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1.The Character of Korean

3.The Modern Literature of
Literature
Korea
2.Korea's Classical Literature
The Literature of the
Enlightenment Period
Literature of the Japanese
Hyangga from the Shilla
Colonial
Period
period
Literature
of the Period of
The Koryo Kayo (Koryo
National
Division
Songs)
The Translation of Korean
Shijo and Kasa
Literature
in
The Classical Fiction
Foreign Languages

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The Character of Korean Literature

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Korean literature is usually divided chronologically into a

classical and a modern period. But the basis for such a division
is still being questioned. Great reforms swept Korea after the
mid-19th century as its society actively absorbed Western
things.
Korea's classical literature developed against the backdrop of
traditional folk beliefs of the Korean people; it was also
influenced by Taoism, Confucianism, and Buddhism. Among
these, Buddhist influence held the greatest sway, followed by
enormous influences from Confucianism - especially Song
Confucianism - during the Choson period.
Modern literature of Korea, on the other hand, developed out of
its contact with Western culture, following the course of
modernization. Not only Christian thought, but also various
artistic trends and influences were imported from the West. As
the "New Education" and the "National Language and Literature
Movement" developed, the Chinese writing system, which had
traditionally represented the culture of the dominant class, lost
the socio-cultural function it had previously enjoyed. At the
same time, the Korean script, Han-gul was being used more
and more frequently, resulting in the growth and development
of Korean language and literature studies. With the advent of
the "new novel" (shinsosol) came a surge in novels written in
the Korean script. Music and classical poetry, formerly fused
together in a kind of a song called ch'anggok, were now viewed
as separate endeavors. New paths opened up for the new

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literature. While Korea was importing Western culture via Japan

or China, it was also carrying out literary reforms from within.
Linguistic expression and manner of transmission are issues of
utmost importance in the overall understanding of Korean
literature. Korean literature extends over a broad territory:
literature recorded in Chinese; and literature written in Han-gul.
These two aspects of Korean literature greatly differ from each
other in terms of their literary forms and character.
Korean literature in Chinese was created when Chinese
characters were brought to Korea. Because Chinese characters
are a Chinese invention, there have been times in Korea's
history when efforts were made to exclude literature written in
Chinese from the parameters of what constitutes Korean
literature. But in the Koryo and Choson cultures, Chinese
letters were central to Koreans' daily lives. We also cannot
overlook the fact that the literary activity of the dominant class
was conducted in Chinese. While Chinese-centered ideas and
values are contained in this literature - a feature shared by most
of East Asia during this period - they also contain experiences
and thought patterns that express the unique way of life of the
Korean people.
The use of the Korean script began during the Choson period
with the creation of the Korean alphabet (Hunmin Chong-um).
The creation of the Korean alphabet in the 15th century was a
crucial turning point in Korea's literary history. Compared with
the literature written in Chinese which was dominated by the
upper classes, Korean script made possible the broadening of
the literary field to include women and commoners. This
expanded the social base of Korean writers and readers alike.
The Korean script (Han-gul) assumed its place of leading
importance in Korean literature only during the latter half of the
19th century. After the Enlightenment period, the use of
Chinese letters swiftly declined and the popularity of Korean
letters greatly increased. As soon as the linguistic duality of
"Chinese" and "Native" within Korean life was overcome,
literature in the Korean script became the foundation upon
which the national literature developed.
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Korea's Classical Literature

Hyangga from the Shilla period
The Hyangga poetry of the Shilla period signaled the beginning
of a unique poetic form in Korean literature. The Hyangga were
recorded in the hyangch'al script, in which the Korean language
was written using "sound" (um) and "meaning" (hun) of
Chinese characters. Fourteen poems in the Hyangga style from
the Shilla period have been preserved in the Samguk yusa
(Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms). This poetic form was
passed down to the Koryo Dynasty, and 11 poems from that
period are preserved in the Kyunyojon (Tales of Kyunyo).
Observing the form of the extant poems, we see a variety of
formal characteristics: 4-line, 8-line, and 10-line poems. The 4
line poems have the character of folk ballads or nursery songs.
The 10-line poems, with the most developed poetic structure,
are divided into three sections of 4-4-2.
It is difficult to make general determinations about the

