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MATHEMATICS
1
S. L. PARSONSON
Senior Mathematics Master
Harrow School
Contents
Preface
1 Numbers and inequalities
page v
1
24
3 Coordinates
45
4 Polynomials
68
78
87
103
130
Revision exercise A
9 Mathematical induction
151
155
10 Expectation
169
11 Further vectors
189
12 Further trigonometry
215
13 Matrices 1
238
14 Matrices 2
258
15 Linear equations
281
301
Revision exercise B
328
Bibliography
339
Answers
343
Index
375
iii
Preface
The present book is the first of a two volume course covering those parts
of modern ' A' level pure mathematics syllabuses not normally included
in standard calculus texts. The reason for omitting calculus is simply to
keep the book within manageable proportions and it is felt that there are a
number of excellent modern calculus books available. Although no formal
calculus is done here, it is expected that a student will be studying calculus
concurrently with this text; thus, for example, it is assumed in Chapter 5
that the reader can differentiate simple algebraic expressions and sketch
the graphs of rational functions. In Chapter 16, the exponential function
is used.
It is hoped that the order of presentation of topics in this book will offer
an effective teaching programme, but variations can be made at the discretion of the teacher. Thus, for example, the chapters on probability can
be deferred while the two chapters on trigonometry could be taken in conjunction. Again certain chapters contain work which might be deemed
suitable for a second reading; for example, Sections 4 and 5 of Chapter 10.
In some ways Chapter 1 offers the most difficult problem of presentation
in the whole book: it is necessary later to be able to refer to rational and
irrational numbers, and yet to devote too much time in the early stages
to such topics may not be desirable. The author hopes that he has found
an acceptable compromise but some might yet find parts of Chapter 1 too
formal, in which case they are strongly advised to leave the detailed study
of Sections 2, 3 and 4 for a second reading.
To learn mathematics, constant practice is necessary, some of it repetitive. The book is therefore liberally supplied with exercises for the student.
Most of the questions represent fairly straightforward applications of the
bookwork, although in the Miscellaneous Exercises, included at the end
of all but two of the chapters, will be found some rather more searching
questions. Furthermore, questions marked Ex. occur in the text; it is
hoped that most, if not all, of these will be attempted by the pupil as he
covers the associated bookworkcertainly those marked with an asterisk
should be regarded as obligatory.
The syllabuses for M.E.I. ' A' level, the Joint Matriculation Board
syllabus in Mathematics (Advanced) and Further Mathematics (Advanced)
and the University of London Revised Syllabus in Mathematics (Advanced)
PREFACE
have been particularly kept in mind in the writing of this book and the
planning of the next. Other boards are in the process of devising new
syllabuses and draft copies published by them indicate that this book will
probably cover the necessary work. The School Mathematics Project have
produced their own text-books but the present book may be used to supplement these if desired.
It is a pleasure to record my thanks to Mr M. J. Rawlinson who read
part of the text and made a number of valuable suggestions; to Mr A. J.
Moakes who read the entire book and whose detailed criticisms have done
much to remove obscurities and improve the presentation; and to my wife,
who also read the entire book and who lent invaluable assistance in checking answers. I am grateful for permission to reprint examination questions
from the following Boards: Oxford and Cambridge (0 &C, M.E.I., S.M.P.),
the Joint Matriculation Board (J.M.B.), the Cambridge Local Examination
Syndicate (Cambridge), University of London (London), and the Oxford
Delegacy of Local Examinations (Oxford); also to the Clarendon Press
for permission to use Oxford Scholarship questions (0.S.) and to the
Cambridge University Press and University Registry for the use of Cambridge Scholarship (C.S.) and Mathematical Tripos (M.T.) questions.
S.L.P.
vi
2 18
Ex. 1. Explain why the method of conversion from one scale to another by continued division works.
Ex. 2. Evaluate 11011 x 1011 in the binary scale. Perform several other multiplications of this type and check your answers by conversion to the denary scale.
Ex. 3. Evaluate 1110011 - 11011 in the binary scale. Perform several other
divisions of this type and check your answers by conversion to the denary scale.
Exercise 1(a)
1. Solve the following equation for x, working in the binary scale throughout:
(i) 101x+11 = 1101;
(ii) 11x-11111 = 1011;
... 1 x
0 + 11
= 111;
(iii) 101
(iv) 11(10x 101) = 10x + 101.
2. Express the denary number 275 in the scales of 2, 3 and 12. (For the last
part, you will need to supplement the digits 0, 1, ..., 9 by t = ten and e = eleven.
Why ?)
3. With the notation of Question 2, evaluate 4te x 19t in the scale of 12.
4. With the notation of Question 2, evaluate e89t + 2ee in the scale of 12.
5. Explain the following method of conversion from the binary form 1100110111
to denary form 823
1
100
110
111
Binary
Octal
6. Show that 1331 is a perfect cube whatever the base b, provided that b is greater
than 3.
2
THE INTEGERS
1]
7. The number x lies between 100 and 999 (denary scale) and the number y is
formed by writing the digits of x in the reverse order. Prove that x
y is divisible
by 99, where x
y means the difference between x and y.
8. Show that the difference between any number with four digits (in the denary
scale) and the number with these digits reversed is divisible by 9, and that, if the
two middle digits are the same, the difference is also divisible by 37.
Example 1. Prove, using only the laws (i)(vi) above, that ( a) ( b) = ab.
First observe that
aa+ a0 = a(a+ 0) by (iv)
= as
by (v)
= aa+ 0 by (v),
a0 = 0
on adding aa to both sides and using (ii) and (i). Thus, any integer multiplied by zero gives the answer zero.
Next, consider
ab + [a( b)+ ( a) (b)] = a[b + ( b)]+ ( a) (b) by (iii), (iv)
= a0 +( a) (b)
= 0 + ( a) (b)
=( a)(b)
by (vi);
by result
proved above;
by (v).
3
1]
But
ab + [a( b)+ ( a) (b)] = ab + [a + ( a)] (b)
= ab + 0( b)
= ab +0
= ab
ab = ( a) ( b).
Thus
by (ii) and
(iv);
by (vi);
by result
proved above;
by (v).
Laws (i)(vi) above supply almost all the apparatus required for the
manipulation of integers. However, as Example 2 below shows, they need
to be supplemented by one more law:
(vii) The cancellation law: ab = a c b = c, provided a 0. (The
sign =- is read as ' implies '; -= means `is implied by' and means `implies
and is implied by'.)
In this section we have given only a brief survey of the logical structure
of the integers. The reader interested in acquiring a deeper understanding
of this topic and, indeed, of the other topics mentioned in this chapter
should consult one of the books mentioned in the Bibliography at the end
of the book.
Example 2. Arithmetic modulo 12 is defined as follows: any two of the integers
0, 1, 2, ..., 11 are added or multiplied together and the answer is taken to be
the remainder on dividing the sum or product by 12. Thus
8+6 -= 2 (mod 12); 4 x 11 = 8 (mod 12);
and we also write
Show that arithmetic modulo 12 satisfies laws (i)(vi) above but that the
equation
4x = 4 (mod 12)
does not have a unique solution (and so law (vii) does not hold).
If a + b = 12c+ r , then b + a = 12c+ r and the commutative rule holds.
All the other laws may similarly be verified.
But x = 1, 4, 7, 10 all satisfy the equation 4x = 4 (mod 12).
Ex. 4. Prove that
(a b) = a+ b. (a b means a + ( b).)
RATIONAL NUMBERS
3]
3. RATIONAL NUMBERS
As soon as numbers began to be applied to problems more complex than
the mere counting of objects, the value of subdividing the interval between
two integers must have become apparent. For example, when a unit of
length was defined, lengths must have been met that were not an exact
integral number of units. Thus the concept of a fraction or, as we shall
prefer to call it, a rational number, was evolved.
In order to emphasize the fact that we are now dealing with a new type
of number, we shall avoid the familiar fractional form for rational numbers
at first, and instead we shall define a rational number as a pair of integers
written in a definite order thus : (p, q), where q + 0. (We may call this an
ordered pair of integers: (2, 3) and (3, 2) represent different rational
numbers. See Chapter 4.)
(In what follows it may help the reader to see what is happening if he
bears in mind that our aim is to demonstrate that the rational number
(p, q) is what he would call p/q.)
Two rational numbers (pi, q1) and (p,, q2) are said to be equal if
p2q1 = 0; if pia, p,q, + 0, they are said to be unequal.
Ex. 7. Is
(b, a)?
Ex. 8. Prove that (1, 2), (2, 4), (13, 26) are all equal. Prove more generally that
(p, q) = (kp, kq), provided k * 0.
Since rational numbers are newly defined objects, rules for adding,
subtracting, multiplying and dividing them must be given, for these operations have so far only been applied to integers. The rules are
(Pr, q1)+ (P2, q2) = (P1q2+ P2qi, q1q2);
(Pi,
(Pi, 0
L.H.S. =
= (P1P293+P1Paq2, 91q2q3))
[1
by Ex. 8, since
q14 0.
