1

Addressing the Perpetual

Issue of Rural Schools Low
High School Graduation
and College Enrollment
Rate
Elleigh Karel
EDF 485 Context for Educational Issues
Professor Kang

Years of research, or lack thereof, emphasizes a school population that has gone
overlooked. Authors Wilcox, Angelis, Baker, & Lawson (2014) concur as they quote Rumberger
(2011), The U.S. national average for high school graduation falls far below that of many other
industrialized countries and is marked by significant graduation rate gaps between students of
higher- and lower-socioeconomic status and students attending suburban vs. rural or urban
schools (p.1). Rural schools rates have historically continued to be not much higher than urban
schools. However, urban schools graduation and college enrollment rates have historically
received attention and action, unlike rural schools. Thus, it is fair to presume students in rural
school districts are getting overlooked when it comes to their high school graduation to college
enrollment likelihood. Although many rural school districts understand that a significant portion
their students and community members do no value attending college, little research has been
conducted to provide a solution to this discerning pattern. However, some researchers have
begun to tackle this issue. Their research supports one another as they all argue the importance
of community, parent involvement, and high expectations for students. In this paper, I argue that
increasing the graduation of high school and enrollment into college rates for rural school
districts requires parents support and involvement, educators setting high expectations for their
students, and educators developing trust from the families through involvement in the
community.
Research shows the history of expectations for rural schools has encouraged a lack of
importance to be placed on college. Part of this issue is the direction education has taken.
Authors Wilcox, Angelis, Baker, & Lawson (2014) identify that The trend toward urbanization
began early in U.S. history and took place against a nearly constant backdrop of disagreement
about whether the new (and maturing) nation should favor urban-industrial or rural-agrarian
development (p.2) This shift in education has made content and procedures culturally irrelevant

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for rural students. Further, rural students were also inhibited through the NCLB (2002) act which
increased the standardization of education. This progressive urbanization has negatively
affected rural areas as the the standards and testing put students in a social/ identify complex,
as the urbanized education inadvertently prepares and teaches students to leave their
community. Rural communities social community is so important. However, when the education
system subtly teaches students they should leave, never to come back, and to not value their
rural culture students can develop a negative attitude towards education, graduation, and
college enrollment. Also, inadvertently the message that rural culture does not connect with a
value of education affects the economy, because if students leave for college, they often do not
return to help their childhood community. This phenomenon is currently happening in other
countries and is referred to as a brain drain, as the system encourages highly educated
students to leave their hometown, in so doing, decreasing the educated minds which could
assist the community. The research from Howley, Johnson, Passa, & Jekawa (2014) comply
with this historical and social paradigm as they found that, Among rural schools, those closer to
nonrural areas had higher enrollment and persistence rates (p.3) This finding reflects that the
rural schools who did have higher graduation and college enrollment rates where those who
were closer to suburban areas, which indicates that their culture was more closely aligned with
suburban culture and social norms, norms that value urbanization and embrace the
standardization of education. Although the education system is in opposition toward the social
and cultural characteristics of rural schools, research has found that parental involvement
encourages an increase in high school graduation and college enrollment rates.
Parents involvement has historically proven to influence higher success for students in
academics. Putnam (2015) identifies, Inequality in the United States increasingly operates
through education- a scarce resource is our knowledge based economy and a measure that is
closely correlated with parental socioeconomic status (p.18). Here Putnam is suggesting that
now, due to the shift in social and professional/ academic spheres, education is the most

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effective vesicle for power and wealth in the United States, and that if students dont receive
financial and academic support from their parents at home their social mobility and
socioeconomic status is hindered. This is concerning for rural schools, because the rural culture
is highly dependent upon agriculture which requires a significant amount of attention and time,
time in which could take away from academic support at home. Further, part of the rural culture
includes parents who either did not graduate high school, attend college, and/ or parents who
also developed a negative perception toward education as it did not respect their rural culture.
Yet, as Ross (2016) found, parental expectations play a major role in a whole host of
educational outcomes for childrenl (p.25). Thus, it is evident that parental support is essential
for improving the high school and college enrollment rates. Further, Robinsons and Harris
(2013) research concludes that parental support should be a commodity of a nonpunitive
parenting philosophy because they create an optimal setting under which children can devote
more attention to schooling (which will) foster the intrinsic motivation necessary for improved
performance (p. 1366). Through this kind of parental support students will be encouraged to
value education, while also valuing their family/community culture. Not only do students need to
perceive educations relevance with their culture, but also the parents should perceive education
as relevant and important. To do this teachers need to develop trusting, respectful relationships
with the parents and community, which can be established through involvement in community
activities and by communicating with community members (Wilcox, Angelis, Baker, & Lawson,
2014). When teachers and administrators are visible in the community they model a respect for
the hard-working, culturally accomplished community, and when the community members
understand they are respected they will then respect and trust the educational instruction and
objectives.
With a respectful relationship developed between teachers and parents/ the community
the teachers have a more favorably connection to explain the need for and benefit of student
programs that help students meet graduation requirements and students readiness for college

