2-28\"? bp density 2( = 2) (8.264) | Mi tongiadina! mats a \i=2¢ Cara.) Ina fluid = (K/py'? (8.265) |. butk modulus 1? speed of longitudinal (On a thin plate (wave travelling along x, plate thin in 2) Se eth {9 speed of transverse wave (3.266) : (displacement |i) 26) | mm in twtr 24/2 (3.268) | plate thickness (in z, <2) 620) 3.270) | 2 wrional wave velocity @ rod rive (<7) 27) ‘Waves that produce “bending” are generally Gapesie, Wave (phate) speeds are quoted throughout Transverse waves are also known as shear waves, or Sswaves. Longitudinal waves are also known as pressure waves, or P-naves.38 Elasticity ‘Waves in strings and springs? peed of ongiadial wave fe sing conan? In a sprit (3.272) ited spring 6272) | 5 ee Pr mas pr wait eth? On a stretched (3.273) | % sPeed of transverse wave string 3 T tension Ona sesshed fe/p4)7 (3274) | ¢ tenon per unit width sheet _mask pe uit rea {Wave anplinds emuaed < warckagh bin the sence w= fore /eresion ‘Messed slong the ti ofthe spring Propagation of elastic waves force : eceeeaie Se impedance Acoustic I response velocity et F ae force impedance =(E'p)? . (3.276) | u strain displacement z Ee Wave velocity/ if =-(2) 277) | # caste modus impedance ? deny relation then Z=(E'p)!?=po (2.278) | © ware phase velocty Mean energy BG (8.279) | ¥ sree desiy density ae (nondispersive ee ae Danae ae nave (3.281) | p mean energy tux ZinZe ded ZAts (3.282) ‘reflection coefficient : tranitsion coeticent Gceerearedt t 221 (3.283) | «stress Zi+2y G aaa 4 ange of incense Snell's law? finds sind, _ in (3.284) | 8, ‘ange of etecton ks a = 6 _ angle of refraction ‘For sizes and stain ampliudes Because Ue vefcction aad wansmiion Gefen are usually ened ta tems of ioplacement, x rather than stress, there are eiferences between these coeicient and their equivalents defined in electromagretism [ee Equation (7.179) and page 154) "Angles defined from the normal to the interface, An incident plane presuze wave will generally excite both sbsar and pressure waves in reflection and transmission. Use the weloiy agpreprate fo the wave De.Dynamics and mechanics 3.9 Fluid dynamics Ideal fluids* Continuity? 2 £¥-(p)=0 (3285) Saas uid velocity field time Ta frrdtmconstant (8.286) Kelvin ciroulation = fi ‘ods (3287) 5 céteuation oop element clement of surface bounded by loop vorticity (Ve) eed. ae vi Steve Pag (3288) Euler's equation® - or £(Vx0)=Valra(Vx0)] (3289) pressure revitaional eld sengih (6-9) agvectve operator ‘Bernouli’s equation 2 altitude ratio of specific heat capacities (,/ev) ep specific heat capacity at constant pressure Temperate 7 (incompressible flow) xpe+ptpge=constant — (3.290) Bernouli’s equation +2=constant (3.291) (compressible adiabatic flow)? T+e2 3292) Hydrostatcs 3.293) ‘Adiabatic Ia tiedga 29 !No thermal condacivigy oF WBC08 te general. ©The second form of Euler equstion apple 19 incompresibie ow only “zquation (2292) tre only for an Weal gas. Potential flow : atv (3295) locity potent spate nee Vorticity condition = @=Vxo=0 (3297) velocity velocity potential @ vorticity F drag force on moving splere force on a eee ai oa (8298) | {Fane aeton iat p Suid density gpa fd mas Forinonprsie Bal Th fect ofthis drag force isto give the sphere an additional effective mass equal to half the mass of Ouid spaced3.9 Fluid dynamics Viscous flow (incompressible)* “yy Hid tee tensor hydrostatic pressure Neglecting bulk (6econd visoosty. Laminar viscous flow Fluid stress (3.299) | shear viscosity 1 loi along as 4 Komeda I uid vl fed Navier-Stokes pete 3300) |e oricy equation? YP Nee, gravitational acceleration Petvete 330) diy Kinematic —— nip (2.02) | + inmate vieosiy ‘ie, Ve=O 70 Tow windy 2 diction of ow Beewe 1 21 y distance from paral plates “OI=z,"h-w)GE~ G09) |” sane pe 1 ther scaty y 7 peu 304) |r detune fom Along a 8308) | pe axis circular pipe* av _ xa‘ ap 2 pipe radius i Oe 830914 rom trewlating G, axial couple between = 428 oan) * Benen ides concentric Peo) porta eng SM a rotating (3.306) | angiar velocity cplinders! of th eviner | ime aan Along an 0-52 [4-4 Ba a etna a annular pig s (a3/ ay ‘volume discharge ae 6307 |? omc Rama How Const fo Drag’ On a sphere (Stokes’s law) F: (3.308) drag force a radius On a disk, broadside to flow F = 16anv (309) [2 Testy shear viscosity On a disk, edge on to flow For Reynolis mimes <1 8310)86 Dynamics and mechanics Characteristic numbers Reynolds gg _ PUL inert forse 454 number 7 viscous force Froude uw ertial force number Tg gravitational fore 912) Stroubal Ut _ evolution scale number? ~D ~ physical scale 313) Prandil nep___momentom transport ep _ momentum transport (3 314) number heat transport Mach U___wpeed umber “e7 sound speed Cae Rossby U__ imertial force number Roma Coriolis force G316) Re Reynolis number e u L F 8 8 1 Ro Rossby number a density characters velocity characte scaleength shear viscosity Froude mumber gravitational acceleration Stroubal number characters timescale Prandtl number Specise heat capacity at constant presure ‘thermal conductivity ‘Mach simber sound speed angulac velocity “Sometimar the square root of tis expresion. L usally th Haid dept Sometimes the reciprocal of this expression. Fluid waves a 7 oa oad oe aa ‘K\" ap)" K bulk modulus: Somdwaves ya (E)"=(22) Gain) sions | Pp density, 7 of nat apes In an ideal gas 4 a2 Gedibats "(287)" (2) aatg |* ee i = : 318) | 7 abe empeae conditions} a fe | # mean molecular mass r oun spt of wave a= ghtanbkh (3.319) | ¥ gat cops Gravity waves on tyg\ia 2 mana aliquid surtace” 4,15 (E) 2 qagg) |e nevenuaber ant? nes) puvinonalacceraon & sogun etency iillary waves - ee oe (8321) | ¢ sutce tension Capillary-gravity waves (i> 2) a “Ifthe waves are otbermal rather than adiabatic thea v5 =(@/0)"™ amplitude wavelength athe limit > gp/e,3.9 Fluid dynamics Doppler effect? cae Va oe aay observer 3.323) |” Korieriaeety moving atu fa (ie sr k _ 8 Observer at # wosty rest, source G32) | ‘angle between w moving atu corer had pane wre A TaD TE Wave speeds pas oped fequney Phase speed (8325) | 6 guar fosseny (250 2 warckagth wavenumber (=24/2) (3.326) Group speed ep sed + 327) Shocks i weiss Mach wedge* sindy ="? (3.328) | vy wave (phase) speed ba vy body speed avd Ax characteristic Kelvin nate 6329) |* Sreenat wedge! y= aresin(1/3)=19°S (3.330) | € gezytonat stock Spherical eps 2 cw ris adiabatic ra(Z) (3331) |r time shock® Po (Po density of undisturbed atm 1 parca ae aon Pane Rankine 7eL P. prare Hugoniot 1 _ pa vel velocity Shock | tn ps GDH 2333) | emperatre relations! Ta _ BMI —N)R-+0— DM] Gitar? oe y ratio of sf ts rN G+lMt (3.334) : Pe ““Appronioating the wake geneaied by saperonic motion ofa body in @ nondiopersive medium. Ror gravity waves, ef in the wake of & Bost Note thatthe wedge eemi-ange is independent of vy. «SedorTeslor relation Solutions for a steady, normal shock, inthe frame moving with the shock front. f7=5/3 thea w/in <4.Dynamics and mechanles 38 Surface tension SEE 335) | ete nin cee surface tension Gitar suriece tension 3) | mney Tength Laplace's Tt 89 en iene haan over surface tome! (RR) OP) nea Capillary eae capi constant a lg deasiy constant e-(#) (3338) |¢ a pers i site Capillary rise 2oycosd i (Gireular tube) "=~ pga 389) 6 coma a "| eur wall/vapour surface Contact angle (6340) |. Sytguitsutice ‘Fora spherical bubble in a Wquid Ap=2y,/R For a soup Bub (wo Farlacs) Ap=4a,/RChapter 4 Quantum physics 4. Introduction ‘Quantum ideas occupy such a pivotal position in physics that different notations and algebras appropriate to each field have been developed. Inthe spirit of this book, only those formulas that are commonly present in undergraduate courses and that can be simply presented in [44 tabular form are included here. For example, much ofthe detail of atomic spectroscopy and of specific perturbation analyses has been omitted, as have ideas from the somewhat specialised field of quantum electrodynamics. Traditionally, quantum physics is understood through standard “toy” problems, such as the potential step and the one-dimensional harmonic oscillator, and these are reproduced here. Operators are distinguished from observables using the “hat” notation, so that the momenturh observable, ps, bas the operator Be=—ia/@x. For clarity, many relations tbat can be generalised to three dimensions in an obvious way hhave been stated in their one-dimensional form, and wavefunctions are implicitly taken as normalised functions of space and time unless otherwise stated. With the exception of the last pane, all equations should be taken as nonrelativistic, so that “total energy” is the sum of potential and kinetic energies, excluding the rest mass energy.20, Quantum phyjsies 42 Quantum definitions Quantum uncertainty relations A 4.1 De Broglie relation? 2 an pohk (42) Planck-Einstein a relation Di (44) dispersion” 45) (General unce aos General uncertainty (aap (asjta 5,6) (46) ‘Momentum-position i ‘uncertainty relation’ — 4P4*= > a) Energy-time he uncertainty relation — S24'= 3 48) ‘Number-phase 1 uncertainty relation "49> 3 (49) -P parle momentum pee P EE ab observabes* Planck constant ye) de Broglie wavelength de Broglie wavevestor came frequency angular frequency (=2nv) expectation vale Aisperson of a operator for observable a commutator (see page 26) particle postion ‘umber of photos wave phase ‘=Dispesion in quantum physics coresponde (0 variance in satis, "An observable ise irecly measurable parameter of a system. «Aloo known as the "Hetsenberg uacetaity relation” ‘Wavefunctions Probability b= olen? Sera tomy prixt) dx =|p(st)P de 410) | OF avefunction - 4d sob dense arent eH a (« eyo) (4.11) | i (ptamck constant)/C2) Probability a piussasnerore density [vel —vOIVy' Ee] (4.12) | & momen current® plate (413) | rea aot + time Continuity equation ae SchrBdinger (415) | a Hamitooian equation Particle aad potential ery | eicpr SO eveawd=Eve) 19) | foe eoey ‘or particles Tn thee dimensions aulable unis would be pavtces me Time independent Schrodinger equation fora partici in one dimension.42 Quantum definitions ot Operators Hermitian 7 Henin snore conjugate [oorve [eee (air) | * operator operator sora fneos Position (aus) | "complex convene operator | sp poston conto ‘Momentum fate integer 21 operator G19) Px Momentum coordinate : 7 Mowery ince enerey (4.20) | % (Planck constant)/(2n) a m particle mass ‘Hamiltonian: a1) ‘#H Hamiltonian operator (421) | potential exeray mn “Angular (422) | angular moment slong ‘momentum peorinereny operators (423) | 2 oul angus momentum > F patty oper =v" 424 Parity operator Py()=w(-) (42a |? aso Expectation value i @ eqs ae ofa Expectation @)=(@)= [ Wraver 625) | 2 Spemurtore value = (wlan) (4.26) | % (pti) wavefunction mil coordinate fs 427), Gas dependence 27) | (@lanck constant} /(2n) Azan of 8 Relation to aoe eigenfunctions (428) |r Sammy iter ce probably amples mm partie mass Ebrenfest’s 429) | position vector theorem > comet (4.30) potential energy "Tuation (426) wer the Dirac “bra et” notation for iniegrals Involving operator. The presence of vertical bars distinguishes this use of angled brackets from that on the lefchand side of the equations. Note that (a) and (@) are taken as equivalentQuantum physics Dirac notation Tim ipa ao on = f vim (431) | toe matic element Matrix element* parent = (alam) (432) | 2” operwor Suttons Bra vector bra state vector = (nl (433) | | ba Ket vector ket state vector =|m) (4.34) | 5) ket Scalar product (435) Gea v -functic Expectation waved ion (437) | & Pobstityexptade ‘The Dizas Bracket, Gdn), can also be written (yu va). 43 Wave mechanics Potential step* Vex) incident particle % 1 0 ‘0 eae 7 pane peal ay function veyn{o &0) (438) | 70. wep bis Yo (20) A Panck constant)/Qs) sem BRA nE <0) (438) | Ae ie ent Wavenumbers 9242 2m(E—Vo) (>0) (aq) | are mas = cal. cnn tion raid \ enc ira cocbcent FAmplioude ; transmission t= (44a) | * smpttewanssion coefficient ka coefficient Be Probability Fm GP) 443) | panies sone currents pee (aaa) | ele Bin ne “One-dimensional interaction with an incident panicle of ial envay E=RETY WEa) sags) | "ele function =% (x1a) (446) | paris nenunber eae Im(E+Ve) ((x\0 effect V+ Sma (452) | 5, Ramsauer energy \k/q_— even parity tanga= (4.53) ee (i odd parity ' i Pk? =2mVo/R? (4.54) ‘Ope Gimensional interaction with an incident parle of al eaegy E=KE+V>0, “Pato fax in the sense of increasing “Incident energy for which 27a", P| ~0, and (= 1. When E <0, kis purely imaginary.) and g are obtained by solving these implicit equations.Quantum physies ae (ira) function aes (455) Wavenunbery22namz ~~ el>a) 56) ad tunnelling constant Wx?m2m(Yo—E) ((x1 E Eigea- 8 \!?_ inx may. maz | Yne eigenfunctions fonctions Yie=( 52) sin sin in | ope toe dimensions (444) | tm cteaers 2 Energy BP me ciate HN we Planck eee Fa (Gt ETE) (465) ts | S] Mpa mass Density of arene HE) deny of Sats PE)ME=SOM*EaE (4.66) 2 et ‘Sino parce aa weal bar boone ie pan © =a yah re, The potential ‘sro inside and infinite outside the bo.44 Hydrogenie atoms 95 Harmonic oscillator Prana constants) Schridinger mn mas equation 467) | nt igentncion placement hi nm integer 20 fared (4068) | o angular fequency at Eq total energy in nth state (x/a)exp[—x?, Eigen- vt jae oo ee 3 Hy Hermite polynomials where a. (3) | Hermite L HiQ)=2y, Haly)=4y?