In a similar way, all the rules for combining integers may be verified to
hold also for rational numbers.
Ex. 9. Verify the laws (i)(vii) for rational numbers.
Ex. 10. Verify that, if the rule for division is ignored, rational numbers of the form
(p, 1) have properties identical to those possessed by the integers.
Ex. 11. Verify that, if (a, 1) x (x, 1) = (b, 1), then (x, 1) = (b, a), provided a * 0.
Ex. 10 shows us that we may identify the integers with rational numbers of the form (p, 1); Ex. 11 then shows us that the rational number
(b, a), when multiplied by the integer (a, 1) gives the integer (b, 1). In
more familiar language (b, a) has just the properties we associate with
the 'number' b/a. We may thus regard a rational number as `the quotient
of two integers'.
It thus follows that the statement ' x is a rational number' is equivalent
to the statement 'integers p and q may be found such that x = p/q'.
The reader will be familiar with the process of expressing a rational
number as a decimal. For example,
18
1
1
1
= 0.024 = 0 x fo +2+Tiy2 +4 x
625
Conversely, a terminating decimal can always be expressed as a rational
number in the form p/q; for example
0.175 =
RATIONAL NUMBERS
3]
2376
88
37.
Ex. 13. Using only the digits 0 and 1 we may express any rational number as a
bicimal. For example
1
1
11.01101 = 1x 2+1+0x- +1x+1 x- +0x- +1 x.
2
22
23
24
24
Express as bicimals the decimals 3.75, 0.703125, 4.6, 0.82.
[Hint: see Ex. 1 and substitute repeated multiplication for repeated division.]
4. IRRATIONAL NUMBERS
It is useful to depict the integers and rational numbers as points on a
straight line. In Figure 1.1, an origin 0 is taken, representing the number
zero, and equal intervals are measured to the right, the end-points representing 1, 2, 3, ... and to the left representing 1, 2, 3, .... The position of a point representing a rational number may be defined quite simply ;
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
3 2 1 0 1 2 3
Fig. 1.1
[1
All rational numbers may thus be represented by points on the line and,
furthermore, however close together two points representing rational
numbers may be there will always be another point representing a rational
number lying between them. For example, between the points representing
3.286 and 3.287 lies the point representing 3.2865.
Ex. 16. Show that -1-(x+y) always lies between x and y.
Our last remark shows that, however close together we choose two
rational numbers, we can always fit another rational number in between
them; surprisingly, however, we can never succeed in 'filling the line up'
with points representing rational numbers. In Figure 1.2 an isosceles
right-angled triangle OPQ has been drawn in which OQ = QP = 1.
The theorem of Pythagoras tells us that, if OP represents the number x,
then x2= 2; our next example shows that P does not represent a rational
number.
Q
Fig. 1.2
Numbers such as V2 which are not rational are called irrational. Since
rational numbers are represented by terminating or recurring decimals,
the decimal representation (if it exists) of an irrational number is nonterminating and non-recurring.
Irrational numbers obey the same laws of combination as rational
numbers. The proof of this lies beyond the scope of this book, as it requires
a systematic definition of irrational numbers in terms of the rationals ;
8
IRRATIONAL NUMBERS
4]
5. Prove that, if a rational number of the form pl q (cancelled down into its
lowest form) is expanded as a recurring decimal, the length of the block of digits
that recurs is less than q.
6. Which of the following statements are always true and which are not? If a
statement is true, prove it; if it may be false, give a counter-example (that is, an
example that illustrates its falsity):
(i) rational + rational = rational;
(ii) rational + irrational = irrational;
(iii) irrational + irrational = irrational;
(iv) rational x rational = rational;
(v) rational x irrational = irrational;
(vi) irrational x irrational = irrational.
7. If a and b are integers and Vb is irrational, prove that (a+ Jb)3is irrational.
(The results of Question 6 may be used in this question.)
8. Prove that it is always possible to find an irrational number that lies between
two given rational numbers a and b.
9. If pi, pPaare three unequal prime numbers, prove that
1 1 1
+ +P1 P2 P3
is a rational number, but not an integer.
Can you generalize this result?
10. You are given a ruler with only integral units of length marked on it. Show
how to construct, geometrically, the following lengths:
(i) A/3 ;
[I
5. SURDS
Although the existence of irrational numbers is mathematically significant,
from the point of view of practical arithmetic all numbers may be regarded
as rational, since any irrational number may be approximated to by a
terminating decimal. Indeed, wherever measurements are concerned, the
answers obtained must necessarily be in the form of rational numbers,
since every measuring device must eventually reach the limits of its possible
accuracy. However, just as is simpler to handle than its decimal approximation 0.3333, so J2 is often easier to deal with than its approximation
1-414.
An expression involving only rational numbers and their roots (not
necessarily square roots) is called a surd; thus surds form a class of
irrational numbers, though there are irrational numbers, such as 7r, which
cannot be expressed as surds.
Examples of surds are:
1
2
4J2; :/;; (V2 + v2 11); ,?,/3 + V2.
Note: if x is positive, mix = xion means the positive ?nth root of x; by
convention, the 2 is omitted for square roots, e.g. V9 = 3. Again, 27V( x)
has no meaning, while
2m+V(
x) = ( xy/(2m-Fl) = (xy/(2m+i).
SURDS
5]
A/2+1
1
(i) /3.(,..\
. (iii)
"' Al 5' "1' V5 V2' ' ' V3+ A/2.
13 V3V5 _1/15
RI /3
''' 4 5 V5 V5 V5 5 '
1
1(V5+ V2\ = A/5+V2.
(ii)
3 '
V5 V2 = V5 V2 kA/5 + V2)
A/2+1
iV2+1 \ (V3 V2\ _(V2+1) (V3
(iii)
3-2
' ' A/3 + V2 kA/3 + V2) kA/3 V2)
/2)
Ex. 17. V45 = 3A/5. Simplify in a similar fashion the surds: (i) A/8; (ii) V18;
(iii) V54; (iv) V250; (v) V5292.
(ii)
v2
(ii) Suppose
Then
1 V3 + V2
1 (5-2A/6)
= 1+A/2V3
2(V6 2)
_ (1+1/2-1/3) (A/6+2)
2(6-4)
1/6+2+1/12+2,/2-1/18-24/3
4
2
+
V6
V2
_
4
14-41/6 = (Va 21/b)2.
14 41/6 = (a + 4h) 4 V(ab).
-
11
a+4b = 14,
ab = 6.
By inspection (or by solution of the simultaneous quadratic equations)
a -= 2, b = 3.
Thus
V(14 4A/6) = 2,/3
(Notice that we must choose the positive square root.)
Exercise 1(c)
1. Express in the form aV b, where b has no perfect squares as factors
(i) V50; (ii) V363; (iii) V2400; (iv) V192; (v) V1452.
2. Simplify the following surds:
(i) (V5 1)2; (ii) (20V2)2; (iii) (V3+1)2; (iv) (V3 V2)3;
(v) (3 04.
-
12
SURDS
51
4. Rationalize the denominators of the following expressions:
2
. 2V3+1
1+4
v7 _ 2; (iv) 2 v3 _1; (v)
;
j(j) ;
(i)
V3 + V2*
5. Simplify:
(i) V(6 2V5); (ii) V(10
(v) 3/V(7 V40).
was solved to give an answer x = 3.1 (to one decimal point). Without using
tables, state why this is clearly wrong.
223607, J2
9. Given that .15
1
..
1
(i) ;
V
(ii)V5+ V2'
F41421, evaluate:
giving your answers to the greatest accuracy that you can guarantee.
10. Given that, to six significant figures, \/6 = 2.44949, V3 = 1.73205, evaluate
as accurately as possible 1/(20 V6), justifying the accuracy you give.
11. Rationalize the denominator of the expression 4/3/(;/3 +1), by using the
factorization a3+ b3 = (a + b) (a2 ab + b2).
12. Rationalize the denominators, and simplify as far as possible the following
expressions:
(i)
V(x + 1) V(x 1)
(iii)
; (ii) V(x+ 1) +
V(x1+ 1);
1
1
1
: (iv)
Al (x 1)+1 V (x + 1) 1.
V(2x+ a) ,I(2x a)"
6. SETS OF NUMBERS
Suppose we have a collection of numbers, the whole collection being
denoted by the letter U. Suppose, too, we ask a question which may be
answered unambiguously 'Yes' or 'No' for each number (or element)
of 11. Then the collection of those elements of U for which the answer is
`Yes' is said to form a set S, which is a subset of the universal set U,
13
(1
6]
SETS OF NUMBERS
Ex. 21. If U is the set of all positive integers {1, 2, 3, ...} describe in words the
following sets:
+ 1) e 1.4;
(ii) {x 11: x-1 e 11};
(i) {x
(iii) {x e
-Ayx ell};
(iv) {x e : x2 5x 6 = 0} ;
(v) {x E : x2 5x 7 = 0).