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(Wilcox, Angelis, Baker, & Lawson, 2014). Additionally, the educators role in increasing high
school graduation and college enrollment rates in rural schools requires teachers to genuinely
believe in the expectations they set for their students. Wilcox, Angelis, Baker, & Lawson (2014)
argue, The findings from this study suggest that better graduation outcomes in the sample of
higher-performing schools relate to a climate of high expectations and alignment of practices
and processes to reach those expectations (Demi et al., 2010, p. 13). When educators
genuinely believe in their students and believe they will be successful they devote extra effort to
ensuring their lessons promote student success. Putnam (2015) concurs indicating that
students who have a teacher who believes in them and encourages them to finish and continue
their education, were invariably likely to meet those expectations (p.8). Developing a climate
of high expectations requires time, but when teachers, students, and community members
understand the importance of education their likelihood of completing their high school
graduation and pursuing a college education increases.
By having rural students high school graduation and college enrollment rates increase, the
community will benefit from the extra academic instruction they bring to the community. Their
instruction will encourage highly educated ideas, which when implemented, can help both the
socioeconomics and culture of the community. Yet, rural schools have not received the attention
they deserve to increase these rates, even though these school districts are filled with parents
who want their students to be successful and students who want to be successful.
Nevertheless, history has shown that rural schools get overlooked, even though their high
school graduation and college enrollment rates are not that distant from urban schools rates,
who are the recipients of multiple studies and resources. Thus, although there is some research
on rural schools, their research is not conclusive and requires more attention. This historical
education failure cannot be continued, because it is failing students and hindering the positive
benefits the education could promote in the community. I believe, and know all educators would
agree with me that all students matter. Thus, administrators, educators, and community
members must start taking action by working together and setting high standards for students. If
this failure continues, rural students will continue to implicitly be taught the lie that their
academic success is unimportant. These students deserve better, so research must be
conducted so solutions, that respect the wonderful community culture and characteristics of
rural schools, are found and implemented.

Annotated Bibliography
Howley, C., Johnson, J., Passa, A., & Uekawa, K. (2014). College enrollment
and persistence in rural pennsylvania schools. REL 2015-053 Regional
Educational Laboratory Mid-Atlantic. 11785 Beltsville Drive Suite 300,
Calverton, MD 20705. Retrieved from
http://search.proquest.com.ezproxy.gvsu.edu/docview/1651854649?
accountid=39473
This source discusses the factors that appear to (from the data collected)
influence postsecondary enrollment and first to second year persistence in
college. The Pennsylvania Association of Rural and Small Schools conducted a
study which analyzed the trends in college enrollment and persistence in
rural school areas. Through the research the study found that college
persistence rates are similar between rural and suburban schools and higher
than city schools. However, college enrollment rates in rural schools are less
than in suburban schools. Additionally, rural schools which had higher than
average levels of college enrollment and persistence rates were closer to
urban areas. Finally, rural schools with a diverse student population had a
higher college enrollment and first to second year attendance rate than
students from non-rural schools.
This source began by identifying the historical background, of rural schools
typically having lower college enrollment and persistence rates, which made
their research and inquiry necessary and relevant. The study was conducted
through comparing two schools in Pennsylvania and analyzing the trends
visible from those schools. It is concerning that the research was so limited,
which they recognize by emphasizing that this research merely identifies the
need for continuous research on rural schools college enrollment and first to
secondary persistence. This research analyzes patterns in rural Pennsylvania
school college enrollment that should not be considered as claim for causal
conclusion. However, the researchers do consider four different aspects of
enrollment and three kinds of rural schools which , adds authenticity to their
findings.
Putnam, R. D. (2015). Our kids: The American dream in crisis. New York:
Simon & Schuster.
Putnam argues that social mobility is, unlike in the 1950s, limited today due
to educational reform. In the past (1950s) students had models of hard
working parents and thus developed discipline, which promoted success in

