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International Studies in Peace & Conflict: Conflict in Europe 1935 1945


1. Growth of European Tensions

DICTATORSHIPS IN GERMANY AND ITALY

In dictatorship, ruler has absolute power, authority to govern as pleased with


whatever laws & no opposition. All political parties are banned and criticism is
forbidden, with all sectors of society strictly controlled.
Frequently arise when democratic rule breaks down; when parliaments cease to
govern effectively.
Hitler and Mussolini Dictators who dominated Europe, working as partners. Their
appeal undeniable. Peacetime economic policies beneficial in creating employment
and restoring prosperity Fascist rule
Hitler strongly influenced by Mussolini showing him the effect of patriotic speeches,
uniforms and ceremonies on mass audiences.
Foreign polices of Hitler & Mussolini opportunistic, aggressive and dangerous
helping to exacerbate tensions between older established European powers and
newly independent states created at Versailles
In Europe by 1935 democracies of Brtain and France hoped to maintain terms of
Treaty of Versailles settlement; whilst dictators determined to destroy status quo
Evident in Churchills history of WW2 Gathering Storm writing that in 1935 Hitler
ready to make first open challenge to Versailles settlement, in announcing creation
of German air force and expansion of German Army. Almost same day, Mussolini
began to move against Abyssinia
Greatest advantage for dictators was democratic powers memories of WW1 fear
of another war outweighed desire to protect terms of Treaty of Versailles policy
of appeasement.
Kershaw argues that Hitler never gave up long term goals of glorious expansion

Dictatorship in Germany
Hitlers Germany responsible for much devastation of war; could have waged war
without Mussolini. Eventually saw Italian alliance as burden claiming it was main
cause of German defeat.
AJP Taylor shifted focuse of WW2 being just Hitlers war
- Germanys desire for land in Eastern Europe and position of dominance in
central Europe not Hitlers creation or product of Nazi ideology. Had been
part of German foreign policy since 19th cent
Bullock has criticised Taylor for neglecting Mein Kampf
Kershaw: Hitlers interlocking aims based in world view dominated by concept of
racial struggle as key determinant of history

Nazi Foreign Policy


Date
1933
October

Nazi Action
Germany leaves
League of Nations

Germany leaves

Significance
Contract of League is part of hated Treaty of
Versailles Hitler wins plaudits freedom of
action abroad

International Studies in Peace & Conflict: 1. Growth of European Tensions

1934
January





July
1935
January




March


June

Disarmament
Conference
Germany and Poland
sign 10 Year Non-
Aggression Pact




Aborted Nazi coup in


Austria
Saar region returned
to Germany



Germany brings in
conscription

Anglo-Germany Naval
Agreement

Allows Hitler to profess peaceful intentions:


Germany agrees with disarmament.
Poland inferior Slav nation which had taken German
lands in 1919 retribution. Hitler had no intention
of honouring. Yet had several benefits as it
Highlights German peaceful intentions
Gives Poles false sense of security
Prevents possibility of Polish-Soviet Pact

Austrian Chancellor, Dolfuss assassinated. Austrian


Nazi Party fails in attempt to take power; Hitler
denies involvement.
Small area positioned on Franco German border,
rich in coal & iron ore. After 25 years of it under
League of Nations jurisdiction, Saar people allowed
to vote to join France or rejoin Germany
Massive pro-German vote Nazi
propaganda
Hitlers 1st territorial gain

Hitler announces plans for 500 000 army and major


rearmament
Against Versailles Treaty; Britain & France
take no action
Hitlers confidence boosted

1936
March

Remilitarisation of
Rhineland

July

Outbreak of Spanish
Civil War


November

Axis Agreement

Anti-Comintern Pact

Germany allowed navy 35% size of Britains & =


num of submarines
Britain acts independently of France
Versailles Treaty further eroded
Demilitarisation of Rhineland (1919) meant to
suppress French fears of future German invasion.
Hitler orders German troops in Rhineland with
orders to withdraw if France acts
France & Britain do nothing despite breaking
of Treaty of Versailles and Locarno Treaty
weaknesses revealed
Germanys strategic position strengthened

Hitler provides open support to Francos fascist


forces in Spain, allowing troops to gain valuable
practice

Germany and Italy announce creation of Rome-


Berlin Axis

1937
April

Guernica

Germany & Japan sign Anti-Comintern Pact aimed


against Russia
Spanish town systematically bombed & destroyed
by Germ aircraft

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November
1938
March



Anti-Comintern Pact
Anschluss




Munich Conference
`
September

Italy accedes to Anti-Comintern Pact creating Rome-


Berlin-Tokyo Axis
Fearing German invasion Austrian Chancellor
Schnuschigg calls referendum on issue of German
independence
Hitler anticipates this by sending German
troops in Austria to restore order
Britain and France again take no action

1939
March

German invasion of
rest of Czech

Hitler demands cession of Sudetenland to Germany


containing 3 million Germans but also Czechs
defences & industrial centres.
Hitler ripped up Munich Agreement
Britains policy of appeasement over
Hitler demands of Poland that it
Return Danzig to Germany
Allow construction of road across Polish
Corridor which separates Germany from East
Prussia

May

August


September

Guarantees for Poland



Clear Hitlers next target is Poland

Britain offers guarantee to Poland to assist if
Pact of Steel
attacked by G
Nazi-Soviet Pact


Poland

Germany and Italy sign 10 year military and political


alliance

Germany and Soviet Union sign non-agression pact


Hitler could invade Poland without interference
from Russia Hitler opportunist

1 Sept: Germany invades Poland


3 Sept: Britain (and later France) declares war on
Germany




Dictatorship in Italy
Became fierce Socialist, although despising middle class socialists as they too
moderate. Despised anyone who not ready to do battle against injustice of world.
Pursued career in journalism to express strong criticisms and opinions powerful
and troublesome agitator
Leading left wing agitator who dreamt of revolution which would make all men his
subjects. Believed like Marx that war ideal breeding ground for revolution urged
Italy to join war on side of Allies. Socialists furious and expelled him from party
Italians not satisfied with their share of break up of Austro-Hungarian Empire in
Peace Treaty: Trentio and Trieste as they felt deserved greater rewards for
sacrifices. Demands for various territories rejected, nationalistic Italians furious
Yet, Italians frightened post WW1 as had unstable home front with Italian trade and
industry collapse. Spent huge sums of money financing war, and owed billions to

International Studies in Peace & Conflict: 1. Growth of European Tensions

France, Britain and US who supplied Italy with majority of armaments and coal. No
money left to repay debts
Returning soldiers found no employment and no money to support families. State
did nothing to assist. These victorious soldiers looked upon by people at home with
distrust and dislike.
Much political unrest with so many political parties with varying ideas as to how
country should be governed
Italy post WW1: external and internal political, economical and social conflict/strife

Mussolini & Fascism


Mussolini wouldve been quite helpless without Hitler, never being able to challenge
democracies successfully on own. However, it was Mussolini who had shown Hitler
way, inventing Fascism, the right wing, violently anti-democratic movement which
spread throughout Europe.
Fascism brought freedom through authoritarianism, heroism and nobility through
discipline and sacrifice
Due to Fascist censorship and control of the means of mass communication,
Mussolini presented to his people and world as the Ubermensch the man of
inflexible resolution, devoted public servant who laboured for his people and the
man of strong passions but discipline
Young Mussolini had way of making friends and relations adore and admire him
when talking or making speeches. Could excite people and hold them spellbound.
General fear of Communist Revolution from Catholics, upper, middle and
peasantry classes and industrialists turn to Mussolini
- Catholics bitterly opposed Communist as they were anti-God and wished to
destroy Church
- Upper and middle class terrified that lives of comfort and prosperity would
cease. Knew their estates would be split among peasants
- Peasants afraid of losing plots of land and freedom to become servants of
state
- Industrialists opposed comnst declaration to set up workers committees &
run factories themselves
Fear of left wing violence and ideals of Communism eventually turned Italian
people to Mussolini who seemed capable of uniting Italy
Strikes and riots got worse squabbles in Parliament grew more bitter liberals
began to doubt Parliaments capabilities of solving breakdown of government.
Dread of anarchy and fear of communism persuaded liberals to accept Mussolini,
believed could use heroic leader to save democracy then rid him.
Mussolini and storm troopers (Arditi) started fights, riots and disturbances in
streets against Socialists and Communists whom they blamed for initiating
investigation of Mussolini, resulting in him being placed in prison for plotting
against the state. Arditi marched off into country to search out Communists and
Socialists and punish them. Merely doing what police afraid or incapable of doing
Communists tried to get revenge almost civil war. Although Communists didnt
do efficient job as storm troopers, always made to appear that Communists in the
wrong during this, Mussolini made speeches and wrote articles telling Italians how
he was saving them from horrors of Communism

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Mussolini and his Arditi seemed so strong and Government seemed so weak by
comparison appeal despite violence. Appealed to patriotic feelings of Italians
making them feel nationalistic
Socialists general strike in 1922 enabled Mussolini to punish socialists. Broke into
Socialist Party buildings and smashed everything. Police and general public agreed
with Mussolini that Fascists just doing what govt afraid to do Mussolini declared
in October unless the government is handed over to us, we shall march to Rome. Few
days later, ordered government to resign
Next day 25 000 Blackshirts set off to Rome March to Rome yet Mussolini stayed
behind being cautious as didnt want people to think he trying to take over
government by force, waiting to be invited to become PM. Army waiting for him to
declare martial law, which would give him authority to take any action
Government finally decided to declare martial law and drew up necessary decree.
But at last moment, King Victor Emmanuel refused to sign with excuse that rule by
army would plunge country into civil war.
Refusal to sign Declaration of Martial Law in October 1922 took away from
government its one chance of stopping Fascists. Mussolini correctly guessed that
PM would very shortly resign and King would be forced to invite him to from
government as no other candidates.
Changes Mussolini gradually implemented to protect the state
- Put Fascists into all important positions of Government, Police and Civil
Service. Gradual process hardly anybody realised
- Altered voting system to ensure he had large majority in Parliament.
- Disbanded Royal Guard and put Fascist Militia in place
- Newspapers censored
- Parliament became mere talking house with no powers to make laws or
criticise
Editor from respected newspaper: He has given to the Government freshness, youth
and vigour ... saved Italy from the Socialist danger
With Mussolini as leader, Italians felt secure and contented. More work and more
money, and delighted when strikes forbidden by law
Working class viewed him as simple man who loved hard work reinforced through
propaganda
Socialists, Communists and Royalists objected to some of his implementations
The April elections of 1923 last free elections. Mussolini destroyed democracy and
in less than 5 years became complete dictator, and more and more popular.
This popularity maintained through
- Propaganda: made people believe that Fascism was philosophy which would
bring back to the Italians all heroic courage of ancient Romans. Slogans
painted, special illustrated books for kids
- Fascist youth organisations
- Pulling down of half Eternal City of Rome to remind Italians of their glorious
past
- New schools, railway stations and motorways built
- Great areas of marshland drained and turned into fertile farmland
increase of production
Papacy and Italian Government had been on extremely bad terms since 1871. Now
Mussolini persuaded Pope to give up his claim to Rome, while agreeing in return to
recognise the tiny Vatican City as completely independent state hero of Catholics

International Studies in Peace & Conflict: 1. Growth of European Tensions

Fascist Italy
Not nearly as hard nor tough as in Nazi Germany
Mussolini had no pride in Italys priceless art treasures. Willingly have exchanged
them for few great battlefield victories yet Italian people confident that he would
never lead them into great war. Proud of their Duce for making Italy feared abroad
and grateful so security at home
Germans obeyed Hitler with fanatical enthusiasm and ready to sacrifice everything
for him. However Mussolini complained he most disobeyed man in history. Nothing
he did/said could make Italians law abiding.
When Mussolini implemented laws against Jews to impress Hitler, Italians saw it
that Jews didnt suffer to same extent as German Jews. Very few murdered or sent to
prison.
Mussolini knowing how deeply religious most Italians were, didnt attempt like
Hitler to persecute Chruch.
The King grew to dislike Duce intensely, and this was reciprocated by Mussolini.
However a=Army still looked on King as head of State rather than Mussolini.
Mussolini formed special Blackshirt divisions, but they never took complete control
of Italian Army like SS took control of German Army.

Italian Foreign Policy


Mussolini asserted that Italy must be an expanding power and that imperialism is
the basis of life for every people which tends to expand economically and spiritually.
Corfu: August 1923 Italian general and staff killed on Greco-Albanian border
Mussolini sent ultimatum to Greek government demanding apologies and
compensation. When not received, bombarded & occupied

Short Term Aims


Sought to revise revision of 1919 Paris Peace Settlement like Germany
- Treaty of London: Italy promised various lands. Promises not kept
angered Italians
Develop Italian military power to be respected in Europe
- Pursued rearmament, conscription and military strength similar to Hitler

Long Term Aims


Revive glories of ancient Roman Empire and Have Italy recognised as one of Great
Powers
Keep Austria independent of revived Germany
Extend Italian economic influence into Balkans, Spain and North Africa & Make
Mediterranean Italian Island
Achieve by imperialist expansion the iron, coal, oil, cotton and other raw materials
which Italy needed
Kept attention of Italian people focussed on grievances and glories and thereby
diverted from economic and political dissatisfaction with Mussolinis regime.
Living space for Roman Empire & become famous conqueror Capture Abyssinia
(only independent country left in Africa)
- Attack launched in 1936 and victory achieved in few months.
- Fascists and Italian nationalists: pride and nationalistic
- European countries and League of Nations: shock and condemnation
resolution forbidding members to sell war material to Italy however,
proved they were powerless to stop small war

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Showed 2 great dictators could break international law whenever they liked
and get away with it
Mussolinis foreign policy similar objectives to Hitlers but lacked fanatical
ideological elements. Racism almost absent from Italian policy & not until became
closer to Hitler, anti-Semitism part of domestic policy.
-

Steps to Securing These Aims


Regimentation of a nation: military strong so that all foreign ambitions backed by
power
Heavy armament expenditure: special aid to arms factories, large army conscripted,
large air force built up, substantial navy with submarine fleet
Disapproval of League of Nations: Mussolini stressed national authority as higher
principle than international
Use of economic influence: Italy sent support to Albania and by 1926 Treaty
strengthened influence over Albania. Italy practically dominated Adriatic Sea.
Alliance with Germany: 1930s Mussolini switched to supporting Hitler in hope of
receiving backing for moves which might bring Italy into conflict with France and
Britain.
- November 1936: Axis Agreement
- Axis Powers joined to help right wing Spanish Dictator General Franco in
Spanish Civil War
Date
Nazi Action
Significance
1923 July Italy takes ownership Action comes from eventual post war treaty
of Rhodes & islands of arrangements (Treaty of Lausanne) with Turkey
the Dodecanese from

Turkey
Italian border commissioners murdered on Greco-

Alabanian border. Italy demands from Greece
Corfu Incident
apology and indemnity
Greece appeals to the League
Italy bombards Corfu
Council of Ambassadors arbitrates; Greece
pays up & Italy leaves Corfu
Propaganda victory
1924
Issue of Fiume
Italy annexes Fiume form Yugoslavia but decides not

March
to take any of Dalmatian coast. Fiume emotional

issue in Italian politics after 1919
1925
The Locarno Treaty
At Locarno, Mussolini plays statesman. Locarno
October
agreement guarantees west European frontiers and
seen as major step in cementing peace of post war
Europe
1926
Albanian Affairs
Mussolini takes keen interest in Albania

Supports Albanian King Zog
Italy soon dominates Albanian politics
1928
Abyssinian Affairs
Mussolini signs Friendship Treaty with Abyssinia.
However also sends arms and troops to adjacent
Italian colonies of Eritrea and Somalia
1934 July Dolfuss Assassination Assassination of Austrian Chancellor Dolfuss raises
fears that Germany about to move into Austria to
support local Nazi Party

International Studies in Peace & Conflict: 1. Growth of European Tensions

Mussolini moves troops to Brenner Pass and


indicates Italy wont allow German takeover
of Austria
This action persuades Hitler to keep out
Italy not yet in German camp despite similarity of
ideology and foreign aims
Britain, France and Italy meet at Stresa, forming a
common front to stand up to any possible future
German aggression

1935
April

October


Stresa Front

Abyssinian Invasion


League Sanctions

November

Hoare-Laval Pact
December

Italian army invades Abyssinia


Mussolini declares beginning of new Roman
Empire
Stresa Front collapses

League of Nations imposes half hearted sanctions


against Italy

1936 July

Spanish Civil War

November League Sanctions


1937
February

Italy leaves League of


Nations

November
Anti-Comintern Pact

Britain and France offer to carve up Abyssinia with


Hoare-Laval Plan, causing outrage and both men
resign
Mussolini joins Hitler in supporting Fascist forces of
General Franco. Italian forces suffer badly on
Guadalajara Front in June 1937

Foreign Minister Ciano signs treaty with Germany


that forms Rome-Berlin Axis
Condemned by League for actions in Abyssinia and
now key partner of Hitler, Italy sees no point in
further League membership

Italy joins Germany and Japan in Anti-Comintern


Pact aimed at Soviet Union. Now Rome-Berlin-Tokyo
Axis
1938
Munich Conference
Mussolini intervenes last minute to bring on
November
conference to settle Czech crisis
1939
Annexation of Albania Italy annexes Albania. More symbolic act than real

April
as Italy long dominated Albania

May

Pact of Steel

Germany invades
September Poland

Italy and Germany sign alliance. Doesnt commit


Italy to fight with G
Significance is to remove perceived
inferiority of Italy that now marked Axis
relationship

Italy doesnt go to war with Germany. Foreign


Minister Ciano attempts to organise a Munich-
style conference over Poland; fails. Italy will
eventually join Germany when it declares war on
Britain and France in June 1940

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Similarities and Differences of the Dictatorships


Similarities
Nationalists who wanted more territory
Resented Treaty of Versailles
Militarists who glorified war
Suppressed opposition by force and intimidation
Abolished other parties, developing private armies and used propaganda
Used mass meetings to influence people
Made use of scapegoats (Jews in Germany; Communists in Italy)
Agreements / compromises with Church
Aimed for economic self sufficiency and industrial improvement
Organised youth movements for physical fitness

Differences
Hitler wanted more territory to unite German speaking people (lebensraum);
Mussolini wanted to gain empire to give importance to Italy in effort to restore days
of old Roman Empire.
Hitler gained power legally although took time and extensive use of propaganda;
Mussolini took power by force when marched on Rome gaining power quickly
Hitler made extensive use of intimidation and abolished all former government
bodies. Mussolini had no comparison to Hitlers SS and Gestapo and retained
monarchy (too violent a change to remove them)
Nazi Germany better organised with hierarchy of officials; Fascist Italy no organised
body. Hitler developed totalitarian state and Mussolini set up dictatorship
Mussolinis secret police, OVRA, not nearly as cruel or efficient organisation for
terror as Gestapo.

THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS AND COLLAPSE OF COLLECTIVE SECURITY: ABYSSINIA, SPANISH CIVIL
WAR

The League of Nations


Based on President Wilsons 14th point, the primary purpose of the League of
Nations was to promote international cooperation and to achieve international
peace and security.
As a body, was to find ways to prvent disputes from leading to war. Member states
were supposed to find security through justice
Wilsons original intention was for League to monitor and make periodic
adjustments to various traties signed during 1919 and 1920. Instead, it used to
enforce provisions upon Germany
1921: in accordance with Article 14 of Covenant, League created Permanent Court
of International Justice. Submission of disputes to Court voluntary but many
members signed statute binding themselves to accept Courts decisions. Created
primarily to be arbitrator in disputes.
- Weakness: unless both parties agreed to adjudication of dispute by Court,
Court had no jurisdiction to hear case
Court empowered to give advisory decision on dispute upon reference from either
assembly or Council

International Studies in Peace & Conflict: 1. Growth of European Tensions

Council virtually executive committee of League consisted of representatives of 5


Great Powers with non-permanent elected representatives of other member
countries.
To maintain peace, all members undertook to respect and preserve as against
external aggression the territorial integrity and political independence of other
members.
Members agreed if there was a dispute, they will submit matter to arbitration or
inquiry by Council and not resort to war until 3 months after award by arbitrators
or report by Council.
Under Article 16, if member state acted in defiance of Court of Council, their trade
and financial relations with other members states would be severed and thus
prevention of all financial, commercial or personal intercourse with other members.
Senate of US Congress refused to ratify Treaty of Versailles & thus League Covenant
asserting it wasnt ideal of international peace rejected but lack of clearly specified
guarantees and methods. Felt economic sanctions and blockades too negative, and
slow and suspicious of what they as open-ended wording on defence issues.
Insisted decision to commit US troops to any military or disciplinary action
shouldnt rest with League but whole of congress.
This refusal was to have detrimental consequences in that League lost vital member
changing British and French attitudes to League.
- With US, functioned with mixture of realism and idealism
- Without US, for Britain dangerous concept whose obligations needed to be
watered down and for French, weakened collective security became poor
substitute for rigorous application of Treaty of V
- Action of US destroyed Guarantee Treaties between France, Britain and US.
Structure of the League
Council: executive committee of League whose decisions had to be unanimous. Was
to comprise of 5 permanent members (US, Japan, Britain, Italy & France) & 4 non-
permanent members
Assembly: all members had 3 delegates in assembly and could discuss any League
issue. Each nation has one vote and votes had to be unanimous.
Secretariat: permanent body which carried out day to day work of League;
international public service
Legal Political Structures: Permanent Court of International Justice; Council for
Protection of Minorities; Mandates Commission
Socio-Economic Structures: Health Organisation; International Labour
Organisation; Refugee Organisation

British and French Attitudes


With protection of Royal Navy, one of strongest advocate of land based
disarmament and positive advocate for Collective Security.
Britain enthusiastic supporter of League principles. People used to idea of self
determination and to practice of political rights and responsibilities under free govt.
As taxpayers, reluctant to endorse heavy defence spending & welcomed
disarmament and collective security with relief
French couldnt accept League, as didnt offer any real guarantee against further
German aggression and not capable of stopping invasion of French territory.
US failure to ratify Versailles Treaty cancelled Anglo/American guarantee of
protection for Frances eastern frontiers and undermined Frances belief in Allied
collective promises. Didnt seem possible for Britain alone to contain Germany

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AJP Taylor: French wanted League to develop into system of security directed
against Germany; British regarded as system of conciliation which would include
Germany. French believed last war caused by German aggression; British came
more and more to hold it happened by mistake.

Italian, Chinese, Japanese, German and Soviet Attitudes


Italy expressed dissatisfaction with results of Peace Treaties. As Mussolini gained
power, demonstrated thinly disguised contempt for League principles.
Demonstrated less and less interest in preserving peace.
China unable to benefit from new internationalism, due to civil war and revolution.
At first, looked eagerly to League as insurance against Japanese aggression. Ideas of
democracy appealed to growing number of intellectuals in govt.
However news of Great Power agreements with Japan seemed to Chinese that
preservation of world peace called for sacrifice of homeland.
Japan began exploring possibilities of Democracy. Technical and industrial
experience enabled Japan to take advantage of all war caused shortages around
world. Model democratic govt of Japan embraced policy of enlightened peace.
Exclusion of Germans denial of League principles. Appeared Germans ostracised
by rest of world, denied self determination, ethically separated, economically
strangled and subject to invasion at whim of Allies
Bolsheviks dismissed League of Nations and Collective Security as Capitalist Ploys
and sympathised with shaky Weimar Republic. Russia pursued official policy of
neutrality and disarmament, and concluded series of neutrality pacts with Baltic
States and Middle East nations.
Evident Dangers for League
Peacekeeping initiatives of new organisation little effect on fighting between
communists and fascists in Italy, Bolshevik purges in Russia and outbreak of war
between Russia and Poland in 1920. Many statesmen agreed with General Smuts:
League would never carry on to prevent war
Confidence in League waning. Articles of League bound in everyones minds with
harsh terms of Treaty of V some of noblest ideals seen as impractical and
compromises evidence of weakness
End of decade coincided with economic collapse on global scale. League needed
investments of time and faith to survive, and stability of healthy world trade
balances.
Collapse of stock market (1929) pulled financial blocks from post war world. In
ensuing depression pursuit of peace submerged beneath avalanche of national self
interest.
Lord Robert Cecil, founding father of League recognises weaknesses of Article 10. In
handling acts of aggression, could give no advice unless unanimous & no obligation
of members of League to accept advice.
Frances invasion of Ruhr aroused widespread criticism throughout Europe. France
seen as aggressive and uncooperative. France justified high level of armaments with
their genuine apprehensive to security, conscious of smaller population and lower
birth rate, dreading combination between Germany and Russia against ally Poland.
With absence of US from League, Britain in particular led Leagues quest for
collective security and disarmament working for peace and conciliation. Foreign
policy of Great Britain identical with am of League of Nations policy of peace

International Studies in Peace & Conflict: 1. Growth of European Tensions

Disarmament
The League sought to replace an international system of collective security for old
system of every State relying for defence on own armed forces. Only when
Individual states became convinced that alternative provided by League workable,
could League members proceed with plans to disarm.
While major countries remained outside League system of collective ecurity,
member nations didnt feel safe
Doubts whether member nations powerful enough to deter aggression. Whilst
disarmament basis of world peace and principle of collective security praised,
international situation not favorable to large scale disarmament. Refusal of US to
join weakened possibilities of disarmament.
Britain and France felt burden on themselves too heavy and changed attitudes to
League
- France set alternative system of alliances with Rumania, Yugoslavia, Czech
and Poland, treaties whose existence indication of lack of confidence in
League.
At Washington Conference of 1921-22 limitation of battleships in ratio of Great
Britain:US:Japan:France:Italy.
Numerically limited only to battleships although max size set for capital shits,
aircraft carriers and cruisers
- Applied to only one aspect of naval armaments
- Limited to few countries only
January 1930: same 5 powers convened in London. Agreements as to capital ships
and regulations of submarine warfare accepted by each of States but differences
failed to bring general agreement on further limitation of all types of cruisers,
destroyers and submarines.
Three Power Naval Treaty of March 1936 between France, Britain, and US defined
certain qualities limitations and permitted any signatory to exceed these limitations
if felt being outclassed or outbuilt by non signatory power.
International cooperation towards limitation of naval armaments achieved little.
Even less progress made within League towards general disarmament.
May 1920: Permanent Advisory Commission on Disarmament set up.
1922 Draft Treaty of Mutual Assistance drawn up. Assistance to victim of aggressor
to come from member States of continent only. Scheme rejected by Britain and
Dominions
Locarno Pact, ratified in Dec 1925, gave France to a degree security it lost when
Guarantee Treaties of 1919 not eventuated. Brought Germany into League world
power status. This treaty brought appearance of security to Europe and began
period of intensified hopes for general disarmament.

Peace Pact of Paris / Kellogg Briand Pact 1928


Frank Kellogg, Secretary of US, converted Aristide Briands (French PM) bilateral
agreement to multi lateral.
Pact enjoyed enormous popular enthusiasm, attitude of govts appears to have been
recognition of necessity to affirm Pacts principles mixed with doubt of its
effectiveness in cause of peace
Whilst Pact brought countries outside League (US and Russia) into system of
collective security Pact didnt propose any action against country breaking pledge.
No sanctions; rested solely on good faith of signatories

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Disarmament Conference
Disarmament Conference for February 1932 planned disregarding reserves,
personnel and conscription to be limited, and land wartime material subjected to
budgetary limitation.
However, Stresemann now dead, Nazis increasing influence and whilst
Disarmament Conference may have been effective in 1925 or 1928, serious doubts
on how effective in 1932
2 Feb 1932: Geneva Disarmament Conference opened.
Basis for continuing conference: limitations placed on calibre of certain specified
weapons, numbers of aircraft reduced, chemical and bacteriological warfare banned
14 Oct 1933: Germany withdraw from Conference and shortly after Mussolini made
clear he thought conference waste of time ceased to exist.
Collapse of Collective Security
Peace initiatives of 1920s genuine attempts to ensure end of war. But never came
time when all weapons and fears discarded. Old armaments replaced with better
armaments.
Article 8: maintenance of peace requires reduction of national armaments to
lowest point consistent with national safety and enforcement b common action of
international obligations
French claimed under constant threat from German aggression. Germans made
national grievance of fact they stood defenceless amidst hostile France, &
communist Russia
Britain and US having come to satisfactory agreement over warship ratios, not
gratly worried about armies and expressed anxious sympathy for everyone.
Collective Security worked to a degree at diplomatic level but apart from sanctions,
common act represented undefined force that didnt exist. Neither collective nor
secure
Depression increased siege thinking. Interest in Disarmament Conferences renewed
in hope of reducing defence spending. But economic nationalism took precedence
over all other nationalism: tariff walls and trade preferences needed armies and
navies to defend them.
By Jan 1932, Allies fallen foul of each other and growing psychology of fear
dominated councils of world
March 1933: Japanese resigned from League over Manchuria. By this time, Nazis in
full control of Germany and looked down upon principles of international
cooperation. October: walked out
By 1934, everyone conceded Disarmament Conference failed

Success and Failures of The League: International Disputes


Aaland Islands
Inhabitants under control of Finland wished to join with Sweden and agitated
accordingly. Finns arrested leading agitators and this created tension between
Sweden and Finland: Sweden feeling bound to protest against such actions.
Britain brought case before League Council who appointed committee to visit
Sweden, Finland and Islands to gather evidence.
July 1921: gave decision prefaced by international convention guaranteeing
neutrality of islands, Finland given sovereignty but self govt & freedom to use
Swedish language given to islanders. Both parties accepted

International Studies in Peace & Conflict: 1. Growth of European Tensions

Corfu Incident
Members of Italian boundary commission fixing border between Albania and
Greece murdered in Aug 1923. Italian govt demanded official apology and
indemnity of 50 million lira; and Italian involvement in apprehension of murders.
Greece refused and appealed to League for aid.
Italians bombarded and occupied island of Corfu. Italy ill disposed to direct League
intervention hence League council asked Council of Ambassadors to arbitrate. They
temporised by awarding Italians indemnity on condition Corfu evacuated dispute
settle
Showed Leagues authority weakened when major powers involved; certainly if that
power unwilling to permit League negotiation
Involvement of ambassadors essentially compromise by big powers

Mosul Dispute
Dispute between Turkish and British mandate controlled Iraq (Mesopotamia).
British attempted to take most of Mosul and add to Iraq although it hadnt been
conquered in WW1. Claimed disputed region necessary to Iraqs defence and
economy. Turks claimed it not spoil of war and local population favoured Turkish
rule.
Emergency council meeting held and temporary demarcation line (Brussels Line)
laid down roughly along Britains desire.
By 1925 neutral commission appointed by League: favoured Turkey in that right by
conquest of Britain & Iraq denied. However, suggested provided British mandate
over Iraq continued, people better off under Iraqi rule.
Turkey requested Permanent Court determine binding nature of commissioners
award and whether Turkish reps have right to veto Council ruled award binding
but in accordance with Covenant, unanimity exclusive of votes of parties in dispute.
Turkey rejected decisions, further disorders occurred and Brussels Line became
permanent Turkey/Iraqi border. Rights of Turkish minorities in Mosul guaranteed
Example of League failing to deal with issues outside Europe

Graeco-Bulgarian Dispute of 1925:


Oct 1925 Greek troops crossed into Bulgarian territory and Bulgaria appealed to
League. Council at Paris at time, acted immediately and ordered military attaches of
Great Powers in Athens to report facts.
Greeks reported at fault and Council fixed sum which Greece was to pay in
reparations.
This success raised hope that it created precedence for future cases with equally
good results
Must be considered though, that Greece only small power and thus no political
complications

Bolivia, Paraguay and the Chaco:


Dispute at end of 1928 between Bolivia and Paraguay over possibly oil rich Chaco
region. Agreed to submit dispute to arbitration of Pan-American Conference on
Arbitration and Conciliation. Immediate dispute settled but cause of dispute
remained with no long term solutions. 1932: hostilities broke out again and neither
League nor other American Nations able to intervene and by mediation bring
fighting to end. 1934: League Comission of Inquiry outlined peace treaty fair to both
parties yet refused chairman suggested embargo on arms shipments to warring

HSC STUDY BUDDY 15




Manchuria
By end 1931: Japan invaded Manchuria following explosion on Manchurian railway
in Sept 1931, Jap troops moved to take control of providence. 1932: Shanghai
bombed and further provinces annexed by Japanese
Feb 1932: in attempt to conceal aggression as separatist movement, Manchurian
leaders declared independence and new state named Manchukuo under presidency
of ex Emperor of China, Pu-Yi
These actions violated obligations to Covenant of League, Kellogg-Briand Peace Pact
and Nine Power Treaty of 1922 which guaranteed territorial integrity of China
21 Sept 1931: China appealed to League under Article 11 of Covenant. By
December, Commission of Inquiry adopted by Council. League condemned Japan
This international Commission aka Lytton Commission sent to Manchuria to report
on incident. Consisted of Britain, Italy, Germany and US. During this,
- Chinese govt began boycott of Japanese goods and business firms
- Japanese Navy in early 1932 landed troops in Shanghai to suppress anti-
Japanese rioting
May 1932: negotiations completed for withdrawal of Jap forces and ending of
boycott
Sept 1932: Japanese govt recognised state of Manchukuo while Lytton Commission
still preparing report
- Indicated little respect Japan had for principles of League
October: Commission rejected Japans reasons for invasion but didnt call for return
to status quo and instead called upon Japan and China to have talks. Suggested
China set up in Manchuria autonomous govt which would acknowledge Chinese
suzerainty. Neither side agreed.
During 1933, Japanese continued aggressive actions towards China ignoring League
plans for acceptance of various responsibilities towards League. March: Japan left
League month later
May: China compelled to accept Tangku Agreement: unequal military truce which
offered little except certainty of further hostilities
Illustrates when major power chose to defy League, League has no power to stop it.
Highlighted Leagues inability to prevent international conflict.
Without US or USSR League essentially European body and Japan, China and
Manchuria beyond its capabilities or members interests
Fundamental principle of League was collective security: if one member attacked,
other League members rally in defence of member and force back down of
aggressor. Japan shown inadequacy of this principle.