Ex. 22. Two sets A and B which are both subsets of the same universal set U are
said to be equal (A = B) if they contain precisely the same elements.
Show that A = B -.44- A B and B S A.
We may combine two subsets A g U and B s U according to the two
rules of union (U) and intersection (n) defined as follows:
A U B is the set of all elements of U that are members of either A or B
or both.
A n B is the set of all elements of U that are members of both A and B.
From these definitions it follows at once that the operations of union
and intersection are commutative; that is,
AUB=BUA and
AnB=BnA.
11
Fig. 1.3
An B
A'
Fig. 1.5
Fig. 1.6
Ex. 23. Verify, using Venn diagrams, that the operations of union and intersection are associative; that is
A u (B u C) = (A U B)U C; A n (B
= (A n B) n c.
15
Ex. 24. Verify, using Venn diagrams, that the operation of union is distributive
over intersection, and that intersection is distributive over union; that is
A u (B n C) = (A U B) n (A U C); A n (B U C) = (A n B) U (A n C).
Ex. 25. Verify de Morgan's Laws, using a Venn diagram:
(i) (A u
= A' U B'.
(The reader may be able to identify these laws with the logic of
and NOT 0.)
AND
(n),
OR (U)
e 111,
B= {x e
e IX}
Ex. 28. If, with the notation of Ex. 27, B = {a, b, e}, write down the subsets
(i) A n B; (ii) A' u B; (iii) A n B'.
Verify de Morgan's Laws (see Ex. 25) in this particular case.
Three particular sets, the set of all integers, the set of all rational numbers
and the set of all real numbers occur throughout mathematics with such
unfailing regularity that it is convenient to introduce a notation by which
to refer to them.
The set of all integers is denoted by Z.
The set of all rational numbers is denoted by Q.
The set of all real numbers (that is, the union of the set of all rational
numbers and the set of all irrational numbers) is denoted by R.
With a suitable definition of each of the terms integer, rational and real
we have the following relation between them
Z Q R.
The sets of all positive integers is denoted by Z+, of all positive rational
numbers by Q+ and of all positive real numbers by R+.
Ex. 29. Enumerate the elements of the following sets:
(i) {x e Z: (x-2) (2x + 1) (x2 -2) = 01;
(ii) {x e Q: (x-2) (2x + 1) (x2 -2) = 01;
(iii) {x e Q: (x 2) (2x + 1) (x2 2) = 01;
(iv) {x c R+: (x-2) (2x+ 1) (x2 -2) = 0);
(v) {x e R:(x 2) (2x +1) (x2 -2) = 01.
16
7]
INEQUALITIES
7. INEQUALITIES
We have already asserted that the integers and the rational numbers may
be ordered; that is, given two integers (or rational numbers) x and y,
we may answer the question 'Is x greater than y ?' The same is true for the
set of all irrational numbers, or, indeed, for the union of the sets of rational
and irrational numbers (the set of real numbers).
If x, y are two real numbers, x > y (read x is greater than y') means
that the point representing the number x lies to the right of the point
representing the number y. Similarly for x<y(`x is less than y'). When
comparing two positive or negative numbers x and y in this way, we see
that x> y
The number zero separates the positive and negative numbers; it is itself
neither positive nor negative.
By continued use of these results we see that we may add or subtract
any number from both sides of an inequality without altering the validity
of the inequality sign.
Inequalities are of value in defining sets. Thus, for example, to take a
rather trivial case,
{x E Z: 0 < x < 3) = {1, 2}.
A more substantial example would be
{x e R: x2 < 4}.
Solving an inequality means redefining the set of elements which satisfy
the given inequality in as simple a manner as possible.
[1
xz > yz.
xz > yz if z is positive,
xz < yz if z is negative.
or by
xz > yz
the two-way implication was not used: it is not valid to deduce from
xz > yz that x > y and z > 0. However, inequalities involving products
may be solved by observing that, if the product is positive, then the factors
are either both positive or both negative. Another useful observation is
that a squared number is always positive or zero.
either
or
7]
INEQUALITIES
2} n {x e R: x < 1} = {x R: x <
2}.
2 or x > 1).
Alternatively, the argument may be presented very clearly in the following tabular form. The critical values of x for which (x+2) (x-1) changes
sign are x = 2 and x = 1. We divide the possible values of x into the
three ranges x < 2, 2 < x < 1 and x > 1 and consider the signs of
(x + 2), (x 1) and hence of (x + 2) (x 1) in each interval.
x <-2
<x<1
+
+
+
-I-
-1-
x> 1
Example 12. Prove that the expression y = x2 + x +1 is positive for all real
values of x, and find its minimum value.
It will be useful in the solution of this example to employ the notation
: x y means ' x is greater than, or equal to, y'.
Now
y = x2 +x+1
= (x++)2 +4-,
= (x+i)2,
y 1 0 or y
3
4.
A.M.
G.M.
Proof. Since the two numbers are positive, we may write them as
u2 and v2.
Let A = (u2 +v2)/2, G = uv; we have to prove that
A
0,
19
[1
u 2+ v2
that is
uv
0,
= +(u v)2
> 0, unless u = v.
We have thus proved that A > G unless u2 = v2in which case A = G.
Example 13. 200 m of wattle fencing are to be bent to form three sides of a
rectangular enclosure, the fourth side being a straight hedge. Find the length
of the rectangle if the area to be enclosed is to be a maximum.
Let x m be the length, y m the breadth, A m2the area of the enclosure.
Then we have
(i) x + 2y = 200, (ii) xy = A.
Both x and 2y are positive; thus, by the theorem just proved, their
is at least as great as their G.M. That is
A.M.
100
V(2A),
i.e.
A 5 5000.
Equality occurs only if x = 2y, i.e. x = 100, y = 50. Thus the maximum
area occurs when the length is 100 m.
Exercise 1(d)
1. Verify, using a Venn diagram, the results:
(i) A U (A' U B)' = A n (B' U A),
(ii) (A U B) n (A' n
= A U (B n C'),
(iii) [A' u (B' n C')]' = (A n B) U (A n C).
2. If R is the set of real numbers and
A = {x e R: x > 3},
B = {x e R; x < 4}
Find expressions for the following sets, using the {:} notation:
(i) A n B;(ii) A' n C; (iii) (A U B) n C'; (iv) A U (B n C); (v) (A' U B') n C;
(vi) A' U (B' n C); (vii) A' n B n C.
20
INEQUALITIES
positive?
12. If xy = 25, find the least possible value for x + y, if both x and y are positive.
13. If xy = 18, find the least possible value for 2x + y, if both x and y are positive.
14. If x + y = 2, find the maximum value of xy.
Miscellaneous Exercise I
1. Express 120 as a binary number.
Find the least number of stamps required so that any value from p to 60p
(in steps of -1-p) may be selected, and give their values. (You may assume stamps
of any value are available if required.)
21
[1
(0 & C)
a = Va, fi
y = Vc.
(0 & C)
10. If a > b and c > d, prove that ac+bd > bc+ da.
What happens to the third inequality if a < b, c < d?
11. If the universal set is taken as the set R of all real numbers, the three sets
A, B and C are defined as follows:
A= {x e R: x > 2}; B= {x e R:1 < x < 4}; C= {x e R: x < 3}.
Express, in terms of any or all of A, B, C (and using the notation of union, intersection and complement) the following sets:
(ii) (x e R: x < 1);
(i) {x E R : 2 < x < 3};
(iv) {x c R: 1 < x < 2 or 3 < x < 4}.
(iii) {x e R: 3 < x < 4);
22
7]
MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE 1
12. Show that the expression x2+ 8xy 5y2 k(x2 +y2) can be put in the form
a(x+by)2when k has either one or other of two values. Find these values and the
values of a and b corresponding to each value of k.
Prove that when the variables x and y are restricted by the relation
x2 + y2 = 1,
but are otherwise free, then
(0 & C)
7 < x2 + 8xy 5y2 < 3.
13. a, b, c, d are four unequal positive numbers. By using Theorem 1.1 and
considering first the pair of numbers -Ka +b) and +(c+ d), and then, separately,
the pairs a, b and c, d, prove that
1(a b + c+ d)> (abcd)1.
Deduce, by considering the four unequal numbers a, b, c and +(a+ b + c),
that
+(a + b + c) > (abc)1.
What happens to the last inequality (i) if a = b = c; (ii) a = b c?
Suggest a generalization of the results proved above.
14. If x+ 2y+ 3z = 1, where x, y, z are positive numbers, find the maximum
value of xyz.
If u+v = 1, where u, v are positive numbers, find the maximum value of u2v.
15. A cylindrical vessel, with one end open, is made from a given piece of
material. Show that its volume is greatest if the height and radius are equal.
23
2.
2]
Fig. 2.1
Fig. 2.2
25
[2
a+b = AC = b+a.
Fig. 2.3
AB = a, BC = b, CD = c,
(a+b)+c = AC+CD = AD,
a+(b+c) = AB+BD = AD.