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school and life. The source discusses the social factors which influenced
students mobility, including (but not limited to) gender norms,
discrimination, and community expectations. Putnam continues to evaluate
the differences by discussing the historical changes in racial equality,
opportunity equality (in terms of absolute/ relative mobility), marriages, and
wealth.
This source analyzes several different narratives from one particular school
during the 1950s to develop general theories about upward mobilitys
relationship with education. The analysis of those narratives is then
compared with the narratives of two twenty-first century students. Although
this source presents theories that align with other research, Putnams
conclusions must be considered cautiously due to the limited research.
However, given the research analyzed, Putnam presents important
educational questions and concerns educators and citizens must consider,
due to the direct correlation between education and social mobility.
Robinson, K., & Harris, A. L. (2013). Racial and Social Class Differences in
How Parents Respond to Inadequate Achievement: Consequences for
Children's Future Achievement. Social Science Quarterly,94(5), 1346-1371.
This source discusses the connection between race and social class on
parenting philosophy, and how parenting philosophies influence students
academic achievement. Robinson and Harris conclusion is a reflection of the
Child Development Supplement from the Panel Study fro Income Dynamics,
which collected data biannually since 1997. The research concluded that
race, socioeconomics, parental education impacted student achievement
through the preferred parenting philosophy. In conclusion, the findings
displayed that white and black parents typically have different parenting
philosophies, and that parents that use non-punitive philosophies strengthen
students academic achievement.
The structure of this source begins by identifying the historical context of the
question of how parenting philosophy affects student achievement. Next, the
the authors discuss the approach for collecting data. This then leads into an
analysis and significance of the data collected. Post the conclusion, the
source discusses how data collected from parents responses to the questions
are reliable. However, even though the data reflects a pattern in race and
socioeconomics connection with parenting philosophy, individuals can still act
independently from the data results.
ROSS, Terris Raiford. The differential effects of parental involvement on
high school completion and postsecondary attendance. education policy
analysis archives, [S.l.], v. 24, p. 30, mar. 2016. ISSN 1068-2341. Available

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at: <http://epaa.asu.edu/ojs/article/view/2030/1752>. Date accessed: 27
mar. 2016. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.14507/epaa.24.2030.
Ross studies the influence of parental involvement on high school graduation
and postsecondary attendance. Based on the evidence, Ross also addresses
the question of whether the students and their parents race or
socioeconomic status influence high school graduation and postsecondary
attendance. The research suggests that there is minimal correlation between
parental support and race or socioeconomic status effect on graduation and
college enrollment. Rather, Ross research reflects that high school
attendance and college enrollment are significantly influenced by parental
involvement (regardless of race or socioeconomic status) in the students
education. Parental involvement looks different at different stages of the
students life, but parents discussing and identifying high expectations for the
students was a consistent form of support that had positive effects on their
students likelihood of high school graduation and postsecondary attendance.
This sources presentation made excellent efforts to convey the importance of
researching the effects of parental involvement on high school attendance
and postsecondary attendance. Ross began by identifying the inconsistent
research that called for further exploration of this important educational
topic. Further, this researchs relevance was evident through the multiple
ethnicities and variables of parental involvement considered in the research.
Although this source utilizes the data to provide solutions to promote an
increase in high school graduation and college enrollment rates, there was
minimal coverage of how the student to parent relationship affects the
parental involvements affect on high school graduation and college
enrollment rates. Overall, this source clearly reflected the correlation
between parental involvement and students high school graduation and
postsecondary attendance rates through the data, analysis, discussion, and
conclusion.
Wilcox, K. K., Angelis, J. I., Baker, L., & Lawson, H. A. (2014). The Value of
People, Place and Possibilities: A Multiple Case Study of Rural High School
Completion. Journal Of Research In Rural Education, 29(9), 1-18.
The authors of this article argue that high school graduation rates of rural
areas are a direct reflection of the teachers and administrators genuine
respect for students academic capabilities and the communities importance
in the educational relevance and importance. Through the regressive analysis
of their case study, on six different rural schools, they concluded that rural
schools that produce higher graduation rates include qualities of high
academic goals and expectations, relevant learning methods, and an
appreciation for community involvement and support. Through these qualities

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they develop a school environment/ culture that provides opportunities for
students to be successful in school. By encouraging success in high school
teachers help students realize their academic options post graduation.
This studys findings reflect exemplary teaching strategies, as they
emphasizes teachers and administrators genuine belief in the students
capabilities, and on the importance of relationships with the community, to
develop a trust of the importance and relevance of education. By conducting
a regressive analysis, which studies how the dependent variable changes
through modifying specific independent variables, the authors were able to
fixate on the importance of contextual conditions, i.e. how the conditions of
schools in rural areas affect graduation rates and college enrollment.
Although their research was limited to six schools from one state, their
research provides ample amounts of evidence to demonstrate the
effectiveness of their findings, which included research on how the school
culture, student mindset, and community culture, affects students
graduation rates and college enrollment. Finally, the articles presentation
was sequenced well as it identified first the issue, second the data collected,
third the analysis of the data, and finally their conclusion. This articles
presentation and data collected effectively provided solutions to the problem
of low high school graduation rates and low college enrollment rates in rural
school areas.