personalities of the Hyangga poets. But it is thought that the 4line poems with their ballad-like attributes may indicate that the
poets came from a broad range of backgrounds. Most of the
10-line poems were written by priests like Ch'ung Tamsa, Wol
Myongsa, Yung Ch'sonsa, Yongjae and Kyunyo; they were also
composed by the Hwarang ("flower warriors"), including Duk
Ogok and Shin Chung. These warriors were the backbone of
the Shilla aristocracy. The 10-line poems reflect the emotions
of the aristocrats and their religious consciousness. From
among the Hyangga, Sodong-yo (The Ballad of Sodong) is
characterized by its simple naivet'e; the Chemangmaega (Song
of Offerings to a Deceased Sister) and Ch'an-gip'arangga
(Song in Praise of Kip'arang) boast a superb epic technique,
and give fine expression to a sublime poetic spirit. These
examples are accordingly recognized as the most
representative of Hyangga poetry.
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The Koryo Kayo (Koryo Songs)

The literature of the Koryo period is marked by an increased
use of Chinese letters, the disappearance of Hyangga, and the
emergence of Koryo kayo (Koryo songs) which continued to be
transmitted as oral literature until the Choson period. The
transmission of the Hyangga literature of Shilla was continued
until the early part of Koryo but, as in the eleven verses of
Kyunyo's Pohyon shipchung wonwangga (Songs of the Ten
Vows of Samantabhadra), these were mostly religious prayers
with no secular or artistic flavor.
The new poetic form introduced by writers of the Koryo period
was the Koryo kayo called pyolgok. The identities of most of
the Koryo kayo authors are unknown. The songs were orally
transmitted; only later in the Choson period were they recorded
using the Korean script (Han-gul). This poetry has two forms:
the "short-stanza form" (tallyonch'e) in which the entire work is
structured into a single stanza; and the "extended form"
(yonjangch'e) in which the work is separated into many
stanzas. Chong Kwajonggok (The Song of Chong Kwajong)
and Samogok (Song of Maternal Love) are examples of the
short-stanza form, but the more representative Koryo kayo,
including Ch'nongsan pyolgok (Song of Green Mountain),
Sogyong pyolgok (Song of the Western Capital [P'yongyang]),
Tongdong and Ssanghwajom (Twin Flower Shops), are all
written in the extended form, and divided into anywhere from
four to thirteen stanzas.
The Koryo Kayo are characterized by increased length and a
free and undisciplined form. The bold, direct nature of the
songs make them distinctive. They deal with the real world of
humankind. But because the songs were transmitted orally
over a long period and recorded only after the beginning of the
Choson period, there is a strong possibility that they have been
partially altered.
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Shijo and Kasa

The creation of the Korean alphabet in the early Choson period
was one of the turning points in the history of Korean literature.
In the process of creating the Korean alphabet (Han-gul) and

investigating its practicality, akchang (musical scores) were

written in the Korean script, such as Yongbioch'bon-ga (Songs
of Flying Dragons Through the Heavens) which celebrates the
foundation of the Choson Dynasty(1392-1910), and which is
complete with musical notation and instrumentation. These
were written by the Hall of Worthies (Chiphyonjon) scholars
who served the court officials. King Sejong also wrote Worin
Ch'on-gangjigok (Songs of the Moon Lighting the Rivers of the
Earth), a compilation in song of the life history of the
Sakyamuni (Gautama Buddha), extolling praise for the
Buddha's grace. These series of poems were written in forms
that had not existed in previous ages. They provided a great
stimulus in the development of poetic literature.
The shijo ("current tune") is representative of Choson period
poetry. Its poetic form was established in the late Koryo period,
but it flourished to a greater extent under the Choson period's
new leading ideology, Song Neo-Confucianism. The fact that a
majority of the shijo poets were well versed in Confucianism,
and that these poems of the late Koryo and early Choson
periods for the most part dealt with the theme of loyalty, helps
us to understand the historical function of the shijo.
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The shijo has a simple, three-stanza structure: first, middle and
last. Its three-stanza form is related to the structure of its poetic
meaning, a fundamental requisite which prescribes its formal
aesthetic. It is constructed in four feet, with each line containing
three-to-four syllables, to make a total of about 12 feet. It is
characterized by moderation in form and a slow, leisurely
elegance. Despite its formal simplicity, its expressions are
poetic and the poems achieve an esthetic wholeness. To this
end, we may suppose that the shijo was widely loved by both
the commoners and the yangban(gentry) class.
Centered around such authors as Maeng Sa-song, Yi Hyon-bo,
Yi Hwang and Yi I, the shijo of the early Choson period
represented "natural literature," or kangho kayo, in which
Confucian ideals were expressed using themes from nature.
Following the style of Chong Ch'iol, Yun Son-do and others, the
greatest shijo poets of their time, there emerged in the later
Choson period poets like Kim Ch'mon-t'aek and Kim Su-jang
who paved the way for the creation of new kind of poetry which
incorporated elements of satire and humor. Collections of shijo
were also compiled, such as Ch'eonggu yong-on (Enduring
Poetry of Korea) by Kim Ch' on-t'aek and Haedong kayo
(Songs of Korea) by Kim Su-jang.
Back to Top
In the late Choson period, sasol shijo ("current tunes explained
in words") were developed to give simple form to the unaffected
emotions of the commoners. The sasol shijo departs from the
form of the original three-stanza p'yong ("flat") shijo, in which
the middle and final stanzas are arranged into four feet, and is
characterized by increased length. Hence, the sasol shijo is
also called the changhyong ("long form") shijo.
The sasol shijo is distinct from the moderate from of the p'yong
shijo in that it pursues a free and undisciplined form, and
expresses the joys and sorrows of the commoners, as well as
satirizes reality, making it comical.
It is said that the kasa and the shijo make up the two greatest