We may thus drop the brackets when adding three vectors together, and
write a +b +c without ambiguity.
If AB represents the vector a then BA will be said to represent the vector
26
3]
Fig. 2.6
Fig. 2.5
k(la)
(kl) a.
This is immediately apparent, since a, la and (kl)a all have the same
direction, and the magnitude and senses of k(la) and (kl)a are both (kl) la
Rule 4. Multiplication by numbers is distributive over vector addition.
k(a+b) = ka + kb.
Representing a by AB and b by BC, ka by AB' and kb by B'C', ACC' is
a straight line by similar triangles and the result follows, since the corresponding sides are in proportion (Figure 2.6).
Rule 5. Multiplication by numbers is also distributive in the following
sense.
(k +1) a = ka + /a.
The vectors on either side of the above identity have the same magnitude,
sense and direction, as can be seen immediately from a diagram.
*Ex. 4. Prove that 0.a = 0. What does this tell us about the magnitude of the
zero vector?
2
PPM
27
[2
Ex. 5. If a is a vector of magnitude 4 units due north and b is a vector of magnitude 1 unit due east, describe the vectors:
(i) 2a; (ii) -3b; (iii) a -4b; (iv) 2(a +b); (v) 2a - 6b.
Ex. 6. If a = 3x + y, b = x - 2y, find x, y in terms of a, b, justifying your argument in terms of Rules 1-5.
Ex. 7. If a is a vector of magnitude 1 unit due north and b is a vector of magnitude 1 unit in the direction N 60 E, describe the following vectors (using a scale
drawing or trigonometry, if necessary):
(i) 2a + b; (ii) - (2a - b); (iii) b -a; (iv) - a - 2b.
Ex. 8. If a is a vector of 2 units due north in a horizontal plane, b is a vector of
3 units due east in a horizontal plane and c is a vector of 1 unit vertically up out
of the plane, describe the vectors:
(i) a - 2c; (ii) - b- 3c; (iii) 3a + 2b + 6c; (iv) 3a - 2b- 6c.
Ex. 9. ABCD is a parallelogram with AB 2 units and BC 1 unit. If a is a vector of
1 unit in the direction AB and b is a vector of 1 unit in the direction of BC, and
if E is the mid-point of CD, find, in terms of a and b, the vectors AC, DB, AE,
EB.
4. COMPONENTS OF A VECTOR
It is often useful to express a given vector r as the sum of a number of
vectors in specified directions
r
If this is done, a1, a2,
anare called components of r.
Given a vector r and specified directions two questions immediately
arise :
(i) Can r be split into components in these directions?
(ii) If the answer to (i) is ' Yes', in how many alternative ways can this
be done ?
We shall answer these questions for a vector r and three non-parallel,
non-coplanar directions in three dimensions by proving two theorems of
types that constantly recur in mathematics. The first theorem is an example
of an Existence Theorem: it will answer question (i) above, telling us that a
solution does exist; the second theorem is a Uniqueness Theorem: it will
answer question (ii) above, telling us that the solution which we know
exists is the only possible one, that is, that it is unique. The significance
of these two theorems will become apparent as we proceed.
Theorem 2.1 (The Existence Theorem). Given a non-zero vector r and three
non-coplanar t, non-parallel vectors a, b, c, there exist numbers A, it, v, such
that
r = Aa-Ficb+vc.
f That is, displacements represented by a, b, c, cannot all be chosen to lie in one plane.
28
COMPONENTS OF A VECTOR
4]
Fig. 2.7
We have thus proved our Existence Theorem by showing that, with the
given data, a set of components may be constructed. To demonstrate the
truth of the Uniqueness Theorem we employ a common device in mathematical arguments: we assume that it is false and show that this leads to a
contradiction (see Chapter 9).
Theorem 2.2 (The Uniqueness Theorem). The solution shown to exist in
Theorem 2.1 is unique.
Proof By Theorem 2.1 a solution exists, say
r = Aia+,u,b+vic.
Assume that a different solution also exists
r = A2a,u2bv2c
where, say, Al
A2. Then
AD a =
[2
and any non-zero multiple of a cannot lie in this plane, by the data. Thus
= A2, which contradicts our initial assumption.
Theorems 2.1 and 2.2 have been proved for three dimensions; they hold
equally well in two dimensions, for a vector r lying in the plane determined by a and b, where a kb.
An expression such as Aa +#b + vc is called a linear combination of the
vectors a, b, c. The theorems we have just proved may be restated in the
form 'Given three non-parallel, non-coplanar vectors a, b, c any non-zero
vector r may be expressed uniquely as a linear combination of a, b, c'.
If numbers A, #, v (not all zero) exist such that
Aa+,ub+vc = 0
the vectors a, b, c are said to be linearly dependent; if no such numbers
exist, a, b, c are said to be linearly independent.
*Ex. 10. Prove that, if 0, A, B, C are coplanar, then the position vectors a, b,
c are linearly dependent and, conversely, if a, b, c are linearly dependent, then
0, A, B, C are coplanar.
*Ex. 11. Prove the Existence and Uniqueness Theorems for components in two
dimensions.
Ex. 12. ABCD is a parallelogram, and E is the mid-point of CD. AB = a,
AD = b, AE = x, BE = y. Express x and y in terms of components in the directions a and b and also express a and b in terms of components in the directions x
and y.
Ex. 13. Do either the Existence or the Uniqueness Theorems hold in three dimensions if four directions a, b, c, d are given?
Exercise 2 a
1. If v = a +2b, w = 2ab, express the following vectors in the form
A.a
(i) v+w; (ii) 2v +3w; (iii) v 3w; (iv) 2(vw).
2. If u = a +3b, v = 2a b, express a and b in terms of u and v.
3. If u = a + b + c, v = a +2b +c, w = a b 2c, find, in terms of a, b, c:
(i) u+ v+w; (ii) uvw; (iii) 2u+ vw; (iv) u+ 2v + 3w.
4. If u = a+bc, v = 2a b+c, w = 3a +2b+c, find a, b, c in terms of
u, v, w.
5. If i and j are perpendicular vectors of unit magnitude, i pointing due east and
j due north, find the magnitudes and directions of the following vectors:
(i) 2i; (ii) 3j; (iii) 3i + 4j; (iv) i j; (v) 3i +4j.
30
4]
COMPONENTS OF A VECTOR
Fig. 2.8
and do the same for the vectors OQ and OR. Express PQ in terms of a, b, and
RQ in terms of b, c. Find two different expressions of the form aa + /3b +7c for
the vector OQ, with none of a, fl, y zero. Show that, if one of these expressions
is subtracted from the other, the known relation b = c+ a is obtained.
12. In Figure 2.8 OC = u, OD = v, QP = w. Obtain expressions for OP, OQ,
OR in terms of u, v and hence obtain w in terms of u and v.
Why is it not possible to express CD in terms of the two vectors PQ, AR?
13. ABCDEF is a regular hexagon, and AB = a, BC = b. Find CD, DE, EF,
FA in terms of a and b.
14. ABCDA'B'C'D' is a cuboid whose base ABCD is a square of side 2 units.
The sides AA', etc., are vertical and of magnitude 4 units. E is the mid-point
31
[2
5. APPLICATIONS TO GEOMETRY
So far we have developed the algebra of vectors using geometrical arguments; we now reverse the process and show that the algebra of vectors
may usefully be employed to deduce geometrical results. The vector treatment of geometrical problems has the great advantage that it is equally
applicable to two or three dimensions.
To describe a geometrical configuration consisting of a number of points
A, B, C, ... we must be able to locate each point. This may be done by
taking a fixed point 0 (called the origin) and referring to a point A by
the line segment OA. If a is the vector representative of all the line segments equal and parallel to OA, then a is called the position vector of the
point A with respect to the origin 0. Thus, given an origin 0, we may
32
5]
APPLICATIONS TO GEOMETRY
refer to all points in the plane by their position vectors relative to this
origin 0.
First, we establish a result known as the Section Formula. This theorem
enables us to write down the position vector of any point on a given line
and so is of importance in setting up a vectorial description of a geometrical
configuration.
Theorem 2.3 (The Section Formula). If APB is a straight line, with
APIPB = it,
and if the position vectors of A, P, B, relative to any origin 0, are a, p, b
respectively, then
Ab ua
P A d_itt
Proof. We have (Figure 2.9)
AB = b a
and
AP = p a.
But
A
AB
AP = ,
A+ p,
and so
or
p = Ab+,ua
(A
and the result follows.
Notice that the proof holds equally well for positive or negative values
of the ratio Al it.
Notice also the important special case in which A = it: the mid-point
of AB has position vector +(a + b).
Fig. 2.9
Fig. 2.10
Example 1. Show that the medians of a triangle ABC are concurrent and
find the position vector of the centroid (meet of the medians) in terms of the
position vectors a, b, c, referred to some origin 0.
Let the mid-points of BC, CA, AB be L, M, N respectively and call their
position vectors 1, m, n (Figure 2.10).