International Studies in Peace & Conflict: 1. Growth of European Tensions

countries put into operation by September 1934 and supported by 28 countries


incl US. Nov 1934: Paraguay rejected peace plan formulated by League Assembly.
Arms embargo on Bolivia lifted and Feb 1935, Paraguay served notice of intention
to resign from League
Revealed limited power of League to bring about settlement of dispute.
Revealed shallowness of belief in ideals of League held by major powers of smaller
countries.
Reinforces theory that as strength of League lay in Euope its abilities to settle
dispute confined to that continent. Outside Europe, had neither support nor interest
of more influential members

Abyssinia (Ethiopia)
Abyssinia provided Mussolini with opportunity for imperial expansion.
Other factors encouraging Mussolini to be involved:
- Italian economists argued Abyssinia rich in resources & would provide Italy
w food & export markets
- Political motive: divert peoples home discontents to unite nation around
common patriotism
- Restore Italian honour in face of humiliation by Abyssinia at Battle of Adowa
December 1934 some Italian soldiers killed in clash at Walwal; incident Mussolini
used as excuse for invasion. Also, border dispute occurred over territory lying
across Abyssinia and Italian Somaliland. Abyssinia appealed to League for
arbitration
- Commission decided in September neither caused clash but made no award
concerning ownership
- Abyssinian/Italian relations deteriorated with Italy preparing for military
action and Abyssinia making several appeals against this to League.
Britain tried to encourage Abyssinia to accommodate Italy and offered path to sea
and use port of Zeilia in British Somaliland as part of its attempts to prevent
outbreak of war
3 October 1935: Italian armies moved into Abyssinia from Eritrea in north and
Somaliland in south
Italian strength & brutal willingness to use all modern weapons including gas
quickly wore down Abyssinians.
7 Oct: League Council declared Itay to be aggressor
11 Oct: Assembly agreed to impose economic sanctions against Italy excluding coal
and oil; however a few states (Austria, Hungary, Albania and Swtiz) refused to apply
sanctions
League agreed to impose sanctions against Italy. However were half hearted and
ineffective
- Oil and coal not included: key resources for nation at war
- Austria. Albania, Switzerland and Hungary refused to endorse sanctions
- Germany and Soviet Union helped Italy
Sanctions did nothing to assist Abyssinia. Their weak nature provided further
evidence to weakness of League
December 1935: secret Hoare-Laval Plan providing for sacrifice of 60 000 square
miles of Abyssinia to Italy
- Foreign ministers of France and Britain devised plan
- Limited sanctions maintained but no attempt to blockade Suez Canal or
interfere with Mussolinis access to war zone
- Upon being revealed to public, ensuing outcry territorial concessions
abandoned
- Britain strongly in favour of sterner sanctions against Ital but France
continued to stall deteriorated relationship
By April 1936 Abyssinian capital Addis Ababa captured
9 May 1936: Italian king Victor Emmanuel III crowned emperor
- Power of Collective Security demonstrated as sham
- Integrity of Great Powers compromised
- League received crippling blow from which never recovered

HSC STUDY BUDDY 17


Invasion occurred despite efforts of Leagues appointment oif arbitrators who


reported in Sept 1935 neither side at fault in disagreements. Sought to persuade
Abyssinia to accept changes with Italys colonies
France and Britain had potential to stop Italy
- Both had colonies next to Italys colonies
- Britain could have denied Italy use of Suez Cana;
- However, both concerned with possible future German actions. Had formed
Stresa Front with Italy aimed to keep Germany in check; feared action
against Italians would destroy this
AJP Taylor: this was the death blow to the League as well as to Abyssinia
Despite weak nature of sanctions, imposition destroyed Stresa Front
By Nov 1936 Italy became Germanys axis partner and in Feb 1937, Italy walked out
of League.
With Europes attention seized s=by events in Abyssinia, Hitler took opportunity to
send troops into demilitarised Rhineland
Proved concept of collective security dead and ineffectiveness of League of Nations
Transformed Italy from nation willing to stand up to Hitler to one willing to become
Hitlers loyal partner
Encouraged Hitler to believe he could get away with acts of aggression

Rhineland
Britain, France and Italy signed Stresa Pact to confirm frontiers and present solid
front against German rearmament. Britain and France looked to own defences and
Russia and France signed mutual assistance agreement Hitler raged at Frances
encirclement of Reich
Britain had fine disregard for League, Locarno, Versailles Treaty and Stresa Pact,
signed Anglo-German Naval Agreement which allowed Reich Navy to build up to
33% of British Fleet
France and Italy outraged and possibilities of alliances to stop Hitler destroyed
Weakness of Allies, conciliatory attitude of Britain and Mussolinis success in
Ethiopia encouraged Hitler to take step her had been contemplating as part of
foreign policy
7 March 1936: Hitler summoned ambassadors of France, Britain, Italy and Belgium
to propose plan for demilitarisation of both sides of Rhine and 25 year arms
limitation and non aggression pact.
Germany ultimately took gamble in believing France wouldnt attack. France simply
sent 13 divisions to man Maginot Line and seeked assistance from Britain
however, Britain believed this wasnt its concern
Remilitarisation of Rhineland altered balance of power in Europe:
- France no longer secure from attack behind buffer zone, with vulnerable
frontiers. Geographically cut off from mutual assistance allies
- With refortified western frontier, Hitler now looked eastwards
- Belgium declared neutrality Maginot Line couldnt be extended along
Belgian-German border
- Loss of Locarno and Britains failure to take positive action further
undermined Anglo-French ally

Spanish Civil War, July 1936 March 1939


Spain hadnt been major power in European affairs
1923 1929: military dictatorship under Primo de Rivera. Overthrown in 1930.

International Studies in Peace & Conflict: 1. Growth of European Tensions

1931: King Alfronso XIII abdicated democratic republic. Survived uneasily for 5
years deeply dividing nation
Republicans: Socialists, Communists, Anarchists
- Supported newly elected Popular Front govt
- Opposed power of Church and landowners
- In favour of more equal distribution of nations wealth
Nationalists: landowners, businessmen, devout Catholics, military officers, Spanish
Fascists Party
- Opposed newly elected Popular Front govt
- Sought to maintain much more traditional and conservative nature of
Spanish society
- Wished to maintain church power
Spanish Civil War started July 1936. Group of military officers, based in Spanish
Morocco, revolted against govt. Leadership of rebels soon came under General
Franco seeking to destroy godless, communist govt
Torture, massacres and indiscriminate civilian kills common as seen in systematic
bombing of Guernica, 1937
This incident further consolidated divisions within Europe which were solidifying
- Germany and Italy gave solid backing to Nationalists
- Britain and France, though supporting non-intervention, generally
sympathetic to Republicans
Germany involved for various reasons
- Desire to prevent spread of Russian Bolshevism
- Need to acquire cheap raw materials fro Spain
- Decision to test battle readiness of German air force and equipment
- Need to divert and weaken Italy: if it preoccupied with events in Spain, Italy
would be less likely to seek new friendships with Britain or France
Germany and Italys firm backing of Nationalists cemented relationship and further
highlighted Italys increasing junior status in Axis partnership
- Italy had up to 60 000 volunteers fighting for Franco, and huge amounts of
supplies & equipment
- Germany provided substantial military equipment and given chance to
experiment with new technology and steel. Also sent teams of military
specialists demonstrated strength in being dominating power in Europe
- Germanys Condor Legion destroyed Guernica Luftwaffe valuable
experience in support tactics
Britain and France encouraged non-intervention in Spain
- Discouraged their citizens from joining the fighting
- Actively tried to prevent arms getting in (to Republican side) which Germans
and Italy had no misgiving s ignoring calls for non-intervention
Soviet assistance to Republicans distrusted although significant
- 1000 aircraft, 900 tanks, arms and ammunition
- Stalin opposed fascism, but nobody believed Stalin was whole heartedly
fighting for democracy
Spanish Civil War took on idealistic flavour
- Thousands of youth from all over world joined International Brigades fought
on side of Republicans
- International volunteers on Nationalist side, including Irish Blueshirts
- Intensity of war produced great art from those such as Hemingway, Orwell
and Picasso

HSC STUDY BUDDY 19


Highlighted incapacity of League of Nations


Demonstrated unwillingness of democracies to resist aggression. Destructive
capabilities of airpower horrified Allies and convinced them there was no real
defence against bombs: to fight risked obliteration; survival meant appeasement.
Americans became even more sure of soundness of their policy of isolation.

Reasons for Failure of League of Nations


League rested on principle of internationalism hat nations would sacrifice
national gain for common good basic flaw of League as it was promoting
internationalism in world obsessed by nationalism. Inter-war period saw rise of
aggressive nationalist regimes in Europe. League structure based on nationalism
made Assembly and Council unworkable
Attempts to strengthen League (e.g. 1923 Draft Treaty of Mutual Assistance) failed.
Nations didnt want to get dragged into conflict that had nothing to do with them
just because had signed up to collective security
Leagues aim of disarmament rested on fatal contradiction: Article 8 called for
powers to disarm to level consistent w/ national safety interpreted as a bit
stronger than neighbour disarmament impossible
- Signatories to League Covenant had agreed upon disarmament but in
practice Germany only nation to be disarmed and this was against its will.
- Britain and US made some concessions towards disarmament
- German General Stff made secret preparations for rearmament and training.
Treaty of Rapallo with Russia 1924, allowed German pilots to train with
Soviet forces dispute restrictions in Treaty of V
Never reflected true reality of world balance of power; could only be as strong as
membership. US, greatest power, never member; Germany 1926-1933; Japan left
1933; Italy left 1937; Soviet Union 1934 1939. League relief on Britain and France
who after 1919 clearly became 2nd rate powers in economics and military
- Defeated Germany refused admission until Treaty of Lucarno 1926. Prior to
this, judged by victors to have been cause of war thus denied entry into post
war family of nations
- Fear of Communist Russia: existence of Communist state substantially
altered balance of power and encouraged Allied attempts to isolate regime
international outcast like Germany for decade
- League provided little support to newly independent countries of Eastern
Europe, many which fell victim to conservative groups which asserted
control over govt
- Wilson frustrated with atmosphere of implacable hostility towards Germany.
Congressional opposition within USA to both League and Treaty of Versailles
intense. Upon his death, Senate refused to ratify Treaty and US withdrew
from European commitment US military guarantees of European security
withdrawn unilateral action on part of member states. Britain support F
by self
Failure to address ethnic rivalries: new nations established after collapse of Austro
Hungarian empire in 1918 were subject to intense ethnic rivalry provoking violence
and oppression.
- Ethnic Germans in Poland and Czechoslovakia felt they had been denied
national self determination. Poland included 1 million Germans, 6 million
White Russians and 3 million Jews. League could offer little assistance to
these minorities

International Studies in Peace & Conflict: 1. Growth of European Tensions

Success relied upon Anglo-French cooperation; however their interests opposed


- France wanted strong League to ensure security in Europe
- Britain wanted flexible League with fewer commitments as its interests
outside Europe
Obsessed with security after horrors of WW1, France wanted to use League to
enforce Versailles Treaty. League became seen as conservative body backing
interests of established powers
- E.g. Corfu: involvement of major powers = weakening of League
Article 10: members undertook to guarantee each other against aggression formed
basis for maintenance of peace by collective action. However many doubts
Threat of war only be moved by disarmament. However this couldnt take place
when ability of Leagues collective security to protect members doubted.
Structural weaknesses of League not sufficient to explain failure. League failed not
for structural reasons but because members didnt believe it could work. Required
faith & participation of all nations of world didnt.
Collapse of collective security through failure of League encouraged Nazi regime to
continue with demands for territorial adjustments.

BRITAIN, FRANCE AND THE POLICY OF APPEASEMENT: AN ASSESSMENT

Appeasement was the policy of inaction against aggressors out of fear of provoking
outright violence
For the generations who carried scars of Great War, another war within own
lifetime unthinkable.
Concepts such as League, Collective Security, international cooperation, and self
determination unworkable
Question of how to maintain peace of much discussion. Disarmament failed and
rearmament unpopular. Suggestion aggression could be stopped by heavy guns &
strong armies unacceptable to majority free world
Mid 1930s: aggressive states possessed such formidable destructive power that
people and leading statesmen of democracies convinced no defence against them
adopted policy of conciliation in hope that when states satisfied, could calm down
and world would have survived
Appeasement was genuine conviction that peaceful example and outstretched hand
of friendship would eventually overcome war-like designs of predator nations.
Believed conflict would bring total obliteration


Britain
Appeasement was nothing new to Britain as it had been a feature of British
diplomacy for centuries. Since 16th cent, Britains main interests has been in trade,
naval power and development of empire.
Britain been prepared to make concessions to European powers & leave them alone
so it could pursue worldwide ambitions policy in 19th cent
Only when its interests under direct threat would it intervene in European affairs.
Appeasement had been in operation since 1919: Lloyd George sought to moderate
Treaty of Versailles during Peace Conference. Realised British economy needed
stable & prosperous German. Churchill supported view
Appeasement in 1930s context seemed logical option: combination of changing
international realities, depression, guilt over Versailles, psychology of British nation

HSC STUDY BUDDY 21

across all classes and strong views of men in power created environment in
which appeasement seemed logical option
Up to 1930s British deeply committed to disarmament and Collective Security. After
Depression, taxpayers reluctant to allow govt to buy guns and bombs armament
spending fell
Joad Resolution: undergraduates at Oxford signed refusing to fight for King and
country
Majority of Britains preferred to ignore reports of German arms rebuilding.
Believed Germany had been harshly treated by Treaty of Versailles. Hitler appeared
to them a politician with reasonable demands such as the settlement of territorial
grievances and recognition of rights of German minorities in Poland and Czech
By 1934, some began to listen to Churchill and Government Defence Requirement
Committee who identified Germany as Britains long term enemy.
By 1936 majority of Britons including PM Chamberlain, came to accept that for
defence of country, necessary to rearm and equip. Chamberlain believed war was
the ultimate waster and negation of human values. He ready to pursue any course
and calm grievances to stave off major conflict.
Many possessed pro-German attitudes in believing Hitler not threat. Lloyd George
considered Hitler reasonable man with reasonable aims; and many regarded him,
as a positive force against Bolshevism. Impressed by Reichs ability to recover
from years of guilt and Depression.
Lord Halifax began to advise Baldwins govt (British PM before Chamberlain) in
1935 about same time Anthony Eden appointed Foreign Secretary in 1935. Halifax
and Eden agreed German reoccupation of Rhineland not serious threat.
Chamberlain, who succeeded Baldwin in 1937, took active interest in foreign affairs
and genuinely believed Germany been punished severely by Treaty of Versailles.
- Believed differences could be solved through personal negotiation and
concession
- Assumed some of Hitlers claims reasonable and other claims consistent with
rights of Germans to self determination and re-emergence as major power.
- Believed League of Nations ineffective in solving international disputes
Chamberlain and British Conservative Party
- Refused to deal seriously with Soviet Union
- Detested Communist ideology
Govt reluctant to commit too much money to rearmament in context of largely
appeasement-minded general public. However, from 1936, steadily increasing
commitment to rearmament based on defence.
Plan was to prevent enemy attack with boats and planes. Navy upgraded, and
airforce spending increased.
Need for land army not considered imperative except to honour Imperial
commitments. Tank production half hearted; and recruitment slow. By 1939, army
weakest force

France
Frances recovery from Depression slower than rest of Europe: declined from its
position of power in 1920s and defeatism abroad. Govts fell one after the other;
strikes, violence and political upheaval determined undermined fighting capabilities
of nation and made cohesive defence plan impossible.
Technically admirable, outrageously expensive and strategically unsound Maginot
Line absorbed significant part of defence budget despite its lack of use.

International Studies in Peace & Conflict: 1. Growth of European Tensions

1935: military service extended to 2 years and definite plans made to upgrade
airforce. Navy, kept its prestige due to Italian competition in Mediterranean, most
efficient of forces and orders to increase steel production included plans for tanks
and armaments.
Leon Blum headed group amalgamated of anit-fascist factions that called
themselves Le Front Populaire. Committed to collective security, disarmament and
social reform. Came to govt at time when France deeply divided by factions within
and shortly to face German invasion of Rhineland.
One of their first acts was introduction of 40 hour week, which was bad news for
rearmament plans and gave rise to remark that invasion of Sunday would be illegal.
Blum in accord with appeasement policies of Chamberlain. Prepared to adopt any
mixture of actions to preserve peace. Despite objections from extreme left of party,
supported limited rearmament.
Within a year, Le Front Populaire divided and fell to series of unsuccessful
Socialists, Radicals & combinations
Political struggles, strikes and street violence continued to plague France so defence
system in disarray and its people cynically convinced that could never withstand
organised might of Reich.
This situation in France was significant contrast to Germanys attitude to military
training, rearmament and war where ultimately whole economy geared to war
production. In interests of economic self sufficient and lebensraum, Germany
believed needed to expanded eastwards through Austria

Appeasement in Action
Epitome of policy of appeasement was Munich Conference of 1928. However,
British govt had been pursuing policy long before then. Lloyd George endeavoured
to soften Versailles Treaty in 1919 and various trade and reparation agreements
made with Germany in 1920s
However, it was in 1930s that appeasement became key element of British policu. It
manifested itself in both active and passive way. Sometimes it was case of acting to
make concessions and others was case of simply not reacting to action taken by
dictators.

Factors behind Policy of Appeasement


Popular dread of another war. New tech made certain future war would be worse
w/ ppl suffering far more
- British public opinion overwhelmingly pacifist as evident in Joad Resolution
British preoccupied with domestic matters. It took considerable time to move out of
depression and unemployment remained high. PM Chamberlain had genuine hopes
to create better Britain, spending money on health and housing rather than defence.
Hitler admired by many in Britains ruling classes. Brought stability and discipline
to country and provided defence against communism. Anti-Semitism of upper class
also encouraged indulgence towards Nazis
International reality of times seemed to point to logic of appeasement. No other
alternative
- Britains main partner was France who was riven with internal divisions and
placing its faith on Maginot Line, defence line along German border
- Britains armed forces been allowed to run down. British believed taking on
Germany would be suicidal and appeasement gave Britain chance to rearm
(not view shared by all)

HSC STUDY BUDDY 23



-
-




Russia sought opposition to Nazism but Stalin not trusted & purges of 1930s
weakened Red Army
League of Natiosn and principle of collective security dead as proved by
Manchuria and Abyssinia

Appeasement in Action up to September 1938


Act of Appeasement
German
Rearmament

January
1935

Franco-Italian
Agreement

March
1935

Germany
introduces
conscription
Anglo-German
Naval Agreement

June 1935

December
1935

Hoare-Laval Plan

March
1936

Remilitarisation of
Rhineland

1936
1939

Spanish Civil War

January
1938

Chamberlains
attitude t ideas
from US/USSR

Significance
Accepted as sad but inevitable consequence of
failure of Disarmament Conference
Germany played up fear of communism
Germany only seeking equality
French Foreign Minister Laval indicated to
Italians that France accepted designs on
Abyssinia
Act was against Treaty of Versailles
Britain mildly protested
Germany allowed 35% of British naval
strength and equality in number of
submarines
Directly contravened Treaty of Versailles and
sanctioned Hitlers moves to cancel Versailles
armaments provisions
Britain acted without consulting France
weakened Stresa Front
French and British Foreign Ministers offered
to carve up Abyssinia for Italy.
Italy would be given enough land for 1.5
million people to end fighting
Hitlers action directly contravened terms of
1925 Locarno Pact which guaranteed western
European frontiers.
Beyond protest note, Britain and France did
nothing. Great boost for Hitler
British view Hitler merely going into his
backyard
Britain and France pushed for non-
intervention and avoided involvement
Germany and Italy filly backed Nationalists
and no action taken against them
Only Soviet Union assisted Republican case
In Jan, US President Roosevelt floated idea
calling for powers to convene as means of
returning to peaceful diplomacy. Chamberlain
rejected this bomb

International Studies in Peace & Conflict: 1. Growth of European Tensions

Date
October
1933

March
1938

Austria

Soviet Foreign Minister Litvinovs similar


proposal called wooly rubbish
Hitlers march into Austria greeted with shock
and sense of bewilderment
Britain accepted Anschluss as inevitable.
After all, Austrians were German speaking

German Expansion: Austria, March 1938


After murder of Austrian Chancellor Dollfuss and debacle of Nazi coup in July 1934,
Hitler resolved to win Austria by peaceful penetration.
Austro-German Agreement of July 1936 established German recognition of Austrian
Sovereignty, an agreement of non-interference in each others internal affairs,
Austrias recognition of its Germaness, a lowering of tariffs and customs laws, and
permission for Nazi papers to be published in Vienna.
- Hitler had invasion force on standby but was assured would be no effective
opposition from Austria or from the weak little worms of western
democracy
All that remained was for Hitler to remove minor objectives such as weaning
Mussolini fro his support of Austrian Independence and convincing strong Catholic
faction in Austria there would be no need to fea anti-religious feelings.
Rome-Berlin Axis of 1936 removed some opposition and joint action in Spanish
Civil War and Italys membership of Anti-Comintern Pact strengthened ties between
the
fascist powers.
German Expansion: Summary
By
time Hitler ready
1935: conscription
to
move, had
1936: builds fleet and airforce
Mussolinis
1936: Germany, Italy and Japan agree to join forces
implicit
1936: new weapons tried out in Spanish Civil War
acceptance and
1938: Germany took over Austria
1939: Germany seized Czechoslovakia
support from
1939: Germany and Russia sign treaty
Austrians who
1939: invasion of Poland Britain declares war
saw
Anschluss as
salvation of their
depressed and
humbled homeland.
However there was considerable opposition to Nazis in Austrian Army and within
govt. Schuschnigg campaigned support within League, particularly Britain
Vague mumblings from London indicated majority of British public believed Hitler
was best thing for Austria
French input minimum because at time, France was between govts.

HSC STUDY BUDDY 25


Schuschnigg introduced conscription and strengthened frontiers but was then


forced to accept Berchtesgarten Protocol. There was to be no military provocation.
In last attempt to resist, Schuschnigg organised plebiscite. Hitler readied panzers &
artillery to cross border
Schuschnigg had no choice but to give in to avoid slaughter of thousands. Thus
lowered frontiers to Wehrmacht and resigned from office.
12 March 1936: Seyss Inquart and cheering crows welcomed German troops into
Austria. By end of March, independent Austria ceased to exist.

The Czechoslovak Crisis: September 1938


State of Czechoslovakia arose out of ruins of former Austro-Hungarian Empire in
1919. Stretched over 800km from Germany to Romania threatening its survival.
State dominated by Czechs of the west of country in former region, Bohemia. Also
contained 2 million Slovaks in east (often looked down on by advanced Czech
brothers); 750 000 Hungarians, 90 000 Poles and over 3 million German speaking
people in western border region known as Sudetenland.
Mid 1938: following success of Anschluss, Hitler made it clear he intended to add
Sudetenland to Reich and bring home the 3 million Sudeten Germans to fatherland
Sudetenland had local Nazi Party who began campaigning for incorporation into
Riech.
In April, SPD leader Henlein presented Karlsbad Demands which called for
- Complete autonomy for Germans in Czechoslovakia
- Recognition of exclusive German area
- Protection for Germans outside Sudeten
President Benes rejected claims and seeked assistance from Allies. Russia and
France rallied to the call. Reluctant Britain agreed to stand by only if Benes would
accept Karlsbad Demands as basis of negotiation. Eventually agreed in May, all
major powers warned Hitler invasion would be met with their combined forces
Hitler furious and made clear he intended to use force to gain Sudetenland.
Operation Green was finalisation of invasion plans and 1 Oct was date chosen.
Alarmed they not prepared for war, Britain and Drance lost confidence in
themselves and each other. Everyone distrusted Russias intentions and was doubt
as to Soviet ability to mount effective support. Collective Action began to falter
Chamberlain horrified by idea Britain might go to war and risk lives of its people
over obscure issue in central Europe. He knew how vulnerable Britain was to air
attack and dreaded prospect of German bombs falling on home front
Distrustful of Soviet and prompted by French PM Daladier, Chamberlain decided to
approach Hitler man to man. 15 September 1938: flew to Germany and met Hitler
at Berchtesgaden. Hitler demanded that he get Sudetenland and if not, ne was
prepared to risk world war.
Anglo-French Plan: in belief Hit er could be forestalled if offer good enough, Britain
urged Prague to transfer all areas with over 50% Sudeten inhabitants to Reich.
Czechoslovakia asked to sacrifice itself for peace; and Britain and France would
guarantee new Czech frontiers. Benes rejected proposals
Pleaded with France to honour its alliance but Chamberlain made clear that if
Czechoslovakia refused to sign, Britain and France would abandon it to tanks and
bombs of Nazi. He added Benes was to order his army not to provoke Hitler in any
way.
Russia ready to support Czech resist but anti-Soviet factions threatened to split
Prague govt if this considered

International Studies in Peace & Conflict: 1. Growth of European Tensions

Anglo French Plan had to be accepted. Agreed on strict condition that France and
Britain would never allow German invasion of what remained of Model State.
22 September: Chamberlain met Hitler at Godesberg to present new proposals.
Hitler stunned as hadnt expected this much; achieved through policy of
appeasement. Thus began to make further demands
- All Czech nationals were to evacuate specified areas leaving possessions
- Defences were to be abandoned intact
- Germany would guarantee no new borders until Hungary and Poland
received their cut
- Military occupation and region in German hands by 28 September
London and Paris: immediate rejection of changed plans. British govt agreed to
support France if it felt obliged to fight. Hitler threatened Czech annihilation
State of Emergency called, reservists called up, civil defence measures put into
place.
Chamberlain sent personal advisor, Horace Wilson, to tell Hitler how unnecessary
war was. These pleas with Mussolinis intervention broke the stalemate. Hitler
invited Chamberlain to attend conference in Munich

Munich Conference, September 1936


Main players at Munich Conference were Hitler, Mussolini, Chamberlain and
Daladier (France). Czech and Russians not invited. Mussolini was to act as mediator
30 September 1938: Hitlers demands granted and Sudetenland ceded to Germany.
Czechoslovakia informed if it didnt accept agreement, it would face Germany alone
in any conflict.
Czechoslovakia ceased to exist and in its place was new German state of Czechia
November 1938 Czech had to hand over rich coal mining area of Teschen to Poland
and southern border regions to Hungary. Loss of Sudetenland considerable for
Czechoslovakia: loss of land, 3 million citizens, work force, and much of its industry
and mineral resources and border defences.
War been avoided and Britain rejoiced. Before leaving Munich, Chamberlain had 2nd
meeting with Hitler in trying to persuade him to sign 2nd document which both
promised to seek peaceful resolution of all future issues between Britain and
Germany Anglo-German Agreement
At the time, was variety of views regarding Munich Agreement. Media praised
Chamberlain as hero.
- Chamberlain believed he gained peace with honour and had assured
Europe peace in our time
- German Foreign Minister Ribbentrop chided Hitler for signing second
agreement. Hitler was overheard saying it was just a scrap of paper
- Some opposed Munich. First Lord of Admiralty, Duff Cooper, resigned in
protest
Churchill believed Czechs could have won much better negotiation deal than Britain
and France managed.
- the partition of Czechoslovakia under pressure from England and France
amounts to the complete surrender of the Western Democracies to the Nazi
threat of force
Significance of Munich Conference
- Germany emerged as most powerful state in Europe. Hitler humiliated
Britain and France by forcing complete dismemberment of state created at
Versailles Conference

HSC STUDY BUDDY 27


Hitler concluded Western statesmen unlikely to oppose him or be drawn into


war on any other territorial problem in Europe
- Soviet Union realised Britain and France too weak to resist Hitler. Stalin
began pact with Germany to avert confrontation, at least until Soviet forces
could be strengthened
- Hitler realised to bring Germans to accept and support war, campaign of
intense psychological preparation necessary Fuhrer Myth and idea of
Lebensraum discussed in media; Germany short of space and surrounded by
hostile nations
- After conference, opinion in Britain swung drastically against Germany.
Chamberlain accelerated rearmament program
Intervention of Chamberlain and Mussolini at Munich deprived Hitler of
opportunity to completely obliterate Czechoslovakia.
Nonetheless 21Oct 1938, ordered German armed forces to prepare for disposal of
remainder of Czechosl
15 March 1939: German troops commenced operations against rest of state
AJP Taylor argues Munich was a pivotal moment but Chamberlains error was to be
persuaded to follow a more aggressive policy. He argues a more vigorous
appeasement should have been pursued in 1939
Charmley believes Chamberlain achieved best possible for Britain and time, given
economic restraints and wide dispersal of British power across empire.
Peter Howard, Frank Owen and Michael Foot accuse Baldwin and Chamberlain
of being blind to the purposes of the criminal new Nazi war power. They
misjudged Hitler and so neglected Britains armaments

End of Appeasement
In months following Munich Agreement, was notable easing of tension in Europe
- Dec 1938: Germany recognised sanctity of French borders
- Hitler tried to negotiate deal with Poland whereby it offered future gains in
Ukraine for return of Danzig and permission to build road across Polish
Corridor to East Prussia
- Meetings continued between British and Germany, and British and Italian
figures
- As late as March 1939, much of British press remained optimistic abpout
chances of peace
Ultimately in March 1939, Hitler resumed the aggression
- 15 March: German troops marched into rest of Czechoslovakia. Bohemia-
Moravia incorporated into Reich while Solvakia became Nazi puppet state.
Hungary took more of southern region Ruthenia
- Week later, Germany seized Lithuanian port of Memel and its surrounding
district.
- April: Mussolini annexed Albania
Munich Agreement ripped up. Churchill had been right all along. Finally,
Chamberlain govt forced to abandon policy of appeasement
31 March: Britain announced would formally guarantee independence of Poland.
Hitler knew if attacked Poland, Britain declare war. Similar guarantees followed for
Romania, Greece & Turkey. France followed.
In his speech, Chamberlain said Britain committed to lend the Polish govt all the
support in their power
- Announcement brought end to appeasement; and