forms of the Choson period poetry. The kasa is properly placed

in the category of verse, but its content is not limited to the
expression of individual sentiment. It often includes moral
admonitions, and the subjects regarding "the weariness of
travel" and "grief." The kasa form is a simple verse form, with a
"twin" set of feet of three to four syllables each, which are
repeated four times. Because of the varying nature of its
contents, there are some who view the kasa as a kind of essay,
as in early Choson period kasa like Chong Kuk-in's Sangch'ungok (Tune in Praise of Spring); Song Sun's Myonangjongga
(Song of Myonangjong Pavilion); and Chong Ch'iol's Kwandong
pyolgok (Song of Kwandong), Samiin-gok (Song in
Recollections of a Beautiful Woman) and Songsan pyolgok
(Song of Mt. Songsan), and so on. These kasa have, as their
main subject matter, the following themes: contemplation of
nature for spiritual enlightenment; the virtues of the great
gentleman who espouses anbin nakto (being content in poverty
and delighting in following the Way); and the metaphor of love
between a man and a woman to express loyalty between
sovereign and subject. Later, following Pak Il-lo's Sonsangt'an
(Lament on Shipboard) and Nuhangsa (Words of the Streets),
we find in the late Koryo period kasa themes like "travel
abroad" as in Kim In-gyom's Iltong chang-yuga (Song of a
Glorious Voyage to the East of the Sun) and Hong Sun-hak's
Yonhaengga. Also, there were the naebang kasa (kasa of the
women's quarters) written by women. These gained wide
popularity. In particular, the kasa of the latter period underwent
changes in form, becoming both longer and prosaic.
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The Classical Fiction

The first appearance of the classical fiction in Korea include
Kim Shi-sup's Kumo shinhwa (Tales of Kumo) which was
written in Chinese characters and Ho Kyun's Hong Kil-tong
chon (Tale of Hong Kil-tong) written in Han-gul. After the turn
of the 17th century, fictions like tale of Kumo shinhwa came to
be even more actively produced, and a large-scale readership
was formed at that time. Especially popular was the p'ansori
(story-in-song), which appeared in the late 17th and early 18th
centuries. A performance art, the p'ansori is rooted in
heightened musical expressiveness. As its contents were
"fictionalized" it also made great contributions to the
development of the classical fiction. In the 18th and 19th
centuries, the quality of these classical fictions increased in
variety as well as in quantity. Also, book rental business thrived
with the advent of commercial publishing .
The characters appearing in Kumo shinhwa embody the
concept of chaejagain ("talented young man and beautiful
woman"). It also employs to an extreme degree the style of
aesthetic expression used in Chinese letters. Along with these
characteristics, Kumo shinhwa also shows aspects of the
mysterious fiction (chon-gisosol) in that its contents are of a
mysterious nature and distant from reality. In the mid-Choson
period, works with parable-like characteristics were published,
such as Im Je's Susongji (Record of Grief) and Yun Kye-son's
Talch'on mongnyurok (Record of a Dream Adventure to
Talch'on). But with the coming of the late Choson period,
authors like Pak Chi-won and Yi EOk wrote realistic fictions in
Chinese. Pak Chi-won's Hosaengjon (The Tale of Scholar Ho),
Yangbanjon (A Yangban Tale), Hojil (The Tiger's Roar) and Yi's
Shimsaengjon (Tale of Scholar Shim), for example, all depart