33
[2
1=
4A(b+c)+ Aa
i.e.
A+ A
For varying values of A and we obtain different points of the line AL;
in particular, if we choose A = 2, is = 1, we obtain a point whose position
vector is symmetrical in a, b, c and so lies equally well on BM or CN.
Thus, the medians of a triangle are concurrent at the centroid, G, whose
position vector is given by
a+b+c
3
p=
and so
p q = -1(a c)
and
s r =
c)
APPLICATIONS TO GEOMETRY
The Section Formula may be restated in a form that gives a test for the
collinearity of three points whose position vectors are known.
Theorem 2.4 (condition for three distinct points to lie in a line).
Three points A, B, C have position vectors a, b, c. Then (i) V A, B, C lie
on a straight line, there exist numbers ; /3,7, not all zero, such that
aa+fib+yc = 0
oc-1-13+7 = 0.
and
Conversely, (ii) if there exist numbers a, y not all zero such that
cla+ fib+yc = 0
fld-y = 0
and
a+/3+y
then A, B, C are collinear.
Proof. (i) Given that A, B, C are collinear, suppose AB/BC = Alit. Then
by the Section Formula
pa + Ac
b=
1H-A
pa(,1+A) b+Ac = 0.
i.e.
Take a =
+ A), y = A and the result follows.
(ii) Given that numbers a, y exist such that
aa+fib+7c = 0
and
we have
a+/3+y = 0
as +fib = (a +ft) c, by substitution.
Now we know that a, f3 y are not all zero and we may assume, without any
loss of generality, that y 0. It follows that a +13 + 0 and so
,
c=
as + fib
+,3 '
i.e. c is the position vector of the point dividing AB in the ratio fl:a,
from which it follows, that A, B, C are collinear.
Example 3 (Desargues's Theorem). Two triangles ABC, A'B'C' (not necessarily in the same plane) are so positioned that AA', BB', CC' all pass
through a point V. BC, B'C' meet at L; CA, C' A' at M; AB, A' B' at N.
Prove that L, M, N are collinear.
35
[2
Denoting the position vectors of the various points in the usual way,
we have, using Theorem 2.4:
fv+aa+a'a' = 0,
jl
1+a+a' = 0;
fv+fib+rb' = 0,
1. 1+fl+fi' = 0;
_fv+7e+7'e' = 0,
1 1+7+7' = O.
Fig. 2.11
7)1+
cc) m+(ccfl) n = 0,
(8-7)+(7ct)+(a fl) = 0
and so L, M, N are collinear.
Ex. 17. If ABC, A'B'C' are two triangles not in the same plane and such that
AA', BB', CC' all pass through a point V, prove Desargues's Theorem by showing
that the meets of corresponding sides of the two triangles must all lie on the line
of intersection of the planes ABC, A'B'C'.
Ex. 18. Prove the Converse of Desargues's Theorem.
36
6]
r a = A(b a)
which represents the equation of the line AB.
Fig. 2.12
r a = A(ba)+gc a)
37
[2
(A+,a-1)a+Ab+iccd = 0
(13y8)a+ Ab+yc+ad = 0,
i.e.
or
fiAB+yAC = &DA.
But AB, AC both lie in the plane ABC and so therefore does (MA. It
follows that D lies in the plane ABC and the proof is complete.
*Ex. 19. Show that the equation of the line through A parallel to the direction
defined by the vector u is r = a+ Au.
38
6]
*Ex. 20. Show that the equation of the plane through A parallel to the directions
defined by the two vectors m, n is r = a + Am +mi.
Ex. 21. Show that the mid-points of two pairs of opposite edges of a tetrahedron
ABCD are coplanar.
Example 4. ABCD is the base of a cube whose vertical edges are AA', BB',
CC', DD'. X is the point of trisection of BB' nearer B, Y is the point of
trisection of CC' nearer C' and M is the mid-point of BC.
If D'M cuts the plane AXY at Z, find the ratio in which Z divides D'M.
Take side of cube as 6 units and call vectors of unit magnitude in the
directions AB, AD, AA' respectively i, j, k.
m = 6i + 3j,
d' = 6j + 6k
and so
D'M = 6i 3j 6k.
39
[2
r = AD' +D'P
= d' + vD'M
= 6j + 6k + v(6i 3j 6k)
= 6vi+ (6 3v) j + (6 6v) k.
Thus, the point of intersection is given by
6vi + (6 3v) j + (6 6v) k = 6(A+ tc) + 6,aj +2(A + 2/t) k.
But i, j, k are non-coplanar vectors so, by the Uniqueness Theorem,
v = A+,u,
1
= ,u,
3-3v = A+2,u
and thus
Thus D'Z:ZM = 4:3.
V =4
Exercise 2 (b)
1. ABC is a triangle. U lies on AB produced so that AB = }AU, V lies on AC
so that AV = 2VC. Find, in terms of the position vectors a, b, c of A, B, C,
the position vectors of U, V and the mid-point of UV.
2. Draw a diagram showing the relative positions of the points whose position
vectors are a, b and 3a 2b.
Prove that these three points are collinear.
3. If G is the centroid of the triangle ABC, prove that
GA + GB + GC = 0.
Suggest a generalization of this result.
4. ABC is an equilateral triangle of side 3 cm. P, Q lie on BC, CA respectively
and are such that AQ = CP = 2 cm. R lies on AB produced so that BR = 1 cm.
Prove that PQR is a straight line.
5. OABC is a parallelogram and the position vectors of A, B, C relative to 0
are respectively a, b, c. M is the mid-point of BC. Write down, in terms of b and
c, and hence in terms of a and c, the position vector of a general point X on the
line OM. Deduce that, if X lies on AC, then X is the point of trisection of AC
nearer C and also the point of trisection of OM nearer M.
6. OAB is a triangle; M is the mid-point of AB and T is the point of trisection
of OB nearer B. TM produced meets OA at X. If OA = a and OB = b, write
down the position vectors of T and M, and hence of a general point P of TM.
Deduce the position vector of X and find a relation between the points 0, A
and X.
40
6]
11. Four points P, Q, R, S in a plane through the origin 0 have position vectors
OP, OQ, OR, OS given by
2i + 3j, 3i + 2j, 4i + 6j, 9i + 6j
respectively, where i and j are given non-parallel vectors. Express the vectors
PR and QS in terms of i and j.
Show that the position vectors OA and OB of the points A and B on PQ and
RS respectively, and such that PA/PQ = a and RB/RS = b, are
(2 + a) i + (3 a) j and (4 +56)1+ 6j,
respectively. Hence determine the position vector with respect to 0 of the point
of intersection of the lines PQ and RS.
(J.M.B.)
12. Two vectors are represented by OP, OQ and R divides PQ in the ratio
n: m. Show that
mOP + n0Q = (m+ n) OR.
The points D, E, F divide the sides BC, CA, AB of a triangle in the ratios 1:4,
3:2, 3: 7 respectively. Show that the sum of the vectors AD, BE, CF is parallel to
CX, where X divides AB in the ratio 1:3.
(J.M.B.)
13. ABCD is a skew quadrilateral and a plane cuts AB, BC, CD, DA at W, X, Y, Z
respectively. Prove that
AW BX CY DZ
WB.XC YD' ZA = 1.
[2
parallel.
15. OABC is a square of side 2a. i, j are unit vectors along 0A,OC. The mid-point
of AB is L; the mid-point of BC is M; OL, AM meet at P; BP meets OA at N.
Show that the segment OP can be measured by the vector A(2ai + aj) and also
by the vector 2ai +,u(2aj ai). Hence determine A and ,u. Prove that ON = BOA.
(0 & C)
Miscellaneous Exercise 2
1. ABCDE is a regular pentagon. AB = a and AE = b. Show that
CD = (b a)/(1 +2 cos 72)
and express BC and ED in terms of a and b.
2. ABC is a triangle. L divides BC in the ratio 1 : 2, M divides CA in the ratio
1:2 and N divides AB in the ratio 1:2. Prove that the triangles ABC and LMN
have the same centroid.
Suggest a generalization of this result and prove your assertion.
3. Referred to some origin 0, the position vectors of A, B, C, D are a, b, c, d
respectively. Express in terms of a, b, c, d the displacements BD, AC. What can
be said about the quadrilateral ABCD:
(i) Ifa+c = b+d;
(ii) if lacl = lbdi;
(iii) if both (i) and (ii) hold?
4. The triangles ABC, A'B'C' have centroids respectively at G and G'. Prove
that
AA' +BB' + CC' = 3GG'.
5. P, Q are the mid-points of the sides BC and CD respectively of the parallelogram ABCD. Prove that:
AB+AC+AD =4 (AP+AQ).
6. ABCD is a tetrahedron and B', C', D' lie on AB, AC, AD produced. The centroids of the triangles BC'D', B'CD', B'C'D are G1, G2, G3 respectively and the
centroids of the triangles B'CD, BC'D, BCD' are H1, H2, H3respectively. If
the centroids of the triangles BCD, G1G2G3, H1ll2H3are F, G, H respectively,
prove that FGH is a straight line.