International Studies in Peace & Conflict: 1. Growth of European Tensions

Tacitly allowed foreign govt to determine British policy.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE NAZI-SOVIET NON-AGGRESSION PACT


Background to Soviet Foreign Policy
Stalin was as great opportunist as Hitler. Survival of Soviet Union and then
development of Soviet power were what mattered. Stalin agreed to sign trade
agreement with capitalist enemy to achieve such goals
Great Depression of 1930s welcomed in Moscow
- Evidence of collapse of capitalism. Soviet Union only nation free of economic
depression
- Prompted Stalin to order brother communist parties in Europe not to
cooperate with other parties. Gave instructions to allow fascist parties to
come to power as this would worsen social tensions and lead more quickly
socialist revolution
- Proved disastrous esp in Germany where failure of SPD and KPD to work
together allowed Hitler to gain and consolidate power
By mid 1930s, Stalin realised mistake and now encouraged communist parties to
participate in anti-Fascist Popular Front govts as in France. Stalin also intervened
in Spanish Civil War on side of Republicans
Hitlers unchecked advances during 1930s alarmed Stalin greatly. For Hitler to
achieve dream of lebensraum, Soviet Union had to be destroyed; but Soviet in no
state to fight war in 1930s
- Stalin turned nation upside down as attempted to rapidly industrialise with
series of brutal Five Year Plans. Achievements enormous but would have
been disaster
- Soviet countryside in state of virtual civil war as Stalin sought to collectivise
agriculture
- Politically, Soviet Union tore itself apart during 1930s as series of purges saw
millions executed or sent to gulga (Soviet prison/labour camps)
- 1937, Red Army purged: Russias leading general and other top army men
shot on 12 June; and half officer corps either shot or imprisoned

Foreign Policy in 1930s


In early 1930s, Soviet signed several non aggression pacts w/ neighbours including
Poland, Finland & Estonia.
Agreement signed with France in 1932 and Italy in 1933
1934: Soviet Union joined League of Nations and established diplomatic relations
with US
May 1935: Franco-Soviet treaty of mutual assistance signed. Widened to involve
Czechoslovakia in 1936 but Soviet only committed to help Czechoslovakia if France
did.
Situation worsened considerably for Soviet from 1936: G became more powerful
and aggressive and Allies not responding
- German rearmament continuing and German military prowess in Spain been
noted
- Hitler moved into Rhineland, had achieved Anschluss and in Sept 1938 been
handed Sudetenland
- Western democracies made clear had no intention of standing up to Hitler

HSC STUDY BUDDY 29

Both Germany and Western powers realised position of Soviet Union would be vital
in event of war. Co-operation of Soviet Union with West threatened Germany w/
prospect of 2 front war and only Soviet intervention could save Poland form
invasion by Germany.
Both West and Germans looked to Soviet Union in mid 1939 as possible aly in future
war. However, British and France half hearted about linking with Soviet.
West viewed Soviet with suspicion. Chamberlains distrust for Stalin and dislike of
Communism blinded him to possibility West and Soviet of common interest in
opposing Hitler.
Some in Britain like Churchill suggested joining with Soviet against Russia.
- Chamberlain not keen
- Stalin remained distrustful of west; suspected Britain & France pushing
eastwards to confront Russia
- When Britain offered Poland guarantee in March 1939, and Hitler renounced
German-Polish Non Aggression Pact, and Anglo-German Naval Agreement, a
chance of an Anglo-Soviet agreement seemed possible
- British negotiators sent to Moscow but were too junior, lacking in authority
and half hearted
By June 1939 Halifax recognised that the policy if appeasement not effective against
Hitlers policy of lebensraum. Thus, Britain entered treaties of mutual defence with
Poland and Turkey; and guaranteed assistance to Greece and Romania. Initiated
under belief that if these countries security and indefence were threatened,
Britains would be too
Britains policy now aimed at isolation/encirclement of Germany and Italy to
prevent them from acquiring desired living space
Soviets had watched Wests policy of appeasement with Hitler with alarm. Had been
supporters of collevtive security had had witnessed consistent failure.
Furthermore, in 1938 British rebuffed Soviet approaches for major power
consultations after German absorption of Austria, and kept Soviets out of
negotiations with Germany over fate of Czechoslovakia. Soviet not invited to Munich
Conference.
During northern summer of 1939 British fumbled negotiations with Soviets. Sent
junior delegation to Moscow for talks. Rebuffed suggestions of Soviet support,
which would have involved Red Army troops being given access to Polish and
Romanian territory in operations against Germany. Offered little to Soviet
Stalin realist and man who wanted to extent Soviet power in Eastern Europe. Saw
that alliance with West offered prospect of war with now gain; whereas
negotiations with Germans offered him deal giving him control of eastern Poland
and Baltic states, offering gain without war Stalin agreed.
By 1939 Germany stood on brink of war. German acquired Austria and Czech and
already instigated plans for invasion of Poland. Hitler less worried about West
reaction compared to Soviet Pact Poland isolated
Stalin distrustful of west and Hitler realised attack on Poland would involve him in 2
front war enemies came to arrangement. Both sides began sending out signals to
each other
- April: Hitler announced his intention of dealing with Poland in major speech
and pointedly made no anti-Soviet references
- Stalin replaced Jewish Foreign Minister Litvinov, with Molotov
- June: via Italian Foreign Minister Ciano Hitler let Stalin know arrangement
could be made

International Studies in Peace & Conflict: 1. Growth of European Tensions

Early august: Ribbentrop let it be known Soviet interests in Poland and Baltic
respected
- After personal exchange of messages between Hitler and Stalin in mid
August, agreed Ribbentrop should fly to Moscow
- 23 August: German Soviet Non-Aggression Pact signed. Agreed to remain
neutral if other became involved in war.
Secretly, Poland divided between them and agreed that Soviet should take control
of Latvia, Estonia, Bessarabia and Finland. Germany to control Lithuania.
Hitler and Stalin still detested and didnt trust each other. However, suited them
both to come to agreement
Pact eliminated chance to avoid war and sealed Polands fate
-

Why Hitler and Stalin Signed Non-Aggression Pact


Stalin

be

Summary
Hitler made hostility to Soviet Union known as soon as he gained power.
Long term goal of achieving lebensraum would be at Soviet Unions
expense. As Nazi power grew, Stalin sought agreements with France and
Czechoslovakia. Stalin concerned at wests willingness to give in to Hitler,
exp after Munich.
March 1939: Britain offered guarantee to Poland and Stalin hoped similar
agreement could be reached with Western Powers. However,
Chamberlain not keen on working with Stalin. Hence, Stalin became open
to idea of agreement with Hitler

West
couldnt
trusted:
Munich
and
Western

indecisiveness throughout 1939 proven that


Britains guarantee to Poland made war in west inevitable. Hoped Hitler would
exhaust himself against France and Britain
Deal with Hitler cold given Stalin share of Poland and provide security buffer
between Germany and Russia
With Hitler busy in west, Russia would have time to consolidate and strengthen
forces

Hitler

Two front war dangerous. Deal with Russia will lead to Polands quick defeat and
then Germany can deal with western antions
Soviet Union could be dealt with once western nations been defeated

HSC STUDY BUDDY 31


Neutralising Soviet Union would avoid getting into mess Germany found itself in
July/August 1914

Nazi-Soviet Non Aggression Pact: 23 August 1939


Ribbentrop arrived in Moscow 23 August. Germany and Soviet Union signed 10 year
non aggression pact. He and Molotov both knew by singing Pact, approval given to
Germany to invade Poland
Article 2: either Germany or Russia involved in war with third power, other would
not get involved
- Guaranteed neutrality if other state became involved in war.
Article 7: agreement would take immediate effect. Hitler was in hurry and has 1
September deadline for invading Poland
Nazi-Soviet Pact contained secret protocols which created German and Soviet
spheres of influence
- Germany could receive western Poland and Lithuania
- Soviet Union would receive Baltic States of Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia in
June 1940.
Pact lasts for two years until Germany invaded Russia in Operation Barbarossa
Phillip Bell: as to why Russians chose Axis powers over Allies instead of a risk of
war, they [the Germans] could offer neutrality .. spheres of influence .. [and were]
ready to carve up Poland ... the Germans could deliver the goods forthwith, whereas
the British and French could deliver nothing
Evans stated Stalin gained comfort from not having to fight in 1939 against
Germany and from gaining spheres of influence
Danzig and Polish Corridor
Hitlers intention to attack Poland signalled in April 1939 when withdrew from
German-Polish Non Aggression Pact signed in Jan 1934. Agreement designed to
allay Polish fears of German aggression and to assure Europe Hitler was man of
peace.
Northern summer of 1939 Hitler increased pressure on Poland. Used number of
issues to force Poland into corner. Accused Poles of persecution of German minority
and made territorial demands
Called for transfer of port of Danzig to Germany and grating to Germany of new
rights of access across Polish Corridor to East Prussia.
Danzig Polands only outlet to sea and guaranteed economic independence. Almost
wholly population German lebensraum unification all Germans under Third
Reich
Germans believed frontiers of Poland of military importance and obtaining food
supplies in thinly populated areas. Believed Polish Corridor of psychological and
economic importance
Although secret clause of pact agreed on partition of Poland, Allies guaranteed
Poland automatic intervention in event of any attack in formal alliance (25 August
1939) Hitler delayed invasion plans as had hoped to bluff Allies into another
appeasement
Ready to invade in August 1939. Conclusion of German-Soviet Pact secured
Germanys eastern frontier from prospect of Soviet action
Germanys final list delivered to Britain meant that Danzig and Corridor must be
sacrificed and Poland denied equal negotiating status

International Studies in Peace & Conflict: 1. Growth of European Tensions

1 Sept 1939: Germans invaded Poland. Britain and France demanded German cese
military action threatening war. Hitler ignored demands
3 Sept first Britain then France declared war on Germany.
Poles rejected German proposals and Hitler, who already singed Case White
(invasion of Poland) made move
German SS disguised as Polish soldiers attacked radio station on German border
Germans attacked Britain declaration of war
ANALYSIS: CAUSES OF THE CONFLICT (OUTBREAK OF WAR IN 1939)

1. Entirely the Fault of Hitler (and to a lesser extent, Mussolini)


War result of Nazi aggression. Germany never accepted Paris Peace Settlement of
1919 and even Weimar Republic govts before 1933 sought to bring about changes.
Stresemann nay have signed Locarno Agreement in 1925 guaranteeing west
European frontiers, he never signed agreement guaranteeing east European
borders. Hitler, upon coming to power, made clear his prime objective was to tear
up Treaty of Versailles. Had no respect for international agreements
- Versailles armament clauses discarded as Germany introduced conscription,
built up massive army, created air force, built heavy guns and submarines;
each contravention to Versailles Treaty
- Remilitarisation of Rhineland in 1936, Anschluss in 1938 and subsequent
actions over Czechoslovakia affirm his aggressive intentions; Poland came as
no surprise
Thus to fight Hitler was to fight for international law, justice, morality and spirit of
collective security and League of Nations.
- Concentration camps and full horror of Nazism apparent
- Documentary evidence:
o Mein Kampf made no secret of intentions
o Documents such as Hossbach Memorandum and minutes of Wansee
Conference (decision to implement Final Solution)
Thus Britain and France had no choice but to fight in 1939 arguing
- Did all they could to avoid war: Munich
- War and camps was Hitlers fault

2. Fault of Britain and France


Although Hitlers aggression cant be questioned, reason war came was because of
weakness of other powers who chose not to stop him. Allowed him to get away with
continuations of aggressive acts.
Pressured by pacifist public opinion, fearful of another war and dominated by Nazi
admiring aristocrats, British govts took line of least resistance:
German rearmament allowed in name of equality and justified by fear of
communism
Britains armed forces allowed to run down to point of where standing up to Hitler
was no longer option
Chamberlains stubborn refusal to seriously consider working with Soviet Union
gave Stalin no other choice but to sign Nazi-Soviet Pact

3. Circumstances of 1930s Gave Western Leaders No Alternative to the Policies they


Pursued

HSC STUDY BUDDY 33


Military leaders were warning govt there was no way Britain could take on 3
enemies simultaneously (Germany, Italy & Japan) and best policy was to reduce
number of ones potential enemies appeasement
1967: British govt began 30 Year Rule: allowed classified official documents to be
opened up to researchers:
- Opened up significant material which suggested economic restraints
seriously restricted options of govt in dealing with Hitler
- Also suggested that Chamberlains actions needed to be reevaluated in more
positive manner.
Variation of this theme is to see British govt behaviour in 1930s as keeping in
balance with traditional British foreign policy. Britain hadnt involved itself in
European affairs until apparent that single power about to destroy balance of power
and dominate continent
- Before 1939 Britain attempts hands off approach but once apparent
Germany intends to dominate continent, Britain forced reluctantly to enter
war

4. Failure of Principle of Collective Security and the Operation of the League of


Nations
Great hope for European peace after 1919 was League of Nations. Based on
principle of collective security, great hopes for League.
Idea of collective security based on internationalism, idea that nations will sacrifice
selfish national interest for common good. However, inter-war period showed this
optimism misplaced
Internationalism never had chance
- Great War in part been caused by forces of nationalism
- Wartime propaganda encouraged acceptance of narrow nationalism
- Death and destruction of war bred desire for security and revenge, hardly
notions conducive to idealistic internationalism
1920s and 1930s saw steady rise of far right nationalistic thinking, not restricted to
only Germany and Italy. Inter war period saw steady end of democracy and
appearance of right wing nationalistic dictatorships in which such regimes were
antithesis of internationalism
Even League, meant to be home of internationalism, rooted in selfish nationalism
- Votes in Council and Assembly always had to be unanimous
- Disarmament encouraged to point consistent with national safety which was
always point where one stronger than ones neighbour
- Many issues excluded from League jurisdiction because powers involved
feared national interests

5. Failings of Individual Statesmen


International relations branch of politics intensely personal. History is not about
abstract developments but about individual people making individual decisions.
Dishonest, lying, duplicitous nature of men like Hitler and Mussolini speaks for
itself. Their fondness for opportunism did much to poison international
environment. Stalin could be considered in this light too
At time when Britain needed strong leaders, willing to take stand and made difficult
decisions, it had likes of Baldwin, Chamberlain, Hoare and Halifax
- Baldwin admitted not pushing rearmament in 1935 election as knew public
opinion wouldnt accept it

International Studies in Peace & Conflict: 1. Growth of European Tensions

Rather than beef up League over Abyssinia, Hoare sought deal with
Mussolini in Hoare-Laval Plan
- Chamberlains naivety, and obstinacy, combined with firm control over
cabinet, allowed no alternatives to appeasement. Chamberlain often ignored
or bypassed foreign minister and diplomats with disastrous consequences
- Lord Halifax still sought accommodation with Hitler in May 1940
Middlemass attacks Chamberlain for running foreign policy as a one man band
controlling Foreign Office and allowing no dissent. Believed Chamberlain totally
misunderstood Hitler, believing his aims limited to righting wrongs of Versailles
and was man with whom one could negotiate
RAC Parker rejects notion that Chamberlain had no option but to follow
appeasement due to economic and political restrains. States there was variety of
policy options which Chamberlain skilfully hid.
-

6. To Place Responsibility for Outbreak of War on Shoulders of Individuals too


Simplistic
Attempts to explain outbreak of war by examining those overwhelming
developments of the interwar period:
- Strength of inter-war pacifism
- Growth of nationalistic right wing political movements
- Failure of principle of internationalism
Could be strongly argued direct link between depression of 1930s and eventual
outbreak of war
Onset of Depression in Germany gave death blow to Weimar Republic and Hitler
opportunity. Hitler didnt get into power because of Depression, however
chancellorship avoidable if it werent for depression
Japan suffered enormously from Depression; reliance on export markets caused
massive unemployment as protectionism grew. Hardship at home major factor in
decision of Japanese leaders to pursue expansionist policies in 1930s. Japanese
aggression had 2 key effects on Europe
- Served as example to Hitler and Mussolini
- Served to destroy principle of collective security and highlighted failure of
League of Nations
Major impact on British economy
- Major factor determining Chamberlains policies in 1930s was weakness of
British economy as slowly came out of depression
- Revisionist writers argue strongly economic restraints tied hands of British
in30s in dealings w/ Hitler

7. Paris Peace Settlement of 1919


1919 Peace Settlement was essentially compromise which pleased no one: too
harsh for Americans, too weak for French, stain on national honour for Germans
Had settlement been savagely hard on Germans, and maintained, German revival as
occurred under Hitler might have been avoided
Had settlement been moderate, accepted fault of all in bringing about war and
allowed Germany to negotiate, bitterness and resentment which boiled under
surface in Germany mightnt have developed
Signs that Peace Settlement deeply flawed:

HSC STUDY BUDDY 35


French General Marshall Foch said of decision to create Polish Corridor and
separate East Prussia from rest of Germany There is the root of the next
war
AJP Taylor states Versailles Treaty failed to deal with issue of German power.
Further argues that far less onerous for Germany than domestic propaganda tried
to make out. Germany survived as united and potentially strong state that quite
capable of dominating continent of Europe
- Geographically intact, apart from losing small border areas. Lost only 13% of
territory
- Despite provisions of Treaty, Germanys economy still potentially strongest
in Europe

Richard Overy
International system which existed during inter war period didnt reflect reality of
international power. Such disparity didnt mean war inevitable but meant
international environment unstable to which Hitler took advantage, and with which
appeasers had to cope
- 1815 1914: no major war in Europe involving more than 2 major powers
as powers accepted concept of balance of power
- Rise of new forces such as democracy. Nationalism and German power upset
this equilibrium
Inter-war period didnt experience peace. US isolationism, Germanys early
weakness & Russias concentration on developing its revolution, fate of Europe in
hands of Britain & France didnt reflect true balance of power
- After 1919, Britain became second rate military and economic powers. Never
recovered in economic strength after war, and was preoccupied with
imperial matters
- Left France with job of upholding post war settlement. Economically and
thus militarily, France could never be match for Germany
there was a growing contradiction between the existing international system and
the reality of power made more dangerous by restless political forces released by
economic modernisation and the rise of mass politics

AJP Taylor
Refused to see Hitler as embodiment of evil and unique presence in European
politics
Taylor argues Hitler had no long term plans for war, no preconceived blueprint for
taking over Europe.
- Mein Kampf and Hossbach Memorandum were no more than political day
dreaming
Hitler opportunist and when war came in 1938, it was fault of bungling diplomacy
2. Course of the European War

GERMAN ADVANCES: THE FALL OF POLAND, THE LOW COUNTRIES AND FRANCE
The Fall of Poland September October 1939

International Studies in Peace & Conflict: 2. Course of the European War

Blitzkrieg: military tactic devised by Germans whereby victory believed to come


with short, sharp attacks rather than long, drawn out war short war before
British or French armies could mount effective resistance.
Aim was to smash enemys defences with sudden combined attack by aircraft, tanks
and infantry
Germany had developed new doctrines of warfare involving combined and
coordinated attacks by different elements of armed forces/ army developed plans
around mobility of tanks or panzers. However, in actuality, lack of any real
coordination at highest level. Structure of armed forces chaotic and subject to
whims of Hitler
1 September 1939: German invasion of Poland. Luftwaffe struck Polish airfields,
railroads and other major lines of communication
3 September: Britain and France honoured guarantee to Poland, declaring war on
Germany
Polish forces inferior to German army with abundant amounts of supplies and
weapons with brilliant coordination and mass formation. Air force (Luftwaffe)
destroyed most of Polish air force.
Polish armies attacked and surrounded individually in blitzkrieg style
8 Sept: German forces involved in 6 day battle near River Bzura Polish forces
exhausted fell back to Warsaw Germans besieged. 28 September Warsaw fell
- Despite Britain and Frances promises to assist, it was very difficult for them
to do so due to their limited forces who were prepared to fight. The distance
was also considerable
Germany won dramatic and rapid victory prompting Stalin to intervene in Poland
by this rapidity.
Polish losses were much more significant in comparison to Germanys and almost 1
million Poles became POWS to Soviet and Germany
28 Sept: German Foreign Minister Ribbentrop finalised details of Nazi-Soviet Non
Aggression Pact dividing P
Results of campaign
- In the 2 years Soviets ruled, 1/5 of populace arrested
- During their 5 year rule, Germans killed 1/5 of populace
30 November: Soviet attacked Finland as Stalin aimed to consolidate control over
Baltic Sea. Finns fought back gallantly much to surprise of Stalin. Ended in March
1940 with Soviet experiencing much more considerable losses. Finland kept
independence but had to surrender 10% territory
Often assumed little British and French could do to save Poland which is true to an
extent. However, Maginot mentality caused democratic powers to miss opportunity.
Germans had no tanks, little air support and only 3 days worth of ammunition;
whereas French had superior weaponry and advantages
BH Liddell Hart emphasises situation in Poland very much to Germanys advantage
for achieving success as it surrounded on all sides by German territory & Poland
was all too well suited for demonstration of Blitzkrieg

The Fall of Denmark and Norway April 1940 (Operation Weserunbung)


October 1939 April 1940: Phoney War as virtually no fighting took place following
the fall of Poland. Despite numerical superiority, Allies failed to effectively use this
period. Difference between opposing forces, not attrition as in WW1, but approach
to modern technology.

HSC STUDY BUDDY 37


Rapid German attack using formations of tanks and armoured vehicles, heavy
artillery and close air support caught Allies by surprise.
Indeed actions did take place during these 6 months:
- Minor skirmishes along Maginot Line between French and German troops
- Finnish Soviet War continued
- SS busy reorganising Poland
Phoney war came to abrupt end when German forces invaded Denmark and
Norway
Britain had considered plans to cut off Swedish iron ore supples to German having
major impact on German war production as Germans got half iron needed for
making weapons from Sweden. This ore reached Germany via Norwegian port of
Narvik.
British decided to take action in Norway and began mine laying operations along
Norwegian coast hoping to disrupt German shipping
9 April: Hitler launched Operation Wesrubung, a direct attack on Denmark and
Norway. Denmarks King Christian X surrendered next day. Gave themselves supply
bases for invasion of Norway
Allied troops had minor holds in central Norway and pounded German positions in
Narvik. Royal Navy attacked and British troops sent to northern Norway but British
forces poorly trained, poorly equipped and didnt have adequate fighter planes to
protect them from German air attacks.
British army failed to develop plans for coordinating infantry & tanks. British navy
slow to modernise & strategists failed recognise importance of aircraft carriers &
need for improved anti-submarine capability.
With collapse of France in matter of weeks, allied troops withdrawn.
10 June: Norway surrendered.
NOTE: blame for resulting fiasco in Norway fell on Chamberlains shoulders forcing
his resignation when Members of Parliament refused to support his govt. Replaced
by Churchill.

The Fall of the Low Countries and France May June 1940
10 May: German forces attacked Low Countries (Belgium and Netherlands) as part
of Operation Fall Gelb
German forces able to quickly cut through Netherlands with Nazi sympathisers and
German nationals succeeding in capturing vital bridges and communications.
Rotterdam bombed reducing it to nothing (14 May) and within days Netherlands
surrendered
10 May: German airforce bombed Belgian airfields. Attack on Belgium and France
coordinated to start with invasion of Netherlands. Belgian army surrendered in late
May, two weeks after France overrun. Allied leaders appalled at defection for now
placed British and French troops in even more danger.
British & French commanders believed German attack of France to be similar to
Schlieffen Plan with massive German advance across Belgium sweeping towards
Channel coast & Paris. Believed no rapid German advance could penetrate heavily
forested Ardennes region or strong Maginot Line on Frances common border w/
Germ
- Ardennes lightly defended due to assumption
Instead of striking at France across border protected by Maginot Line, Germans
attacked through forested areas of Ardennes. Hitlers blitzkrieg tactics and his
generals skill completely routed their allied opponents. This took them round the

International Studies in Peace & Conflict: 2. Course of the European War

end of the Maginot Line and enabled them to punch a hole in the French defences at
a very weak point. French never recovered; army split
General von Bock advanced through Belgium w/ massive force similar to 1914.
Allied commanders ordered half forces to deal with threat. This simply diversion
11 May: General von Leeb started attacks along Maginot Line tying down Anglo-
French forces
In centre b/w von Bocks and von Leebs forces, in the Ardennes and Luxemberg
region, General von Rundstedt (German) prepared massive force to invade France.
46 divisions w/ copious amounts of weaponry
Battle for France: 11 day campaign. Dramatic and decisive. Allied forces to north in
Belgium and to south around Maginot Line now completely separated.
20 May: German forces reached coast at Abbeville.
German advance so rapid that forward units in danger of being cut off and running
out of fuel 24 May: Hitler ordered forces halt to consolidate positions
27 May: port of Boulogne taken and Calais surrounded
Major General RH Barry contrasts Allied and German strategies
- Allied command: slow and unimaginative in thought. However, does
acknowledge that Allies had potential to overcome Germanys forces if they
had reacted more quickly.
- German plan: bold and risky

Dunkirk
Consequently, British forces ordered back towards Dunkirk.
PM Churchill gave order for Operation Dynamo evacuation of all allied troops to
England. Arguably greatest rescue exercise of its kind in history: 850 vessels from
navy warships to personally owned fishing boats brought out of France allied
troops and civilians
Largely, evacuation only possible as Hitler inexplicably decided not to destroy allied
troops as they evacuated as post-war peace terms would soon be discussed
Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg lost to Germans. France about to fall.
Besides from large numbers of death in BEF, valuable and abundant weapons were
left in France and over 100 aircraft lost during evacuation
4 June: Dunkirk captured

Why German Panzers Halted rather than Press on to Destroy BEF


German tanks not close enough to BEF during Operation Dynamo as French 1st
Army sacrificed itself in heavy fighting helping BEF escape
Hitler believed racial affinity between Germans and British and didnt see them as
enemy
Hitler hoped to make peace with Britain after fall of France and made repeated
offers throughout 1940. Possible avoided destruction of BEF as would have made
peace harder later
Goering wanted some glory hence wanted Luftwaffe to destroy BEF, so panzers
halted

Fall of France
5 June: Germans resumed attacks against French targeting Paris & areas to east. By
9 June, French army in retreat. 10th: Mussolini declared war on France. 13th: Paris
declared open city to avoid destruction of historic architecture and treatures. 14th:
Germans entered Paris.

HSC STUDY BUDDY 39

16 June: PM Reynaud, wanted to fight on from North Africa, resigned as majority of


Cabinent voted to request armistice Replaced with Marshal Petain, eager to sign
armistice under belief struggle useless.
22 June: armistice signed with Germany and Italy on 24 June. Officially over on 25
June.
Armistice included:
- Division of France into two zones. Germans occupied north and western
seaboard
- Rest of France to be administered by French regime based at Vichy,
collaborated loyally with the Germans throughout the war. Regime hated by
most Frenchmen who saw supporters as traitors. Many French resisted both
Nazis and Vichy in underground Free French Resistance movement
Although armistice stated French navy wouldnt be controlled by Germans, Britain
concerned
French ships in British ports & Alexandria in Egypt easily disarmed. However, at
Oran in North Africa, a major French naval force was free of British control.
3 July: Admiral Somerville (Britain) delivered French naval commander ultimatum
all French vessels must sail to British ports or scuttle themselves
French refused. Somerville attacked French fleet at Oran. Britain & US: act of British
defiance supported.
One chief reason for defeat was confidence French placed in Maginot Line: long
series of concrete fortifications running down their eastern border with Germany
French generals unprepared for what actually occurred.
French decided it would dominate as trench warfare had dominated in WW1 whilst
Germans correctly decided modern weaponry made trenches and static defences
irrelevant. French refused to take offensive and obsessed with sheltering behind
defensive positions.
Other factors for rapid collapse of France
- German superiority in manpower, air power, leadership and fighting spirit
- Failures of French General Staff during interwar years to adopt strategies
based on mobile warfare, forcing them to rely on static lines of defence such
as Maginot Line
- Failure to prepare defensive positions along frontier in Ardennes
- Political and economic turmoil in France during 1930s which sapped will the
resist; many Nazi sympathisers among conservatives as there were
defeatists among left wing.
Colonel Goutard attacks French military leaders for clinging to outmoded tactics
and being incapable of adapting innovative tactics of enemy. Argues Germans not
overwhelmingly powerful but rather France lost because of nations moral laxness
and pleasure seeking chance of victory was actually there
NOTE: Hitlers Generals were initially in favour of bold and imaginative action rather than Hitlers belief and
faith placed in blitzkrieg. Thus, the earlier successes reinforced his personal confidence to the point that
later decisions were ill considered and misinformed Germanys eventual defeat.

THE AIR WAR AND ITS EFFECTS: THE BATTLE OF BRITAIN AND THE BLITZ, THE BOMBING OF
GERMANY

International Studies in Peace & Conflict: 2. Course of the European War

By this point, Germany had gained number of advantages


Swedish iron ores secured
Control of Norwegian and Low Country coasts gave Germany strategic advantage
over Britain
Collapse of France gave Germany control over Western Europe

The Battle of Britain
By 18th June all British forces withdrawn from France. Hitler now mainly focussed
on invading Soviet Union in belief Britain would quickly fall without European
allies.
Historians still debate Hitlers intention to invade Britain. Would have preferred not
to have fought Britain as British were Aryans. After fall of France, Hitler assumed
Britain would logically reach agreement with him and thus offered numerous.
However, Churchill, recently appointed PM, refused armistice
Britains refusal forced Hitler to invade Britain in Operation Sea Lion. For success,
necessary to control sea and air; however Goering convinced Hitler his Luftwaffe
could do job
Throughout summer 1940: German airforce sought to overcome RAF and control
airspace. Airspace vital otherwise RAF and Royal Navy would destroy invading
forces before reached shores
Littler cooperation between German Army, Navy and Air force; although each had
impressive build up of forces which own ideas and plans of how and where invasion
would initiate.
From 10th July, Luftwaffe attacked shipping convoys in English Channel, Channel
Ports and British Radar stations Luftwaffe looking for weaknesses in British
forces
8 18 August, attacks concentrated on airfields used by RAF front line groups
By late August, Fighter Command running out of aircraft and pilots
Evening 25/26 August RAF bombers launched minor attack on Berlin. Hitler furious
and ordered Luftwaffe switch attack from airfields and control centres to London
itself.
From 7 September, Germans began night air raids to stop Britain repairing damage
during the night.
Hitler ordered change of targets to cities and industries in hopes of breaking British
morale and destroying factories which built fighter aircraft. However, gave British
chance to repair airfields and radar sites and RAF chance to rebuild and reorganise
forces defences operational again
As British controllers figured out German targets now London and industrial areas,
had time to assemble fighters to attack German formations and break them up
before had chance to bomb. Came as shock to Luftwaffe pilots who been told British
Fighter Command been practically wiped out
Germany failed to gain air superiority with twice the amount of losses compared to
RAF.
17 Sept: Hitler called off Operation Sea Lion indefinitely.
Victory due to:
- Radar making it possible to detect and tract German fighters before reached
Britain.
- British aircraft production increased dramatically under direction of Lord
Beaverbrook

HSC STUDY BUDDY 41


German decision to switch from airfields and radar stations to blitz the cities
occurred just as Fighter Command near collapse
- Dowding System provided RAF with sophisticated detection and command
system
- Luftwaffe lacked specific aims and often operated independently of rest of
German military
- RAF pilots displayed enormous skill and courage in face of odds.
- As RAF fighting over home territory, planes could land & refuel easily and
spend more time in the air. Fallen aircraft might be repaired, downed pilots
could be rescued. Luftwaffe didnt have advantages.
- Germans failed to recognise importance of radar. RAF had excellent early
warning system
- German Messerschmitt BF 109 excellent fighter but short on range limited
operational time
- Messerschmitt had to escort and protect German bombers operated at
lower altitudes limited in manoeuvre it couldnt exploits one of
greatest assets which was at high altitudes
Key Turning Point: stalemate ensued in that Hitler failed to defeat Britain and
Churchill not strong enough to attack Germany.
Major implications for future course of war
- Hitler had to face two front (and later three) war
- Decreased chances of success of Hitlers invasion of Soviet Union
- Prevented Italian and German forces from taking North Africa and gaining
control of Middle East oil supplies and Suez Canal
- Allowed US to base itself in Britain
If German victory had been achieved, highly likely German victory in WW2
Political result: allowed Churchill to remain great leader. If Britain had been
defeated, his own Conservative Party would have removed him from power;
particularly as Chamberlain and Halifax favoured armistice


The Blitz (53 Nights)
7 Sept: Luftwaffe dropped bombs on London and industrial areas trying to destroy
morale Blitz
Since start of war, British had preparations against bombings with civilian defence
organisation Air Raid Precautions set up. Citizens issued with gas masks, air raid
shelters constructed, air raid sirens installed in each area, barrage balloons floating
above cities and blackout regulations Blitz did less damage than expected and
didnt destroy morale
15 September: Germany launched massive daylight bombing raid on London.
Daylight attacks lasted until 30th
German bombers then switched tactics to attacking at night with Luftwaffes
attention now on Britains towns and cities and centres of production
- German daylight bomber losses too large
- Nonetheless, RAF developed night fighters equipped with radar
Raids that did occur during day mostly aimed at engaging RAF fighters to disrupt
defensive operations over South East Britain.
7 13 Nov: London main target and bombed almost every night
- Not only symbolic target of London, but across wide range of industrial &
communications centres
Sept 1940 May 1941: Main force of Blitz occurred

International Studies in Peace & Conflict: 2. Course of the European War

By May, Hitlers attention fully focussed on plans for Russia and needed air force in
east although Britain would continue to be bombed intermittently throughout war:
60% of housing destroyed or damaged
Some positive aspects to Blitz campaign for Britain
- Industrial production not been drastically hurt; industry able to recover
- Britains ports still able to function
However, as bombing got worse, more British resolve hardened. Resolve to fight on.
Churchills visits to bombed areas well received
29 December 1940: worst night of bombing for London with much in flames
although St. Pauls Cathedral survived symbol of Britains will to resist
Reporting of American journalist Edward Murrow during Blitz gradually created
sympathy and admiration in US for Britain despite US strong isolationist policy to
avoid being dragged in European war.
Dennis Richards emphasises that Battle of Britain major turning point as fighter
pilots and presence of navy in Channel halted Hitlers path of conquest allowing for
the mighty alliance of Russia and US victory
AJP Taylor: major factor in victory was lack of clarity in German strategic aims in
comparison to British certainty of purpose. Goering couldnt decide locality of target
Liddell Hart argues damage inflicted and disruption caused by Luftwaffe greater
than generally admitted particularly on industrial production. If Luftwaffe allowed
to persist in campaign of attacking industrial centres, damage could have been
greater
- not succeeded in its object of destroying the RAFs fighter strength and the
British peoples morale
Overy suggests debate over morality of allied bombing has turned focus away from
how successful it has been in severely affecting German war front weakening
economy and destroying weapons and numbers of workers. Additionally, he
suggests Hitler looking for quick way to force British to negotiate or create right
conditions for invasion rather than attack simply due to enragement.