from the orthodox conventions of classical Chinese literary

studies and introduce a variety of characters such as
merchants, men of wealth, thieves and kisaeng (female
entertainers). They are sharply critical of a manifold social
problems and often ridicule various aspects of daily life. This
kind of fiction, together with the fiction in Han-gul of the later
Choson period, opened up new paths for fiction writing.
After the creation of the Korean alphabet, an abundance of
fictions were written in Han-gul, beginning with Ho Kyun's Hong
Kil-tong chon and including works like Kim Man-jung's
Kuunmong (Dream of the Nine Clouds) and Sassi namjonggi
(Record of Lady Sa's Southward Journey). Hong Kil-tong chon
strongly opposes the ruling class' discrimination of children
born of the union between a yangban and a concubine. It
shows a high level of social concern and criticizes the absurd
aspects of the everyday reality of the times.
In the late Choson period, the p'ansori fiction (p'ansori gye
sosol) emerged, based on the orally transmitted art form.
P'ansori fictions like Ch'unhyangjon (Tale of Ch'un-hyang),
Shimch'oongjon (Tale of Shimch'yong), and Hungbujon (Tale of
Hungbu) do not deal with superhuman characters, but make
use of human stereotypes of the period. Most of these fictions
center around casual relationships from real-life experience,
rather than coincidence. In addition to being a mixture of verse
and prose, the writing style also combines refined classical
language and the vigorous slang and witticisms of the common
people. Throughout these works, we are given a broad picture
of the social life of the late Choson period. In addition to these
works, other Choson period fictions record the private affairs of
the court, such as Inhyon Wanghujon (Tale of Queen Inhyon)
and Hanjungnok (Record of Leisurely Feelings).
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The Modern Literature of Korea

The Literature of the Enlightenment Period
Korean modern literature was formed against the background
of the crumbling feudalistic society of the Choson Dynasty, the
importation of new ideas from the West, and the new political
reality of rising Japanese imperial power in East Asia. The first
stage in the establishment of Korea's modern literature extends
from the mid-19th century to the early 20th century, and is
designated as the literature of the Enlightenment (kaehwa
kyemong) period.
The change from traditional to modern literature during the
Enlightenment period was largely due to the effects of the New
Education and the Korean Language and Literature movement.
After the Kabo Reforms of 1894, a new brand of education was
enforced, new Western-style schools were established, and
new textbooks for teaching Western knowledge were published.
The literature of the Enlightenment Period secured its social
base through newly emerged media like newspapers. Most
newspapers,
including
the Tongnip
Shinmun
(The
Independent), Hwangsong Shinmun (The Imperial City
Newspaper), Taehan maeil Shinbo (Korean Daily News),
Cheguk Shinmun (Imperial Newspaper), Mansebo (The
Forever Report), Taehan minbo (The Korean People's Report)
all published serial novels, as well as shijo, and kasa. It was at

this time that a class of professional writers also began to form.