—2 polynomials .y Hay) —21Fy-s(9) (470) | 7 SR varie ‘pie ao point cmgy Of te ono 44 Hydrogenic atoms : Bohr model’ mh or aos Quantisation Q orbital angular speed condition prinpal quantum sumer Go a Boke radius Bohr radius: reduced mass (~m) Me stetroni harge 2 stomic sumber Orbit radius hh Planck constant © Wen Ey tora energy of mh obit Total energy ) permit of fre spa im cleron mass Fine structure 4 fine sacar constant constant eres of fee space Hartree energy Ey =~ 4.36 10-5 (476) | Be Hare corey med Rydberg, mc? mae _ En Re Rydberg constant consent Re apa ae TD | Sere Rydberg’s Penis ian Ja photon wavelenath formula? Toa Reims 2 (ae ae, (478) | integer >n ‘Becanae th Bobs model ie tity a wo body problem, the equations we reduced mas, jm / (mPa) =, ‘where masei te nvcear mass, throughout. The orbit radis is therefore the elecron-nveleus distance. Wavelength of the spectral lie corresponding to electron transitions between orbits m and m96. Quantum physics ‘Hydrogenlike atoms — Schrédinger solution’ ‘Schrddinger equation Ev tn Ze tae Bon with a) Eigenfunctions (tym? 72\ tantieo= [SEM] (2) ears orred) (480) Smit yaad BELG) 3 OTe T= 1 with a= WeZ> Etta exey Total energy sare (4380) | oS permivity office space = 2b -10+1) eer o a ee (682) | cnr of ete n hie Radial SRG + I ST+DT (483) | assem) expectation fl roe mast of mules values aay (680) | Oe hee 2 Ze chatge of acieus apes (485) | Ae teezonc charge 3p. (4.86) | rf asocited Laren is ae polyoma eee 120,1,2,..0(1—-D) 87) | aia obit radio, a= ‘quantum ye Eyl (488) | ectromaucies separation numbers and (489) | y= spteial harmonics selection rules? (490) | a» Bobrradins = 2% 41 aan) 3/2 Map ar ae wpe Te tacingett Yaw = goa ge eos Ya =F gaa go *sinde’ a3 r BEGET) Fe yse Yow gig (21-2 ao GE (6-2) Leesa a? (61) Ts sesingetié ah e3c0s0— Ynsi =F gia (6-2) Se”sinde Yon= grein Be” “Geo OD ot 2 = ae sind costes You: ‘Fora sgl bound clecvon ina peviet nuclear Coulomb povealial (nonrelativistic and spin). For dipole transitions between orbials ©The sign and indening definitions for this fonction vary. This form is appropriate to Equation (48,44 Hydrogenie atoms Orbital angular dependence 3 orbital it (492) (493) p orbitals ay LP +Yacsindsing (asa) pe=Yicce0s0 (495) dp = stg (3+ ¥59) sin? 8082p (496) des = Fa =¥z")ccsinBecosBcosp (497) Ge da=YPoc(Bcor?#—1) (498) (V3 +Y$")ccsinBeosdsing 499) pa? Ys) ocsin’ osin2g (4.100) Yi spberieal ‘hermonis* 6,6 spherical polar Seordinatee “See page 49 for the definition of spherieal harmonies98 Quantum physics 45° Angular momentum Orbital angular momentum Lane (4101) | L angular mowextum La (4.102) | » —tinear momentarn eee postion vesor ‘momentum (4.103) | eemaud operators (4104 | sien por A (Planck (4.105) ‘constant)/(2x) til, (4-106) | 1 taader operators Ladder ne (icoto 2 ) (4.107) |" spherical operators (ors 30 (4107) | 0 mons LaYP =A +1) —mim-L DAY (4.108) | ByPaMsyeY" (20) (4.109) Eigen Ly =mny y (4.110) se einen tee em eigenvalues (m £1)RLL¥/"(8,0) (LLL) +1) (4.112) Angular momentum commutation relations Tapia momen Conservation of angular ?omencim momentum? Winta\=0 G13) | fy Hamitonin Ider opecotor Waly] =inl, (4.120) Gas) .La=int, (4321) (atts) ae (G.0,)=' (4.122) fae (4123) : i see 4.124) taf oe a ® a4 lafl= ) erga ae (ALI=.G1=0,61=0 27) ‘The commutation ofa and Bs defined as [ab] —ab—ba (ee pase 26). Similar expressions old for S and J. For motion under a central force4.5 Angular momentum 9 Clebsch-Gordan coefficients* A Ummm (Uno 23 Gime mt— mad APs) gS z Geng pee Aen fcvatie jm ma | coeicients 9 1/a3 13} fs im imst 2 ssn areata Dot aan exe alitea BML oe eae Rasa) saa Castayecieps or rales sede rami ve Rese 3 ao Banal aoa [a atis x(a] at 3/2x152] 4372 ears rap bees mona] 0 Brees] ay sata fas usher See Rae sa Seah as aa tops 0 iA A ve ous ais “3 vs Lethe 5) 3yax3/2i) oe Le isos 1 aati] a foes abs Pease Oras] a fiaseae ants ibaa Reausis ym] - ahs as iacas 0a] Rrojvis ue vio (ats 2 yop sles 2 tals aa i a0 ae ota a [ise abr. 4 1/20 a obs * an [iia sua ie i074 {ec sls <4 ye Lyftsalan aus of id wn 2x3/472) +52 feat ie “4 Samp ar| asa 2x2fe) 43 Cosa Sapa) | feats nahi 7s aap] a eteiawe iss 2] sa (ha sas whabt ss 1s pa ae propia ia an praises 2s 2s Eialan eso] tciius sie 0) a o aecie yh ery 8 ts “is is Us rae rio ara] |S Zaalaas ae ws i else us ase 3h tis “ate 340 : ash yr 45 ae maT ass [erate 28 eine o ofaas 0 an a. us 53 2 ata 80 to cal yr “ays Ss Or “Wigner cooicents” wing the Condon Shoriky Sgn ogmvention Note that a square root is asumed ‘yer all socficeat digits, 90 that "3/30" comesponds to. ~/3/10- Also for clarity, only vals of my =0 are ted Bere, The coefisens for my <0 can be obtained from the symmetry relation (j—m,—msfa—m) = (2)! Vymyligm stam).Angular momentum addition® (4.128) | 7,3 total angular momentum (44129) | LL oritl anguar Toul angular P=Lt+S+205 (4.130) | 5.5 spin angular momento momentum —— fy, =mjF Pm (4.131) | ¥ eigenfunctions . my magortc quantum Spin = IGE DEV iy (4.132) |" umber fy 1 Hx) eer ee ie Pyp(x)=tanhx 4.149) | yy Seana f * ‘number density of atoms yan toe Mean eB 8 = pa) fm Bohra magnesaicat (M=miateres (Jes) 4as0) Shee Bolen costar (8) for isolated, iB peeieeeogas spins (J=1/2) , (MMya=mastanh (or) (4151) | ap, ean magaetiatin for J=3/2 (and g)=2), OF en ensemble of atoms ia thermal equllbriam at temperature 7, each Wi tal angular momentum quanta number J102, Quantum physics 46 Perturbation theory Time-independent perturbation theory Tip wopertrbed Haniioian Unperturbed Aovn= Eve (4.152) | yy cigefunctins of fo states (wn nondegenerate) Ey eigenvalues of Ho miner 20 Perturbed or A perturbed Hamiltonian Hamiltonian fa fit tt 4153) ‘AY’ perturbation (¢ fla) Ea i Perturbed : apnea bee EL pertubed eigenvalue (24) ceigenvalues* pa te (il) Dirac bracket igen rire (ais) Poriurbed im : a nae Tet. (455 | poet demtacon functions” faerie "To second ore ott order ‘Time-dependent perturbation theory ‘He unperturbed Hamiltonian Specie wm eeafuncton of fly stationary lov = Enon (4.156) | Si ae states = ese i A perturbed Haitosian Perturbed (=. r( (f) perturbation Rerturbed A= Ma +4) (4150) | 9 prt semodinger n+ At} ¥e)—A (ass) | ¥en eae ¥(E=0)= 0 (4159) | (Planck constant)/(2x) Perturbed —¥(0)= )ealt)yacxp(—iEat/h) (4.160) wwave- 7 x robabliy amps function® where OFF f Wall @ipo)explilEn—Eo)t