7. ABCD is a parallelogram and points X, Y are taken on the diagonal BD such
that BX = YD. Prove vectorially that AXCY is a parallelogram.
8. ABC is a triangle and Y, Z are points on AC, AB respectively such that ZY
is parallel to BC. BY and CZ meet at P. Prove vectorially that AP produced
bisects BC.
9. ABC, A'B'C' are two skew lines (that is, no plane contains both lines). If
AB:BC = A'B':B'C' prove that the mid-points of the lines AA', BB', CC'
are collinear. Is the converse true?
42
MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE 2
6]
10. Prove that, if ABC is a plane through the origin 0 from which position
vectors are measured, and if A, B, C have position vectors a, b, c, then there
necessarily exits a relation of the form
pa +qb+rc = 0 (p, q, r * 0)
where 0 is the zero vector.
The lines AO, BO, CO meet BC, CA, AB in L, M, N respectively. Prove that
the position vector of L is
c.
b+
q+r q+r
Deduce that
BL.CM . AN
where the magnitude and sense of each line segment is taken into account. (M.E.I.)
(The result proved in Question 10 is known as Ceva's Theorem: it and its
converse are very useful for proving concurrency theorems.)
11. If a transversal cuts the sides BC, CA, AB of a triangle ABC at L, M, N
respectively, prove that
BL. CM. AN
_ 1
LC . MA .NB
magnitudes and senses of each line segment being taken into account.
(This result is known as Menelaus's Theorem: with its converse it is useful for
proving collinearity properties.)
12. ABCD is a plane quadrilateral. AB and DC meet at P; BC and AD meet at Q.
Prove that the mid-points of AC, BD and PQ are collinear.
13. P, Q are variable points on two skew lines. Find the locus of the mid-point
of PQ. Can you generalize this result?
14. ABCDA'B'C'D' is a parallelepiped, with ABCD, A'B'C'D' congruent parallelograms and AA', etc., edges. The tetrahedron ACB'D' is inscribed in the parallelepiped. Prove that AC' passes through the centroid X of B'CD' and deduce
that the joins of the vertices of the tetrahedron to the centroids of opposite faces
are concurrent at a point G. Determine the ratios AG: GX: XC'.
15. Two vectors a and b, such that b is not a multiple of a, are given in a plane.
Two other vectors c and d are defined by the equations
c = yia+y2b,
d
= ai a+82b.
Prove that any vector ma +fib can be expressed in terms of c and d provided
0. Find the coefficients of c and d.
Explain the geometrical significance of the condition y182 y2Si *0. (0 & C)
Y3.82 Y2.61. *
43
[2
44
3.
Coordinates
1. UNIT VECTORS
A unit vector is a vector of unit magnitude. Thus, a unit vector is a sort
of ' signpost ' giving a direction and sense; any vector may be split into
the product of a number (its magnitude) and a unit vector with the required
sense and direction. Thus we may write
r = rP,
where r = In and t is a unit vector in the direction of r. (The notation
employed here is useful and should be adopted by the reader: given any
vector x, its magnitude may be written simply as x while a unit vector
with the same sense and direction as x is written x.) Unit vectors are useful
in that they enable us to deal separately with the magnitude and direction
of a given vector.
Now suppose we choose two directions in a plane and specify them by
unit vectors i and j. By the Existence and Uniqueness Theorem for a
plane (see Chapter 2) any displacement AB in the plane, represented by
d may be split into components in the i and j directions
d = pi+ qj
where p and q are uniquely determined. The vector d, which is representative of a whole class of displacements, of which AB is a typical member,
may be written in the alternative form
d=
1
Thus, ( 1) represents the vector 2i j, ( ) the vector i and (_ 10) the
0
vector j. Of course, the representation of a vector in this new notation
depends upon our original choice of base vectors i and j. Again, there is
no necessity for the base vectors to be unit vectors, though they will almost
invariably be so. To illustrate these last two remarks, consider two unit
vectors i and j and the vector a where
a = 3i j.
Now
and so we have
a = (i + j) + 2(i j)
a = 3) with i, j as base vectors,
45
[3
COORDINATES
while
Notice that (i + j) and (i j) are not unit vectors. (For example, if i and j
are perpendicular, neither (i+j) nor (ij) is a unit vector.)
Similarly, in three dimensions, if non-coplanar base vectors i, j, k
are chosen, any vector d may be split into three components in the i, j, k
directions
d = pi+qj+rk
and d may be represented in the alternative notation as
d = (q)
11
relative to the base vectors i, j, k.
We shall now adopt the convention that i, j, k represent unit vectors
each one of which is perpendicular to the other two. Furthermore, positive
senses are determined by the following rule: if the thumb, first and second
fingers of the right hand are splayed out at right angles to one another, the
thumb points in the positive i direction, the first finger in the positive j
direction and the second finger in the positive k direction. i, j, k are then
said to form a right-handed orthogonal triple of unit vectors. (Orthogonal
means ' at right-angles to one another'.) Similarly, but more simply, one
may define a right-handed orthogonal pair of unit vectors i, j for a plane.
a = i+2j+3k
= (iu + +1w) + (3u iv iw) + (2u 2v + w)
= Vuiv+iw
46
1]
UNIT VECTORS
a= (
i .
a3
Ex. 1. Rewrite 3i +4j k and (i + j) 2(j 2k) in the column vector notation,
with i, j, k as base vectors.
Ex. 2. Express 3i jk as a column vector with (j+k), (k +1), (i+ j) as base
vectors. Where do you use the Uniqueness Theorem in your solution?
Ex. 3. Evaluate a+ b, 2a 3b and 3(a 2b) where
( 1
2)
0), b=
a=
1.
1
Ex. 4. If
2 ( 3)
x = ( y)
4
1
2
what are the values of x and y? Explain how you make your deductions.
2. COORDINATES
Suppose we now have some geometrical configuration in a plane which we
want to describe algebraically. Let us choose any point 0 of the plane as
origin; then all the points of the plane may be specified by their position
vectors with respect to 0. To give more detailed information, these position
vectors may be split into their components in the direction defined by the
right-handed pair of orthogonal unit vectors i, j.
Thus, if
r = OP
we may write
r = xi +yj.
0
C
Fig. 3.1
COORDINATES
[3
1
The reader should note the distinction between (1, 3) and ( ) : the
3
first gives the x and y coordinates of the unique point A, while the second
denotes the vector (referred to i, j as base) representative of the class of
displacements of which OA is a typical member.
Coordinates may similarly be defined in three dimensions, though now
we require a right-handed triplet of orthogonal unit vectors i, j, k to
define the directions of the coordinate axes OX, O Y, OZ through the
origin 0. Thus, if P is the point (2, - 1, - 3), the position vector of P is
2i - j - 3k. Note again that the coordinates are given in the order x, y, z.
Ex. 5. Draw a sketch to denote the approximate positions of the points:
A(1, 0), B( -2, - 1), C(1, -3), D( -2, 0), E( -1, -2).
Ex. 6. Write down the position vectors of the points
A(1, - 2), B(3, 4).
Deduce the coordinates of the mid-point of AB. Can you state a general rule for
finding the coordinates of the mid-point of a line ?
Ex. 7. Write down the position vectors of the points
A(1,
1),
B(5, -5).
Use the Section Formula to deduce the coordinates of the two points of trisection
of AB.
Ex. 8. What are the coordinates of the mid-point of the line joining
A(0, -1, 2) and B(2, 3, 2)?
Ex. 9. If ABCD is a parallelogram, what relation must hold between the position
vectors a, b, c, d? Find the coordinates of the vertex D of the parallelogram
ABCD whose other vertices are given by
A(1, 2), B(4, 3), C(3, 5).
Ex. 10. The coordinates of the points A, B, C are as follows:
A( -1, 1, 2), B(1, 0, - 3), C(0, 2, 4).
Find the coordinates of the fourth vertex D of the parallelogram ABCD and
of the fourth vertex E of the parallelogram ACBE.
Ex. 11. Find the coordinates of the centroid of the triangle ABC of Ex. 9.
Ex. 12. A rectangular box ABCD A'B'C'D' has base ABCD and the edges AA',
BB', CC', DD' are all vertical. M, N, P are the mid-points of BC, CC' and
A' B' respectively. AB has magnitude 3 units, BC 2 units and CC' 1 unit. If
A is taken as origin and unit vectors i, j, k are taken along AB, AD, AA' respectively, find the position vector of the centroid of triangle MNP and deduce its
coordinates.
48
3]
>- x
Fig. 3.2
49
COORDINATES
[3
+
=+R(21+ QPI
= + (yi
y2 - ) j+(z1 -z2) k
P2P1 =
and so
P2 Q
+(z1-z2)2]
Fig. 3.3
Example 2. (i) The distance between A(3, -1) and B(-1, 2) is
D(4, 6).