Commercial publishing of literary works became possible with
the introduction of new printing techniques and the emergence
of publishing companies.
In this period, the ch'angga (new type of song) and the
shinch'eshi (new poetry) were hailed as the new poetic forms.
They contributed greatly to the formation of the modern
chayushi (free verse poem). Receiving their influence from free
verse poetry, the shinch'eshi abandoned the fixed meter of
traditional poetry, thus making new genres possible in poems
like Ch'oe Nam-son's Hae egeso sonyon ege (From the Sea to
the Youth) (1908), Kkot tugo (Laying Down the Flowers) and
T'aebaeksan shi (Poems of Mt. T'aebaeksan). But despite the
novelty of the new forms, there were also many instances
where the poetic voice was politicized, a sharp contrast to the
lyric poetry of old, which gave primary expression to individual
sentiment and feeling.
This period also saw the emergence of many biographical
works based on enlightenment tastes, designed to cultivate
patriotism and awaken the national consciousness.
Representative works include, Aeguk puinjon (Tale of the
Patriotic Lady) (Chang Ji-yon, 1907) and Elchi Mundok (Shin
Ch'ae-ho, 1908). The biographies presented images of the kind
of hero called for by the realities of the period. An Kuk-son's
Kumsu hoeuirok (Notes From the Meeting of the Birds and
Beasts) (1908) is the representative of this kind of work: it
centers around the orations of animals who criticize the human
world's moral depravity.
While a professional class of writers began to be formed by
men like Yi In-jik, Yi Hae-cho, Ch'oe Ch'an-shik and Kim Ko-je,
a new literary form called the shinsosol (new novel) secured a
popular readership base. Yi In-jik's Hyoluinu (Tears of Blood)
(1906) and Ensegye (The Silver World) (1908), were followed
by Yi Hae-cho's Kumagom (The Demon-Ousting Sword) and
Chayujong (The Freedom Bell). Ch'oe Ch'an-shik's
Ch'uwolsaek (The Color of the Autumn Moon) (1912) is also a
well-known work. The shinsosol, all written in Han-gul,
achieved mass popularity. These novels portrayed
Enlightenment ideals against the background of the realities of
contemporary life, and the unrealistic, transcendental worlds of
old are not found in their plots. It was in the shinsosol that "time
reversal" was first applied as a structural technique. The
authors also adopted a vernacular prose style that brought
them closer to the form of the modern novel. However, in the
wake of the Japanese takeover of Korea in 1910, the character
of the shinsosol began to change. The later works gave more
weight to the fates of individual characters, and commonplace
love-struggles became more prominent.
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Literature of the Japanese Colonial Period

Korea suffered a great deal under Japanese colonial rule
(1910-1945). Coercing the Korean government to conclude the
Korean-Japanese Annexation Treaty, Japan then installed a
Governor-General in Korea and enforced military rule.
Restrictions governing speech and publications were especially
severe. As a result, Korea's spirit of self-reliance and
independence, together with its will to proceed with the
Enlightenment ideals, no longer could find expression in its

literature.
The Korean literature of the Japanese colonial period began
with the March First Independence Movement of 1919. It was
during this period that the Korean people began to exhibit a
more positive attitude in coping with their national situation.
Strengthened by feelings of national self-awakening which had
been stirred up by the March First Independence Movement of
1919, the literature of that period began to show an interest in
themes of self-discovery and individual expression, as well as
an increased interest in concrete reality. Literary coterie
magazines emerged, like Ch'angjo (Creation) (1919), P'yeho
(The Ruins) (1920), and Paekcho (White Tide) (1922), and
literary circles formed. With the publication of magazines like
Kaebyok (The Opening) (1920), creative literary efforts also
began to become more actively developed. In particular, the
publication of national newspapers, like the Dong-A Ilbo and
the Chosun Ilbo, contributed toward establishing a broad base
of support for artistic endeavors.
Back to Top
In the early 1920s, the base support for Korea's modern
literature began to expand as people experienced a renewed
self-awakening and recognition of their national predicaments
in the wake of the March 1919 uprising. The novels of this
period describe the sufferings of the intellectual who drifts
through reality, and expose the pathetic lives of the laborers
and farmers. Yi Kwang-su's short story Sonyonui piae (The
Sorrow of Youth) in which he writes of the inner pain of the
individual, was followed by his full-length novel Mujong
(Heartlessness) (1917), the success of which placed him at the
center of Korean letters. Mujong was not thoroughgoing in its
apprehension of colonial period reality, but as a novel
combining the fatalistic life of the individual with the Zeitgeist of
the period, it is recognized as being modern in character. With
Paettaragi (Following the Boat) (1921) and Kamja (Potatoes)
(1925), Kim Tong-in also contributed greatly to the short-story
genre. In it, he minutely describes in realistic detail the shifting
fates of man. Hyon Chin-gon's Unsu choun nal (The Lucky
Day) (1924) is also a work which employs superb technique in
describing people coping with the pain of their reality. Yom
Sang-sop's P'yobonshilui ch'nonggaeguri (Green Frog in the
Specimen Gallery) (1921) deals again with the wanderings and
frustrations of the intellectual; and in Mansejon (The Tale of
Forever) (1924), Yom gives expression to the colonial realities
of a devastated Korea.
The poetry of this period also established a new and modern
Korean poetry as it borrowed from the French techniques of
vers libre. Both the free verse of Chu Yo-han's Pullori
(Fireworks) (1919) and Kim So-wol's poetry collection
Chindallae kkot (Azaleas) (1925) made enormous contributions
toward establishing the foundations of modern Korean poetry.
Kim reconstructed the meter of the traditional folk ballad,
successfully giving poetic shape to a world of sentiment. Yi
Sang-hwa, in his works entitled Madonna (Madonna) and
Ppaeatkin Turedo pomun onun-ga (Does Spring Come to
Those Who Have Been Plundered?), attempted to come to
terms with the suffering of the age and the agony of the
individual, through the poetic recognition of the realities of
colonialism. Based on Buddhist thought, Han Yong-un, in his
Nimui ch'immuk (Thy Silence) (1926) sang of "Thou" as an
absolute existence, and tragically compared the reality of
Koreans' loss of their nation to that of the loss suffered by a