The Bombing of Germany
1920s &1930s: RAF believed strategic bombing war winning weapon
Harris, architect of the allied bombing campaign, put great faith in bombing arguing
surest way to defeat enemy was to destroy its war potential. Later greatly criticised
for strategy of area bombing attacking entire cities rather than specific targets
Placed in difficult role as govt privately supported tactic of area bombing with its
inevitable result of heavy casualties among German civilian population; yet publicly
wished to downplay tactic to avoid conflict with religious and humanitarian
opinion.
April 1940: decided to confine Bomber Command to mainly night bombing for
survival reasons as
15/16 May 1940, 96 strong force of British two engine bombers attacked the Ruhr
industrial area. Only crew claimed to have found actual target area
1940: Night bombing inaccurate and ineffective; however attacks on German cities
angered Hitler switch to the Blitz which key factor helping Britain win in Battle of
Britain.
1941: reports of ineffectiveness of Bomber Command very alarming. Although
significant amounts of bomber aircraft were lost, German anti-aircraft guns had
more copious amounts. Night flying and poor navigation equipment accounted for
most of losses.

HSC STUDY BUDDY 43

Harris = Change. Firmly convinced of efficiency of bombing and realised


concentration of force would work.
- Reorganised crews to produce teams of highly trained specialists and older
bombers withdrawn
- New navigational aids
- Introduced new taacics concentrating bombers in time and space to produce
maxim devastation
1943 & 1943: Several developments assisted Harris
- Aircraft production efficient. Over 1000 bombers, 178 of which new four
engine Lancasters able to fly greater distance and carry greater bomb load
- Improvements in navigation equipment
- Improved flying techniques: adding bomb-aiders to crews and pioneered
pathfinder crews who led bombing groups to targets
- From August 1942: American Air Force joined RA widening bombing options
and greatly increased allied power in bombing campaign
- Multitude of technological improvements: Bomber Command developed
window whereby hundreds of strips of aluminium foil dropped and on
German radar stimulated Lancaster bomber German radar ineffective
January 1943: Churchill met President Roosevelt bombing campaign given
priority to weaken and destroy the German military, industrial and economic
system undermining morale. Britain and US began tactic of combined day and night
bomber offensives
- Americans belief in possibilities of strategic bombing (bombing specific
targets) bombed by day. Americans targeted Germanys aircraft production
and oil industry
- British with area bombing, bombed by night
Late July: 5 day period Allied bombing of Hamburg pulverised massive concentrated
attack. Fires caused by incendiary bombs merged together killing and reducing
many to homelessness
However, success of attack didnt allow Bomber Command to gain tem of
disposable fuel tanks of airspace over Germany. German air defence improved and
by late 1943 Bomber Command faced major losses
Development of system of disposable fuel tanks gave fighters greater range and
allowed them to accompany bombers on longer missions.
November 1943 March 1944: Battle of Berlin. Further away, more heavily
defended, harder target to find, Berlin suffered less damage. By March 1944,
bombing offensive failing to reduce German war production or break morale
decisively
Early 1944: German fighter losses enormous and front line fighter aircraft had to be
withdrawn front battle fronts to protect Germany weakened German military
position on Eastern Front against Russia; and significantly reduced their aircraft
numbers later in France
By middle 1944 Overy suggests defeat of German air force become accomplished
fact. Allied bombers now free to destroy German cities.
From April 1944: British and American bombers began preparing for D-Day by
attacking transportation targets and German Air Force in France operations
often split into several different smaller attacks German night fighters much less
time and fewer large bomber streams to intercept

International Studies in Peace & Conflict: 2. Course of the European War

Beginning of 1945: Germanys only aerial response came from development of V1


and V2 rcoekts causing great alarm in Britain but had no bearing on outcome of
war.
American P51 Mustang, aircraft with range of heavy bomber, arrived as long range
escort. Could reach Berlin and outpace, outdive and outturn best German fighters.
German fighter force never recovered. Allies won command of air.
German defencelessness against Allied bombing seen in the bombing of Dresden in
Feb 1945.
Bombing gradually destroyed Germanys economic base. Oil supplies reduced,
chemical production cut, railway system severely weakened. German industry
relied on stockpiles and desperate underground production employing slave labour
Many question morality of allied bombing today; however effectiveness on
weakening Germanys ability to wage war not denied.
Controversial Allied bombing tactics
- Britain and US suffered large casualties in bombing raids
- RAF used incendiary bombs as part of area bombing large German
civilian casualties
Murray and Millett argue strategy of strategic bombing essential to the defeat of
Nazi Germany although didnt live up to expectations, definitely slowed down
German industrial production. Forced Germans to shift resources away from
military at front to anti-aircraft defence at home.




OPERATION BARBAROSSA, STALINGRAD AND THE RUSSIAN CAMPAIGN
Operation Barbarossa
Background
22 June 1941: German forces invaded Soviet Operation Barbarossa
Hitler made clear his intention to invade with ideological, racial, strategic and
economic motives
- Lebensraum: to create Aryan empire required living space found in vastness
of Russia
- Slavs of Russia racial inferiors to become future slave force.
- Russia would provide grain, oil and other resources needed by the Reich
- Defeat of Russia isolate Britain to defeat with submarine force
By May 1941: Hitler consolidated position in Eastern Europe
- Hungary and Bulgaria joined Axis
25 March 1941 Yugoslavia joined Axis powers when signed Tripartite Pact. Few
days later, Prince Pauls pro-axis govt overthrown
- Hitler alarmed invasion of Yugoslavia commencing w/ attack on Greece
- 6 April: German, Italian and Hungarian forces attacked Yugoslavia
- By late May, Axis forces control of Yugoslavia and Greece and expelled Allied
forces here
Significant German victory but actions in the Balkans delayed invasion of Russia by
a month

The Attack
Stalin had been warned by British intelligence and own sources yet chose not to
believe invasion shouldnt have come as suprise

HSC STUDY BUDDY 45

German attack of monumental proportions with 3.2 million troops and vast
weaponry
German forces divided into 3 armies with Leningrad, Moscow and Kiev as targets.
- Often out of radio contact with each other; attacked simultaneously on a
3200km front
- Army Group North moved through Baltic States towards Leningraf
- Army Group Centre towards Moscow
- Army Group South aimed to capture Ukraine and target Kiev.
Needed swift victory as longer it lasted, greater chance for defeat: Russia vast,
sources limitless and Russian winter helped defeat enemies in the past. Planned
that blitzkrieg tactics, aim of destroying Red Army in field, would finish off Soviet
Union
Hitler overestimated the abilities of his armed forces whilst underestimating
resistance mentality of Russians
Soviet forces unprepared for onslaught with many troops still training for sporting
events in late June. Took hours to realise under attack.
22 June: Germany attacked with 1200 Soviet aircraft destroyed by noon
spectacular initial process
Mid July: with 100km of Leningrad but Hitler ordered to pause while infantry
consolidated in Baltic States
Armies reached outskirts of Leningrad and Kiev (never really capturing Moscow)
but met by determined Soviet resistance. Hitler made serious tactic error in dividing
his commands & change priorities in middle of campaign
- Army Group Centre towards Moscow temporarily halted
- Two of these redeployed. First advanced north to support German position
in Leningrad (however position didnt improve as Russians fought back and
refused to surrender stalemate siege 1.5 million Russians died from
military confrontations, freezing weather, diseases and starvation) and other
moved south towards Kiev
- After 40 day battle, Army Group South captured Kiev w/ extensive casualties
on both sides
- Change of tactics delayed attack on Moswo by nearly 2 months
By end July: German forces captured Bialystol, Minsk, Uman and Smolensk
Army Group Centre similarly stalled by Hitler who insisted tank divisions should
head south to assist capture of Kiev. Hitlers generals argued should be allowed to
push to Moscow but Hitler argued Kiev needed to secure food supplies of Ukraine
and provide springboard to move on oil wells of Caucasus
19 Sept: Kiev captured
However, German forces slowed. Leningrad not captured 3 year siege
October: Hitler launched Operation Typhoon (attack on Moscow)
However, autumn rains turned poor roads into quagmires slowed progress. By
Nov, Russian winter played its role. Initially assisted German forces as frost made
easier to move across hardened ground. Yet as temperatures dropped, advance
halted. German soldiers neither equipped nor trained for such conditions
- Inadequate clothing and lack of supplies hypothermia, frostbite and
trench foot
- Engine sumps froze, tank mechanisms broke down, power line snapped
- Goering promised Luftwaffe would keep German army supplied; yet in
freezing conditions parachute drops had to be employed to deliver supplies
which often lost or fell into Soviet hands.

International Studies in Peace & Conflict: 2. Course of the European War

- Strong soviet resistance another seige


Close to Moscow, German army most vulnerable, short of food, medicines and
ammunition Soviet attack
Late 1941: Stalin decided to defend capital at all costs as
- Nov: rasputitza (time of no roads) rain, hail and snow rapidly turned
Moscow into frozen and muddy quagmire. Airports closed and plummeting
temps.
- Sorge (Stalins spy in Tokyo) reported Japan intended to launch offensive
against US war on two front fear dismissed Stalin moved entire
Siberian Army Corps from eastern Russia where has been fearing Japanese
attack to Moscow 750 000 men demoralised Germans
- Soviet Red Army replacing staggering losses at remarkable speed
- US entered WW2 after Japan attacked American naval base at Pearl Harbour
Dec 1941 ally with enormous military potential
- Stalin placed great faith in General Zhukov whose strategies dismissed
options of defence or withdrawl and kept attacking until victory achieved
further demoralised Germans
Mid October: chances of German army faded. Stalin placed General Zhukov in charge
of defence of Moscow. He organised series to anti-tank defences around Moscow to
slow German advance. His organisational skills and weaponry appropriate to
Russian conditions worked to their advantage.
Stalin learned from intelligence forces Japan planning attack US Stalin moved
entire Siberian Army Corps west to face Germany. As they trained & equipped for
severe winter, appearance lowered German morale
5 Dec: Zhukov launched counter attack. Germans forced to back up to 300km
although Germany hadnt been defeated. However, Moscow saved, Blitzkrieg failed
and Hitler faced feared drawn out campaign against Russia
1941: Russia faced much defeat. German military skill, Soviet unpreparedness, low
morale and defeatism amongst Soviet population combined with massive military
loss defeat seemed certain
Stalins orders to not retreat led to unnecessary losses; however Soviet survived
Barbarossa


Reasons for Failure of Operation Barbarossa
Geography: vastness of Russia caused disorientation and deep sense melancholy
amongst German troops. Size made difficult for Germany to keep forces supplied.
Soviet Union also followed scorched earth policy destroying anything of value to
Germans
Japans decisions to expand southward: with no threat of Japanese attack Stalin
could move well trained and well equipped Siberian forces westwards. With this,
Zhukov able to bring out Soviet Unions new military hardware such as K1, K2 and
T34 tanks
Goerings promise that army would be resupplied in Russia never realised.
Luftwaffes cargo missions over Russian skies continually threatened by Red Armys
anti-aircraft crews. German plans risked destruction of flew too low; landing heavy
aircraft dangerous because of frozen airstrips essential war materials (medicine,
food and ammunition) packed into crates and parachuted from high altitudes
frequently missed targets and captured by Russian troops
Role of Stalin: decision to stay in Moscow raised Soviet morale. His use of nationalist
and religious propaganda sustained people. Interfered less in military affairs than

HSC STUDY BUDDY 47



The Battle of Stalingrad
Background
Little chance Army Group North making breakthrough. Leningrad destroyed due to
siege in Jan 1944 but Russian surrender not likely. Similarly, chance of Army Group
centre breaking into Moscow not likely.
Army Group North (Leningrad) and Army Group Centre (Moscow) could not be
moved unless Red Armys forces in these cities surrendered unlikely
Army Group South looked more promising. Once spring arrived in 1942, Hitler
launched another attack as:
- Must win in Russia or be taken prisoner
- Could not withdraw because safe retreat impossible
April 1941: Hitler launch Operation Blue into south of Russia divided Army
Group South & launched 2 pronged attack
- Army Group A to head into Caucasus with intention of capturing Soviet oils
wells. Hitler believed by denying Stalin of main oil supplies, Soviet war effort
would be greatly disadvantaged
- Army Group B to cut off River Volga by capturing Stalingrad. Operation
twofold: Volga key communication centre and essential waterway and
Stalingrad significant industrial centre. Supported by Italian, Hungarian and
Romanian troops. Led by General Paulus
However, taking Stalingrad unnecessary as not strategically important and Volga
could have been easily cut further south. Hitler gave city greater significance than it
deserved due to name Stalingrad
29 May: German forces scored major victory near Kharkov taking significant
numbers of prisoners, tanks & guns. Further victories followed at Kerch and
Sevastopol in June and at Rostov on River Don in late July

The Battle
When Paulus began attack on Stalingrad, Soviet forces outnumbered 4 to 1.
August: launched massive two day aerial bombardment destroying more than of
city.
Fighting involved not grand movements but rather individually fought. German and
Soviet troops often fought hand-to-hand combat. Lone snipers key figures in
fighting.

International Studies in Peace & Conflict: 2. Course of the European War

Hitler. Officers promoted on merit and trust of Zhukov major factor in ability for
Soviet survival
Hitlers Interference: Hitler didnt allow generals to run things. Direct intervention
arguably prevented capture of Leningrad. Decision to take Kiev before Moscow gave
defenders breathing space to prepare defence. Frequent arguments with generals
slowed German process
Climate: Russian winter (-40 temps) unexperienced by Germans who unprepared
for it. Russians had advantage
Christian sees failure of Barbarossa as crucial moment in war which enabled
Russia to exploit to full its huge reserves of raw materials and labour
Bullock argues main factor for failure of Barbarossa was Hitlers nature as
interfering figure who didnt trust judgement of generals ignoring reality of
campaign
Overy emphasis significance of Hitlers tactically unsound practice of purging
senior officers in bringing about negative effect on Germanys war effort

Red Army attempted to prevent Paulus troops from capturing city. Soviet forces
established front line along Volga River and refused to retreat.
Every citizen in Stalingrad helped to defend city Rattenkrieg (rat war). Women
and children created simple yet deadly mines and booby traps out of recycled
explosives urban guerrilla warfare
19 November: Zhukov launched Operation Uranus at Stalingrad plan to trap all
German forces inside Stalingrad. Zhukovs plan was to encircle Paulus 6th Army in
giant pincer movement trapping German forces
- From South would be General Vatutins forces
- From North came larger force to attack Paulus vulnerable north eastern
flank
- Essentially both Russian armies progressively encircle city until met creating
a large circular war zone that included the city
23 Nov: 2 Soviet forces met at Kalach Bridge trapping Paulus 300 000 men
inside city and couldnt escape
Paulus Army Group A bogged down in Caucasus, Luftwaffe find almost impossible
to supply forces, north eastern flank (Italian, Hungarian and Romanian troops)
exposed and winter arrived
12 Dec: Attempt made to relieve Paulus with force led by General Manstein
(Operation Winter Tempest). However, force too small and couldnt reach city
Paulus sought permission from Hitler to surrender; yet refused. Promoted to Field
Marshall no German Field Marshall ever surrendered.
31 Dec 1942: Russian troops captured Paulus headquarters German 6th Army
surrendered due to cold, lack of food and ammunition, and disease. German force
300 000 men lost and 91 000 marched off to horrific Soviet imprisonment.
Lasted approx 200 days with 22 German generals and nearly 280 000 Axis troops
captured upon conclusion forced to prison camps where many died in captivity
McCauley argues significance undeniable boosting Soviet morale, High Command
showed could match battle tactics with best of them and never again did Soviet
troops flee battle
Samsonov high praise for efforts of Soviet people and Communist Party: efficient
war economy and ability of generals to plan major campaigns.
- the impressive results of the Stalingrad battle created favourable conditions
for operations by Anglo-American forces against Nazi Germany and its allies


Significance of Russian Campaign
Kharkov captured by Soviet offensive but by mid March, it and Belgorod were again
in German control
1943 onwards: Soviet forces began gain advantage in quantity and quality of
equipment
- Soviet production greatly rationalised only small number of different
types of aircraft produced but on mass scale
- American supplies granted to Russia through Lend Lease scheme beginning
to make themselves felt.
Mid 1943: Hitler committed forces to massive contest at Kursk Operation Citadel
lasted from 5 12 July.
Soviet forces established salient around Kursk and was temptation to push further,
although Stalin resisted. Temptation for Germans to cut it off, which Hitler couldnt
resist.
Bulge in front line to be site of greatest tank battle in history

HSC STUDY BUDDY 49

Russians now superior in numbers and equipment. Commanders learned lessons


well
Early July: defence lines comprising mines, tank defences and masses of heavy guns
stretched for 50 miles. No weak spot in Russian line
July 1943: Hitler ordered General von Kluge and von Manstein to strike into Russian
fortification at Kursk
5 July: German forces attacked salient from north and south. However, blitzkrieg
over; German tanks didnt slice through enemy rather used technique Panzerkeil
attacking by means of armoured wedge against equally powerful force. 240km front
for 7 days
- AJP Taylor with tanks fighting tanks there was no room for the infantry and
the German guns couldnt fire.
Battle joined with 1500 tanks on each side. Very close to victory at one stage, Hitler
broke off engagement on 12 July to deal with Anglo-American landings in Sicily.
Losses on both sides colossal but Red Army could make up its losses whereas
Wehrmacht couldnt.
Battle of Kursk turning point of war. German forces would launch great offensive on
Eastern Front again. Initiative truly passed to Red Army. All Hitler could do in east
was to delay advance of Soviet forces
Following Kursk, Soviet victories began to multiply
- 5 August: Red Army captured Belgorod
- 23 August: Kharkov retaken
- 8 Sept: Donetsk; 10 Sept: Mariupol
- Late Sept: Smolensk retaken
- 6 Nov: Kiev captured
By late 1943 Hitlers gamble in Russia failed with Operations Barbarossa and Blue
failing to achieve objectives. Wehrmachts preferred tactic of blitzkrieg blunted by
determined Soviet resistance
Russian campaign forced Staln to become increasingly focused on people of Russia
rather than himself. Closely identified himself with Red Army and its commanders
Used Red Army along with German incvasion as excuse to neutralise potential
threat from Russias ethnic groups who openly hostile to Stalins regime and sought
own political autonomy. Stalin accused of treason
Stalins significant control over Russias war economy; redirecting nations
industrial, agricultural and manufacturing resources into total war effort
Fighting in Russia and in north Africa simultaneous fronts placed strains on
German war effort
1943 1944: Allied nations opened up more fronts in Italy anf France firther testing
emotional resolve and military capabilities of Germany
Hitlers Russian campaign and significance of war not always been adequately
acknowledged
British and American historians focus on own nations roles in war AND Stalinist
Russia particularly secretive difficult to understand whole story.
However has been growing acknowledgement in the West of vital role played by
Soviet Union in defeat of Nazi. Vital to acknowledge Soviet Red Army continuously
engaged bulk of German army from June 1941 to May 1945
Hitler and German High Command failed due to following factors:
- Size of Soviet: operation in Soviet unlike campaigns in Low Countries and
France

International Studies in Peace & Conflict: 2. Course of the European War

Determination and Resilience of Soviet Resistance: Wehrmacht


underestimated enemy. Soviet industry met demands of war and produced
tanks in quantity and quality to match German panzers. Tanks, skill and
courage of crew, aid from US and Britain formidable force
- Ruthless Nature of Stalinist Regime: Stalin used threat, execution,
imprisonment and propaganda to maintain Soviet resistance.
Overy: the struggle for Kursk tore the heart out of the German army ... it was the
point at which the initiative passed to the Soviet side
Liddell Hart argues Russian campaign highlighted one major flaws of German
command structure. Admiration for German ability to resist numerically stronger
forces. However problem lay in Hitlers refusal to allow retreats without his
permission which rarely given.


June 1941: Operation Barbarossa commences

Sept 1941 Jan 1944: 900 day siege of Leningrad

Oct 1941: Kiev surrenders

Nov 1941: Moscow besieged
June 1942: Operation Blue commences

August 1942: Stalingrad besieged

July 1943: Battle of Kursk





THE BATTLE OF EL ALAMEIN AND THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE CONFLICT IN NORTH AFRICA TO THE
EUROPEAN WAR
Background to the North Africa Conflict
Italy Enters War
10 June 1940: Italy entered war eager to capitalise on Germanys swift defeat of
French.
1940: Italy not prepared for long time war critically short of military vehicles and
supplies as result of Mussolinis involvement in Spanish civil war. Naval and air
forces also weak
Nonetheless, late 1940 Mussolini stroked fascist blow on both sides of
Mediterranean Sea by attacking Egypt (Sept) and Greece (Oct). Assault on Egypt
resulted for Campaign in North Africa
Mussolini had 3 ambitious goals in North Africa
- Capture British Egypt as victory in Cairo would provide Hitler and Mussolini
control of Suez Canal, vital link between Mediterranean Sea and Indian
Ocean
- Seize control of Mediterranean Highway, vital coastal road linking Tunisia
with Libya and Egypt
- Use Egypt as springboard to launch new offensive into Middle East oilfields
Italys early wartime performance cause of concern for Hitler
- Italys 32 divisions struggled against Frances 6 divisions in June 1940. Small
advance into France only achieved with help of German forces attacking
French rear
- June 1940: Italian base in Libya attacked by British naval forces
- September: 2 Italian destroyers sunk in Libya

HSC STUDY BUDDY 51


October 1940: Italian forces attacked Greece where army got bogged down
in mountains of northern Greece and thousands died from cold winter.
Italian forces driven back into Albania by December
By May 1941: British forces taken all of Italys East African Empire


Early Actions in North Africa
Since 1911 Italy possession of colony of Libya in North Africa, situated west of
Egypt. Now under British control
Sept 1940: strong Italian force invaded Egypt and set up fortified camps. British
commander in Chief in North Africa, General Wavell, launched attack against these
camps in Operation Compass. During next 80 days Italian army now undersupplied
progressively pushed back 750km as Allied forces thrust into Libya
- 10 Dec 1940: Sidi Barrani captured with 34 000 Italian prisoners
- Early Jan 1941: Australian 6th Division led attack into Libya. Bardia captured
w/ 70000 Italian prisoners
- 22 Jan: British & Australian forces captured Tobruk w/ port facilities, stores
of supplies & prisoners
- Important bases along the Mediterranean Highway; Bardia, Tobruk &
Benghazi captured eventually.
By Nov 1940 numerically stronger Italian forces completely defeated. British
advanced 500 miles and taken significant numbers of prisoners, tanks and guns.
Feb 1941: Hitler decided to send General Rommels Afrika Korps to Libya. This force
trained for rapid movements and consisted of hundreds of tanks, thousands of field
guns and numerous infantry divisions

Rommel in North Africa
March 1941: Rommel launched counter attack against British forces driving them
out of El Aghelia back towards Tobruk. Rommels tank commands challenged and
eventually reconquered many towns and bases along the Mediterranean Highway
previously won in Operation Compass
April: Rommels German-Italian forces launched 3-pronged attack against British
forces. Italans retook Benghazi
7 April: Rommel captured Derna and British Generals Neame and OConnor
British position weakened as many troops now in Greece involved in failed attempt
to defend country
Mid April Rommel began siege of Tobruk lasting 242 days (April December 1941)
- Tobruk important: only allied base in between Alexandria in Egypt & Sfax in
Tunisia (1600m distance). Seaport had best facilities for 1500km, water
distillation plant and strong defence arrangements
- Strategic value for future of North Africa campaign recognised by both sides
- Next 8 months, allied troops mostly Australians held on against constant Axis
air, sea & land attacks.
- Tobruk periodically attacked by Rommels tanks and troops and Liftwaffe
- Mid Nov: British 8th Army launched Operation Crusader to relieve Tobruk;
British light tanks suffered great losses. Rommel launched attack on British
forces but also suffered heavy casualties.
- 7 Dec (after 40 day battle of Operation Crusader): Rommel withdrew forces.
Tobruk saved w/ high losses for both sides
- Dec: allied forces able to evacuate troops from Tobruk

International Studies in Peace & Conflict: 2. Course of the European War

Jan 1942: Rommel began 2nd desert offensive moving from El Aghelia to
Agedabia succeeded in driving British back. 29 Jan: Benghazi fell
- Next 4 months, each side held ground building up supplies and fortifying
positions
- June: Tobruk fell to Germans
July 1942: Rommel pushed his Afrika Korps deeper Egypt; threatened Cairo 1st
Battle of El Alamein. For almost a month, both sides battled with neither winner.
Atrocious conditions. Fought in trenches and attempted to locate strategic positions
hidden periodically due to severe sandstroms
By August 1942: stalemate ensued in desert war. Rommels Afrika Korps and
Britains 8th Army taken battering but no clear winner emerged
Churchill aimed for victory hence reorganised senior staff General Montgomery
new commander of 8th army
This force would confront Rommels entire Afrika Korp in Battle of El Alamein


Background to the Battle of El Alamein
Rommel fortified his position west of El Alamein with masses of anti-personnel and
anti-tank mines. German troops referred to area as devils garden. Rommel known
for desire to take offensive
However, his position in North Africa deteriorating and Rommel knew longer
delayed attacking British position, less chance of success:
- Late August: British & Axis tank strength approx equal but in following
weeks British balance favoured
- Rommels long lines of communication made them vulnerable to British air
attacks
- Rommels attempts to outflank British position at El Alamein late August
1942 failed as his forces faced dense minefields, strong resistance and
repeated air attacks
- Reinforced by men and material, Montgomerys position growing steadily
stronger. By Oct, Rommel outnumbered 2 to 1 and many of his troops Italian
infantry. More than half armour, worn out vehicles
- Tank battles relied on plentiful supplies of fuel; Rommels Afrika Korps
critically short of fuel. Rommel hoped for short battle.

The Battle of El Alamein
By Oct 1942 Afrika Korps had secure front line west of El Alamein. Resembled
ground level fortress and protected by entrenched positions, barbed wire and more
than 500 000 anti-personnel and anti-tank mines
However, Afrika Korps faced long term problem of fuel. Tanks and vehicles required
vast amount of petroleum products on regular basis to ensure mobility. Major
supply located in Tunisia 1500km away hoped attack against Montgomerys 8th
army would be short.
- If besieged, Germans would become vulnerable
Despite this, Rommels infantry and tanks had high level mobility. Only they knew
secrets out of maze to attack 8th armys front lines
Montgomerys front line strong and attempted to mislead enemy. Throughout Oct,
carried various ruses to confuse Rommels aerial reconnaissance units
- Establishing forward positions which would then be abandoned
- Dummy pipelines
- Jeeps masked with camouflage so resembling tanks

HSC STUDY BUDDY 53


Montgomerys battle plan reminiscent of Great War. Intended to launch frontal


attack against Rommels central, by direct confrontation at most strongly defended
position.
Massive artillery bombardment was to be followed by infantry advance while tank
forces would defend flanks
Rommel expected Montgomery to attack his flanks and when this occurred Rommel
planned for his panzer units to launch large sweeping movements and eventually
encircle them. This occurred to Afrika Korps
For Montgomerys plan to succeed, minesweeping vehicles and sapper units must
create new roads through Rommels minefield maze tanks and infantry could
move forward
8th army had advantage of 200 000 men and 1000 tanks outnumbering Afrika Korps
at least 2 to 1
23 Oct 1942: Battle opened w/ planned artillery bombardment along 10km front.
Masses of incendiary & explosive shells rained. Rommel in Germany when attack
began, receiving medical treatment. Returned 25 Oct to find commander died of
heart attack
Battle raged 10 days. Tank battles, mass infantry advances and hand to hand
fighting. Human losses extensive
By 2 Nov. Rommels tank strength dangerously low request for more men and
fuel. Hoped German forces could be brought from Russia to assist his Afrika Korps
but Hitler refused to divert armies from Eastern Front
4 Nov: sought Hitlers permission to withdraw. Hitler refused as he faced possible
disasters in North Africa and Russia. Realising hopelessness of situation, Rommel
withdrew west into Libya


The End of Conflict in North Africa
8 Nov: 120 000 strong Anglo-American force under Generals Eisenhower and
Patton landed in Morocco and Algeria as part of Operation Torch; and had to cope
w/ Hitlers fury over disobedience
Faced possibility of being trapped between allied forces moving east and west
across North Africa retreated towards Tunisia.
Poor planning, slow movement and torrential rain slowed movement of allied
troops from the west while Axis reinforcements arriving daily.
By Jan 1943 stalemate developed in Tunisia
Pate Jan: again disobeying orders, Rommel abandoned Tripoli and retreated to
Mareth in southern Tunisia
Feb: Rommels forces attacked US forces at Battle of Kasserine Pass, western
Tunisia. Lost 2000 men; US 10000
March: Montgomery defeated German attack at Medenine in south of Tunisia.
Rommel finally left North Africa
Late March: Montgomery succeeded in driving Axis forces north from Mareth Line
Early May: remaining Axis forces in Tunisia vastly outnumbered, short of fuel, food
and other supplies.
13 May: Axis forces surrendered. Few hundred escaped but 130 000 taken prisoner.
Allies now in control all North Africa

The Significance of the Campaign in North Africa
Campaign diverts German resources and attention turning point but in
comparison to Russian campaign, only minute.