Md’ (4.161) : Ty transition probebity per Fermi's Fa Aaa) {ni tine om sate! golden rule T= WIA wo) (4.162) sate f AE) density of fina states To ira onde47 High energy and nuclear physics 4.7 High energy and nuclear physies 103, Nuclear decay 7 Toy mac oa Nacone decay y(n ()e™* (4.163) |" eacg ater tine Haltlife and (A168) | 2 dey constant i Typ baie mean (4165) | (2) mean iene Successive decays 1-+2-+3 (species 3 stable) N= Ni(Oe** > (4.166) ae 2%, popalton of eis 1 Na = Nao OWES) (4.67) | Na popaation of species 2 pean ees NO = NO-NO =e) +N (0) (144 AE THE) | gc o hy a , dq decay constant 2—+3 elit of partie Geiger’s law* (R—x) (4.169) | x distance from source Geiger-Nuttall isalsierecod Geiger-Nutall Jog 75 clog (4.170) | ie constants for each seen Bandy For a particles in air (empirical), Nuclear binding energy Liquid drop model? * ahha 2 ay NOP 2 Ba aA— ada ay +5(4) peepee (4171) | a, volume em (~158Mev) +a,A-** ZN both even ea gel eeety eConom te (~072Me) Oe eee heen (4.172) | asymmetry term (~235MeV) otherwise pang erm (~235MEV) ae MGA) stom mass Semiempiisl M(Z,A)=ZMir+Nrmy—B (8.173) | ye mss of hydrogen atom ‘Coeficent values ae exprial and approtimate- Quantum physics ‘Nuclear collisions sale oven rate weit Wine OM ESETE PETA 179 | 4 nominee sina att (4.175) | E total energy (PE + KE) 25+ YQ +1) ‘Ey resonant energy Tt of sonata & soe ae (4.176) | ray pari widt into a+ To patil with oo € eons ine Resonance J otal engier momenta lifetime (4177) |" Guantam aumber of R sink. ‘Kr Bom scattering 97. formula? a vera (A178) | adie distance ap spinn of ¢ and ME diferential colsion reduced mass aout (8 footnote) Vie) potential energy of interaction Molt scattering formula® 4B x, Aoos(Intan?f) 27° ~ sin? feos} J org ant als Ble x (4.179) | » closing velocity —12 RC in the ceae Of mas fame. ‘Rutherford seaterng formula (page 72). Relativistic wave equations* ora cental field. The Bora approsimation bolde when the potential energy of catering, V, is much less than the total Kinetic energy, K isthe magnitude of the change in the particle's wavevector due to searing ‘For identical particles undergoing Coulomb satering in the centre of mass frame. Nonidetical particles obey the (massive, spin where aun (S a) 1/2 particles) aoa OFaks G'P=07P=0°F Klein-Gordon fa equation —_ (massive, spin 181) |» oot zero particles) faeet Taste min Ya (oY rae.) cater) |S Borie mnene 1/2 particles) Oe Ox Oy Oe : cee (iy*Gu—m)v=0 (4.183) | oo Diss trices: assy] P=(6 5.) (G4 fy noen init matic Ay (4.185) ‘Wen in natural waits with ==.Chapter 5 Thermodynamics 5.1 Introduction The term thermodynamics is used here loosely and includes classical thermodynamics, statis- tical thermodynamics, thermal physics, and radiation processes. Notation in these subjects ccan be confusing and the conventions used here are those found in the majority of modern ‘treatments. In particular ‘The internal energy of a system is defined in terms of the heat supplied zo the system plus the work done on the system, that is, dU=@Q+aW. The lowercase symbol p is used for pressure. Probability density functions are denoted by pr() and microstate probabilities by p, With the exception of specific intensity, quantities are taken as specific if they refer to unit ‘mass and are distinguished from the extensive equivalent by using lowercase. Hence specific volume, v, equals V/m, where V is the volume of gas and m its mass. Also, the specific heat capacity of a gas at constant pressure is cp=Cp/m, where Cp is the heat capacity of mass m of gas. Molar values take a subscript “m” (e, Yq for molar volume) and remain in upper case, ‘The component held constant during a partial differentiation is shown after a vertical bar; ence gl is the partial differential of volume with respect to pressure, holding temperature constant The thermal properties of solids are dealt with more explicitly in the section on solid state physics (page 123). Note that in solid state literature specific heat capacity is often taken to ‘mean heat capacity per unit volume.106 Thermodynamics woe Ther oyna 5.2 Classical thermodynamics Thermodynamic laws 7 tenmodjaani operate Thermodynamic im m icapaate Tec lim(pv) (5A) | sium of «Sed mas of sas P saspresure lim(pV)r K kelvin unit Kelvin Lim temperate sale T/R=276Cfpipyy, 62) | # seperti at 4 ehange i tera exergy First law? au=a9+aw (53) | aw work dae oa system (20, beat supplied to sytem experimental entropy Entropy® (54) | 7 temperature s_ reverie change ‘Thermodynamic work* ‘Sag Recmaiaed wih & gas themnometss The Wea of temperature ie associated with the zeroth Taw of ther- rmotynarsics” If two systems are in thermal equilibrium with a third they are aso in thermal equliorim with each ther The @ notation represents diferetil change in quantity that i not a function of state of the sytem. Associated with te second law of thermodynamics: No process is possible withthe sole effec of completely consertng, eat into work (Kevin stateren). Hydrostatic gy pay (55) pressure Surface tension ¢W=yda (5.6) Blectric field © GW=E-dp (5.7) Magnetic field ¢W=B-dm (58) Electric current ¢W=Addg — (5.9) pChydrostatic) pressure 4Y volume change EW work dove on the system surface tension change in aren electric field induced electric dipole moment smagntic fox density indeed magnetic dipole moment potential diference charge moved erry ene "ie sours of sais and magnet feldk are taken as being outside the themmodyaamic sytem On which they ae working.5.2 Classical thermodynamics Cycle efficiencies (thermodynamic)* 107 Heatcodan = Taw ST io) | awry Refrigerator y= Matenmasied < Th (stn) Heat pump y= Mest supplied (612) Ono getty = Maen 603) / 7° atti "ealised reversible “petrol” (beat) engin. Heat capacit = e aes sig | F volume F ¢ : — 19/9 516 Difference in ee Pp heat capacities er a (317) oes oH | ‘Thermodynamic coefficients be wobare (5.19) | expansivity* r Totiernal * compressibility 620) P ‘Adabate ‘compressibility (21) | xs ermal otis (322) | ke Adiabatic bulk modulus (5.23) | Ks “Also called “ais expanshiiy” or "Yume expaminity” The near expanse ‘The equalities are for reversible Gyles, such as Carnot eyles operating between temperatures Ty and Th ‘eal capacity, V constant eat temperature volume internal energy entropy ‘beat capacity, p constant pressure enthalpy ‘aobaric expansiviy ‘sothermal compressibility ratio of heat capcities aiiabatc compressibility Teobaris expansiay volume temperature Isothermal compressibility pressure adiabatic compressitiity {isothermal bulk modulus adiabatic bulk modulus Pa108, ‘Thermodynamics 7 Toa exec Tempera pressure inter exer Cy eat capaci V constant - Yoxde-Kelva ooeficnt ¥ volume H etbalpy pet capacity p constant "Expannoa Wi Ho Gang i nteroal energy 2EcDunnon wth 0 change in enthalpy. Algo know ata “Joue-Taomson expansion” ot “trong” pros. ‘Thermodynamic potentials? 