woman who must endure the separation of her loved one or

husband.
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In the mid-1920s, Korean literature was divided into national
and class literatures, in accordance with the democratic and
socialist ideals that were popular that time. By 1925 the class
literature movement began to solidify with the organization of
the Korea Proletarian Artist's Federation (KAPF). The
proletarian literature movement, by expanding its organization
and targeting the elevation of class consciousness through
literature, sought to strengthen class ideology in society. In
order to achieve mass support from the farmers and laborers, it
poured its energies into the creation of a "labor literature" and a
"farmer literature." Most notable of this kind of novel include
Ch'oe So-hae's T'alch'ulgi (Record of an Escape) (1925), Cho
Myong-hui's Naktonggang (The Naktonggang river) (1927), Yi
Ki-yong's Kohyang (Hometown) (1934), and Han Sol-ya's
Hwanghon (Twilight). These works are for the most part based
in class consciousness and emphasize the struggles against
colonialism, with farmers and laborers playing the central
protagonists in that struggle. In the case of poetry, Pak Seyong, Im Hwa and Kim Ch'ang-sul all took aim at the class
contradictions under colonialism and published many "tendency
poems" (kyonghyangshi) emphasizing the consciousness of
class struggle.
During the 1930s, Korean literature underwent important
changes as Japanese militarism was strengthened and
ideological coercion began to be applied to literature. Pursuit of
the communal ideology, which until that point had formed the
course of Korean literature, became a thing of the past. New
and various literary trends began to emerge.
Many novels written during this period experimented with new
styles and techniques. In Nalgae (Wings) and Chongsaenggi
(Record of the End of a Life), for example, Yi Sang used the
technique of dissociation of the self from the world around him.
Yi Hyo-sok's Memilkkot p'il muryop (When the Buckwheat
Flowers Bloom) and Kim Yu-jong's Tongbaek kkot (Camellia
Blossoms) are counted as masterful works of this genre. Also,
Pak T'ae-won's Sosolga Kubossiui Iril (Days of Kubo the
Novelist) (1934) and Yi T'ae-jun's Kkamagwi (The Crow) (1936)
opened up new vistas for the novel with their new stylistic
sensibilities. In these novels, novelistic space grows from within
the interior of the self. By contrast, the full length novels of Yom
Sang-sop's Samdae (The Three Generations) (1931), Pak
T'ae-won's Ch'eonbyon p'unggyong (Views by the Riverside)
(1937), Ch'ae Man-shik's T'angnyu (The Muddy Stream)
(1938), and Hong Myong-hui's Im Kkok-chong chon (Tale of Im
Kkok-chong) (1939), all narrate the story of the lives of their
characters against the backdrop of Korea's tumultuous history.
The modernism movement is the most impressive feature of
the poetry of this period. It emerged as sunsushi (pure poetry).
The pioneering poems of Chong Chi-yong and Kim Yong-nang
embody poetic lyricism through intricate linguistic sensibility
and refined technique. Yi Sang, in particular, played a central
role in the development of this new kind of experimental poetry.
Also, aligned with this movement was the so-called
Saengmyongp'a (the life poets) movement which included
writers like So Chong-ju and Yu Ch'i-hwan. Another significant
trend during this period was the nature-poems of Pak Tu-jin
and Pak Mok-wol, among others. The poetry of Yi Yuk-sa and

Yun Dong-ju was also important in that it captured the emotion

of the people in their resistance to Japanese imperialism.
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Literature of the Period of National Division