International Studies in Peace & Conflict: 2. Course of the European War

The British were isolated and alone against Nazi Germany and faced constant
bombing during the Blitz; hence war in North Africa of great significance for Britain
Strategically, region important. Britain relatively weak in Mediterranean. Once
Russia entered war, Axis success in North Africa would enable forces to link with
German forces in Southern Russia through Middle East
If Britain could retain and perhaps increase control of North African coast, would
open way for possible counter attacks on Italy and German occupied territory
anywhere in Mediterranean.
Failure to hold North Africa would allow Middle East oil supplies to fall into hands
of Axis powers. Germanys shortage of resources crucial factor in eventual defeat
Britain controlled Egypt thus Suez Canel which provided quick route to India, Far
East, Empire & Persian Gulf. Canal itself vital British Imperial trade link with India,
South East Asia, Australia and New Zealand
Allied control of North Africa made direct allied attack on Italy possible via Sicily
from safe base in Egypt (Operation Husky). This offensive prefaced liberation of
Italy and eventual collapse of Mussolinis govt
Mid 1944 Hitler faced fighting 3 fronts: North Africa, Greece & Russia strain on
Germanys resources
Though important in weakening Axis cause, was on Eastern Front in Russian
campaign where war turned decisively in allies favour due to scale of German
losses and magnitude of Russian war effort.
Augured well for future Anglo-American cooperation
Boost to British morale. Britain not experiencing much success. US not yet factor in
war; Russia appeared to be in trouble and Singapore lost
- Knowles emphasises success of Battle of El Alamein on British morale
Significance still debated. Many military historians argue was theatre of war that
gain undue attention & fame
Barnett argues British overcommitted themselves in North Afrika hence badly
weakening their forces in South East Asia. Also argues played less important part in
Germanys ultimate defeat than Russian campaign
- Evidence: 2nd Battle of El Alamein wihcih was largest of all dessert battles,
Montgomery engaged only 4.5 German divisions whilst at same time Soviet
confronted 190 divisions
Thomson argues campaign in North Africa did little to ease pressure on Eastern
Front but great impact on wider European war. Strategic terms, gigantic flanking
movement.

3. Civilians at War

SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC EFFECTS OF THE WAR ON CIVILIANS IN BRITAIN
Reaction to the Outbreak of War
1939: British went to war with sense of weary resignation in comparison to sense of
patriotism & adventure in 1919. Simply desire to get job done. No lengthy
recruitment campaigns as conscription introduced in April 1939
British govt reacted to start of war by initiating legislation that had profound
impact. By 1940 Acts in place:

HSC STUDY BUDDY 55


Sense of relief as war came and illusions of appeasement over. Relief tempered
strongly by sense of fear. Everyone believed Nazi Germany going to be formidable
enemy
Since Munich Crisis of September 1938, country preparing for war. Air raid shelters
built across country
- In London underground city stations used as public air raid shelters with
almost 200 000 people
Horror of WW1 was use of gas widely believed gas would be used since 1938
civilians issued with gas masks & no-one allowed to leave home w/out one;
although gas never used as weapon against civilians
Within days of start of war over 1.5 million children evacuated from Britains cities
to countryside to spare horror of expected bombing onslaught. Once phoney war
set in, many returned home.

The Blitz
British cities never experienced mass level of bombing German cities (e,g. Dresden
and Hamburg) experienced
However, German bombing still had major effect on industrial and civilian areas
Early Sept 1940 May 1941: London experienced the Blitz. German bombing
initially carried out during day but form early Oct switched to night
Later in war, British cities endured smaller scale attacks and from 1944 the V1 and
V2. German V rockets not very effective but caused enormous fear amongst civilian
population
14 Nov 1940: massive raid launched against Coventry. Cities and towns considered
of economic value attacked
1941: ports main targets as bombing tried to assist German U-boat campaign in
Battle of the Atlantic
German air attacks has several aims
- Initially soften country for possible German invasion
- Destroy Britains ability to produce needs of war
- Key aim: break morale of British civilian population
German bombing failed
- Luftwaffes failure in Battle of Britain ended real prospects of German
invasion
- Though bonbing did do great damage, particularly to working class housing,
often located near their places of work, British economic production never
seriously threatened.
- Rather than low morale, probably increased it faced enemy with great
resilience and determination in spirit of Dunkirk
Nov 1938 Chamberlain appointed Sir John Anderson head of Air Raid Precautions
Bureau (ARPB). One of 1st duties to create Air Raid Wardens Service.
Simple backyard refuges, known as Andersons shelters became reality. Roof of
shelter composed 6 sheets of galvanised metal bolted together at top. Shelters only
2m x 1.5m but offered some protection from falling debris. Half buried in ground
with earth heaped on top of metal roof. Entrance protected by steel shield and
earthen blast wall.
Sandbags (400 million by 1941) piled around shopping centres and public
buildings.

International Studies in Peace & Conflict: 3. Civilians at War

Huge barrage balloons tied with cables to wagon or truck conspicuous above
Londons skyline. Prevented Luftwaffe from dive bombing and helped pinpointing
target more difficult.
After battle at Dunkirk British finally began to take warnings seriously
Many precautions in place to deal with expected air attacks. To make difficult for
German bombers, blackout enforced across country. As soon as air raid siren
sounded, street lights turned off, car headlights dimmed and windows covered with
thick curtains to conceal internal lighting
- Heavy fines for disobeying blackout regulations which rigorously enforced
by air raid wardens
Fearing invasion, beaches covered in barbed wire, pillboxes set up in southern
England and signposts removed
On streets air raid wardens blew whistles that signalled appeal for public to seek
safety. Often assisted by Britains Local Defence Volunteers (LDVs) also known as
Home Guard
- May 1940: created comprised of assorted collection of boys and old men
often armed only with sticks and pikes. Armed with attitude rather than guns
- Home Guard resistance icon of Britains home front.
- Under General Ironside, Home Guard had 1.5+ million members by 1942
- By end of war, evolved into decently trained and armed organisation.
Members prepared and willing to take on any German parachute landing
Before blitz began ten of thousands children evacuated to countryside and billeted
by parent helpers who received small fee from government
Largest public defence shelters located underground in Londons railway stations
and slept here on daily basis.
Above ground traffic accidents increased to intolerable levels. In dark people
accidentally run over by cars or down stairs and into canals.

Government Controls
National Service (Armed Forces Act): all men 18-40 liable to be conscripted
- 1941: lifted to 51
- Exemptions: reserved occupations, conscientious objectors and those in very
poor health
Security measures:
Emergency Powers Act gave govt power to direct workers including women
National Registration Act introduced forcing people to carry identity papers
Treacheries Act used to imprison, watch or ban people of organisations considered
threat to security e.g. British Fascist Party of Oswald Mosley
Many people of German or Italian descent interned or sent overseas
National Service (Armed Forces) Act: required all men 18 40 be available for
nationwide conscription. In 1941 conscription age lifted to 51.
National Registration Act: required all citizens to carry identity cards
Treacheries Act: defined all forms of sedition or treason. British Union of Fascists
banned in 1940 with founder Mosley imprisoned
Emergency Powers Act: gave govt right to conscript workers into essential war
industries (e.g. steel and textiles). Women 20-30 became official part of war effort
Essential Works Order: introduced by Minister of Labour Bevin. Specific
industries (e.g. railways, aircraft production and munitions) and workers under
govt control. Provided job security and eliminated industrial strikes moving
towards total war

HSC STUDY BUDDY 57


Propaganda, Censorship and the Media
Under John Reith, Ministry of Information (MOI) established controlling amount
and nature of information British allowed to receive in all aspects of public
communication, media, entertainment and culture.
Its Censorship Board vigilant and undertook actions such as
- censoring soldiers letters home to pushing anti-German message and
encouraging people to be careful what they say in case of German spies
- graphic photos of war zones, injured children or dead soldiers banned form
media
Censorship never developed in Britain to extent in Germany; Churchill believed
better to tell people the truth
1 Sept 1939: BBC television service closed down.
Radio and wireless became key disseminators of govt information and propaganda.
Initially radio broadcasts comprised sombre music and severe news bulletins.
However became clear people needed entertainment
Early 1940s: humour, music and shows maintained morale similar to Germany
- Armed Forces Radio Network established providing popular major artists
such as George Formby
Cinema popular escape from tribulations of daily life w/ Walt Disney classics &
Gone with the Wind v popular
Propaganda existed everywhere abd extolled the virtues and sacrifices of British
soldier and home front counterparts. Anti German messages fact of daily life
Another major output of MOI was British Broadcasting Commission (BBC). BBC
reported news in factual way and never editorialised.
- Details of casualties read out but not explained
- Churchill insisted British citizens should have access to truth
1940: Armed Forces Radio Network commenced operation. Extremely popular
broadcasting for 12 hours a day. Songs and music, mostly nostalgic but sometimes
humorous, became front line trademarks
The Entertainment National Services Association (ENSA) and the Council for
the Encouragement of Music and Arts (CEMA) also controlled by MOI. Provided
live entertainment throughout workforce through singers, comedians, poets and
musicians.
- No one paid creating sense of nationalism & community bonding as
amateurs encouraged participate.
MOI used public cinema for propaganda purposes. Cinema inexpensive and one of
most popular forms of entertainment during war years. Newreels and films had
themes emphasising patriotism, heroism & sacrifice
MOIs film censors insisted imported movies conform to at least one of four
categories: satire, comedy, adventure or compassion
Black propaganda or purposely distorted information common during WW2.
Germany saturated Britains airwaves with nightly program created by William
Joyce member of British Union of Fascists who defected to Berlin. His editorials and
exaggerated British accent caused much entertainment.
- Londoners never believed his messages which always focused on Britains
hopeless situation
In response, Britains Political Warfare Executive (PWE) created program entitled
Gustav Siegfried hosted by Sefton Delmar. His broadcasts anti-German and anti-

International Studies in Peace & Conflict: 3. Civilians at War

British creating confusion and distortion but satisfied objectives of PWEs


propagandists.

Rationing
Blitz feared by Battle of the Atlantic posed greatest threat to Britains survival
during war. This battle prevented Britain from obtaining many commodities such as
sugar, tea, fruit, oil and rubber from trading partners in America and Europe.
Overy the Axis knew how much the oceans mattered which is why they made such
strenuous efforts to sever the arteries. By 1942 German submarines were sinking
British ships faster than could be replaced
British imported much of its food thus from start of war govt paid great attention to
food rationing.
Petrol rationing started in 1939
Jan 1940: food rationing began for butter, bacon and sugar
- Meat, tea, margarine, fats and jam eventually added over next year
- Dec 1941: points system introduced giving each person 16 points to spend
at any shop on items
Citizens issued with ration booklet which contained coupons for different products.
Money and relevant coupon necessary to purchase commodities.
Main issue for all shoppers was amount of products for sale. Ration coupons placed
severe limitations on distribution of all items and prices fixed.
Ministry of Food exhorted people to try substitute foods such as carrot tart and
American Span
Eggs rare as many chickens had been killed. Average 1 egg per fortnight. From July
1942, dried eggs appeared
Full cream National Dried Milk available for small children.
People treated far better during war than depression health standards during
war actually rose
Minister of Food, Lord Woolton, initiated several food schemes to deal with food
crisis
- People exhorted to grow vegetables in victory gardens simple vegetable
patch
- His BBC program Kitchen Front promoted ideas for producing nutritious
food w/ limited resources
Exotic products like chocolate highly valued. Tobacco and alcohol not rationed but
trading hours limited
Clothes also rationed. Encouraged to make own clothes, recycle old garments, make
clothes from blankets and used curtains. Nylon stockings almost impossible to get
women resorted to drawing line up back of leg
June 1941: ration coupons for certain items of clothing esp woollen garments and
leather boots and shows
Concentrated beetroot used as lipstick and bicarbonate of soda became substitute
for deodorant.
Thriving black market for goods in short supply and many people survived
bartering goods. Most British faced life stoically. Govt successful in ensuring degree
of equality during war years feeling of nationalism
- Lives of Britains poorest classes improved significantly as now access to
many foods at fixed prices

Health of the Nation


HSC STUDY BUDDY 59


4.6+ million children born during war years. Despite threat of German bombing and
wartime privations, most healthy generation yet
1939 1945: infant mortality fell by 10%; maternal mortality fell by 40%.
Govt introduced series measures to improve health of nation
- Diphtheria immunisation introduced. Deaths from this disease fell by 75%
(1938 1945)
- By Sept 1941: all school children received free milk. Scheme lasted until
early 1970s
- By 1945: half all school receiving school meals
- Emergency Hospital Service widened availability of medical services

International Studies in Peace & Conflict: 3. Civilians at War

Women During the War


Millions of men in armed services, women needed to fill gaps left by men. Industrial
jobs & armed services
- By 1944 90+% of women directly/indirectly involved in war effort. Many
paid but majority volunteers.
Served in civil defence jobs such as Air Raid wardens and the ATS (Auxiliary
Territorial Service)
Served in WWS (Womens Voluntary Service). Set up workers canteens, civil
defence & organised evacuations
Many joined armed service: WAAF (Womens Auxiliary Air Force); WRNS
(Womens Royal Naval Service); and service jobs including communications,
repair work and clerical jobs
First Aid Nursing Yeomanry (FANY): driving ambulances and providing minor
medical and nursing services
Auxiliary Territorial Service (ATS): operating searchlights and acting as sentries,
mechanic and messengers.
Special Operations Executive (SOE): decoders, translators, spies, assassins,
double agents and forgers
2+ million worked in industry: Munitions Industry & transport serving as drivers,
conductors & canal operators
Nursing at home and overseas
80 000 women served in Womens Land Army in basic farming work freeing up
agricultural workers to fight
- Duties involved basic farming, planting and harvesting and repairing tractors
Rat Catchers Corp: worked in bomb damaged areas and urban slums looking for
specimens destined for medical research.
Social Trends
Statistics can be misleading but Home Office figures from time reveal trends
Dramatic fall in crime possibly due to increased surveillance of populace and
millions absent in armed forces
Drunkenness reduced. Might be caused by govts restrictions on pub opening hours
War years led to concern about moral standards
- Increase in promiscuity and premarital sex uncertainty of war
- Divorce petitions increased with most on grounds of adultery
- In last year of war, 70 000+ illegitimate children born
Millions of American troops based in Britain during war. Attitude of British towards
Americans
- Gratitude as believed presence of American troops would lead to inevitable
defeat of Germany

-
-

Deep resentment as Americans had more money, smarter uniform and were
taking our women
overpaid, oversexed and over here
By end of war, over 15 000 British women married American servicemen

Long Term Social and Economic Effects


10 May 1940: Churchill took over from Chamberlain as PM. Became clear
Chamberlain lost confidence of parliament and country. Churchills cabinet and
ministry contained Labour and Conservative ministers. During war, Churchill often
received more support from Labour members than from own Conservative
Churchill PM and Minister of Defence. Wanted to keep control of military policy and
believed that as former military figure could deal with service leaders between than
anyone.
Halifax Foreign Minister until Nov 1940 when succeeded by Antony Eden whose
poor health and fervent admiration of Churchill allowed the PM to dominate foreign
policy with two main results
- Churchill remained almost completely preoccupied with military and
diplomatic aspects of war
- Domestic affairs: social and economic policy, industrial relations and post
war planning became domain of Labour ministers
Impact of conflict created altering cultural, social and economic changes. Those who
survived Luftwaffes blitzkrief emerged with stronger belief in ability to ensure
personal hardship. Could empathise more closely with battelfied emotions and
experiences of British soldiers
Attlee, Morrison and Bevin dominated domestic affairs with two main results
- Labour seen as party for post war reconstruction & reform championing
policies for planning future
- When General Election held in 1945, Churchill thrown out despite gratitude
nation felt for him. His party was the party of depression and appeasers
Britains wartime govt put in place series of blue prints for future direction of
Britains society and economy
- Beveridge Report published in 1942 proposed sweeping measures to
improve well being of British people to ensure no repetition of suffering of
1930s. Offered blueprint for Britains future Welfare State. Beveridge
followed up his 1st report with Full Employment in a Free Society (1944)
sought to ensure mass unemployment of 1930s wouldnt be repeated in post
war era
- 1936: John Keynes published General Theory of Employment, Money and
Interest thesis was that govts could manipulate national economy
avoiding repeat of depression. Keynesian economics would dominate
thinking of western govts for next 30 years
- 1944: Richard Butlers Education Act. School leaving age raised to 15, free
milk, school meals and medical services part of work of Local Education
Authorities. 11 plus exam would offer chance for working class children to
enter grammar schools.
Setbacks, suspicions, embarrassments and opinions:
- Non compliance with conscription soldiers on active duty disappeared from
units. Males eligible for National Service failed to comply with call up notices
- 1941: 100 000 ration booklets stolen from Ministry of Foods head office and
never found

HSC STUDY BUDDY 61


1940 1945: 60 000+ conscientious objectors who refused to serve in


armed forces charged under Treachery Act (1940). Many imprisoned.
Cole and Postgate examine war years from working class perspective and
assessment of impact of war is positive. Argue Britain approached tasks of war in
united manner whereby public interest overrode private interest. Social class
transcended through implementations such as Home Guard
- .. the British common people cannot be separated from that of all the
nation
Marwick argues war brought social and economic revolution. Argues existing
institutions challenged by needs of war and when shown to be inadequate, changed
(e.g. hospital).
- .. the struggle for civilian survival at home initiated lasting social changes ...
Great Britain emerged from this war a very different type of society with a
new emphasis on social equality
-

Despite such inconveniences life continued for average citizen. Everyone knew now directly part
of war effort. This holistic attitude and sense of community important psychological assets; and
strengthened Britains home from resistance mentality.

The Early Years of the War


Rather than eagerness and romantic perceptions adventure and patriotism that
accompanied outbreak of WW1, that of WW2 generally more foreboding.
After much foreign policy success in 1930s and after Munich Conference Germans
didnt expect to have to fight
Early Blitzkrieg successes welcomed in Germany and Hitler popularity at peak in
July 1940. However this emotion for Hitler represented relief on part of people not
desire for further conquest.
Right wing propaganda in Germany post WW1 argue Germany lost war as German
army stabbed in back at home. Hitler believed German failure in WW1 because of
collapse at home front close attention to morale
Determined to maintain morale and normality of German life. Apart from few basic
rationing measures, was business as usual inside Germany
- No switch to total war production as occurred in Soviet and Britain
- Women no rush into factories as Nazi ideology believed separate spheres for
men and women; women belonged at home ideology overriding
practicality
o Overy challenges this arguing women always made up key part of
German labour force. 1939 comprised 37% and in 1945 51%. Should
acknowledge that many foreign female labourers working in Germany
contributing to this figure. women in Germany played a major part in
keeping the war effort going
- Goering stated in June 1940 wouldnt authorise use of female labour as could
cause too much unrest.
Sept 1939 decrees introduced removing paid holidays and 1.25 pay for overtime
and Sundays. Oct: wage freeze imposed. Measures received much opposition that
removed in Dec
Euthanasia Policy quickly dropped following strong opposition from Catholic
Church. Resumed in 1942

International Studies in Peace & Conflict: 3. Civilians at War

SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC EFFECTS OF THE WAR ON CIVILIANS IN GERMANY

Not until late in war that Germans began to suffer on home front. Approx 35%
Germanys food needs came from occupied areas and domestic agriculture able to
benefit from good weather and use foreign labourers
Despite Hitlers concerns morale not concern for Nazis during early war. Swift
defeat of Poland with relatively light casualties convinced most people of Hitlers
genius and strength armed forces.
During phoney war, life unaffected by war. Rapid successes in west from April
June 1940 further calmed any concerns people mightve had. Further emphasised
by Goebbels wartime propaganda
- Newsreel films showing Wehrmacht marching through Warsaw of Paris
- War heroes paraded through streets
- As in Britain Goebbels realised value of providing comedy & light
entertainment on radio and cinema
However Germanys early easy Blitzkrieg successes not good for Home Front or
longer term war effort. Convinced Nazis no need for severity at home. Germany
could survive off resources of nations conquered carelessness on Home Front
continued when sense dictated total war should been introduced immediately

Evacuation
As in Britain, parents urged to evacuate children from major cities. Most went to
specially established camps run by Hitler Youth set up throughout Reich and
occupied territories such as Poland and Hungary
- Children undertook programs of Nazi indoctrination
Class differences emerged as middle class families able to move away from towns
together whilst workers children sent away from parents. Natural desire to keep
families together usually children kept as home
Families that evacuated together often met hostility in countryside, being blamed
for food shortages, inflation and rising crime rate
Refugees fled to Black Forest, Bavaria and rural parts of Eastern Germany

Total War
Coordination of all human and material resources by centralised state authority
By end 1942 war clearly not going in Germanys favour. Britain still resisted, Afrika
Korps defeated at El Alamein, US now in war and defeat looming at Stalingrad.
Military setbacks Germany reverted to total war
18 Feb 1943 Goebbels announced at famous speech at Berlin Sportpalast total war
means a shorter war. Policies in all areas (economic, levels of repression,
propaganda) more extreme
During this period propaganda became more strident and harsh
- Imagery used more extreme and contained crude Jewish/Slav/Bolshevik
caricatures
- Link between Jews and Communists emphasised
- Atrocity stories spread through German media about Russian actions in east
- April 1943: Goebbels emphasised Soviet forces massacred thousands Polish
officers at Katyn Wood
Jan 1943: Casablanca Conference between Churchill and US President Roosevelt
called for unconditional surrender of Germany before peace talks could occur.
Goebbels argued this showed allies intended treating Germany far worse than in
1919 no choice but to fight to bitter end.

HSC STUDY BUDDY 63


Death of Frtiz Todt in Feb led to appointment of Speer as Armaments Minister


whose influence on German war effort enormous. Some historians suggested his
efforts added 2 years to length of war. Speer attempted to drag Germany into total
war. Not completely successful but significant impact
- Genius at organisation, true technocrat. Revamped German production by
introducing principles of mass production and improvisation increasing
efficiency of production
- Rationalisation in several areas reducing models of anti-tank weapons, air
craft models & truck types
- Conditions of workers in Germany: Speer claimed treid to improve workers
conditions and to have disobeyed Hitlers order to lay waste Western
Germany. Also no problem using imported slaves form occupied areas and
worked to death
Despite Speers efforts, wartime Nazi Germany plagued with what he called
arthritic organisational system. Red tape and layers of bureaucracy still hindered
production with incredibly decentralised regime
Contrary to popular belief, Nazi Germany not highly centralised system in which
nothing happened without Hitlers word. Many centres of power in regime each
trying to maximise own power:
- SS empire being developed by Himmler and Heydrich. SS ran concentration
camps, had own schools, factories legal and judicial systems and even own
army Waffen SS.
- 32 Gauleiters in Germany. These were regional Nazi governors. Powerful,
had access to Hitler and endeavoured to build up own power even to point of
hoarding badly needed supplies army needed
- Goering tried to hang on to aircraft production long after limitations clearly
revealed
- Eichmann job of organising Final Solution commandeered railway stock
even when army needed
- Bormann, headed Nazi Chancellery from May 1941 sought to develop own
power base. As war continued became Hitlers confident and no access
gained to Fuhrer without Bormanns consent
Duffy belies allied victory due to Hitlers failure to have long term strategy and his
belief in strength of own will

Economic Issues
Prior to 1943 German economy not mobilised. Rather industrial production focused
on quick victory proven by blitzkrieg successes in 1940
Rigid govt control of all industrial resources, mass production and highly mobile
and flexible workforce existed in US and Britain but not Germany. Production levels
in Germany lagged behind economic achievements of Allied powers.
German wages remained high equal level of consumerism.
Affluent and politically connected German businessmen profited from war.
Concept of total war simply unknown in Germany before 1943.
Wehrmachts invasion of Soviet Union in 1941 placed great pressure on economic
and military resources. 2 years later after defeats in Russia and North Africa,
Germany forced into total war effort
1943 1945: Germany attempted to maintain and enforce European empire while
nations economic superstructures pushed to limits

International Studies in Peace & Conflict: 3. Civilians at War

As war intensified industrial morale deteriorated. Absenteeism, accidents,


inefficiency and indifference replaced National Socialist enthusiasm upon which
Nazi state build
By late 1944 Germany faced 2 major problems
- Had to continued to fight in Europe or lose war
- Industrial networks now pushed to maximum capacities, had to be defended
at all costs.
- Successful solutions to these problems not found

Consumer Issues
Shortages and rationing became facts of life. Ration books required for nearly every
domestic and personal necessity. By 1945 weekly allowances of food such as sugar,
meat and dairy fats severely reduced.
- Bartering common and black market industries thrived
Anti Nazi resistance groups smuggled in prohibited items such as French and
English newspapers, clothing and books. Sheltered Wehrmacht deserters and those
escaped from concentration camps
School children conducted scrap metal drives to collect household copper, brass,
steel and iron utensils to be recycled for military purposes.
Woollens essential for Wehrmachts winter uniforms civilian garments
manufactured from alternative fabrics which wore out quickly

Role of Women
Labour of women ran counter to entrenched Nazi philosophy which saw women as
homemakers
Initial needs of war met by transferring working women from consumer sector to
more essential war industries
To sustain morale, govt introduced generous allowances for families of those
drafted into armed forces. Employed women lost up to 4% of family allowance
disincentive to remain in employment
Army call for compulsory labour service resisted by Nazi leadership. Reliance
placed on campaign urging women to volunteer. Many women simply rejected
notion of war work
Burden fell on working class women who resented middle and upper class who
carried on with lifestyle
Employers reluctant to employ women and preferred workers provided by Sauckel
forced labour.
As more men drafted into armed forces, need for female labour greater
13 Jan 1943 Hitler signed decree requiring women 17 45 register for war work.
Decree not rigidly enforced and only limited success. Categories of exemption
allowed and clear Hitler remained reluctant to conscript married women with
children, older women or middle class women unused to factory work
Jan 1944 Hitler told Sauckel to get extra 4 million workers needed from occupied
territories
Women who worked in factories: manufacture of munitions of weapons
Millions used in transport, administration, communications and commerce. With
men gone from land, women left to manage farms aided by young women from
Reich labour service

HSC STUDY BUDDY 65


By July 1941 growing demand for female personnel met by young women from
Reich labour service when 6 months labour service extended by further six months
of war service.
From mid 1943 women deployed as anti-aircraft auxillaries to replace men in
servicing. 1944 replaced men manning searchlights

Allied Bombing of Germany


Prior Sept 1939 Germany put in place system of air raid precaution wardens, fire
drills and blackout precautions. By end of 1940 bomb shelters constructed in major
cities.
After war, much blame about morality of allied bombing of Germany. Mass aircraft
formations carpet bombed entire towns. These tactics ensured civilian casualties
would be high as damage indiscriminate
Bomber Command Chief Harris defended his tactics and pointed out risks air crews
faced on such missions. Regardless of morality, enormously effective in weakening
German war effort
Allied Bombing Command (ABC) composed almost entirely of American and British
aircraft. Accelerated bombing missions over Germany from March 1944. Daylight
and nocturnal raids conducted
ABC accepted unknown numb of civilians would be killed. Justified as it hoped to
end war as quickly as possible and extract revenge for Luftwaffes bombing of
Britain in 1940. Few attempts made to discriminate between war industries and
civilian sectors
- Germanys homefront would have to share blame and pay price for Hitlers
regime
Two theories concerning aerial devastation emerged
- Tactical bombing: policy of destroying specific targets such as military units
and their resources. Technology of WW2 limited no guarantee bombs
would land precisely where aimed. Wind and flying conditions also affected
aim
- Saturation or carpet bombing: employed dozens of aircraft and release of
hundreds of tons of bombs simultaneously over wide target zone max
results guarantee.
Germans had to face bombing on scales significantly larger than Blitz. During Blitz
43 000 British dead.
Late July 1943 Bomber Command launched Operation Gomorrha against Hamburg.
Use of incendiaries whipped fire storms burning everything. Enormous effect: 30
000 40 000 people died; 500 000+ homeless
Similar actions taken against other German cities include
- Cologne (May 1942);
- Hamburg (July August 1943): incendiary bombs reached 1000 degrees
Celsius
- Dresden (Feb 1945): destruction so complete impossible to accurately
calculate number dead
- Soviet attacks on Berlin (April/May 1945)
- Before end of war ABC released nearly 3 million tons of bombs and
explosives over Germany. 7.5 million German homes destroyed and approx 1
million civilians died

International Studies in Peace & Conflict: 3. Civilians at War

Impact of allied bombing on German economy significant. Much economic activity


dispersed from major cities or forced underground definite limits on potential
German output and
- Oil supplies reached critically low levels
- Chemical production drastically reduced
- Railway system greatly disrupted
July 1944 Bormann announced reductions in assistance to victims of bombing and
by 1945 govt couldnt meet basic needs
Amazingly German morale survived to end in most places. Unlikely this result of
affection for regime or patriotic fervour. Rather, realised no choice but stick out to
end.

Historical Debate
Divided over effects of Allied bombing on civilian morale and German war effort
British planners hoped intensive bombing of cities would cause morale to crumble
and encourage active opposition to Nazi regime. Did happen partly due to control
maintained by Nazis and spirit of defiance
Keegan: German civilian morale never broken by bomber attack
Kitchen: Allied bombing had shattering effect
Burleigh: agrees civilian morale didnt collapse; but also points to 2/3 of population
of Hamburg fleeing city between raids. Also suggests leadership and people became
so great people simply tried to survive
- if the direct impact of bombing on war production was as low as is often
claimed, then why were so many men and munitions redeployed from the
land war to defending German cities?
Overy: significant indirect effects of bombing divert scarce resources to rebuild
factories & communications reduction in output of weapons by approx 50%.
Flood of refugees strained rationing system
- urban society was transformed by the large scale evacuation of cities, the
massive destruction of housing and amenities and the almost constant state
of alarm. Bombing strained emergency services and the German welfare
system almost to breaking point
Sustained intensity of Allied bombing raids mean 10x more German civilians killed
than number in Britain

Repression and Opposition


German home front didnt suffer opposition or industrial disruption experienced
during WW1. Critical difference was Nazi Germany police terror state.
During 1930s Himmlers SS police system able to reach into every corner. All
Germans knew price of opposition or careless comment could mean visit from
Gestapo or end in concentration camp. War strengthened power of security forces
Sept 1939: Reich Central Security Office set up under Heydrich. Job to coordinate all
police forces in Reich and increase efficiency
Sept 1941: Night and Fog Decree introduced. Gave regime power to arrest anyone
and detain without trial and deny knowledge of such action. People would just
disappear.
Nazis never hid reality of concentration camps from Germans. Opening of camp
always front page story.
- 1933 1945: 3+ million Germans spent time in concentration camp
- By 1945 714 000 Germans in concentration camps for political crimes

HSC STUDY BUDDY 67


Pretence at judicial procedure disappeared. Getapo and SS free to act as saw fit.
Peoples Court known for dispensing swift and party justice
Reports of SD revealed from 1943 many Germans unhappy with regime
- Many disillusioned and saw war as disaster
- Anxiety at anti-Semitic policies
- Goebbels no longer trusted and people listened to foreign broadcasts
Open opposition to Nazi regime limited to small number brave individuals:
- Hans and Sophie Scholl who organised White Rose resistance movement
Army opposition to regime unsuccessful during July 1944 bomb plot on Hitlers life
led by Stauffenberg. Failure of plot conspirators rounded up and shot stiffer
repression

Berlin: The Death of a City


Jan April 1945: Berlin subjected to intense Allied bombing while Allied armies
moved closer to nations capital
30 Jan: Morale plunged as Radio Berlin announced 25 000 ton passenger liner sunk
by Russian submarine. 4000 drowned with only 900 survivors
Feb: General von Steuben ship carrying 3000+ wounded soldiers torpedoed. 300
survived
American and Russian armies containing nearly 2 million troops, tanks and field
guns created wide perimeter around nations capital. Roads blocked. Escape
impossible
Battle of Berlin (16 April 2 May) devastated city. Its suburbs subjected to intense
rocket attacks for 2 days as Red Army moved closer to target of Hitlers bunker.
Wehrmacht didnt surrender as expected
German units outnumbered but fought back with determination
Vengeful Russian army extended no mercy to Berlins population. Looting, rape and
murder occurred. Russians simply killed anyone who impeded their forward
progress.
21 April: Russian tanks entered Berlins city centres. City now cut off from world
2 May: General Weidling, commandant of Berlin, surrendered city to Russians


Nazi Ideology
Hitlers war was racially based with deep ideological aims. Sought to gain control of
land and economic resources, to unite national groups, seek revenge, achievement
of lebensraum in the east and creation of German empire peopled by racially pure
Aryans served by slave force of undesirable groups such as Jews
Based on Darwinist approach to race development of life process of evolution that
species survived based on ability to adapt to environment i.e. survival of fittest
rise and fall of nations Social Darwinism
Nations succeeded in history because contained superior human beings with
superior culture existence of superior and inferior races; Aryans believed to be
supreme race
Hitler believed Aryan racial stock and Germanic culture would enable Germany to
lead world. Germanic empire in east hoped to be created for German population
that would reach 250 million by end of cent lebensraum

International Studies in Peace & Conflict: 3. Civilians at War

NAZI RACIAL POLICES: THE HOLOCAUST AND THE PERSECUTION OF MINORITIES

For Aryan race to succeed in historical mission, essential that Aryan blood stock be
kept pure.
Nazi policies identified several impurities
- Non Aryan racial types such as Slavic people and Gypsies
- Handicapped and mentally ill
- Homosexuals
- Greatest threat believed to be the Jewish race
Roberts argues Germany lost war because of its single minded preoccupation with
racial aspect and ideological war aims. Believed ideology always prevailed to
disadvantage of Germany
- When war going badly final solution pursued forcefully
- Scarece transportation resources waster
- Millions of potential workers gassed
- Social Darwinist thinking forbade retreat or compromise.
- the real reason that Hitler lost the Second World War was exactly the same
reason that caused him to unleash it in the first place: he was a Nazi.