7 iotemal ery 1 tenpeatue| Internal energy aU=TdS—pdV+ydN (528) |S extony chemi poteatal 1 mumber of parle Baa =U+pV (529) | # eats nthalpy 7 Ppresure aH=Tds+Vap+udN (530) |, ame Helmholtz free U-TS 630 ze een cneray" aF=—sdT—pav+ndn (532) |" BA ~ G=U-TS+pV (633) Gibbs free energy P+pV=H-TS (634) |G Oibbs tee enerey dG=-SdT+VdptuaN (535) | OTP s36)| , ae See venue do=-sdT—pdv—Ndy (537) |° PO oe =SdT + Vdp—No (538) relation A avalbiy panes A=U-TS+ pV (539) |, cenperaute of pee dA=(T—To)dS—(p—po)AV (540) | surroundings 1mo_presure of suroundingt Dior a dosed Hatem Sometimes elle the "work function” ‘Sometimes called the “thermodynamic potential”5.2 Classical thermodynamies Maxwell’s relations 109 TU iateral neray Maxwell 1 (S41) | 7 temperate Y volume Hensley Maxwell 2 (542) | §eatony P presure Maxwell 3 (543) | F Hetahot fice enrey Maxwell 4 (544) | 6 Gibbs fee every 7 ota ee oy (645) | U jn cry © Gites eomay (646) | entaipy 7 cope (647) | prea Y_tolane Phase transitions ‘L (latent) heat absorbed (1-2) Heat absorbed L=T(S—S1) (5.48) | T temperature of phase change 3 entony Clausius-Clapeyroa Oe ee equation nme ces (2 phe ates Th) (5.50) | 1.2 Pt Coexistence curve? nryccexo(Z#) (5.51) | 2 moter gas constant ir. Sp _ ba Bo (552) | fy isobaric expansivity Ebrenfest’s OT era—er1 or isotbermal compress exuaton! 1 Cane ig55)| hates poo a Beat aac (peo WFig-ia : Pnomber of phases ia issn Gibbs’s phase rule P+F=C+2 (5.54) | F number of degrees of freedom [esuecamtaas ‘Phase boundary gradient fora fstorder transition Equation (350) i sometimes called te "Clapeyron equation” For ¥2>>V;,e8, if phase 1 is 2 liquid and phase 2 e vapour Fora second-order phase transition.110 Thermodynamics 53. Gas laws Ideal gas Joule’s law u=U(T) (GSS) eterna 7 tenperature Boyle's law pV |r =constant (5.56) |) me Equation oF state py number of males (Ideal gasiawy PY "AT 557 | on pe coat pV? =constant (5.58) Adiabatic (559) | » rato of hea capaciies (Gp/Cv) a (5.60) | aay work done on sytem (361) Tinternal energy (562) Reversible pee isot AQ=nRT In(¥ Steerer eect saateaeienlaeidy 63) | > inal and fil ses Joule expansion® AS =nRin(V2/Vi) (5.64) | 48 change in entropy of the system Virial expansion "Since AQ=0 for a Toale expansion, AS W due enely to Brevenibllty, Bosause entropy i & Function of state it ‘asthe same value as forthe reversible isothermal expansion, where AS=AQ/T. temperature rear (9 2D) Visi expansion 65 pe PAD) (565) vi Boyle B,(Ts)=0 (5.66) Purse pressure volume solar gas constant temperature rial coecients Boyle temperature3 Gas laws Van der Waals gas P pese Vg mola volume Equation of state (5167) | molar gas constant 1 temperature ‘ab van der Waa’ constants (5.68) | 7, critical temperature Critical point (5.69) | jo crite presure (5:70) | Vie evita! molar volume aeacneas me Pie te (5:11) |; Vaio q -1/% Dieterici gas P presure Yq tla volume Equation of state (5:72) | R nolar exe constant T tempat 1. Dinter conta Tema /(4RD’) (5.73) | To coi tempersture Hs ab ye cca preware Critical point jae) (7) | eee eae (575) |e” =ame, Reduced equation ane cree Pe (5.76) | Ve =Va/Voe T._=T/T : Dieterici gas 4 18 12 16 1 14 12 = 08 £1 06 os 04 06 oa 02} fo. 02 0 0 (Geere itera teasers Qe eee attests2 Thermodynamics eee CEE 5.4 Kinetic theory Monatomic gas ? Pressure (5.77) | m @ ¥ volume Equation of state of an ideal pV =NET 57 |*, Batansna oman eae T temperature 3 Non e Internal eneray U=3NkT=Sm{c*) (6:7) | viata ene Cy=5Nk (5.80) G_s “ i Gr beat capacity, constant ¥ Heat capacities, Gy-=Cy +Nk=5Nk (5.81) | cheat capaci, constant p 1” rato of eat capucites CG 3 (682) Ea net ap 5 entropy Se sem (ME) "eM h] an] 2 ee amnen equation)* Dri © 271828. Broglie wavelength, 2, approximately equals n@", ‘Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution’ “Foc tke econ es Toe actor (AZ) ite quantum concentration of te pris mT heal reise get itden(5r)"m0 (SE distribution 684) Particle energy 2EW? distribution = PAE) GE = Srger Tae (Ge) dE (585) wer Mean speed (y= (HT z speed (e} ( = ) (536) sms speed (587) ‘Most probable no ‘De probabiny densi me particle mass Boltzmann constant T temperature partie speed E particle Kinedo energy (=me"/2) (2) mean speed ems Foot mean squared & most probable speednetic theory 113, 5 Kinetic theory ‘Transport properties T mean ice pat (5.89) | 4 molecular diameter parse mumber density Mean free path Survival aoa pe probability equation? Eee 690) | ea distance Flux through a _1 J woleclar Bux plane tagn (590) | (mean molecular speed Selfitfusion J=—DYn 692) 1 D> difion coefiient Be (593) HE bat Sx per ut area (589 | 1 smal conductivity Thermal (595) | 7 tapeatare conductivity » deasiy (596) | ¢r speci eat opacity, 7 constant : 1 z dynamic viteosy Viscosity = 5ple)=pD (597) | x displacement of epee in SE dimetion ater tine [Browalen gp, | Batman constant were tm ETE fay) fea sphere) ma a sphere raius ‘BE mats How rate Free molecular dM _4R} (2nm\"? (py po Ry pipe radius fow (ease (A) (Benge) |e peeks ow 1 TE Go) | m pare ase presse ‘fora petec ins of ard sphetal parties wi a Nanwel-Boizmann sped tiburon. Spobabliy of taveing distance x without a olson Prom te ide where the mimber deny, asuming en isotopic velocity dstibuton, Also know a “olsion umber” "Down a pipe from end 1 40 end 2, assuming p difion coefiient Be (593) HE bat Sx per ut area (589 | 1 smal conductivity Thermal (595) | 7 tapeatare conductivity » deasiy (596) | ¢r speci eat opacity, 7 constant : 1 z dynamic viteosy Viscosity = 5ple)=pD (597) | x displacement of epee in SE dimetion ater tine [Browalen gp, | Batman constant were tm ETE fay) fea sphere) ma a sphere raius ‘BE mats How rate Free molecular dM _4R} (2nm\"? (py po Ry pipe radius fow (ease (A) (Benge) |e peeks ow 1 TE Go) | m pare ase presse ‘fora petec ins of ard sphetal parties wi a Nanwel-Boizmann sped tiburon. Spobabliy of taveing distance x without a olson Prom te ide where the mimber deny, asuming en isotopic velocity dstibuton, Also know a “olsion umber” "Down a pipe from end 1 40 end 2, assuming pm) ate eee ueue ee a 2a Hee ec on/p! 2(a/m)" = : ae — l ° | xi" [NE : | (22/mz)*” TT k | | | on = 5 ok =F monatomic chain diatomic chain “&)- (634) [© von nerfs Monatomie ain ena linear chain (5) "sie(D) (635) | 5, phase speed (sinex= 425) % group speed (636) | 2 phoaon wavelength A wavenumber (=25/2) pane wa @ atomic separation Tears | (637) | m_stomie mass (>) 1 reduced mass (Emm fom +m) Identical oP BF2 4 12 24 omarcoska)!