After the liberation from the Japanese in 1945, Korea became
embroiled in the political maneuvers of the World Powers, and
the division into South and North became unavoidable. This
division in political thought also made a significant impact on
the literary world, as the factionalism and struggles began to
occur between Southern and Northern literatures. The Korean
War(1950-1953) was a tragic interim which solidified Korea's
division into South and North. Postwar Korean society's
emergence from the wounds and chaos of that war had a
considerable impact on the development of Korean literature.
For the most part, the postwar novel in South Korea deals with
the struggles of the Korean people to achieve deliverance from
their national pain and anguish. The writings of Kim Tong-ri and
Hwang Sun-won are representatives of this new type of
literature. Also included in this genre is An Su-kil, whose novel
Pukkando (1959) portrays the pioneering fortitude and
steadfast spiritual power of Koreans who migrate to Manchuria.
In addition, many of the postwar generation writers took as
their predominant theme the collapse of the traditional sociomoral value systems, as seen in Oh Sang-won's Moban
(Revolt) (1957) and Son Ch'ang-sop's Injo in-gan (Artificial
Man) (1958). Pak Kyong-ri's Pulshin shidae (The Age of
Mistrust) (1957), Chong Kwang-yong's Kkoppittan Li (Captain
Lee) (1962) and Yi Bom-son's Obalt'an (A Bullet Misfired), in
particular, deal squarely with the chaos and moral collapse of
postwar society. Yi Ho-ch'iol's Nasang (The Nude Portrait)
(1957) and Ch'oe Sang-gyu's P'oint'du (Point) (1956) describe
people living their lives in a veritable pit of bleak reality.
The search for a new poetic spirit and technique was also a
significant feature of Korea's postwar poetry. Among the
postwar trends was the Chont'ongp'a (traditionalists),
movement, marked by a style rooted in traditional rhythms and
folk sentiment. The centrality of individual sentiment and
sensibility in the Chont'ongp'a, combined with the traditional
rhythmic base, brought a broad, folkish sentiment into the
realm of poetry. In addition to Pak Jae-sam, whose P'iri (Flute)
and Ulum i t'anun kang (The Saddened River) was inspired by
the world of traditional sentiment and folk feeling, Ku Ja-un, Yi
Tong-ju and Chong Han-mo were also significant contributors
to this movement. Another trend in postwar poetry was the
Shilhomp'a (experientialists) who, while venturing to bring new
experiences to poetic language and form, concentrated on
changing the tradition. Kim Kyong-rin, Pak In-hwan, Kim Kyudong, Kim Ch'a-yong and Yi Pong-rae, as well as a coterie of
writers called the Huban-gi (The Later Years), were central to
this new postwar modernist movement. In particular, Pak Pongu and Chon Pong-gon, brought critical recognition and a
satirical approach to social conditions through poetry.
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At the close of the 1950s, writers like Kim Sung-ok, Pak T'aesun, So Jong-in, Yi Ch'song-jun, Hong Song-won and Ch'oe
In-hun made their literary debut. Ch'oe In-hun's Kwangjang
(The Square), for example, gave expression to the agony,