Historical Debate
Essence of Holocaust: perverted science and inherent racist thinking combined with
Nazi ideology to bring about systematic destruction of Jews in Europe and other
threatening minorities

Intentionalists
Argue it was Hitlers intention all along to exterminate Jewish race and that Nazi
ideology consistently presented Jews as sub-human species to be eliminated
Once gained power in 1933, in position to start putting plans into practice. Early
war victories placed more Jews under his control mission possible
Hilter told Reichstag if was war, would mean end of Jews in Europe. Planned from
beginning but not until 1940s that Hitler felt secure enough politically to start mass
murder of Jews.
Evidence
- Mein Kampf
- Consistency of utterances against Jews
- Steadily increasing pressure placed on Jews in 1930s
- Speech of Jan 1939 threatening end of Jews: result will be annihilation of the
Jewish race in Europe

Structuralists
Argue it wasnt Hitlers intention form start to destroy Jews. As time went on, esp
during war, Nazi regime became radicalised and spun out of control events of
Holocaust
Nazi propaganda and anti-Jewish speeches existed, but no documentary evidence to
show Hitler planned mass murder of millions from start.
Argue Final Solution forced on Germany because so many countries refused to take
Jewish refugees and war situation brought so many Jews under German control
creating food supply and settlement problems.
Evidence
- Attempts at Jewish emigration in late 1930s whereby Himmler encouraged
emigration of Jews true policy to rid Germany of Jews.

HSC STUDY BUDDY 69


Documentary evidence plan made to ship 4 million Jews to Madagascar in


1940. Failure to defeat Britain made impossible
- Desire of Nazi leaders to work towards the Fuhrer
Goldhagen argued not only mass murder of Jews consistent plan of Hitlers but able
to do so due to long standing and violent strain of anti-Semitism in German culture
which meant Germans believed policy of mass killings justified
-

The Development of Anti-Semitic Policies Pre-War Germany


Anti-Semitism: irrational and often violent hatred of Jews
Suggested reasons for development of anti-Semitism
- Jews were Christ Killers thus persecution by Christians as they responsible
for crucifying Christ
- Following Roman expulsion of Jews from Palestine 70AD Jews eventually
sought refuge in range of lands across Europe, Middle East and North Africa
o In some countries, Jews gradually assimilated
o Others, retained geographical, religious and cultural separateness
which made them easily scapegoats particularly in case of defeat of
WW1
Hence, Hitler and Nazis didnt invent anti-Semitism as existed across Europe.
Believed Jewish conspiracy existed to take over work
Hitlers electoral support rose steadily during early 1930s reaching 37% by July
1932. However little indication that his anti-Semitism was reason so many Germans
voted Nazi. More likely desperation caused by depression and belief Nazis offered
hope for future
Yet once in power, Nazis introduced series of anti-Semitic measures
- Initially, anti Jewish measures caused inconvenience and humiliation e.g.
excluded from parks & buses
- Gradually excluded from professions e.g. medicine and education
- 1935 Nuremberg Laws denied Jews German citizenship and forbade marital
or sexual relations between Aryans and Jews
- Nov 1938: Jews across Germany attacked in govt organised program Night
of the Broken Glass whereby thousands rounded up and sent to
concentration camps
Moving Towards the Holocaust
Conquest of Poland presented Nazis with what to do with Polands estimated 3
million Jews
- Oct 1939: Jews from Austria and Moravia sent to Poland
1940: ghettos set up in Polish cities e.g. Warsaw & Lodz. Purpose to separate Jewish
from non-Jewish populace
Conditions atrocious. Thousands crammed into tiny areas; food supplies poor; &
medical supplies non existent
Hitler encouraged Hews to leave Germany as easy solution. Numerous attempts
made before 1941 to find territorial solution to this problem.
- 1940: after France surrendered Hitler considered sending thousands of Jews
to Madagascar, French colon. However, later rejected this option as Allies
had control of South Atlantic and Indian Oceans
June 1941: Germany invaded Russia in Operation Barbarossa. Early German
victories spectacular and vast area of Russian territory came under German control.
These western regions if Russia inhabited by millions of Jews

International Studies in Peace & Conflict: 3. Civilians at War

German army followed by SS units Einsatzgruppen who were killing squads with
purpose to seek out Jews and kill them. Throughout 2nd half of 1941, tens of
thousands Jews systematically murdered by these squads
However, shooting activities of Einsatzgruppen inefficient and time consuming
Jewish problem
31 July 1941 Goering requesting Heydrich present plan which would bring about
solution. At Nuremberg, Goering claimed working under Hitlers orders.
Before end of 1941 Nazis began experimenting with various gassing techniques
- Sealed trucks crammed with prisoners filled with carbon monoxide
- At Chelmno and Belzec concentration camps, series of poisonous gasses
tested
Jan 1942: Wansee Conference where decided to seek a final solution to the Jewish
problem gas all Jews
- Blueprints made for design of gas chambers and crematoria, lists drawn up
of how Jews to be exterminated in each country
- Some of Germanys top industrial firms involved in this
Jews to be deported to new and larger camps in east e.g. Auschwitz and Treblinka in
Poland resettlement
Himmlers Death Head units ran camps supported by Gestapo officers and
Wehrmacht troops.

The Final Solution


Late 1943 all death camps fully operational. By early 1945 as Allied forces moved
closer to Germany all death camps ceased operations
Throughout 1943 and 1944: Jews from all over Europe shipped to death camps.
Jews from occupied western Europe sometimes paid for their faired to east
believing they being resettled. Order of who go first often decided by Jews own
leaders
Normal manner: Jews to be herded onto cattle trucks, sealed, crowded, stifling in
summer & freezing in winter
Upon arrival, met by screaming SS guards ordering out of trucks with bodies of
already dead to be removed first. Lined up receive examination from SS doctor
- If doctor believed could work (young and healthy) would gesture to one
side often worked to death
- If doctor deemed unable to work (old, sick, pregnant) sent different way to
be gassed immediately
Forced to undress, would be ordered to line up and take turns in delousing shower
hundreds at time and door sealed. Small children sometimes tossed over peoples
heads
Roof each gas chamber was small metal grill which dropped pellets of Zyklon B gas.
Grill closed and gas did job
After 15 mins, door opened and Jewish volunteer prisoners had job of extracting
bodies from chamber. Taken to crematoria to be incinerated
Once apparent war lost, SS stepped up process of killing. Eichmann ensured
valuable resources made available for shipping Jews to death camps instead of
being used for Army. By end of war, 6+ million Jews murdered
Camps ran very efficient, businesslike manner with continual recycling
- Gold fillings and remaining jewellery extracted from bodies
- Human hair shaved off and kept
- Possessions kept for reuse

HSC STUDY BUDDY 71


Camps in east had another function other than death and slavery. Perverted medical
science given free rein as doctors such as Mengele performed medical experiments
on prisoners. Might be injected with diseases in order to trace progress of infection,
be subjected to intense cold or intense air pressure
Goldhagen suggests 4 things needed for Holocaust: Hitlers decision, German
control over the Jews, organisation and resources allocated to operation and large
number of people to follow through. Argues no Germans, no Holocaust German
political culture developed to point where masses of ordinary Germans satisfied to
go along with Holocaust.
- .. the vast majority of the German people (came) to understand, assent to,
and when possible, do their part to further the extermination of the Jews

The Persecution of Minorities


Though Jews principal victims of Nazis barbarism, not only victims. Many
minorities that didnt fit in with Nazi vision of racially pure and perfect future:
gypsies, homosexuals, mentally ill, people who suffered forms of social deviancy like
alcoholics
Gypsies viewed as not racially German danger of racial pollution. Didnt fit into
Nazi ideal of Peoples Community. By 1945 Nazis murdered 200 000+ gypsies
March 1943: Himmler ordered special gypsy camps to be set up in Auschwitz where
some became subjects of medical experimentation. Closed in 1944
Berlin conference in Jan 1949 decided to expel German gypsies to occupied Poland
though mass deportation never took place due to overcrowding in Polish centres.
- Overy: no general plan of extermination
Severe penalties in Nazi criminal code for being identified as homosexual. At camps,
forced to wear pink triangle and constantly targeted. Many Nazis themselves
homosexual (SA leader Ernst Rohm) homosexual allegations often used as means
of discrediting opponents. Calculation of murders difficult as overlaps
- Burleigh suggests reason for antagonistic attitude towards homosexuality
was biology as homos couldnt breed
Mentally ill and handicapped targeted from 1939 in euthanasia program. Didnt fit
image of future pure and perfect Nazi empire. Extermination program for them
referred to as Operation T4. Taken to 1 of 6 special facilities and gassed using pure
carbon monoxide. Temporarily stopped after objection from Catholic Church but
recommenced in 1942. Up to 275 000 killed. Handicapped included prostitutes
and alcoholics














International Studies in Peace & Conflict: 3. Civilians at War

4. End of the Conflict


D-DAY AND THE LIBERATION OF FRANCE

Background to D-Day
Mid 1943: outcome for Allied victory most probable
- Rommel been driven out of North Africa following defeat at El Alamein and
in Tunisia
- Allies taken Sicily and beginning slow march through Italy
- Germans lost initiative on Eastern Front following Soviet success in Battle of
Kursk
- Allies gained upper hand in Battle of the Atlantic
- Allied bombing would have eventual devastating effect on German industry
However, Allies knew victory against Germany would require attack on German-
occupied France to be followed by eventual driving out of Wehrmacht
Washington Conference of May 1943: decision to invade France
Quebec Conference in August: plans accepted
By end of year, US General Eisenhower appointed Supreme Allied Commander of
Operation Overload; General Montgomery Commander of Land Forces; Admiral
Ramsay Commander of Naval Forces Russians not satisfied who had been suffering
for over 2 years
- Soviet losses ran into millions; land destroyed
- Stalin suspected western powers happy to see Nazis and Communists
destroy each other in bloody war of attrition
- Stalin questioned western courage
- When Roosevelt, Stalin and Churchill met at Tehran Conference in Nov 1943,
western leaders promised Stalin they would open another front in France by
May 1944
Though Stalins arguments valid, decisions to invade France matter that could not
made lightly. German defences strong and if allied amphibious landing failed, might
take more extended periods to attempt again. Dangers of cross-Channel attack
revealed during attack on France port of Dieppe in 1942
Roosevelt wanted to work with Stalin and keen for Soviet intervention against Japan
in Pacific War. However, Churchill deeply suspicious of Stalin and sought allied front
in Balkans to prevent complete Soviet post war takeover of Eastern Europe Cold
War

HSC STUDY BUDDY 73


Also danger Soviet Red Army might march into Germany alonr though decision
to invade France in 1944 taken because of military position of German, also had eye
on post war situation in Europe

Preparations for D-Day


German position in west protected by Atlantic Wall stretching 2700km from
Norway to Spain along French coastline. Comprised series concrete bunkers, tank
traps and artillery with purpose of preventing amphibious landing craft from
beaches. Normandy less heavily fortified.
- 1943: Hitler believed Atlantic Wall Germanys best strategic option. With
defeats in Britain, North Africa and Soviet Hitler forced to accept Nazism
could be defeated.
- Hence reliance in 1943 on Atlantic Wall admission Wehrmacht would have
to fight from defensive and static positions
- Suitable as had landing beaches and offered port of Cherbourg as easy access
for troops coming directly from US
German defence line varied in depth: few hundred metres to many km
By late 1943, Germans expecting allied attack in France though didnt know precise
location. Hitler ordered more troops into France and sent Rommel to be Rundstedts
deputy, laying millions of mines
Allied attack clearly coming but German intelligence still didnt know where
- Attack on Norway considered possibility. Allied bogus intelligence tried to
deceive Germans into thinking this might happen in Operation Bodyguard.
False information leaked which allies knew Germans would be able to pick
up
- Most likely location for allied attack near port of Calais, 35km from British
coast
- True allied choice: Normandy
Rommel, commanding German forces in northern France, wanted to spread
reserves along coast so could immediately attack any landing forces. Knew allied air
forces would make it very difficult to redeploy more distant units.
Rundstedt wanted strong central reserve that only be sent into attack once clear
where main Allied landings taking place.
Ended up with compromise: some reserves near Normandy coast, but not allowed
to be deployed without permission from Hitler

Operation Bodyguard
Operation an attempt to keep D Day invasion secret by creating false fronts and
distributing misleading information in bid to convince Wehrmachts intelligence
bureau that Allied attack would occur in either Norway or French port city of Calais
Allies need location kept secret to avoid Germany strengthening defences result
in horrific Allied death rates
Location kept secret Germans spread defensive forces
To gain as much information as possible about landing areas agents dropped into
France; aircraft flew reconnaissance missions along entire French coastline so as
not to alert Germans of real target
Hitlers hunch backed by Rommel was attack in Normandy; however Hitlers
hesistancy and caution stoped him fortifying Normandy at expense of Calais
Two phoney armies created

International Studies in Peace & Conflict: 4. End of the Conflict

1st US Arm Group in England


British 4th Army, headquartered in Scotland
Massive amounts of info stated these forces would liberate Norway and
Calais sometime in 1944
Secrecy maintained in variety ways
- Allies leaked stream false intelligence which knew Germans would decipher
- Allied commanders like Montgomery given look-alikes who would make
appearances far from where real person was hoped German spies inside
England would relay such information
- Phoney armies and air squadrons gathered in locations well away from real
embarkation points
- March 1944: ghost army built up in Scotland which by use of carefully
constructed wireless traffic suggested Norway invasion target.
Real preparations took months
- Allies constructed giant floating harbours mulberries which towed across
Channel to be used to disembark troops, tanks and supplies with secrecy
- Flexible pipelines laid beneath Channel in Operation Pluto which would
eventually give allied forces 1.5 million L petroleum products a day
- German radar stations tracked for years. March 1944 attack launched on
German radar station in Ostend to assess capability of allied air forces to take
out German radar. Its success gave allies hope they would be able to take
German radar in France
By mid 1944 Britain became giant aircraft carrier. Amphibious landing craft being
prepared while allied air forces had 12 00 aircraft at their disposal. Throughout May
exercises taking place all over country
French Underground Movement launched new operations in May which sabotaged
German resources and blew up selected bridges and railroad lines as part of Allied
plan.
Nazi Germanys Abwehr one of best intelligence organisations in WW2 very
suspicious of this info but couldnt afford to dismiss an intelligence date that could
change Germanys tactics
Allied ground forces under command of General Montgomerys 21st Army Group.
Developed plan and stuck to it so successfully German actions predictable. Failure
was never admitting to it when parts of plan went astray
Plan was for British and Canadian attacks on Allied left to drawn in German
reserves while allowing American units on right to advance more quickly.
5 June: dates set for invasion; however on 3 June meteorologist Group Captain Stagg
warned Eisenhower of weather postponed invasion. Next day, Stagg told
Eisenhower worst of storm over. Eisenhower knew if didnt attack immediately
would be another month before tides right
6 June: attack commenced
-
-
-

D-Day 6 June 1944


Objective of Allies to link occupied areas ASAP and break into Normandy proper
before turning east to push Germans back to Paris and beyond.
Major obstacle: nature of Norman countryside - Bocage vegetation in France also
assisted German defences. Deep hedges rooted in sand dunes provided strong
additional wall of defence difficult to break through.
- Endless network of high sandbanks contained dense hedges strong enough
to resist bullets & vehicles

HSC STUDY BUDDY 75

Initial assault onto beaches of Normandy involved 50 000 men. Inside France up to
100 000 members of French Resistance assisted with guerrilla attacks on German
positions
During stage one, naval and aerial bombardments would attempt to destroy Atlantic
Wall that protected Normandys beaches. Parachute drops which included
thousands airborne troops had 2 missions
- Destroy Wehrmachts lines of communications
- Enforce new resistance strongholds created by Frenchs anti-Nazi
underground movemen
2+ million men shipped to France during entire operation. Allies used 12 00 aircraft
comprising fighters, bombers, transports and gliders, 139 warships, 221 smaller
combat vessels, landing craft, and merchant ships
5th: Allied paratroopers dropped behind beaches of Normandy and Atlantic Wall in
6 different waves
Targeted area extended approx 110km along beaches of Normandy. Allied troops
allocated specific landing areas which divided into five sections from east to west
- Sword (British), Juno (Canadian and British), Gold (British), Omaha (US) and
Utah (US)
- Beaches attacked at different times due to tide. Began at 630am at Utah
Beach
- Overall successful but heavy loss at Omaha beach where stiff resistance and
steep cliffs casualties
Simultaneously parachute drops occured over Calais, Allies phoney target. However
paratroopers here not human. Were 1m long dummies specialy weighted and
equipped with parachutes that opened automatically and had self detonating
explosives attached to clothing
Glider planes carrying radio equipment and commando units would also attack
Normandy. Waited on runways, along with Allied fighter aircraft and heavy
bombers
Order of attack
- British 6th airborne division arrived by glider to seize bridges on River Orne
and take German artillery battery at Merville.
- US 82nd and 101st airborne divisions landed in south east corner of Cotentin
Peninsula
- Following ferocious aerial bombardment, allied warships then launched
massive barrage against German defences
- Landings at Sowrd, June, Gold and Utah achieved efficiently and with
relatively light casualties. German counter attack between Juno and Sword
defeated. British troops began moving inland
- Things not as straightforward at Omaha and Americans became pinned
down on foreshore. Suffered 3000 casualties on that first day
th
6 June: 50 000+ Allied soldiers left transport ships and boarded vast network of
flat bottomed landing craft. French coastline 5km away
By nightfall 156 000 allied troops landed in Normandy. By 12 June, 326 000 troops
ashore and bridgehead 50miles wide been gained.
- Allied invasion force faced many problems prior to getting ashore. Required
to get close to beaches while being pounded by Atlantic Walls coastal
artillery. Thousands soldiers jumped waist or shoulder deep into ocean
carrying 25km of weapons and equipment
- Drowning distinct possibility unless could move rapidly out of surf

International Studies in Peace & Conflict: 4. End of the Conflict

Beaches No Mans Land


German resistance: at all levels standard of German leadership higher overall and
German troops fought in knowledge their tanks vastly better than Allies.
German resistance fierce but several disadvantages
- General Rommel, overall command of area gone back to Germany to
celebrate wifes birthday
- Allies had command of skies and no German bombers attacked landing sites
- Germans limited numbers of feared panzers in Normandy region to resist
invasion
- Allies playing to their strengths in particular deploying weight of artillery
and air firepower to which Germans had no answer
All Allied soldiers had goal of moving forward and hopefully finding shelter on
higher ground. Predictably unit cohesion broken as soldiers grabber wounded
comrades and attempted to find safety zones that didnt exist
By 18 June US forces reaches west coast of Cotentin Peninsula and trapped German
garrison in Cherbourg
19 -22 June: raging storm destroyed 1 floating harbour temporary halt to air
strikes & nearly cut off supplies
26 June: British forces attacked west of Caen in Operation Epsom; heavy losses
forced them to halt. Montgomery severely criticised for this action
By 2 July: a million men landed in France
9 July: British forces captured Caen
Mid July: US forces took St Lo after solid German resistance and British forces
managed to clear area around Caen despite losing 100+ tanks
Allies ready to breakout from Normandy
Roberts: it is more than doubtful that an invasion in 1943 could have succeeded
-

Hitlers Doodlebugs
12 June 1944: Hitler responded to Allied invasion of France by ordering 10 V1
rockets to be launched against Britain. 4 reached Britain and one hit London
V1 Rocket 25m and carried 1000kg of explosive with 400km range mass
destruction f new form of aggressive and indiscriminate warfare unknown to Allied
power
V2 used later in war. Deadly as made little noise and nearly impossible to detect by
Britains radar networks before cargo exploded.
Added chilling and unpredictable chapter to war.
At same time helped to justify Allied nations decision to conduct saturation
bombing raids over Germany

Liberation of France
Late July: allies commenced breakout from Normandy. Within 6 weeks, Paris
liberated, Germans driven out of France and Allies reached Belgium.
French resistance forces gained control of Brittany almost making US General
Pattons entry there unnecessary
Canadian troops launched Operation Totalise aimed to trap German troops near
Falaise. Called off on 11 August. American forces then moved eastward and
cornered German troops in Falaise pocket.
- 50 000 captured, 10 000 killed but 30 000 escaped with armour fleeing
eastward across River Seine

HSC STUDY BUDDY 77


Mid August: US and French troops invaded southern France in Operation Anvil and
advanced north through Rhone Valley
15 August: workers in Paris went on strike and joined by police. Hitler ordered
Paris be levelled but German governor von Choltitz refused. He surrendered city to
French 2nd Armoured Division on 25 August; Free French leader de Gaulle arrived
26th Paris liberated 25th August 1944
Following days, retribution carried out against those French who collaborated with
Germans. 10 000 executed
By Oct: de Gaulle restored order. Replaced Vichy appointees with Resistance leaders
and Resistance forces disarmed or merged into French army.
At same time Franc ebeing freed, British forces to north had crossed River Seine
heading eastward
By late August: US forces close to River Meuse while British forces gained control all
bridges over River Somme
1 Sept: Canadian forces liberated Dieppe. By 3 Spet allied forces had moved into
Belgium and captured Brussels. Antwerp liberated on 4 Sept
Campaign took about 7 weeks. Losses on both sides considerable: 400 000 Germans
died, 200 000 allied

Assessment and Significance of Normandy Campaign


Decapitation common. Extensive wounds, psychological or physical, trademarks
Human and material losses extensive. Significant fatalities, missing troops in action
and hospitalised with wounds. Vehicles and tanks lost
Thousands of hectares of valuable French farmland destroyed. French civilians
often caught in cross fire between 2 armies.
Allied powers successes in France represented major defeat for Nazi Germany.
This and Russia reconfirmed Hitlers disintegrating power.
1943 Mussolinis regime ended and Italian govt surrendered to Allies. In response,
Hitler ordered his armies to invade Italy late in year.
- 5 June 1944 (one day before Operation D Day launched) Allied forces
entered Italys capital, Rome. Hence, Hitlers bid to maintain southern front
in Italy failed.
Wehrmachts ongoing losses in men and war materials now serious issue. Hitlers
armies numerically reduced, overextended, undersupplied and vulnerable.
Nonetheless, remained resolute and refused to accept defeat
Late 1944: Axis alliances rapidly falling apart. In Pacific War Japanese forces
suffered major defeats Allied invasion of Japan distinct possibility.
In Europe Hungary and Romania soon surrender to Russians
In post D Day period, Hitler no longer any viable allies. Also feared reprisals from
worst enemy: Russia.

Summary of D-Day and Liberation of France


Great secrecy underscored preparations mostly taking place in England. Clever
camoflauge tactics by British and Americans concealed concentration of troops and
aircraft in south of England threw off Luftwaffe reconnaissance aircraft
Hitler and generals aware invasion in making but miscalculated landing zones,
believing attack would take place in vicinity of Calais, 40km from English port of
Dover.
- Series huge concrete fortifications and defensive structures (Atlantic Wall)
built along north east coastline of France limited value

International Studies in Peace & Conflict: 4. End of the Conflict

Actual landings postponed for several days due to bad weather but finally took
place on 6 June. Massive floating harbours towed across drop off points along
Normandy peninsula where beached to form port facilities necessary to unload
millions of tonnes of war materials
Mass strength of Allies overwhelmed defences which put up stiff resistance. Having
established crucial bridgehead through which war effort flowed, Allies finally broke
through German lines where could deploy mechanised armour, something enemy
lacked
Hitlers failure to throw invaders back in sea within first few days doomed German
defence to eventual collapse. By this point in war, Allied airpower had 30:1
superiority over Luftwaffe which couldnt offer protection against bombing attacks
on panzer reserves being hauled form rear on rail network
By end July 1944 Allied foothold expanded into larger bridgehead 100+km wide

RUSSIAN COUNTER OFFENSIVES 1944


Soviet Offensives January December 1944
Following Battle of Kursk, initiative on Eastern Front now with Red Army. From
Kursk to end of war, Russian forces on Eastern Front gradually pushed Germany
and its allies back
As Red Army progressed, Soviet influence being planted in liberated areas
planning post war situation.
Overy dismisses view that Soviet had overhelming advantage in numbers,
contending that sharp increase in number of battlefront weapons on Soviet side and
great improvements in way weapons organised changed balance in fighting power
Soviet leaders learned from earlier defeats and introduced military reforms which
enabled them to fully exploit range of weapons produced in factories
5 Jan 1944: Soviet forces began offensive to recapture western Ukraine and Crimea.
Initial target Kirovgrad which fell to Russians on 8 Jan.
27 Jan: siege of Leningrad broke
End of Feb: Germanys Army Group North routed. Three German divisions wiped
out with many others gravely weakened. Soviet forces capture almost 200 tanks and
1800 artillery guns in fighting at start 1944
Mid March: Soviet forces manage to split Germanys Army Group South and poised
to advance on Romania.
Throughout April Red Army fights to free Crimean Peninsula of Axis forces. Crimean
port of Sebastopol finally taken on 9 May. German losses exceed 100 000
Early June: Soviet forces attack Finnish forces
- Massive Soviet artillery barrage forces Finnish forces to retreat to stronger
defence line
- 15 July: Finnish forces manage to hold off Soviet forces in Karelian Isthmus
- 2 Sept: Finns make peace. Peace agreement extremely moderate and allows
Finland to remain independent and capitalist through entire Cold War
22 June 1944: General Zhukov commenced Operation Bagration to push Germans
out of Soviet. Soviet launches massive assault on strongest of Hitlers eastern forces,

HSC STUDY BUDDY 79

Army Group Centre along 700km front. Attack to move across Belorussia towards
Poland. Effectively destroyed Army Group Centre
- Operation preceded by major supporting operations involving laying of
mines and sabotage actions against German communications
- Jordan: Operation Bagration was Hitlers worst military setback of the war
.. dramatically turned the tide of war against the Third Reich.
Zhukov armies had 4 assets: quest for victory, speed, mobility & overwhelming
manpower resources
Soviet advance rapid & strong and captured German soldiers shown no mercy by
Soviet captors. Thousands executed Army Group entre ceased to exist
June and July: Russian offensive steamed path of destruction towards Poland.
Wehrmachts supply lines and retreat routes cut and military resources captured.
German units progressively encircled or overrun by Zhukovs tank units. No mercy
or compassion
Early July: Soviet forces begin campaign to drive Germans out of Baltic states of
Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. Success here would threaten German food supplies
and links to Sweden and Finland
11 July: Red Army forces capture Minsk. German losses exceed 100 000.
17 July: Soviet forces enter Poland. Within less than fortnight Lvov liberated &
Soviet forces reach River Vistula
- Soviet forces moved too quickly so outpaced support units. By time Poland
reach, Zhukovs tanks short of fuel. Thus operation temporarily postponed
but Stalin achieved goal. Wehrmachts Army Group Centre (one of Hitlers
strongest military assests) broken
Beginning August: Russia forces rested on Vistula, short distance from Warsaw
August: Polish resistance forces rise up against Germans in Warsaw.
12 August: coup against pro-German government of Romania.
- 12 Sept: Romania surrenders to Soviet Union
- Romania rewarded by receiving back area of Transylvania it lost to Hungary
Sept: Soviet Union declares war on Bulgaria, invades and quickly takes control
- 8 Sept: new Bulgarian regime declares war on Germany
Early Sept: Soviet forces begin attack in Carpathian Mountains on their way to
Slovakia. Eventually break through in Nov
British forces occupy Athens in Oct and German forces leave country on 19 Oct
- Brief civil war breaks out in that country between communist and royalist
forces which ends in Dec but Greece not be settled land yet
Yugoslav 1st Army begins advance on Belgrade and Marshal Titos Liberation Army
captured Belgrade. Managed to free his country of German control without Red
Army.
Baltic states fall under Soviet control and by early Oct Russia in East Prussia.
By end 1944, Hitlers empire in central and eastern Europe greatly diminished.
Consisted of western Poland, most of Czechoslovakia, western Hungary, Croatia,
Slovenia and northern Italy.
Allies successes: Hitlers armies beaten on two fronts. New Russian offensive also
launched against the Balkans, Hungary and Romania eventually all succeeded.
However, Stalins attitude towards Poles created bitter controversy

Warsaw Uprising: August October 1944

International Studies in Peace & Conflict: 4. End of the Conflict

1 August: Polish resistance groups began uprising against German forces in Warsaw
prompting retaliation. Polish forces equal to Germans but latter had advantage in
tanks and air support. 200 000+ Poles killed
Soviets made no attempt to help claiming needed to resupply front line forces.
Suited Stalins purpose to have Germans kill off anti-communist Polish patriots
- Stalin guaranteed Polish Underground his total support if members rose up
& help defeat Germans.
Polish resistance supported by Polish govt in exile in London and hoped to gain
control of city to be in stronger negotiating position with advancing Red Army.
Stalin ordered Zhukov to create neutral perimeter 16km outside Warsaw and wait.
Intentions clear: eliminate 2 problems (Poles and Germans) by allowing them to
destroy each other.
By late August: German superior in air power and artillery too much for Polish
resistance forces.
Stalin moved forces away from River Vistula front and allow battle to take course.
Stalins tactics:
- Allow Germans to destroy Polish resistance
- Move in and destroy German forces
- Poland then under total Soviet domination
AJP Taylor suggests alternative explanation is that Red Army stretched its lines of
communication so that in no position to assist Poles. Not view accepted by most
historians
- Similarly, Altgovzen argues that as Soviet forces made way through
Belorussia and across Polish border, were exhausted no position to assist
Polish action against Germans
Mid Sept: Soviet Marshal Rokossovsky attacked eastern quarter of Warsaw
- By 14th: Germans driven out of area
- Soviet-backed Polish army moved in to take control of bridgeheads in
Warsaw
Oct: Poles appealed for armistice, which Germans granted. 66 day Warsaw Uprising
resulted in 200 000 Poles sent to concentration camps or forced into slave labour.
Population of Warsaw dropped from 1.3 million to `162 000 people
Warsaw rising came to end on 2 Oct as last Polish fighters surrendered. Germans
evacuated city sending 200 000 Poles in concentration camps and destroyed
everything path.
Poland liberated in Jan 1945

FINAL DEFEAT 1944 - 1945

By autumn 1944 confidence among allied leaders war closing


- D Day success and within 3 months Germans almost driven out of France
- June: Rome captured
- Red Army thrown Germans out of its territory and poised to move on
Germany
Allied bombing continuing to have devastating effect on Germany economy


(1) The War in the West: September December 1944
Early hopes German defeat in France would bring end to war cancelled out by
several factors:

HSC STUDY BUDDY 81


Though Montgomerys troops took port of Antwerp on 4 Sept, failed to push on to


secure ports approaches among principal causes of Allied failure to break into
Germany in 1944 (Hastings).
Hastings also draws attention to differing personalities of Eisenhower and
Montgomery and tensions caused. Sept Montgomery required to hand over role in
command of Allied ground forces to Eisenhower. M continually looked for ways to
enhance importance of his role in battle for Germany may explain his decision to
make dash for Rhine crossing Arnhem which ended in disaster.
Eisenhower been criticised for being too cautious in advancing Allied front
eastwards whereas better filed commander might have launched offensives to take
Allies to Rhine while Wehrmacht still reeling

Operation Market Garden (17 25 Sept 1944)
Background
One of worst Allied defeats in WW2. Largest airborne assault in military history
25 July Operation Cobra (move out of Normandy) began. American troops moved
south from St Lo and captured Avranches by 1 August. Consisted US and Britain
forces
- Aggressive plan to destroy all German units in France then move forwards
towards Germany
Major logistical problems stalled progress after initial successes. Forces required
support systems incl fuel fuel and logistical depots to be found. Eisenhower
accepted Montgomerys plan of Holland as new Allied supply base enabling assault
on Siegrfried line, Germanys border defence network. Patton and Bradley (US)
disagreed
- Plan accepted as included destruction of Hitlers V1 and V2 rocket bases
secured along coastline of Netherlands and Belgium bring end to
devastation rockets causing in Britain
Success of Operation Market Garden depended on precise timing and total
coordination of component parts. Destruction of Wehrmachts units in Holland
crucial. None of goals of operation achieved
Plan required 5 bridges be captured as Montgomerys armies moved closer to
Germany. Arnhem bridge, located on Rhine River, most important target
Success depended on 2 critical factors:
- Airborne units (Operation Market) must land in specific drop zones
- Allied ground forces (Operation Garden) must provide combat, transport
and logistical support to airborne troops as combined task force moved
forward. Garden troops also responsible for neutralising all Wehrmacht
forces located in 5 bridge areas
- Together, airborne and ground units would seize 5 bridges and then
establish new front along Siegfried Line. Once accomplished, subsequent
operations would be launched in order to destroy rocket bases in Holland.