/? | % altemating spring contents masses, mm alternating, (6.38) td spring O, Aa +o)/m ifk=0 Laie, 3 Sous of AS TE, oom] “Along fale Hear sonic cians, considering sinpe hamnonl are acghbour VeaGoes cay The Wade ‘egion of the dispersion relation is outside the first Brillouin zone of the reciprocal lattice. * ia the sense x fring force/raatve displacement. ‘Noe that the repeat distance for chis casi is 2, so thatthe frst Bellin zone extends to [ki <1/(2a). The optic tnd acoustic branches are the + and ~ solutions respectively.130. Solid state physics Debye theory DH man weayhamok wo perptonon (@)=} fe (620) 0 green ee phonon (E)= Shot — Me _ phonon ery Be On * spa beens! Temperate i fom Date (engl) fremseney Debye momen iV" (641) | OP etectve sound sped freq ie caaegengeegs acy |e oom par pond ion eeti deere note (642) | name pe pd N-number of tom nesta Debye 6p =hop/ke (643) | v_ crystal volume temperature Sp. Debye tnertae He) deaty of ate Phonon (648) | Cy beat capaci, ¥ constant density of thermal poonon enerey states stim est 4s) Debye freon ean PMT capacity cy nine [ wor ¢ S) o Dulongand 3k (T > 60) (645) Petits law ebye T? a yg T? ee mee a a a LA peerintanae ee 6.48) Internal una I's sate T= (648) thermal i energy? where pw=4 3h a= ea (6.49) [Or aay Ganj Faron oollaor in thermal equilbrium af Temperate T. Negleting naropoint enerzy4 Lattice dynamies 131 Lattice forces (simple) ionic crystals) Van der Waals interaction? (650) (651) Lennard-Jones 6-12 potential (652) (molecular exystals) (653) De Boor h parameter etme on, Coulomb interaction (655) co) % & « AB ele ‘wo parile potential enezy parte separation article polaisbility (Planck constant)/25) permit of fee space angular frequency of polarised orbital constants Lenoasé-Tones parameters 6 Boer parameter Planck constant particle mase lattice Coulomb enersy per ion pair ‘Madelung constant tectonic charse nearest neighbour separation Lattice thermal expansion and conduction “Tondon’s Tormula Tor fctuating pele interactions, noglocng the propagation Ue beiwoen particles a phonon gas 1 phonon mean free path ‘Umklapp mean free path® Jy ocexp(0./T) (659) |, umblapp mean fre path 8 _umklapp temperatare (~@/2) aes 7 Giiaeisen parameter (6.56) | « — normel mode fequency parameter? a 4 lnees expansivty ; Kr isothermal bulk modulus Linear expansivity® fo feeder temperature Gy etce beat capacity, constant Thermal 2 thermal conductivity conductivity of (6.58) | 2, efective sound speed ‘Sire, the Grinelsn parameter bts mean GF ove all normal mods, weighted by the mode's contribution to 80r “coeticient of thermal expansion” for an isotropically expanding ental ‘the scattering of phonons outside the fst Brillouin Mean fee path determined solely by “umklapp procesSolid state physics we 65 Electrons in solids Free electron transport properties J caneat density nn fice electron number deasity Current density — J=—neva (60) |", eee a mean alexa dit velosty ae veep |" mypete beens tain drift velocity aia ae dd, electrical an | Eset conductivity (662) | 4 ae conductivity U=eE) ‘ac. electrical % © ac angular fequeney = 3) fe ety — Toa 6) | coyas consuviy ae Cy tal ltr heat capacity, V content a aren (6.64) | V_ volume Thermal 3 (2) mean square lect spend conductivity (P< Tq) | #2 Botemann contat Temperature (6.65) | rp Fermi temperature ‘Wiedemann ar Loren constant (224510 WOK) Franz law are Be (6:66) |, thermal conductivity Jy ‘Ry Hal coeticiet be By Hatewenc tee — LBs fp J. applied caret density [7 | ‘b magnetc fx deasty, (C774 [Halwa Vg Hal youuge Ve (rectangular (668) | Le appli current (=. erosional es) strip) ve _ sp thicknes in "Foran deve Bala vanog ws = ‘Mllds for an arbieary band trocar (Holds foe oar ron in ve, where ¢ i the clementary charge (approximately +16%10-C). The Hall SO SEATS reir a negave number when te dominant charge carers ae cetons65 Electrons in solids 133 Fermi gas V (im)? E denron amy OO) tron demsty E— z(t) B® (665)| ge eaig eras of states* Preis eae (670) | me Sextronie mas (anc comsasty(2) Fermi eas se Femi wavenumber wavenumber r= Gen)" (671) |» tuaabe of eeetons per unit Fermi velocity or=hkr/me (6.72) | op Feemi wiociy Fermi eneray (T=0) (6.73) | Bs Fermi cacrey Fenn Te Fermi temperature temperature (674) | 2 Bolumenn conssat Electron heat 675 ‘capacity? (675) ‘Cre beat capacity per electron ren (erg [7 see | Total kinetic aed) (627) | Up wat Knee enrey Sn Pat agai ucepity nae M=jueH (678) | Ht maga Ste srenh 3n 2M magpetanion i Paramagnetism = Fou (679) | po permet offre space fe ote magneton Landau sin, Landa magnetic diamagnetism = *#t (680) suscepebility ‘The densi of sales often quoted pr wit volume aad pace Ue SEIT ew) Equation (675) hols for any Ges of sates Thermoeleetricity 7 eisosienial Baa? Thermopower? 45:07 (681) | 4 cent density 2 eit conductivity Sr dermopower Peltior effect. = -H=IIJ—VT (682) | 7 temperatuze AE beat x per uit area Kelvin relation 1I=TSp ‘ (683) | 7 Pie cociient 2 thermal eonduetvy £Or abaalate ena pow” ‘The electrochemical Geld is the gradient of (u/e)—d, where sis the chemical potential, -e the electronic charge, aod the ela potenti, :134 Solid state physics Band theory and semiconductors Faction digest lochs theorem WHR expe OH) (684) | se ecor positon ves fy ckctton vl (for waverestor » Electron 1 conta aie = ZTE) (6a) |» Pana carne ft) corey bad Effective mass PEK) mij elective mass tensor a mar (Se (686) | A components of ‘Scalar effective, _,)[02Es(k)] rt scalar effective mass oa =f ae snp Si pace motiiy Se ean dit wloiy applied cet eld Mobility (eat) eee D. —didusion coeficient 7 temperature aa J carentdesity eee T= (ete + man yeE (6.89) | nay electron, hole, umber densities zi ‘Han Clectron, bole, mobilities fe (haT)? «e329 Bul hy Boltzmann coastant eae rem = eM SaltheT) | Fand gap cn (6:90) | my letz00, ote, effective masses {$$$ came iy Ig satan cent [=f [ew (&) = (691) | Fas voage oe forward BT intrinsic carrier concentration a Ds aca of uncon pajuncion BONA (Bact a) (692) | D5 eon ta, ison Len Oen} 2 (633) Lax electron, hoi, diffusion lengths (Dyes) (6.94) | cy electron, hole, secombination Nya acceptor, donor, concentrations i \ jai Tor Teions Of Papas Te which By(h) can be tka as idependeat