wanderings and frustrations of the intellectual using a unique

novelistic structure. Kim Sung-ok, in his Seoul 1964, Kyoul
(Seoul, 1964, Winter), wrote about the life of the petit
bourgeois.
Shortly after the April 19th Revolution of 1960, poetic trends
also changed. Poets like Shin Tong-yop and Kim Su-yong
emphatically rejected the sentimental escapism of the postwar
period and began to advocate the necessity to engage its
readership with the political reality of the times. Kim Su-yong's
Tallara Cui changnan (The Prank of the Moonland) (1959) and
Shin Tong-yop's long poem Kumgang (The Kumgang river)
(1967) for example, both express this new realistic sensibility
by advocating the view that poetry become a significant means
for political expression.
During the 1970s, Korean society found itself in the throes of
rapid industrialization in which the gap between the rich and the
poor, as well as regional disparities in industrial development,
became markedly visible. As the political angst among the
people increased, a new anti-establishment literary movement
exploded onto the scene. The most important characteristic of
the Korean novel during this period was its positive concern for
various social problems which began to appear during the
industrialization process. Yi Mun-gu's Kwanch'on sup'il
(Kwanch'on Essays) (1977), for example, portrays the actual
conditions of farmers who were neglected and became
impoverished in the midst of the industrial development of the
nation. The lifestyles of Seoul's "border citizens" (those living in
the outskirts of the city) and the labor scene were also vividly
portrayed in Hwang Sok-yong's Kaekchi (The Strange Land)
(1970) and Samp'o kanun kil (The Road to Samp'o) and Cho
Se-hui's Nanjang-iga ssoa ollin chagun kong (Small Ball
Thrown by a Dwarf) (1978). Clearly, these novels opened up
new possibilities for the "labor" novel as they gave new
expression to the depravities and sufferings borne by the lives
of the laborers in Korea during this period in history. Yi
Ch'Song-jun's Tangshindul Cui ch'ion-guk (Your Heaven)
(1976), Chaninhan toshi (The Cruel City) (1978) and O jonghui's Yunyon Cui ttul (The Garden of Childhood) (1981), all
examine the theme of human isolation and alienation which
marked these laborers' experiences of industrial development.
The social satire apparent throughtout Pak Wan-so's
Hwich'aonggorinun ohu (The Reeling Afternoon) (1977) and
Ch'oe Il-lam's T'aryong (The Tune) (1977) are representative of
important tendencies in the novel of this period.
There also emerged during this period what has been referred
to as the "division novel" (pundansosol) which brought to the
fore a critical examination of national division. Kim Won-il's
Noul (Sunset)(1978), Chon Sang-guk's Abeui kajok (Abe's
Family) (1980) and Cho Jong-rae's T'aebaeksanmaek (The
T'aebaeksan Mountains) are representative of this new type of
novel. Also noteworthy is the roman-fleuve, like Pak Kyong-ri's
T'oji(The Land), judged to be one of the most important
achievements of modern Korean literature.
In the realm of poetry, the works which centered around the
experiences of the minjung (roughly translated "oppressed
people" or "oppressed masses") most clearly defined the poetic
trends of the times. Shin Kyong-rim's Nongmu (Farmer's
Dance) (1973) and Ko EUn's Munui maule kaso (Going to
Munui Village) (1974), for example, both clearly demonstrate
this concern for the lives of the minjung (people). Kim Chi-ha's
T'anun mongmarum uro (Towards a Thirst) (1982), in particular,

gave expression to the fighting spirit of the minjung in its

struggle against industrial exploitation.
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The Translation of Korean Literature in Foreign

Languages
Korean literature was largely unknown to the world until the
1980s, when translations of Korean literary works began to
appear in foreign countries. Since then, the types of works
selected for translation have become increasingly diverse, and
the quality of the translations themselves have improved
steadily. Furthermore, as the translations principally are being
published by overseas publishers, the translations have
became available to a wider reading public.
Since the 1980s, Korean literature in English translation has
spread widely in the English-speaking countries. Anthologies of
Korean modern short stories such as Flowers of Fire (Peter H.
Lee, University of Hawaii Press, 1974); and Land of Exile
(Marshall R. Pihl and Bruce Fulton, New York: M.E.Sharpe,
1993) are widely used as textbooks in universities all across
the English-speaking world.
The Korean novelists whose works have been most widely
translated are Hwang Sun-won and Kim Tong-ri. Hwang's
novel Umjiginun song (The Moving Castle) was translated in
the United States by Bruce Fulton. Other works, including
Collected Short Stories by Hwang Sun-won translated by
Edward Poitras, and another similar collection by Professor
Holman, have also been available in English. Important works
by Kim Tong-ri such as Elhwa (Eulhwa, The Shaman
Sorceress), Munyodo (The Portrait of the Shaman) have been
translated and published. Poetry selections by Han Yong-un
(Your Silence), So chong-ju(Winter Sky) and Hwang Dong-gyu
(Wind Berial) can also be found in English translation.
In francophone countries, the scope of literary translation
activities from Korean is limited compared to those in Englishspeaking countries; but in these countries too, projects are
actively underway. Yi Mun-yol has had their greatest overseas
exposure through French translations. Translated works by Yi
Mun-yol include Uridurui ilgurojin yongung (Notre Heros
Defigure) and Shiin (Le Poete) . Other Korean novels available
in French are Cho Se-hui's Nanjang-iga ssoa ollin chagun kong
(La petite Balle Lancee par un Nain). Translations of poetry by
individual authors include those of Han Yong-un and Gu Sang.
Such translation projects will continue in the future in an
ongoing effort to introduce Korean literature to readers
throughout the world
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