Ex. 15. What is the fourth vertex of the parallelogram ABCD where
A is (1, 1, 2), B(2, 0, -1),
C(3, 3, 0)?
50
3]
Exercise 3(a)
1. Evaluate as single column vectors:
1
1
(i) (_3)
1
_3
(1);
(i ) (1)
(iii) (
1) + 4 ( 1v ;
2 + 3 ( 11) + 2 (1) ;
3
2
0
1
1
1
2
1
1 +4 1 .
(v) 2 ( 2 3
2
1
1
1
( 1
1
2. If
a= ( 1) , b= ( 3) , c= 3 ,
3
3
2
find, in column vector form, the vectors:
(i) 2ab; (ii) a + b 3c; (iii) (3a + b) 2(b + 3c).
3. If a, b, c are defined as in Question 2, solve for x the equations:
(i) 2x = a b; (ii) 3(x + a) = b 2c
giving your answers in column vector form.
4. Again using the notation of Question 2, solve for x, y, z the following systems
of linear equations, giving your answers in column vector form:
x+yz = 2a+2b,
{3x y = a+ 2b,
(ii) 2x+y+z = a+3b+2c,
0)
x+2y = bc;
x y 3z = 4a-4c.
51
COORDINATES
[3
8. Write down the coordinates of the two points of trisection of the lines joining
each of the following pairs of points:
(i) (1, 4), (4, 10); (ii) (- 2, 1), (1, 8); (iii) (a +2b, b -2a), (a-b, a+ b);
(iv) (1, 2, - 1), (2, 1, -5); (v) (a, 2a, b), (a-b, b -2a, a+ b).
9. Find the lengths of each of the line segments of Question 7. (Leave your
answers in the form Vm.)
10. A(3, 0), B(4, - 1), C(6, 2) are vertices of a parallelogram ABCD. Find the
coordinates of D. Find also the coordinates of E if ACBE is a parallelogram.
11. Prove that the triangle whose vertices are A(-1, 2), B(3, 5), C( -4, 6) is
isosceles. What is its area?
12. A(3, 1, - 1), B(1, 2, -2), C(0, 0, 2) are vertices of a parallelogram ABCD.
Find the coordinates of D. What are the coordinates of the meet of the diagonals ?
13. Find the area of the triangle whose vertices are A(1, - 3), B(2, 5), C(- 4, - 3).
14. Show that the line joining A(-1, 4, - 3) and B(5, -8, 6) meets the x axis.
If the point of intersection is C, find the ratio AC/CB.
4. COORDINATE GEOMETRY IN A PLANE;
4]
(Y Yi = A(Y2 Y1).
Eliminating a between these two equations we obtain the following result.
The Cartesian equation of the line joining the points P1(x1, Yi)P2(x2,Y2) is
xx1= y yl
x2 x1 Y2Y1
(The reader must note carefully the distinction in this equation between
x, y on the one hand and x1, yl, x2, y2on the other: x, y are the coordinates
of a general point P on the line; x1, yi, x2, Y2 are the coordinates of two
specified fixed points of the line. If we take U as the set of all points
(x, y) in the plane, the equation (1) is the defining condition for the set of
points comprising the line; that is, the set
{(x,
u: x xl = x2 xl
Y Yi Y2 Y1) .
The same remarks hold for the vector equation r = r, + A.(r, r1), in which
r1, r2are the position vectors of two given points.)
Equation (1) may be rewritten in the form
Y
or
where
Y2
Y1 (x
(2)
Y2 - Y1
.X2 -
The number m is called the gradient of the line. The sign of the gradient
tells us which way the line is sloping (see Figures 3.4 and 3.5). In case (i),
x1 x2and y,y, have the same sign and m > 0; in case (ii)
x, and
Y2
have
opposite
signs
and
m
<
0.
In
both
cases,
the
positive
value
of
Y1
m is equal to tan a, where a is the acute angle made by the line with the
x axis. Equation (2) gives the form for the straight line when a point on the
line and its gradient are known.t
t The reader who has already met trigonometric ratios of obtuse angles will realize
that if the straight line AB meets the x-axis at P, then the gradient of AB is tan LxPA in
all cases, where LxP A is measured in the positive (anticlockwise) sense from the x axis
(see Chapter 6).
53
COORDINATES
ol
[3
>x
0
Fig. 3.4
Fig. 3.5
(3)
Here the constant c represents the intercept cut off on the y axis, as may
easily be seen by setting x = 0.
Having derived these various forms for the equation of a straight line,
we may easily deduce the result that any equation of degree 1 in the two
variables x, y represent a straight line (hence the word linear usually
applied to such equations).
Consider the general linear equation in the two variables x, y:
ax+by+c = 0.
If a = 0 or b = 0 this represents a line parallel to one of the axes. If
b 0, the equation may be rewritten in the form
a c
y = x-b b
and comparison with (3) shows that this is the equation of a line with
gradient alb and making an intercept clb on the y axis.
Example 3. Find the equation of the line L, through (2, 1) with gradient
1 and the equation of the line L2joining the points (0, 7) and (-1, 4).
What are the coordinates of the intersection of L, and L2?
Draw a sketch showing the relative positions of L, and L2and the coordinate axes.
L, has equation
y+ 1 = -1-(x 2),
i.e.
54
x+2y = 0,
41
L2has equation
x 0 _ y 7
1-0 4 7'
i.e.
3xy+7 = 0.
Since all points lying on L1satisfy the x + 2y = 0 and all points lying on
satisfy
3x y + 7 = 0, the point of intersection of the two lines must
L2
satisfy both equations simultaneously.
Solving
we have
x+2y = 0,
axy = 7
x = 2, y= 1
Fig. 3.6
Ex. 17. Draw a sketch to show the positions of the straight lines:
(i) 3x-2y-6 = 0; (ii) 2x+y + 3 = 0; (iii) 2x-5y = 0.
Ex. 18. Find the equations of the lines through (2, 3) with gradients:
CO 2; (ii) i.
Ex. 19. Find the equations of the lines joining the pairs of points:
(ii) (0, 1), (2, 1);
(i) (2, 3), (3, 2);
(iii) (-3, 1), (-1, 2); (iv) (1, 2), (-3, 2).
Ex. 20. What are the gradients of the following lines:
(i) 2xy-3 = 0; (ii) x+y+1 = 0; (iii) 3x+4y+2 = 0?
Suppose now we have two lines, L1and L2, the gradients of which are
respectively m1and m2.
(i) If L1and L2are parallel, the angles that they make with the x axis
are equal and
m1= m2.
(ii) If L1and L2 are perpendicular then either they are parallel to the
coordinate axes or they have gradients of opposite sign: in the second case,
55
COORDINATES
[3
Fig. 3.7
*Ex 21. With the notation above, prove that, if mi. = m2, L1and L2 are parallel.
*Ex. 22. Again with the notation above, prove that, if m1m2= 1, Lland L2 are
perpendicular.
Example 4. Find the equations of the lines L1, through (1, 1) parallel to
3x y +7 = 0 and L2, through (2, 3) perpendicular to 2x+5y +1 = 0.
Find also the equation of the line L3joining the origin to the intersection
of L1and L2.
The gradient of 3x y + 7 = 0 is +3 and so L1has equations
y+ 1 = 3(x-1),
i.e.
3x y 4 = 0.
The gradient of 2x + 5y + 1 = 0 is --I and so the gradient of a perpendicular line is +I. Thus, the equation of L2 is
y +3 = i(x 2),
i.e.
5x-2y-16 = 0.
(With practice, the reader will soon be able to derive such equations
more rapidly than is done here. For example, in the second case, any line
perpendicular to 2x + 5y +1 = 0 is clearly of the form 5x-2y = k and,
since the required line passes through (2, 3), k = 5 (2) 2 (-3) = 16.)
Now consider the equation
(3x y 4) + A(5x 2y 16) = 0,
where A is any number. This is a linear equation and so represents a
straight line; furthermore, the point common to L1and L2 clearly satisfies
this equation. Thus
(3x y 4) + A(5x 2y 16) = 0
56
4]
Exercise 3 (b)
1. Find the equations of the lines through the stated points with the given
gradients:
(i) (0, 2), 2; (ii) (-1, 1), 2; (iii) (3, 1), 1; (iv) (a, b), a/b.
2. Find the equations of the lines joining the following pairs of points:
(i) (1, 2), (2, 1); (ii) ( 2, 3), ( 1, 4); (iii) (2, 1), ( 1, 1);
(iv) (a, b), (2a, --lb).
-
(ax+by+a2 = 0,
(ii)
x y 5 = 0;
bx ay+ b2 = 0.
6. The two lines 3x 5y 7 = 0, 4x + 4y + 5 = 0 meet at the point A. Find the
equations of the line through A
(i) which passes through the origin;
(ii) is parallel to 7x y + 2 = 0;
(iii) is perpendicular to 3x + 5y 1 = 0.
57
COORDINATES
[3
7. Find the orthocentre of the triangle whose vertices are (0, 1), (1, 2), (4, 3). (The
orthocentre is the meet of the altitudes of a triangle.)