Problems
Allied intelligence authorities suspected Wehrmacht had strong military profile in
Holland. Suspicion confirmed by reconnaissance planes that photographed large
numbers of German tanks and artillery throughout Arnhem area. Photographs
ignored or downplayed

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Dutch underground correctly warned Allied headquarters that Wehrmacht units


constantly manoeuvring in 5 bridge areas. This information rejected as Britains spy
network believed all Dutch resistance groups penetrated by Germany
Enigma machine, Allied powers greatest intelligence asset, neutralised during
Operation Market Garden. Valued as could be used to transmit messages and battle
orders from Wehrmachts headquarters to Germanys naval fleets and combat units.
Codes and messages not sent from Berlin to Wehrmacht units in Netherlands as
Holland very close to Germany. Rather, Wehrmacht used own complex network of
radio frequencies, many not yet deciphered by Allied intelligence experts.
- As such, Montgomery couldnt identify intentions or movements of German
forces in Holland
Allied officers provided with maps of Arnhem area but majority maps outdated and
inaccurate. Discrepancies varied 1.5-2km infantry movements and targets only
estimated great risk
Most allied ground units had radios with different frequencies or crystals
(components) inter unit communications compromised. Error discovered only
after units landed in Holland
Reinforcements couldnt be supplied due to strict timing schedules which left
Market Garden forces isolated in Holland.
Re-supply operations, if necessary, would consist of parachute drops. Risky in
combat zone
Bad weather predicted for August/ strong winds, rain and fog expected in Britain
and over all airborne drop zones in Netherlands
In event Operation Market Garden failing, precise plan to evacuate Allies form
Holland essential. No realistic plan every developed as Montgomery supremely
confident operation would succeed.

The Battle
Mid Sept: allied forces taking control of Belgium and Netherlands; Brussels and
Antwerp already fallen.
17 Sept: General Montgomery launched Operation Market Garden with aim to
outflank German defences in Netherlands by seizing bridgeheads over Rhine behind
Siegfried Line (pre war German defensive line in west)
- To be prelude for advance across River Rhine into Germany
Hopes for Operation too optimistic form start
- Allied intelligence in region poor
- British not able to use Enigma machine to decipher German communications
as in region German army using different radio frequencies
- Maps outdated; no provisions for reinforcements or proper evacuation if
things went wrong. Montgomery certain would succeed
Initially campaign went well
US paratroopers of 101st and 82nd airborne divisions dropped at Eindhoven and
Nijmegen with aim of capturing bridgeheads of Rivers Meuse, Rhine and lower
Rhine
1st British airborne division and Polish brigade dropped at Arnhem but many units
landed several km from target bridge
Ground forces joined w/ 101st and 82nd by 19 Sept but unable to battle way through
to British forces at Arnhem
Forces at Arnhem faced strong German resistance and gradually squeezed into
narrow perimeter

HSC STUDY BUDDY 83


Operation then turned into major disaster


- Force at Arnhem supposed to hold out for 2 days; were for 10
- Poor weather; German forces stronger than expected; inability of allied
forces to get supplies and reinforcements to Arnhem either by air or using
Highway 69; and lucky German discovery of allied battle plans in downed
plane all turned Montgomerys operation into fiasco
German forces took revenge on hundreds of Dutch people for the operation
believing they behind the planning
German forces in west commanded by General Model. Managed to organise strong
defensive line along West Wall. Allied progress in region now slow and costly
- Pattons forces attacked Metz in early Oct
- Hodges 1st army took Aachen in Nov. Bradleys forces tried to expand
success at Aachen; little success
Canadians captured Boulogne (22 Sept) and Calais (30th). French forces captured
Strasbourg by Jan 1945

The Results
Operation Market Garden failed for many reasons:
German forces in Holland far greater than Montgomery expected. Immediately
launched offensive and took advantage of every Allied setback
Poor weather ongoing issue. 1st Polish Airborne Brigade didnt participate in initial
attack on Arnhem as transport planes grounded by adverse flying conditions in
Britain. Poles joined campaign 1 day late reducing effectiveness of Montgomerys
plans
Montgomerys airborne drop zone in Holland far too large extending over 100km.
Many airborne units missed specific targets by 3-5km.
19 Sept: German patrol found briefcase containing plans, drop zones and battle
orders for every Allied unit in Holland compromising Operation
Flatlands surrounding 5 bridges vast combat zone. Allied forces couldnt effectively
coordinate transport and logistical duties along Highway 69, main road to Arnhem.
Isolated battles became major engagements hampering 2nd Armys mobility
Wehrmacht employed panzer units and armoured vehicles which rapidly encircled
or destroyed Allied soldiers armed with only rifles and machine guns.
Bridges of Veghel and Grave captured but major campaigns occurred at Eindhoven,
Nijmegen and Arnhem. By Day 3 of Operation Allied offensive failed. Allied soldiers
ran out of supplies hand to hand fighting
Allied aerial evacuation from Holland began on Day 8; disorderly and poorly
planned. After fighting for a week soldiers forced to swim across canals when boats
couldnt be found. Equipment discarded and all Allied vehicles abandoned. Many got
lost and thousands captured by Germans
Weeks following Operation, Abwehrs agents launched new attack on Dutch
Underground and nearly destroyed it. Wehrmacht also accused people of Holland of
organising Operation. Accusation false. Hundreds of civilians killed as part of
German warning to Netherlands

Operation Market Garden: Assessment


Operation, conceptually, represented Montgomerys talents as theorist and
strategist.
However, based entirely on presumptions, speculations and estimations. Plan didnt
seriously consider or provide for Wehrmachts ability to retaliate

International Studies in Peace & Conflict: 4. End of the Conflict

No operations against Hitlers V1 and V2 rockets took place as expected


Allied evacuation from Holland uncoordinated, insufficient and embarrassing.
Achieved none of its goals.
Oct: Montgomery criticised for slow progress in new operation to capture Scedlt
Estuary, vital maritime link to port of Antwerp in Belgium
Montgomery accepted Operation as failure but continued to defend it: it could have
succeeded in spite of my mistakes .. given the aircraft, ground forces and
administrative resources necessary for the job
Hitlers victory in Holland timely and provided some psychological relief after
defeats in Russia, Italy and France. During Operation, Wehrmacht resourceful and
aggressive improving its morale.
Late 1944: Montgomery, Patton and Bradley continued to argue over tactical and
strategic issues
Hitler aware Allied command divided. Took advantage of disunity: ordering new
offensive to begin in Belgium

The Battle of the Bulge


After allies retreated from Holland, Hitler summoned Rundstedt and Model to plan
division of combined armies of Patton and Montgomery by driving panzer wedge
between theme at town of Bastogne in Belgium
Once accomplished, Wehrmacht would launch new offensive and recapture port city
of Antwerp
Rundstedt and Model didnt like plan as:
- Germans risked being surrounded if outmanoeuvred by Allied opponents
- Allied powers total air superiority in Western Europe with new technological
advancements such as Typhoons and Mustangs with ability to disable and
destroy any tracked vehicle
- Wehrmacts units not at full strength due to excessive losses caused by Allied
counteroffensives
- Believed major campaign in Nov risky because of snow and freezing
temperatures which brought on defeat in Russias winter 1942-43
Hitler unmoved by such reservations as believed new blitzkrieg through Ardennes
would succeed
By end 1944 final defeat Germany eminent. Pressed on all sides and short of
supplies German position hopeless. Hitler himself not inspiring leader earlier. Had
only one hope: allies disunited in aims.
- Stalin deeply distrusted by western allies esp Churchill. Relations with Soviet
always been poor prior 1939 and many never forgave Stalin for signing Nazi
Soviet Pact in 1939
- Relations between allied commanders strained. Patton & Bradley often
disagreement w Montgomery
Against this background in Dec, Hitler took offensive for one last time in Operation
Autumn Mist; Ardennes offensive or The Battle of the Bulge. Offensive based on
presumptions, speculations and hope
Aim to split allied forces in two, drive to Antwerp whose capture would cripple
allied supply base.
- If this successful in trapping allied forces on coast, might be able to force
negotiated peace.
16 Dec: German offensive in Ardennes began. German force of 24 divisions slammed
into allied forces

HSC STUDY BUDDY 85

Wehrmachts armies re-grouped, troops transferred to new units and every soldier
fit for duty assembled for Hitlers major gamble. Teams of German soldiers dressed
in British or American uniforms infiltrated Ardennes creating diversions and
attempting to gain information from Allied soldiers after invasion began
British and Americans taken completely by surprise. German forces pushed through
lightly defended Ardennes region of Belgium and Luxembourg but failed to make it
to Meuse River.
- Instead succeeded in creating bulge in American line
- Ardennes region one of weakest parts of Allied line held by mix of resting
veterans and inexperienced
- Broke through Allied line along attack front while small groups of special
forces penetrated deeper into Allied territory spreading confusion and panic.
Allied intelligence authorities completely unaware of Hitlers intentions. Engima
machine not used weeks prior to invasion due to Belgiums close proximity to
Germany Allies greatest intelligence asset neutralised
19th Hitler ordered commencement due to weather. Low cloud cover and dense fog
would keep Allied aircraft on group increasing safety of his armoured units. Allied
reinforcements quickly diverted to deal with attack:
- Montgomery placed in charge of Anglo-American forces north of German
advance and Bradley to south. Part of Pattons US 3rd Amry changed frot and
attacked north and reduced bulge Germans had driven into Allied line
- 2 US airborne divisions brought in by road
- Montgomerys forces moved to stop enemy crossing River Meuse
- Patton stopped attack in Saar and moved north to attack German southern
flank
German attack began to weaken by late Dec and as weather improved, allied air
power became decisive.
- Completely overcome by mid Jan
- German supply system stretched. It and front line forces came under
continuous attack
Operation had one mission: drive wedge into Allied line. German assault successful
for 1st 3 days. Bulge 75km wide and 50km deep divided Montogmerys forces in
northern Belgium from Pattons armies in south
Battle of the Bulge continued for 5 weeks. During this period, entire Ardennes
Forest witnessed massive tank movements including attacks, retreats and
attempted escapes. Confusion and disorientation common
24 Dec: leading panzer units ran out of fuel near Meuse River effectively ending
Germanys forward assault
Shift in weather changed course of battle. Fog and low cloud cover over Ardennes
lifted Eisenhower sent 300 tank-buster aircraft to Belgium. Snow created white
carpet allowing General Models tanks to be clearly seen by Allied pilots. Typhoon
and Mustang aircraft caused major damage
1 Jan 1945: Pattons 3rd Army nearly surrounded large German force. Patton
requested reinforcements from Eisenhower who ordered Montgomerys forces to
move south immediately. But Montgomerys armies left positions 2 days later
eventually linking up. But during critical 48 hours, many Germans escaped
- Patton, Bradely and Eisenhower highly critical of Montgomerys behaviour.
Hitler convinced Ardennes campaign would succeed. In Jan became clear offensive
might fail, launched 2 more:

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Operation Bodenplatte: attack on 27 Allied airbases in France and Low


Countries. Luftwaffe damaged or destroyed more than 500 allied aircraft but
its losses also extensive
- Operation Northwind: attack into Alsace-Lorraine region of France. Failed
and represented Wehrmacht's final operation
Ardennes Offensive costly campaign for both sides. Certainly disturbed allied plans
for moving into Germany, but also gravely weakened Germanys fighting capacity.
Apart from 100 000 manpower losses, Germans also lost 600+ tanks and assault
guns, 1000+ aircraft and 6000 vehicles.
US repairs also high but they could replace theirs, Hitler couldnt
3 Jan: major attacks from north of Bulge ad largely recovered by middle of month.
AJP Taylor: brilliant in conception, impossible to execute
Cole: ... without a viable strategic objective in view
-

The Battle of the Bulge: An Assessment


25 Jan 1945: Hitlers gamble in Ardennes ended in failure. Victory expected and
retreat never realistically considered desperate campaign in worst climatic
conditions
Germanys blitzkrieg into Belgium initially successful but success short lived.
- Jan: German units forced to fight way out of Belgium as Allied armies
regrouped and attempted to destroy them. Many panzer groups, now out
fuel, sabotaged their tanks and surrendered
Allied powers air attacks on Wehrmachts positions intensified paving way for
Allies eventual victory.
Ardennes campaign showed mass attack by tanks had no hopes of success against
enemy who has complete superiority in air power
Allies severely damaged Germanys war resources in Belgium
After Battle of Bulge, Nazi Germany faced 6 realities
- Wehrmacht no reserve troops
- Wehrmachts manpower losses during 1944 severe
- Equipment losses significant
- New blitzkriegs not be considered
- Third Reichs empire in Europe ended
- Allied armies now closer to Germany
12 Jan: while Battle of Bulge contested, Stalin launched new offensive towards
Germany. By then, Balkans liberated and Hungary and Romania surrendered. Hitler
had no allies
7 March: after 10 day battle at Remagen Bridge, Allies crossed Rhine River and
entered Germany

SUMMARY
Aiming at Antwerp, the bold offensive broke through to depth of 130km but failed due to Allied air
attacks and counter offensive on 3 Jan 1945. In trying to delay end of war, Germany sustained 120
000 casualties and lost 500 tanks and 1600 planes. No one profited from offensive with exceptions
of Russians, for Hitler gambled away last reserves needed for defence in east.

(2) The War in the West: January May 1945


No more allied disasters. March into Germany through early months of 1945 fairly
smoothly though German forces resisted best they could.

HSC STUDY BUDDY 87


By 5 Match US 9th army reached Cologne while futher south 1st and 3rd
armies took Bonn.
- 7 March US forces captured undammed railway bridge at Remagen where
German troops still retreating. Bridge crossing captured. Made German
defence of Rhineland impossible
- By early March, allied forces were along River Rhine from Holland to Swiss
border
Allies continued push into Germany:
Early Feb: Allied offensive oped at north end of line in early Feb fighting battle
through Reichswald forest and close to Rhine
22 March: Pattons forces crossed Rhine between Mainz and Worms and moved into
northern Bavaria
28 March: Montgomerys forces crossed into Germany n north and defeated final
German stand
28 March: General Hodges forces crossed Remagen Bridge and reached Marburg to
east
Throughout March, Allies advanced form west but at slow progress as wherever
opposition existed, forces halted and bombarded defenders into submission
General Bradleys forces moved into central Germany and captured Leipzig
British forces moved across northern Germany
- 24 April: Reached River Elbe
- 27 April: captured Bremen and Lubeck on Baltic Sea on 2 May
- 3 May: Hamburg fell without resistance
Hitler still issuing usual orders of no retreat. Reality was increasing numbers of
German troops too glad to surrender to Allies to keep themselves sage from
Russians.
5 May: US 3rd Army took Linz in Austria and Pilsen in Czechoslovakia on 6th
US 7th Army was resisted strongly at Nuremberg. Then crossed Danube =, captured
Berchtesgaden and met some of US 5th Army moving north from Italy
Over next few days various German units surrendered in Italy, Holland and France.
7 May: Germans agreed to unconditional surrender
Midnight 8 May: war in Europe over

(3) The War in the East: January May 1945


Final Russian offensive in east due to begin on 20 Jan 1945 but brought forward to
12 Jan after plea from Churchill to relieve pressure German offensive action in west
causing western allies
12 Jan: Russian forces struck on several fronts across 1200km distance from Baltic
in north to Carpathian Mountains in south. Attacking forces comprised of Ukranian,
Belorussian and Baltic forces
Germans completely overwhelmed and no choice but to fall back form odd pockets
of resistance which held for as long as possible. 8.5 million Germans fled from
Reichs eastern provinces from Jan-Feb
German morale, fuel and supplies of all forms equipment low.
Germans convinced by years of Nazi propaganda Russians were bloodthirsty
barbarians. Those who sought survival by desertion or showed lack of will
randomly executed by own side
Political Russian agitators lectured troops on need to exact vengeance for
devastation inflicted on Soviet by Operation Barbarossa. Genuine patriotic spirit.

International Studies in Peace & Conflict: 4. End of the Conflict

Secret police (NKVD) and counter intelligence organisation (SMERSH) inflicted


severe punishment on anyone who faltered
To the north, Red Army entered East Prussia. Feelings of anger and Red Armys
regulation allowing each man to send home monthly parcel of his spoils
destruction and looting.
People and property suffered as Russians carried out mass rapes and killings
Resulted in refugees, many who died from winter cold and hunger. Some simply run
over or machine gunned by passing Soviet tanks.
Soviet advance irresistible
- Zhukov and Konev reached Oder River by mid Feb before turning north to
pin down remaining German forces in corners of East Prussia and Latvia
- Some of Zhukovs forces only 65km from Berlin but lines of communication
stretched and stretch of German forces on either flank unknown. Stalin
ordered Zhukov pause and regroup
- Advance on southern front slowed as Red Army took month to capture
Hungarian capital, Budepest
- Soviet forces reached Austrian frontier on 20 March and took Vienna on 14
April
By end Jan Russians overrun Upper Silesia and liberated Auschwitz. Russian POWs
here and in other liberated camps freedom temporary. Stalins 1942 decree that
any Russian who captured considered traitor interrogated by own side before
transported to Soviet gulag where many died.
April: Soviet attack on Berlin reached climax
- Soviet forces led by Zhukov, Konev and Rokossovksy
- Scale of attack enormous with 2.5 million men, tanks, aircraft and artillery
guns. Germans did have anything like scale of equipment of enemies and
when did have tanks, lacked fuel.
To ensure fastest progress Stalin gave Zhukov and Konev permission to take
Berlin according to who got their first. Two fronts met to complete
encirclement west of Potsdam on 25th.
- 19 April: outskirts Berlin reached and by 25 April city encircled
- Berlin reduced to ruins as Soviet guns pounded city
- German defence incapably led by old men and 14 year old boys
30 April: stormed Reichstag building but Hitler had already committed suicide.
1 May: Red Flag flying over Reichstag building
2 May: Nazi Part dissolved
7 May: Donitz representatives signed overall unconditional surrender at
Eisenhowers HQ at Reims
8 May: surrender repeated at Soviet HQ
Western Allies celebrated VE Day (Victory in Europe) on 8th

THE NUREMBERG WAR CRIMES TRIALS

Defendants charged with one or more of following offensives


1. Crimes against peace
2. Crimes against humanity
3. War crimes
4. Conspiracy to commit crimes against peace or humanity

HSC STUDY BUDDY 89

At Teheran Conference (1943) Allies agreed that if defeated Axis powers, legal
action should be taken against al Nazi and Japanese officials.
Basis of trials established in London Charter: bring to trial & punish the major war
criminals of Axis countries
Allies created International Military Tribunal (IMT) a new self proclaimed and
unprecedented legal entity in post war Berlin. Court proceedings: Nov 1945 Oct
1946
Examination of the Charter of the International Military Tribunal illustrates attitude
of Allies. Bitterness, revenge prevailed
Late 1944: Hitler ordered destruction of concentration camps before arrival of
Soviet armies but couldnt really be carried out.
Following conclusion of war, leading Nazis on trial in front of International Military
Tribunal to account for responsibilities of scale or war and extent of human
atrocities.
Roosevelt, Stalin and Churchill agreed on terms under which trials to operate in
London Charter of August 1945
However, is history always written by victors? If Axis powers had won Allies would
be condemned for bombing of Dresden; which Axis were now being tried for
bombing of Warsaw
Nonetheless, Nazi leaders needed to be made example of because:
- Usually actions of individuals or junior officers who lost control or acted as
direct result of extreme stresses of wartime situations. However, German
atrocities part of official govt policy
- Ensure Germans realised what happened and culprits were people whom
Germans supported earlier. Brought home to those Germans who claimed
ignorance of camps enormity of crimes committed
- Idealistic hope similar acts of barbarism wouldnt be repeated if Nazis made
example of
- UN initiating and trials hoped to show it body willing to ensure international
peace and morality
24 leading Nazis to be tried but Himmler, Goebbels and Ley committed suicide;
Krupp too ill and Bormann never captured thus tried in absentia
Trial of Nazi war criminals didnt end in 1946. Decades after war former Nazis,
concentration camp guards and SS officers tracked down and brought to justice.
Trials created controversial legal precedent. In future years, more Nazi officials,
prison camp guards and military officers arrested and brought to trial. Influenced
wide variety of international jurisprudence issues in post war period
1950: UN General Assembly requested International Law Commission use
proceedings of Nuremberg as basis for drafting new international criminal codes.
Also helped form charters for organisations such as
- Genocide Convention 1948
- Geneva Convention on the Laws and Customs of War 1949
- Universal Declaration of Human Rights 1948
John Man discusses in Nazism on Trial inconsistencies of Nuremberg Trials.
Argues how nation could be tried for aggression or breaking treaty as no legal
framework existed.
- No Italians placed on trial
- Position of Soviet Union compromised. Germans accused of conspiracy in
plans for invasion of Poland which clearly part of Nazi Soviet Pact. Pact
ignored

International Studies in Peace & Conflict: 4. End of the Conflict


-
-

Yet when Germany invaded Russia, same pact deemed treaty broken
However does not in any way diminish the crimes of the vanquished, nor
the need to punish them

ANALYSIS: REASONS FOR ALLIED VICTORY


1. The General Interpretation of the Reasons for Allied Victory
Germany simply overwhelmed by vastly superior economic and military strength of
allies against whom fighting. Eventually found itself facing Britain and its empire,
Soviet, France, US, Italy (from 1943) and host of resistance and partisan movements
Greater allied production of war materials
Germanys over-extended lines of communication
Germanys failure to take advantage of unpopularity of Stalins regime amongst
various nationalities
Liability of Italy as ally
Superior allied political and military leadership; and Superior allied intelligence
Allied control of air; seas and allied victory in Battle of the Atlantic
Failure to gain control of North Africa, Suez Canal and Middle East oil; and Failure to
take Moscow in 1941
Becoming bogged down on Eastern Front
This interpretation: No single key factor which accounts for victory of allied powers.
War too vast, too many people and too many nations with too many aspects for there to
be one overriding explanation for allied victory

2. Allied Victory was Due to Allies Gained Control of the Air


Mid 1944: strategic offensive bombing campaigns did little to affect outcome of war.
Indiscriminate bombing of cities failed to break ill of Germans who completely in
grip of Nazi regime
After this, airpower better directed to paralysing movement of German forces on
ground or reserves in train from rear, or towards crippling vital war industries
Allied control of air and overwhelming superiority of allied air power made
impossible for Germany to achieve long term military objectives and did much to
weaken German economy
Luftwaffe failed in Battle of Britain and Blitz any possible German invasion of
Britain had to be postponed indefinitely Hitler would always face 2 front war if
decided to move east
- German bombing didnt manage to affect British morale; arguably increased
British determination
- Made possible later intervention of US
- German bombing didnt have debilitating effect on British economy
Allied bombing major impact on Germanys ability to sustain war.
- Became impossible for industry to be geographically concentrated hence
impossible to maximise production
- Forced German airforce to divert most its fighters to defence of Germany and
reduce sharply production of bmber aircraft reduced German frontline of
much needed aircraft.
- Factories dispersed across country or forced underground
- Germanys railway network greatly disrupted, chemical and oil production
badly affected munitions production more problematical
- German cities pulverised creating host of humanitarian and social problems

HSC STUDY BUDDY 91


Forced Hitler and generals to think of radical retailiations. Too much faith in
V1 and V2 rockets which expensive and limited impact.
Ability of allies to escort long range bombers with fighters later in war to have
major effect
- Early bombing raids over Germany fangerous as long distance planes lacked
fighter protection when flew over Germany became vulnerable to attack.
Bomber losses very high early in war
- By late 1943, system perfected to enable fighters to fly distances as great as
bombers forced Germans to divert many its fighters to home front to deal
with allied bomber/fighter threats
- Hence, weakened German tactical aerial strength on Eastern Front & in
Normandy. As fighters had to be moved from front, gave vast aerial
superiority to Soviet forces in east & allied forces in Normandy
- Germany forced put more effort to producing anti-aircraft taking up 33%
artillery production by 1944
- Allies superiority evident in D Day; allies had 12 000 aircraft whilst Germans
had less than 500
- Eventual allied success in Battle of the Bulge owed much to superior air
power
Allied air forces superiority of 70:1 in invasion of France
-

3. Allied Victory was Due to Allies Gained Control of Sea


Roosevelt and Churchill extremely worried about dominance of Axis forces in
Atlantic
Allied losses at sea reached catastrophic levels during 1st 3 years of war
- 1940: 1000 allied ships sunk by German submarines (1/4 of Britains
merchant marine)
- Jan April 1941: 2 million tons shipping sunk
- By early 1943 Britain had 2 months oil supplies left
Failure to gain control sea would be disastrous for allied war effort
- Britain could be starved out as relief on imported food
- Links to empire and Middle East oil would be cut
- Would be impossible to import badly needed munitions and war equipment
from North America
- Would be impossible for Americans to ship over the millions of men who
would be needed to take on Germans in Italy and France
Necessity inspired allied technological innovation by end 1943 to wrest control of
Atlantic from German submarine packs
- Development of long range aerial surveillance, improved convoy systems
and development of centimetric radar helped turn tide
Allied control of sea made possible massive American contribution to defeat of
Germany

4. War was Lost on Eastern Front


Hitlers failure to defeat Soviet dragged German army into long drawn out war of
attrition on Eastern Front which destined to lose longer conflict went on
Red Army put up unexpected resistance. Major defeat of Germans on Eastern Front.
Soviet forces destroyed or disabled estimated 607 divisons between 1941 1945.
1941: Germans close to defeating Soviet
Operation Barbarossa achieved initially enormous success

International Studies in Peace & Conflict: 4. End of the Conflict

Luftwaffe decimated Soviet air force during first few days operation
By autumn of 1941 western Russia in German hands, Leningrad under siege,
Kiev taken and Moscow about to be attacked
However, Moscow survived in Dec 1941
- Zhukov military skills
- Transfer of 750 000 Siberian forces westwards
- Errors on German side in timing and supplies, Russian scorched earth policy,
inadequate and inappropriate German equipment
- Winter
Russias survival in 1941 change to mobilise enormous economic and human
resources
- Industries moved east to escape German bombing. Soon achieved
unbelievable feats of production
- Soviet wartime production noted for its simplicity and rationalisation
- Surge of patriotic and religious fervour amongst Russian people which
spurred them on to superhuman efforts
- Soviet Union centralised police state which made rapid mobilisation of
nation easy to achieve
As result of such factors, Soviet able to gradually defeat German forces even though
human and economic costs enormous.
- Stalingrad marked turning point on Eastern Front
- Kursk initiative slip away from Wehrmacht
- 1944+ Russian forces able to push back Germans to own land
-
-

5. Allied Victory Result of Intervention of US


US deciding factor. Even before its entry done much to sustain British war effort. US
human, economic and military resources vast and superior. Their business
expertise brought wartime production levels to extreme.
Economist Goldsmith claimed gross domestic product of Allies won war.
Overy argues economic size doesnt explain outcome of war. Germany had greater
industrial capacity than Britain. Argues no other way to defeat Germany than defeat
it on battlefield
Nonetheless, vast supply of American armaments and equipment supplied and
sustained the war on Western Front and provided vital aid for Russia. Most Soviet
rail network supplied with locomotives, wagons and rails made in USA
Before Dec 1941: Americans assisting Britain
- Churchill managed to do deals with Roosevelt on gaining extra destroyers
- US and Britain established moral high ground in conflict with singing of
Atlantic Charter
- Lend-Lease system did much to assist British and Soviet Union
US military key factor in bringing Germany down
- Much of bombing of Germany carried out by American air force
- US navy crucial in getting supplies across Atlantic
- From 1944 main military engagements in Western Europe dominated by
American army led by American generals. Allied supreme commander,
Eisenhower, was American
American economy couldnt be matched in its efficiency and ability to produce
- Productivity in shipbuilding increased by 25% a year during war
In long drawn out war, Germany couldnt survive against such economic and
military power

HSC STUDY BUDDY 93


By comparison, German lacked allies who capable of offering real assistance


- Italy relatively weak
- Japan fought own separate war

6. Weakness of German System: Structuralist vs Intentionalist Historical Debate


Hitlers ambitions far exceeded Wehrmachts ability to fulfil them
Germanys industrial infrastructures couldnt match combined economic strength of
Allied powers
Axis alliance eventually collapsed
Engima/Ultra intelligence codes represented major Allied asset
Nazi racial policy towards minorities in captured territories encouraged resistance
groups. Ukrainians for example keen to thrown off Russian rule but atrocities
committed against them assured fight against Gs
Organisation of Germanys war effort poor. Failed to make best possible use of
available resources. Different sections of Nazi state made decisions about war and
wartime economy often overlapping or contradicting
Hitlers inadequacies and mistakes as war commander contributed to Germanys
defeat. Decisions to attack Soviet before defeating Britain and to declare war on USA
disastrous
Late start of campaign against Soviet in 1941 German troops arrived outside
Moscow as winter commenced. Extreme cold critical for unprepared army
Joint American and British invasion of North Africa in Nov 1942 (Operation Torch)
came as surprise to German High command evacuation impossible only had
choice of resisting or surrendering. Victory in North Africa provided Allies
secure base from which to mount invasion of Southern Europe
- Sept 1943: sea-borne landings in Sicily (Operation Avalanche)
- August 1944: invasion of Southern France (Operation Anvil changed to
Dragoon)
Divisions among German High Command prevented development of cohesive
defensive strategy to meet expected invasion of France in June 1944.