ofthe direction ofChapter 7 Electromagnetism 7.1. Introduction The electromagnetic force is central to neatly every physical process around us and is a major component of classical physics. In fact, the development of electromagnetic theory in the nineteenth century gave us much mathematical machinery that we now apply quite generally in other fields, including potential theory, vector calculus, and the ideas of divergence and carl. Tt is therefore not surprising that this section deals with 2 large array of physical quantities and their relationships. As usual, SI units are assumed throughout. In the past clectromagnetism has suffered from the use of a variety of systems of units, including the ‘gs system in both its electrostatic (esu) and electromagnetic (emu) forms. The fog has now all bat cleared, but some specialised areas of research still cling to these historical measures. ‘Readers are advised to consult the section on unit conversion if they come across such exotica in the literature. Equations cast in the rationalised units of ST can be readily converted to the once common Gaussian (unrationalised) units by using the following symbol transformations ‘Equation conversion: SI to Gaussian units em 1/4) Hoda Bo Ble te>4ngs eda Hcl (an) A-Alo MucM Di D/(ax) ‘The quantities p, J, E, , 6, P, é and y, are all unchangedEe seeeeseeeeen 136 Electromagnetism 72. Static fields Electrostatics aaa Electrostatic vant potential ei potential a Potential potential at b difference as ca eae charg densiy Poisson's Equation yg. —F (73) | ey pect oF (free space) e0 ‘free space = Eto (74) imac Point charge at 7 ~~ point charge as vations yk fa ae de vome cement charge distribution £0") “pre 8) | postion year (free space) “biaoe : ‘cteeza pois @ tad aoa a PRE Magnetostatics” Magnetosta ts 7-5, “sagaess ar | Magnetic scalar po age an\. me potential 7 2 manele | ga inten of ie solid angle of a bani cn |® snp ee generating current an Toop, : 4 in dementia Biot-Savart law (the dh") as) ae dieton o aa feld from a line sg or eC 2 Pete , current) lie a Bee Serer oeceaeeese eee Ampéce’s law VeB=, (7.10) | jo permeability of (diferential form) bat renest ‘Ampére’s law (integral fo ae ay | tialeaent form) Hols i ‘tough loop Sin Tice ae12 Static fields Capacitance? ‘ Of sphere, radius a Cadzeona (7112) Of circular disk, radiusa— C=Beveea (733) OF two spheres, radius ai Coenae ain aa contact : OF circular sold eylinder, —_¢— "anna 7 radius a, length 1 CoB +AlU/aP Moe. Aire Of nearly spherical surtace, G~3439x19 Hes ary area S Of eube, side a 2728310" ea aa) Betwoen consenttie sphere —ananeanboay? 7 radii a>a nb (a!2-2) “For carats confined tothe sures of pion condasion Ia We space per unit length, (24°>-a) 725) (7.26) 137138 Electromagnetism Electric fields* Uniformly charged sphere, radius a, charge q Uniformly charged disk, radius a, charge q (on axis, 2) Tine charge, charge density) 2 per unit length FO=st (7.29) lectrie dipote, moment p (13) f (spherical polar o coordinates, angle oper between p and r) (731) ‘Tharge sheet, surface [ey density ¢ For g-=1 in be oding Magnetic fields? [Uniform init solenoid, aa Saeaeaeea] carrent I,m toms per unit B= {eer inside (axial) 73 feng 0 outside Uniform cylinder of _ fuotr/Ona) dees momet Generalised electric cast |p See cemiy dipole moment Ge woh element ? vector 4? & Gio pote Electric dipole (72) | * ete fom dipole potential fo pei of ee te | Dipole moment per Ppl ‘unit volume P=np (783) |» ‘number of dipoles per (polarisation)? nt whe Taduced volume aaa ee eae aa (788 | pag von gy Tadveed sarfacs (ras) | toe sre charge diy charge density ton) + ‘unit normal to surface Definition of electrie Dect dlopacenent =e 786) displacement ona (7.86) E eectric field Definition of eects p—, te decal smentity susceptibility coe an (nay be a tensor) fini A+xe (7.88) Definition of relative ee lave peg permitivity? — (789) | F ermitvty =E (7.90) Riomie a 2 polity polarisability? eee (791) |. ea erie Sd Ey depoaing eld Na depolariing factor 1/3 pe) (792) =i (hin sab 2 to) =o thin deb | 10 P) 1/2 Gong ccalar Slings ane 10 P) Depolarising fields Eg. Clausius-Mossotti na ex equation! 3eq eet? ‘Assan apo ae prac. The cquvalet of Equation (7-112) bolds for «Bot gar Of Seetc dipoles 'Ratative permittivity as defined ere i fora liner isotropic medium. The polansahility of a conducting sphere radius ais z= rego! The definition pag sso used. ‘athe substitution ey fet Equation (7.195) with ue= I] tis is also known asthe “Lorentz-Loren formula” (793)74 Fields associated with media Magnetisation : Ge dipole monest Definition of 1 oop eurent magnetic dipole (7.94) | 4s loop area (right-hand moment sense with rept to toop cuenty mole momeat Generalised magnetic dipole 195), mace moment Pyetr to de f= mate Magnetic dipole dlr) (796) | + vector from dipole (calar) potential nF 5 eras ince Dipole moment per M-agneiton unit volume M=nm (7397) | m umber of pts (magnetisationy? per unt volume Induced volume oe Jat volume curest current density acre 798) sity Ge, A) ng sce creat Induced surface ae desig Ge, A) current density aoe (799) | sai onal 0 mite | Deiaition of pages fi density magnetic field oH) — (7.100) | agnosie nis strength, suena (7101) Definition of a magnetic magnetic ae Soe (ed susceptibility ais tetas) (7.104) Definition of relative (7105) | 4, selaive permenbtty permeability’ (7106) | permeasity (707) ira) ‘Aspuming all the poles ae paral. See Equation (7112) for a dasscal paramagnetic gat aad ‘page 101 for the quantum gencralistion, ‘Relative permesbilty as defined ere is fr linear isotropic medium. 143, iHaad lees sdsdndasasenaaadasenasdncenseeeeee Paramagnetism and diamagnetism 7 (7) ‘mean squared orbital radius Diamagnetio (ai deseo moment of en atom (7.108) ) = seniommnter nent fx dey ne son mae 7 atone are Intrinsic electron J) total angular momentum ragastio moment "~~ Bry (718) | La tne 2 a : G(x) =cathx—* (7.110) Langevin function x 26) tanga action ~x/3 (x21) (7111) Classical gas (Mf) apparent magnetisation paramagnetism (=m (BE) rary) | aged often ple (>) nn dipole number density: 7 wenpenue Curie’s law (7.113) | k Boltzmann constant fae mere ces peel of i se Crie-Weiss law aang | meio Sea Fae Paalel Perweueat ofthe Fy continuona .(7Ats) |! Spore ent dle el FerpendiculiF : component ofthe, coatiauous (7116) ) "eens © magnetic fox reat density Diz seta denen pent) Electric & = unit normal to surface, $Dy-D)=2 st displacement? (Pa Dr) (7437) directed 12 ose deny fe oe sng mand sags EE aan meen raat maaates strength’ aH), ce ie ee ate a "AY the plane srface between (vo uniform media, Sita=0, then D, is continuous. if j,—0 then Hy is comtinuows2.3 Force, torque, and energy 75 Force, torque, and energy Electromagnetic force and torque 145, Force between two static charges: Coulomb's law Force between two current-carrying elements = Ha al aad a (7.120) aF, Force ona ‘current-carrying element in a magnetic field GF =1dbkB > (7.121) Force on a charge (Lorentz force) FeqE+eB) (712) Force on an electric aes F=(@-VE- (7.123) Fores onamagnetie paGm-yyB (7124) owe Gipole GaprE (7.125) oa ce 7126) Torque on a Gan f ralatyeB) (112) current loop op Fe a2 ah, Tors on fe barges vector from Ito 2 permittivity of fee Space line elements currents flowing along iy and dl, farce on dlp permeability of free space line element fe current flowing along 6 magnetic flux desity clove fle charge velocity electric dipole moment magnetic dipole moment rogue Hine-element (of lop) position vector of dh, utreat axound loop ‘EF simples to Vip-E) i pis intinsie,VipE/3) i pi induced by E and the medium i isotropic. °F simples to Vm-B) ifm is intrinsic, VomB/2) if m s induced by B and the medium i isotropic.146 Electromagnetism Electromagnetic energy Electromagnetic field i 1B [To eneray deasity energy density (in free uw: xo ta, (7.128) : eee ie 22) eo peritvity of fee space to permeability of espace eee foeewny — 03)| 5 Se a ‘H magnetic field strength sped flight Energy flow (Poynting) yy pay (7.130) | jv Sheep fw rate per uit ‘veoor ‘area to the flow direction spite of dipole moment Mean fux density at a neue Pir fom dipole Gistance r from a short (N)= 222352, q3yy | Conran oscillating dipole Baxter? © angle between p and r © onsllationfeqency Total mean power as from oscillating we wae (7.132) | total mesa radiated power Seve Us total energy 1 drome eenent, Sel-enery of a 5 f{ dlr)p(r)dz (7.133) |r postion vector of de charge distribution aye ee > charge density i Yi potetil of th cepastor Energy of an assembly 7,5 SS CyViV) (7-134) | cy mutual capacitance betwoon of capacitors? ea Spscton 08) Energy of an assembly yy. 15ST ry, (7.135) | Hv urea inductance berneen Tntrinsie dipole in an are Tag | Uae carey iole RIE Ug OO | SO Sean Intrinsie dipole in a (7137) | m— marnate siole moment magnetic fold aa HH Hanitosian Hamiltonian of a ‘pm parle momentum charged particle in an (7.138) | @ particle charge ae [i arise ec ‘Sometimes elled “Lansors formula” jis the self-capacttance ofthe ith body. Note that Cy = Cy. Ey is the sitinductance ofthe ib body. Note thet Ly = Ly. “Newtonian Limit, ie, velocity <7.6 LCR circuits 4a7 7.6 LCR circuits LCR definitions —_ Current (7.139) Ohm's law V=IR (7.140) Chas ew (eld ag (741) Resistivity, (7.142) Capacitance (7143) case rah (7.44) Selfindvetance (7.145) incur iia Moral (aan) Soxmiat onary =kVEl; (7.148) Linked magnetic vg (7.149) flux through a coil imgedance on nse 2, immpedance connect 2aff \ts ‘ae 2% 3 Star Zin impedances "737,425 (7.168) Delta eat impedances (4+3+4) (7.169) .150 Electromagnetism wo Eero 7.7 Transmission lines and waveguides ‘Transmission line relations Transmision Hine ean a | Loss a cum |” ee 1 curate cna a oo cuiny | ie pa Ccapacitaace per nit length ev Wave equation for a a (1172) lossless transmission 2 cere Tine Fe (1.173) | Characteristic impedance of (1.174) | Ze characteristic impedance | lossless line character 2 resiance por wnt length aracteristic ofeondcor Rial impedance of loss faa 1175) | 6 conductance per wit a ee G+iot (7478) | © (ih of tnd ‘© angular fequeney Wave speed alonga (aire | * moet lossless line eM Te 176) | 6 group speed Fi Z.coskl —1Z,sinkl (complex input impedance Input impedance of Zj,= 7,26 —Zssink Taput impedance of Zin 207, congi—izasink! 77? | 2, compe) eminning line Zi/Z, il=i/4 (7.178) Reflection coefficient from a terminated line (7.179) |r eomples) vokage wavenumber (=2x/2) 1 distance from termination ‘ellesion coeicient Line voltage standing wave ratio ‘Transmission line impedances (7.180) RaCuEe Coaxial line (7.481) Open wire feeder (7.182) Paired strip (7.183) Microstrip line Ze (7.184) %_ Garaceric impedance (0) (2 ads of iner conductor radius of outer conductor © penmitivity (=0e) permeability (po) 1 4 ris of wires distance between wires (2r] step separation step width (>) ‘aight above earth plane 5) “Forlosias ae2.7 Transmission lines and waveguides 151 Waveguides’ wavenumber a guide © angie frequency Waveguide 4 ide eit =n fs eae el ‘and Gatges) © speed of ht Guide cutot mt 7ayt Ye cual frequency frequency TVG) Ge) 8] ae Phase velocity arya |e» phase roa above cutoff f (ve/¥F C187 TP Freneney Group velocity : city aro aier cyte (7188) | soup vetocty Zine wave impedance fr tyes Za=Zoy/1—(ve/¥? Cito) aaa eee ae impedances oe ig ‘transverse electric modes Zra=2o/\i-Cu/eP (1190) | 2, janetc at tee ome Yi) Field solutions for TEs, modes” ikge? 0B. Bea ox gc? 2B: (7.191) OF 5 sett mx nny = cos =O B,=Bocos™ cos, Field solutions for TMye, modes* gc? OE a? ox kc OB. ay dy in gin MY E,=Bgsin = sin {Eguaios ae roan waepadey ib ROAUar Gow Hons and wo GSE ‘rt of the esti dt the magnet Held stegts in the my plane ‘Both TE and TM modes propagate ia the 2 direction with a further factor of expli(igs—a)] on all components, By and Ep ar the amplitudes of the = components of magnetic fx density and elect ld respectively. (7.192)152 Electromagnetism PS See secs eseeseseeCeS eee eee eee ec ronan 78 Waves in and out of media ‘Waves in lossless media Electric field (7.193) Magnetic field (7.194) Refractive index (7.195) Wave speed (7.196) Impedance of free space (7197) ‘Wave impedance (7.198) ™ zo Z H Teste Bald pemmeabiity (=p) permitsivity (eve) magnetic fox density time speed of ight refiactive index speed of ight impedance office space wave impedance magnetic field strength Radiation pressure* Radiation - @ maneatae desi momentum 2 (7.199) | Poynting vector density speed ofiht ‘pe normal pressure Isotropic 1 1 jeat radian po=4ul+R) (7.200) |" eoeray density radiation 3 ee ceeticieat, Specular Pa =u(1+R)cos? Bi (7.201) | p, tangential pressure reflection Pe=u(1—R)sinBjcos6; (7.202) | & angle of incidence 1 speci intensity From an 14R , fenied AEE [ [110.908 nage source’ (7.203) | @ angle between do fd somal plane From a point L-souree luminosity sources As8) (7204) | Ges tadiant power) luminosity L itt distance fom source "On an opaque surface ig pera polar coordinates. See page 120 for the meaning of specific intensity. “Normal to the plane.