Structuralists
Acknowledge validity of intentionalists but argue Germanys defeat and collapse of
Nazism result of structure of Nazi regime and inner workings
- Lack of centralised control rivalry and gross economic inefficiency
- Failure to immediately go to total war
- As regime radicalised and spiralled out of control, obsession with racial
issues diverted resources and manpower from main aim of fighting war.

Historian Richard Overy


There was nothing preordained about allied success. Pre El Alamein/Stalingrad
allied victory uncertain

International Studies in Peace & Conflict: 4. End of the Conflict

Intentionalists
Argue defeat of Germany and collapse of Nazism direct result of war which was
product of Hitlers intention all along to pursue lebensraum in east
- Poor preparation
- Failure to defeat Britain and Russia
- Extensive nature of war which stretched Germanys limited resources

Key argument is result of war cannot be explained by simply stating that allies had
more resources than Axis
Why were allies able to maximise economic superiority?
- Overy points to factors such as internal political rivalries, military
interference, military interference and lack of mass production
Why Germany not able to maximise economic strengths?
- Germanys economic technological failures.
- 1944: could fire rockets into England but still needed 1.25 million horses to
move its army
Production and invention sealed allied victory. Allies proved capable of maximising
production whether through US business, heroic Russian sacrifice or British grit,
whereas Germany didnt.
Invention and innovation won battle in air and at sea
Combined with superior allied leadership and moral high ground allied victory.
Raises great paradox of WW2 that western democracy saved by exertions of
communism. States without efforts of Soviet difficult to see how democracies could
have defeated Germany

International Studies in Peace & Conflict: 4. End of the Conflict

HSC STUDY BUDDY 95

HSC Style Questions



1. Growth of European Tensions
2009 HSC: To what extent was the policy of appeasement responsible for the
outbreak of war in Europe?
2008 HSC: Assess the significance of the Nazi-Soviet Aggression Pact to the
outbreak of war in 1939
2006 HSC: Evaluate the view that the dictators Hitler and Mussolini were primarily
responsible for the tensions that led to the outbreak of war in Europe in 1939.

To what extent are the dictators, Hitler and Mussolini, to blame for causing the
tensions that brought on the outbreak of war in Europe in 1939?
Three possible lines of argument
1. Hitler and Mussolini entirely to blame for bringing tensions that led to war in 1939
2. Despite evil intentions, Hitler and Mussolini not to be blamed for tensions; merely
taking advantage of opportunities that arose. Blame lies elsewhere
3. Dictators should take an extent of the blame but too simplistic to place entire blame
on their shoulders.
Discussion for 3rd argument
In superficial way, blame clearly lies with dictators for causing tensions that led to
war in 1939. Their aggressive paths significantly contributed to outbreak of war
- Long term aims of both Hitler and Mussolini involved tearing up Treaty of
Versailles. Had no intention of respecting status quo and made clear
prepared to go to war to support such aims
o Identify aims and explain significance
- Hitlers actions in Rhineland, Anschluss, Sudetenland and Czechoslovakia
showed him to be bent on European domination. His steady rearmament and
threats of war kept tensions high
- Hitlers move against Poland upset European balance western powers had
to stop him
o Britain and France endeavoured to maintain peace and forced to war
by Nazi aggression

HSC STUDY BUDDY 97


Mussolinis actions also caused tensions to rise. Actions in Abyssinia and


Spain did much to destroy principle of collective security
However, though Hitlers and Mussolinis actions clearly raised tensions and
undermined League and Collective Security war actually resulted as result of failure
of other powers to stand up to them
- Define appeasement
- Argument: appeasement encouraged dictators in aggression, appeasers
totally and naively misunderstood type of men dealing with. Failure
adequately rearm little alternative to appeasemt
- However, appeases achieved what they could and faced with economic and
strategic restraints
o Revisionist line of thought
- Soviet decision in August 1939 to deal wi/ Hitler rather than stand up to him
war over Poland inevt

To what extent was the collapse of collective security the main cause of the tensions
that led to the outbreak of conflict in Europe?
Line of argument: principle of collective security great idealistic hope of inter-war
period. Belied powers working through League of Nations could work together to
prevent aggression and chain of events led to war in 1914. Collective security
collapsed, unable to handle realities of European and world politics no means to
stop aggression of Axis powers whose actions increased tensions in Europe. Only
response to this aggression in form of appeasement which doomed to fail
Background of League and how operated. Explain idea of collective security.
- Article 10: Collective Security Article
- Article 12: Arbitration Article
- Article 16: Sanctions Article
Collective security unable to function due to realities of European and world
politics. Reasons for failure:
- Failure of internationalism in world of aggressive nationalism
- Failure of League to reflect true balance of power
- Inability of Britain and France to do job
- Lack of any coercive machinery so nations like Japan could act with
impunity.
Failure of collective security enabled dictators to act without fear of any retribution.
Hitler and Mussolini further acted to heighten tension in Europe
- Hitlers conquests in Rhineland, Austria, Czechoslovakia, Spain; Italy in
Abyssinia
Without collective security, Britain and France resorted to appeasement
- Merely encouraged dictators leading to eventual fall and events of 1939
Had collective security had support of all major powers and League able to
overcome nationalistic urges of time, tensions in Europe may been controlled. Its
collapse gave dictators chance. Western response of appeasement failed due to
complete misunderstanding of nature of Hitler and Mussolini. Thus, collapse of
collective security main cause of tensions that led to outbreak of conflict in Europe
2. The Course of the European War
2009 HSC: Assess the significance of the conflict in North Africa to Allied victory in
the European War
2007 HSC: Evaluate the view that Operation Barbarossa was the major turning
point of the European War

International Studies in Peace & Conflict: HSC Style Questions

How significant was Britains survival in 1940 to the eventual outcome of the war in
Europe?

Assess success of German strategies during course of the European War in the
period September 1939 to June 1941
1. German strategies in period extremely successful as, by and large, Germany had
achieved aims it set out
2. German strategies successful as by June 1941 Germany gained control over whole of
Europe and faced only isolated and weakened Britain
3. German strategies failed by June 1941 because as Germany contemplated attack on
Russia, knew it would be facing two front war
4. German strategies mixed success, at best, in period up to June 1941 and only gained
measure of success because of weakness of opponents

Discussion for 4th argument
Superficial look at map of Europe in June 1941 might lead one to conclude German
military strategy long success story. Axis control of Europe stretched from Arctic to
Sahara, from Atlantic to Russian frontier. Apart from Britain, faced no opposition in
Europe. However on closer examination been setbacks. Future far from certain and
Germany yet to be tested by hardening enemy
Hitlers strategy against Poland in Sept/Oct 1939 seems to have been extremely
successful
- Wehrmachts use of blitzkrieg tactics worked very effectively
- Poland defeated inside a month with light German casualties
- Pre-war agreement with Soviet Union been honoured
- Polands quick defeat meant wouldnt face 2 front war
However on closer examination success in this campaign shouldnt be exaggerated
- Polands defences clearly no match for German offensive forces
- Polish strategy of fighting in open west [played into Germanys hands
(blitzkrieg)
- Polands quick demise helped by Soviet invasion from east
- Invading Poland now left Hitler with west to deal with while Soviet resided
on Germanys new frontier
- Germany couldnt fight on as it needed to replenish its war supplies
Victory in west spectacular as Germany overran Denmark, Norway, Low Countries
and France
- Swedish iron ore supplies secured
- Control of Norwegian and Low Countries coasts gave German strategic
advantage over Britain
- Collapse of France gave Germany control of Western Europe
- Britain remained in war but greatly weakened and isolated
However, results of campaigns in west revealed limits of German strategy
- As each nation conquered, large occupation forces required to control lands
(400 000 in Norway)
- Poor French leadership, low morale & willingness to deal w/ Hitler eased
German western campaigns.
- Occupying Germans faced strong resistance movements (e.g. France)
- Failure to knock Britian out of war reveal several problems with German
strategy
o E.g. weaknesses in Luftwaffe, errors of judgement on Hitlers part

HSC STUDY BUDDY 99


Britains constant presence in war Hitler always have 2 front war if


decided on attacking Russia
Events closer to June 1941 revealed similar flaws. Axis success in Balkans and North
Africa suggested continuation of successful German strategy
- Allies been gained in Eastern Europe
- Yugoslavia and Greece easily defeated and allied troops forced out of Greece
and Crete
- Rommels presence in North Africa re-established Axis advantage in North
Africa
However on closer examination situation not as good as seemed
- Balkans campaign meant Hitlers planned attack on Russia delayed
o Explain significance of this: time, winter etc
- German presence in Greece and North Africa result of Italian failures. Italy
not useful ally
- Commitment in North Africa Germany having to fight on another front
-

To what extent was the Russian campaign a turning point in the European War?
1. Russian campaign clearly turning point of war as up until this point Germany had
virtual non stop military success. Failure to gain quick success in Russia revealed
flaws in blitzkrieg and long drawn out war would benefit Russia due to its vast
resources and huge population compared to Germanys limited strength
2. Russian campaign clearing very important but to argue it was turning point is
unhistorical as should not be considered in isolation from other events in war
Discussion for 1st Argument
Prior to Russian campaign Germany had experienced almost non stop military
success using blitzkrieg tactics
Germany in almost invincible position in June 1941
- Refer to its allies, weakness of potential opponents, control of resources,
strength of navy
Early part of Russian campaign proved the point
However, Barbarossa failed to achieve its goals in 1941:
- Explain goals, show what went wrong and suggest why
- What was implication of failure?
Germany took up offensive again in 1942 with some success but then experienced
horrors of Stalingrad
- Explain importance of consequences of Germanys failure at Stalingrad
Germanys failure at Kursk sealed its fate
- Explain significance of Kursk, Russias growing strength & tactical skills and
what meant for wider war
- Germany lost the initiative on Eastern Front
Might suggest Germany lost its opportunity for victory in wra with defeat in Russia
- Failure in Russia coincided with defeat in North Africa, growing presence of
America and growing Anglo-American control of Atlantic
Failure in Russian campaign sealed matter of when Germany would lose rather than
if turning point

Assess the significance of the conflict in North Africa to the course of the European
War.

International Studies in Peace & Conflict: HSC Style Questions

Allied success in North Africa of major, if not decisive, importance for course of War.
Provided allies with major strategic and economic advantages, boosted British
morale and augured well for future Anglo-American cooperation. Severely
weakened Axis. However as turning point in war didnt have decisive impact
Germanys failure in Russian campaign had
Provide narrative background of events in conflict in North Africa
- Early allied success against Italy, arrival of Rommel, success of Afrika Korps,
Battle of El Alamein and eventual removal of Axis troops from North Africa.
Allied success in North Africa enormous strategic implications
- Allied control of Mediterranean and opportunities this gave for future
campaigns
- Maintained British control of Suez Canal (importance)
- Prevented possible linking of Rommels forces with those inside Russia
Secured allied control of Middle East supplies
- Refer to Axis difficulties in gaining oil supplies
Boost to British morale
- Explain Britains long series of setbacks
After early difficulties in Operation Torch, later stages of conflict in North Africa
showed Ango-American forces could work well together
- Examples of actions in Sicily, Italy and later France
However though conflict in North Africa important and certainly weakened Axis
cause, was on Eastern Front in Russian campaign where war turned decisively in
allies favour due to scale of German losses and magnitude of Russian war effort.

3. Civilians at War
2007 HSC: To what extent did Allied and Axis strategies during World War 2 affect
civilians?

Evaluate the view that Germanys defeat in World War 2 was the result of domestic
failure
Failure to go to total war
- Concern of home front morale maintained
- Wasted production of unessential products
- Allies preparation much more long term and thus successful
Influence of ideology overriding practicality
- Use of women. Speers attempts limited
- Pursuit of Holocaust: waste of resources and soldiers
Military interference
- Too many models limits possibility of mass production
Structure of Nazi regime domestic failure
- Empire building
- Rivalries
- Waste and duplication confusion.

Explain the origin and impact of the Holocaust cause and effect
Nazi ideology deeply rooted in 19th cent Social Darwinist ideas and strong belief in
superiority of Aryan culture anti Semitism widespread in early 20th cent. Hitler
promoted such ideas long before gained office. Once in power, in position to
promote racial beliefs gradually throughout 1930s, and then with horrific efficiency
during war leading to Holocaust. However some historians suggest Holocaust came

HSC STUDY BUDDY 10


1

not specifically from Nai ideology but nature of Nazi regime and extreme conditions
it faced during war
Holocaust direct result of Nazi ideology put into practice
- Explain nature of Nazi ideology
- Discuss Social Darwinism, Aryan culture, Volkgemeinschaft
- Conclude with obsession Nazis had about racial purity and perfect race and
implications for Jews and minority groups
Hitlers obsession with racism and anti-Semitism predates coming to power
- Mein Kampf
- Intentionalist School of Thought
Once in power able to pursue these policies in 1930s
- Nazi anti-Jewish legislation and Crystal Night
Onset of war put into sharper contrast what to do about Jews and minority groups
- Once in control of Eastern Europe and much of Soviet Nazis now able to put
ideological beliefs into widespread practice
Explain impact of Nazi beliefs on Jews and other minority groups now that Nazis in
control
- Creation of ghettos
- Construction of camps
- Resettlement
- Implementation of Final Solution.

4. End of the Conflict


2008 HSC: Evaluate the view that the air war determined the outcome of the
European War
2006 HSC: To what extent was the Soviet Union responsible for Allied victory in the
conflict in Europe?
Assess the view that the Allied victory in World War 2 was due to the war at sea.
Assess the view that the defeat of Germany was primarily the result of the entry of
the US

Assess the importance of the air war in the eventual victory of the allied powers over
the Axis
1. Air war quite simply key factor which explains eventual allied victory over Axis
powers. If allies not gained and maintained control of air, Axis powers would have
survived and probs gone to victory
2. Air war simply one of variety of factors which explain eventual victory of allies
powers. Of equal importance was outcome on Russian front, victory in North Africa,
allied supremacy in Atlantic and superior political and military leadership of allies
3. Air war eventually of little consequence in final outcome of war. Allied victory came
for overwhelming economic and military superiority against which Axis powers had
no answer minor significance
4. Air war factor of first importance in eventual allied victory over Axis powers.
However, alone would not have led to defeat of Germany. Crucial factor was success
of Red Army on Eastern Front

Discussion for 4th Argument
Air war of major importance in explaining why allied powers achieved victory over
Axis. Made possible survival of Britain in 1940; if Britain falled in 1940 German

International Studies in Peace & Conflict: HSC Style Questions

victory highly likely. Had catastrophic effect on German war production made
impossible for Germany to match allied production. Indirectly, but crucially, air
power weakened German military position in east and later Normandy. German war
effort most effectively destroyed due to efforts of Soviet Union in east
Luftwaffe failed to win Battle of Britain and to damage morale British people during
Blitz
- Britain survived Battle of Britain due to skill and courage of RAF, use of radar
and German errors
- Hitlers decision to bomb London and other cities gave Fighter Command
breathing space. Failed to break will of British people
Failure to defeat Britain of crucial long term significance
- Hitler destined to fight 2 front war. Explain significance
- Britains survival meant North Africa wouldnt fall Axis
- Britains survival made possible later crucial involvement of US and invasion
of France
- Also made possible bombing of Germany
Bombing of German far worse than anything British experienced (give examples).
Major impact on weakening German war effort
- Ceiling put on production despite efforts of Speer
- Railway network disrupted
- Chemical and oil production suffered
- Major social disruption occurred
Allies success in developing long range fighter escorts for bomber force meant
Germans had to switch fighter aircraft to home front and produce more anti-aircraft
guns
- Weakened German militarys tactical air strength on Eastern Front and later
in Normandy
- Instead of producing offensive weaponry Germans used scarce resources to
defend cities & economy
However it was on Eastern Front that effected German army most
- Wehrmacht bogged down on Eastern Front
- Failure to defeat Red Army in 1941 allowed Russia to take advantage of
enormous human and economic resources
o Led to defeats at Stalingrad, Kursk, Operation Bagration
- German losses on eastern front enormous and Germans simply couldnt
replace them
- Part reason for inability to replace losses: impact of allied bombing campaign
against G home front

To what extent were the events of the final twelve months of the war responsible for
the allied victory in the European War?
1. Actions in final 12 months decisive in determining outcome of war. Up to that point,
war on knife edge
2. Outcome of events of final 12 months result of events earlier in war

Discussion for 2nd Argument


During final 12 months of war Germans fought with great tenacity. Allies clearly
didnt have clear run to Berlin. However, with only occasional exception was story
of one defeat after another and this due to earlier events in war. Thus final 12

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months of war didnt decide outcome of war. Rather events earlier in war
responsible for deciding outcome of final 12 months
Mid 1944 Axis powers in increasingly desperate position
- Steadily pushed back on Eastern Front
- North Africa long lost (brief mention)
- Italy facing allied onslaught
- Bombing campaign hurting Germany
In this context allies invaded Normandy
- Details of D Day
- Operation Overlord only possible because of survival of Britain in 1940
(brief)
- Massive US presence in Overlord couldnt have happened without Anglo-
American control of sea
o Battle of Atlantic
- Allied air superiority only possible because of Germanys need to divert
fighters to Home Front
Massive Russian offensives of 1944 (give examples) steadily pushed Germans back
to their own land and defeat Axis allies one by one. Germans simply cannot match
size and speed of Russians
- Failure to innovate sees German forces still reliant on horsepower whereas
Red Army totally mechanised. Lend-Lease helped Red Army
- Axis forces suffer air inferiority for same reason as in Normandy
- Failures in German economy prevented maximisation of output so cant
equal Russian power
- Allied bombing major problem
German resistance to allied move through France and into Low Countries strong but
ineffective
- Use of heavy armour in Falaise Gap holds up allied advance but allied
destruction of that armour disastrous as Germans cannot replace
- Similarly on Eastern Front actions against Red Army (examples) led to
destruction of tanks and aircraft that cant be replaced
- Re-emphasise that inability to replace armour and aircraft result of earlier
actions in war
Moments of significant German resistance. Operation Market Garden and Ardennes
Offensive (some detail)
- Allied disaster at Arnhem short lived acquittal
- Allied air power finally destroys German advance at Ardennes which
petering out anyway
- Brave German resistance against Russians as Red Army descends on Berlin
led by Volkssturm troops indicating desperation
Germany finally destroyed by allied advances from west, south and east. Unable to
rsist these advances because of impact of allied actions earlier in war.

To what extent was the collapse of collective security the main cause of the tensions
that led to the outbreak of conflict in Europe?
The outbreak of the conflict in Europe was the result of a variety of factors in a gradual
process from 1935 1945. The collapse of collective security accounts for the main cause

International Studies in Peace & Conflict: HSC Style Questions

of this outbreak as its failure exacerbated the tensions in Europe. The League of Nations
was instigated to achieve international peace and security post World War One, yet its
structural weaknesses disallowed for a strong consolidation of collective security.
Consequently, the dictatorships of Hitler and Mussolini were able to pursue their
aggressive foreign policies without fear of reprimand. Upon recognising the failure of
collective security, the Allies resorted to the ineffective policy of appeasement which
further encouraged Hitler and Mussolini to act without concern of consequences. As such,
the collapse of collective security is to hold primary responsibility for the outbreak of
conflict in Europe.
The aims of the League of Nations were never realised, thus impacting its chances of
success to which it is to hold primary responsibility for the outbreak of conflict in Europe.
The League of Nations had been instigated based on Wilsons Fourteen Points in the hopes
of international cooperation. Theoretically, Article 10 of the Covenant, the Collective
Security Article, called for members to guarantee each other against aggression for the
maintenance of peace by collective action. However, the structural weaknesses of the
League did not allow for this to occur. Despite the sanctions of the League Covenant, the
organisation did not possess a true balance of world powers, and hence the consequences
of breaking articles are not considered severe. The United States, for example, did not
ratify the Treaty of Versailles as it recognised that the League lacked clearly specific
guarantees and methods. Furthermore, the Soviet Union was refused membership based
on fears of Communism. Thus, these two powerful nations were not included in the
provisions of disarmament as outlined in Article 8 of the League Covenant requiring for the
reduction of national armaments to the lowest point consistent with national safety. As a
result, member nations did not disarm completely as the Covenant called for disarmament
based on the defence of their nation. With two super powers not bound by such policies,
effectively disarmament failed as signatory nations feared their security.
With the US absence, Britain and France were the two superpowers of the League.
However, not only was there a lack of confidence in their leadership ability, but their
interests also conflicted. Historian AJP Taylor emphasises that France wanted the League to
develop into a system of security uniting European powers against Germany; however,
Britain regarded the League as a system of conciliation which would include Germany.
With such structural weaknesses evident, members began to lose confidence in the League.
Members recognised that theoretically, the Articles of the League encompassed much
justice and nobility; however, the majority of them were impractical. With this loss of faith,
member nations were generally uncooperative, disconnected and in the interwatr period
nationalism took precedence over hopes of internationalism. Thus, the very attitudes and
goals of nations during this period never allowed for the success of the League of Nations
nor that of collective security
The conflict of Abyssinia is an example whereby the failure of collective security allowed
for Mussolinis aggressive foreign policy to take place; thereby holding primary
responsibility for bringing about the outbreak of war in Europe. Abyssinia provided
Mussolini with an opportunity for imperial expansion, the restoration of Italian honour and

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As a result of the failure of collective security, the Allies resorted to the policy of
Appeasement which strongly contributed to the outbreak of conflict in Europe.
Appeasement was the policy of inaction against aggressors out of fear of provoking an
outbreak of war. The failure of the League of Nations created an environment whereby
appeasement seemed to be the only logical option, despite its ineffective nature. This was
because the Allies, particularly France, wanted to avoid another international war as the
existence of war weariness was still strong. The governments understand that any
alternative would culminate in much social and political discontent, thereby encouraging
peace regardless of the repercussions. Consequently, Mussolini and Hitler were practically
encouraged to pursue their policies of expansionism as they pleased, without
repercussions, further heightening the tensions in Europe. The Czechoslovakia Crisis is an
example whereby appeasement, as a result of the failure of collective security, contributed
to the outbreak of conflict in Europe. Czechoslovakia had emerged post 1918 with a
multinational population, most significantly including that of an estimated 3 million
Germans in the Sudetenland. In accord with Hitlers policy of lebensraum, he wanted to
unite them into the Third Reich and was prepared to go to war in doing so. In the Anglo-
French Plan, Britain and France had urged President Benes of Czechoslovakia to concede to
Hitlers territorial demands to preserve peace in Europe. This called for the transfer of all
areas with over 50% of German inhabitants to the Third Reich; however Benes refused.
Nonetheless, these nations decided to sacrifice Czechoslovakias nationalism for
international security, and thus divided Czechoslovakia up accordingly, giving in to Hitlers
demands. Hitler had not been expecting this and henceforth made more territorial
demands. France had agreed to protect Czechoslovakias remaining borders if it accepted
the Anglo-French Plan; yet upon Hitlers further demands, France no longer honoured such

International Studies in Peace & Conflict: HSC Style Questions

economically viable resources and export markets. Mussolini had used the death of Italian
soldiers in a clash at Walwal as an excuse for invasion. Abyssinia appealed to the League of
Nations for assistance; yet they simply declared that neither party were at fault for the
clash. Upon recognising the failure of the League to implement sanctions, Mussolini
invaded Abyssinia with brutal willingness. It was only then that the League Council
declared Italy to be the aggressor. As a result the League imposed sanctions on Italy which
ultimately did not have a significant effect. They placed a ban on economic commodities,
however excluded coal and oil which were the necessities of war; and nations such as
Austria, Hungary and Switzerland refused to impose the sanctions. Furthermore, Italy had
Germanys military and economic support which overrode the minor effects of the
sanctions. As such, Mussolinis actions in Abyssinia caused the tensions in Europe to rise
and effectively undermined the principles of collective security. Hence, it can be seen that
although this invasion significantly contributed to the outbreak of war in Europe, the
failure of collective security ultimately allowed Hitler and Mussolini to break international
law without repercussions, to which it is to hold primary responsibility. Historian AJP
Taylor emphasises the ineffectiveness collective security in promoting its aim of
international peace: this was the death blow to the League as well as to Abyssinia

promises reflecting the extent of their aversion to war. Britain and France, in accord with
the allied policy of appeasement, continued to concede to Hitlers demands. On 20
September 1938 at the Munich Conference, Hitlers demands were granted and
Sudetenland ceded to Germany at the expense of Czechoslovakias nationalism and
integrity which had been compromised by the allies in their upholding of the policy of
appeasement. Historian AJP Taylor argues that the Munich Conference was a critical
moment whereby the Allies failed to pursue an aggressive policy of appeasement.
The inevitable should not be discussed in history, yet it is evident that the League of
Nations possessed the potential to suppress the outbreak of conflict in Europe. Ultimately,
the League failed to overcome its weaknesses of member states nationalism and structural
flaws in response to which Hitlers and Mussolinis aggression simply increased,
exacerbating the existing tensions and thus the likelihood of the outbreak of war.
Furthermore, the principles of collective security were further undermined in the Allies
adoption of the policy of appeasement of which it can also be argued, directly lead to the
outbreak of the war. Theoretically, collective security was intended for a consolidation of
international peace in Europe; yet its failure led to a disorganised system of powers who
could not overcome their ideological differences. Nationalism consistently took precedence
over internationalism which was necessary in consolidating the success of collective
security. As such, the failure of collective security can be seen as the primary cause for the
exacerbation of tensions in Europe and consequently that of the outbreak of conflict.

Word Count: 1373

To what extent are the dictatorships of Hitler and Mussolini the main causes of the
tensions that brought on the outbreak of war in Europe?
The conflict in Europe was caused by a variety of factors in a gradual process from 1935
1945. The dictatorships in Italy and Germany played a significant role in accounting for the
outbreak of war, although they alone were not the main cause. Rather, the allied policy of
appeasement and the failure of collective security allowed these dictators to freely pursue
their aggressive ideological policies without repercussions. Hence, there is to be an equal
balance of blame among these factors for the main cause of the outbreak of war in
Europe in 1939.
The dictatorships in Italy and Germany of Mussolini and Hitler respectively, were
significant causes in bringing about the conflict in Europe. Both these dictators shared
aggressive and opportunistic foreign policies which exacerbated the outbreak of war. Both
the short term aims of the foreign policies in Italy and Germany were to tear up the
provisions of the Treaty of Versailles for primarily nationalistic reasons. Italy did not
receive the territories it had been promised by the allies and hence wanted to pursue a
policy of aggressive expansionism as Mussolini believed imperialism defined a nations
greatness. Hitler was also dissatisfied with the provisions of the Treaty in terms of its

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The Czechoslovakia Crisis is an example whereby both the dictatorships of Hitler and the
policy of appeasement are to hold equal significance in the conflict in Europe.
Czechoslovakia had emerged post 1918 with a multinational population, most significantly
that of an estimated 3 million Germans in the Sudetenland. In accord with Hitlers policy of
lebensraum, he wanted to unite them into the Third Reich and was prepared to go to war
in doing so. In the Anglo-French Plan, Britain and France had urged President Benes of
Czechoslovakia to concede to Hitlers territorial demands to preserve peace in Europe. This
called for the transfer of all areas with over 50% of German inhabitants to the Third Reich;
however Benes refused. Nonetheless in the secret Hoare-Laval Plan, these nations divided
Czechoslovakia up accordingly and planned to give into Hitlers demands. Hitler had not
been expecting this and henceforth made more territorial demands. France had agreed to
protect Czechoslovakias remaining borders if it accepted the Hoare-Laval Plan; yet upon
Hitlers further demands, France no longer honoured such promises. Britain and France, in
accord with the allied policy of appeasement, continued to concede to Hitlers demands. On
20 September 1938 at the Munich Conference, Hitlers demands were granted and
Sudetenland ceded to Germany at the expense of Czechoslovakias nationalism and
integrity which had been compromised by the allies in their upholding of the policy of
appeasement. Historian AJP Taylor argues that the Munich Conference was a critical
moment whereby the Allies failed to pursue an aggressive policy of appeasement. Hence
the dual significance of the dictatorship in Germany and that of the policy of appeasement
is evident in accounting for main causes of the conflict in Europe.
The failure of collective security allowed the dictatorships in Italy and Germany to continue
pursuing their policies of expansionism without repercussions; hence both factors are to
hold equal significance in bringing about the conflict in Europe. The League of Nations had
been instigated based on Wilsons Fourteen Points in the hopes of international
cooperation. Yet there were structural weaknesses in this organisation. Signatories of the
League Covenant promised to submit to the League Assembly in matters of dispute rather
than resorting to war. However, both parties had to agree to a hearing otherwise the Court
of the League did not encompass the jurisdiction to do so. Article 10 of the Covenant states
that in handling acts of international aggression, no advice could be given unless it was
voted on unanimously; and furthermore members of the League were not obliged to accept

International Studies in Peace & Conflict: HSC Style Questions

economic and social burdens on Germany and the international humiliation it bore.
Similar to Mussolini, Hitler wanted to pursue a policy of aggressive expansionism in
accordance with his long term aim of lebensraum. Hitler hoped to unite all the German
speaking Aryans into the Third Reich and Mussolini to unite the Roman Empire as a
famous conqueror. These policies required living space in which both dictators pursued to
conquer territories in an aggressive manner. Thus, these dictators were able to pursue
their desires without much interference from the allies. However, it must be considered
that their pursuit for territory and their aggressive policies were not the main cause for the
outbreak of war. The allied policy of appeasement which allowed them to do so is to hold
equal significance.

such advice. Additionally, despite the sanctions of the League Covenant, the organisation
did not possess a true balance of world powers, and hence the consequences of breaking
articles are not considered severe. The United States, for example, did not ratify the Treaty
of Versailles and did not believe in the necessity of the League of Nations, hence it was not
a member. Furthermore, the Soviet Union was refused membership based on fears of
Communism. Thus, these two powerful nations were not included in the provisions of
disarmament. As a result, member nations did not disarm completely as the Covenant
called for disarmament based on the defence of their nation. With two super powers not
bound by such policies, effectively disarmament failed as signatory nations feared their
security. Hence the dictatorships of Hitler and Mussolini recognised the failure of collective
security which allowed them to pursue their aggressive policies of expansionism without
repercussions.
The conflict of Abyssinia is an example whereby the dictatorship in Italy and the failure of
collective security are to hold equal significance in bringing about the outbreak of war in
Europe. Abyssinia provided Mussolini with an opportunity for imperial expansion, the
restoration of Italian honour and economically viable resources and export markets.
Mussolini had used the death of Italian soldiers in a clash at Walwal as an excuse for
invasion. Abyssinia appealed to the League of Nations for assistance; yet they simply
declared that neither party were at fault for the clash. Upon recognising the failure of the
League to implement sanctions, Mussolini invaded Abyssinia with brutal willingness. It
was only then that the League Council declared Italy to be the aggressor. As a result the
League imposed sanctions on Italy which ultimately did not have a significant effect. They
placed a ban on economic commodities, however excluded coal and oil which were the
necessities of war; and nations such as Austria, Hungary and Switzerland refused to
impose the sanctions. Furthermore, Italy had Germanys military and economic support
which overrode the minor effects of the sanctions. As such, Mussolinis actions in Abyssinia
caused the tensions in Europe to rise and effectively undermined the principles of
collective security. Hence, it can be seen that although this invasion significantly
contributed to the outbreak of war in Europe, the failure of collective security ultimately
allowed Hitler and Mussolini to break international law without repercussions, to which it
is to hold an equally significant role. Historian AJP Taylor emphasises the ineffectiveness
collective security in promoting its aim of international peace: this was the death blow to
the League as well as to Abyssinia
Although the dictatorships in Italy and Germany and their aggressive policies of
expansionism significantly contributed to the outbreak of war, the allied policy of
appeasement and the failure of collective security are to hold equal significance. Due to
such misgivings, they ultimately allowed these dictatorships to pursue a boundless policy
of expansionism; although the Allies themselves were in a much stronger position to
suppress them. Thus, while the dictatorships played a critical role, they cannot be deemed
the main cause of the conflict in Europe alone as there were a variety of factors in a
gradual process rather than the perceived immediate.
Word Count: 1289

International Studies in Peace & Conflict: HSC Style Questions

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