8. The mid-points L, M, N of the sides, BC, CA, AB of a triangle ABC have
coordinates (2, 1), (3, 3), (4, 5). Find the coordinates of A, B, C.
9. The coordinates of the vertices of a triangle are (6, 0), ( 1, 1) and (5, 7).
Find the coordinates of the centre of the circumcircle.
10. The coordinates of the vertices of a triangle are (1, 4), (3, 2) and
(- 11, 12). Find the coordinates of the centre of the circumcircle and determine the coordinates of the points where this circle cuts the axes.
11. Show that, for all values of A, the line whose equation is Ax +y = 1-2A
always passes through the point (-2, 1). What is the equation (in terms of A)
of the perpendicular line through (1, 2)? Show that, whatever the value of A,
the intersection of these two lines always satisfies the equation
xa y2 +x-3y = 0.
What locus does this last equation represent?
12. OABC is a rectangle in which OA = 30C. M is the mid-point of OC and L
is the point of trisection of CB nearer C. OL, AM meet at X. By setting up axes
along OA and OC and assigning suitable coordinates to the various points,
determine the ratio in which X divides OL.
passes through a fixed point. What are the coordinates of the point?
14. Find the coordinates of the centre of the circumcircle of the triangle ABC,
where A, B, C have coordinates ( 1, 3), (-2, 2), (5, 5) respectively.
Prove that the point P(6, 4) lies on the circumcircle and prove further that the
feet of the perpendiculars from P on to BC, CA, AB are collinear.
15. Find the equation of the line joining A(a, 0) and B(0, b). A', B' are the feet
of the perpendiculars from A, B to a variable line through the origin. If A'P, B'P
are respectively parallel to the y and x axes, what can be said about the position
of P?
16. What are the equations of the reflections of the line 2x 3y+ 6 = 0 in
(i) the x axis;
(ii) the y axis;
(iii) the line 2x 3y = 0;
(iv) the line 2x 3y = 3 ?
5]
We shall content ourselves for the moment with demonstrating the general
form of the Cartesian equations of lines and planes in space.
We may define a plane as a set of points in space which
(i) contains at least three non-collinear points;
(ii) has the property that, given any two points R, and R2 of the set,
all points of the line R1R2 belong to the set.
From this definition, three non-collinear points
P1(x1, 311., z].),
clearly define a plane. If r1, r2, r3are respectively the position vectors of
P1, P2, /33, we have seen that the plane P1P2P3is (see Chapter 2.6)
Y1)
Z
X)
Z1
X2 -XI
X3 -
Y3 Yl
A (Y2 Y1) +
Z3 - Z1
Z1
z = z,+A(z, z)+
z1).
PPM
COORDINATES
[3
lxi+ kx,\ +
b
k +1 1+
a(
k+1)
+c tlzi+kz2\ _ 0.
k +1 I
lri+kr,11xi+kx,\
k+1
k k+1
P+ k
u = li+mj+nk
is (see Chapter 2)
r = 1.1+ Au.
1
(Y) = Y1) +A (m)
and so, by the Uniqueness Theorem, we have three equations:
x = xi + AI, y = + Am, Z = z1+ Art
giving the equation of the line in the form
y y, z z, = a.
m
n
(4)
We use this form even if one or more of 1, m, n are zero. For example,
the line through the point (1, 1, 2) in the direction of the vector 2i 3k
may be written as
x-1 y +1 z 2 = A
2 = 0 = 3
x-1 z 2
or
3y' + 1 = O.
2
Notice that the Cartesian coordinates of a second general point of the
line (4) may be expressed in terms of one variable as
(xi + AI, yi+ Am, zi+ An).
5]
The vector u defines the direction of the line and may be termed a
direction vector. Since u = ii+mj +nk, 1, m, n are proportional to the
cosines of the angles that u makes with the directions i, j, k, that is, with the
directions of the coordinate axes. 1, m, n are usually called direction
ratios for the line; if u is a unit vector, the constant of proportionality is
one and 4 m, n are called direction cosines (see Figure 3.8, where 1 = cos 01,
m = cos 02, n = cos 03).
Fig. 3.8
Example 5. Find the equation of the plane through A (1, 1, 1), B(0, 1, 2),
C (0, 0, 1) and the point of intersection of this plane with the line
x 3 _ y 2 _ z 2
1 2 3 '
Let the equation of the required plane be
ax+by+cz+d = 0.
Since the coordinates of A, B, C all satisfy this equation,
a+b+c =d,
b-2c = d,
c = d
which gives a = 3d, b = d, c = d.
The equation of the plane ABC is thus
3x y z 1 = 0.
Any point of the given line has coordinates
(3 +A, 2-2A, 2 + 3A).
This lies on the plane if
3(3 + A) (2 2A) (2 + 3A) 1 = 0
A = 2
giving
and so the point of intersection has coordinates
(1, 6, 4).
3-2
61
COORDINATES
[3
L2:
x = 2u,
y = 1 ,u, z = 2+#.
Prove that L1and L2intersect, and find the equation of the plane containing
the two lines.
If we can choose A, # such that the three equations
1 4A = 2,u,
1+A = 1
1+A = 2+11
are simultaneously satisfied, then L, and L2intersect. By inspection,
A = 2 u = 1 fulfils the required condition (giving the point of intersection ( 1, 1,
Eliminating A (a) between the x and y coordinates of a general point of
L1, and (b) between the y and z coordinates, we see that the two planes
,
x+4y = 5, yz = 0
both contain L1. It follows that, for all values of k, the equation
(x + 4y 5)+k(yz) = 0
(1)
k = 1.
x+3y+z-5 = 0.
5]
(ii) d * 0, a = b =- 0, c * 0;
(iv) a = 0, b * 0, c * 0, d *O.
Ex. 31. Find the equation of the plane through the line of intersection of the
planes x-y+ 2z+ 1 = 0, 2x + y- z +2 = 0 which contains the origin.
Ex. 32. What are the coordinates of a general point of the line
x-3 - y+2 - z+59
2
-1
-3
Where does this line cut the plane x+y+z+ 2 = 0?
Ex. 33. What are the equations of the line joining (-3, 1, 1) and (2, 2, -1)?
Ex. 34. Find the equation of the plane containing the origin and the line
x-2 y-3 z +4
2
3
-1
Exercise 3 (c)
1. Find (a) direction ratios, (b) the direction cosines, for the lines joining the
following pairs of points:
(i) (1, 2, 3), (2, 3, 4);
(ii) (2, -1, 3), (1, 1, 2);
(iii) (3, 1, 2), (5, -1, 1);
(iv) (1, 3, 5), (5, 3, 1);
(v) (2, -3, - 4), ( -3, 2, 1);
(vi) (a+ A, 2a + 2A, 3a + 3A), (a- it, 2a - 211, 3a - 3,a);
(vii) (a2, ab, b2), (a2, ac, c2);
(viii) (1, a, a2), (a2, a, 1).
2. Find the equations of the planes through the following sets of points:
5. Find the equation of the plane through the line of intersection of the planes
2x+2y+3z-1 = 0, 3x-y-z+2 = 0
(i) containing the origin;
(ii) containing the point (1, 1, 1);
(iii) parallel to the z axis.
63
COORDINATES
[3
6. Write down the equation of the plane parallel to the x axis which contains
the line
x-1 y-3 =z+1
=
1
2
3
Find the equation of the plane containing this line and the origin.
7. Find the equation of the plane through the point (1, 1, 5) containing the
line
x+1 _ y+5 _ z
3 4 5'
8. Write down, in terms of a parameter A, the coordinates of a general point of
the line
x-8 = y 1 = z-1
3
1
0
Where does this line cut the plane x -2y 3z 2 = 0?
9. Find the coordinates of the point where the line joining (2, 3, 1) and (4, 7, 3)
cuts the plane 2x +yz 3 = 0.
10. Find the equations of the line joining (2, 1, 1) and (1, 1, 2). Where does this
line meet the plane x y +az = 0?
Is your result true for all a? Explain.
11. Determine the direction cosines of the line of intersection of the planes
2xy+z 9 = 0, 4x+y+2z 6 = 0.
Where does this line meet the plane x+y+z = 0?
12. Prove that the two lines
x-1y+1 z+2
=
=
1
2
3 '
x+1 y z-1
= =
1
1
1 '
are skew.
13. Prove that the two lines
x-2 y+4 z -1
=
=
3
1
1
x+1 y+4 z+2
=
=
and
1
2
2
meet. What are the coordinates of their point of intersection? Find the equation
of the plane containing them.
14. Prove that the two lines
x -3 y 2 z-4
4
=
=
2
1
1
x +1 y -1 z
=
=
and
0
3
2
meet. What are the coordinates of their point of intersection? Find the equation
of the plane containing them.
64
5]
15. Find the coordinates of the point common to the three planes:
x 3y+ z 6 = 0,
2x y + 2z 2 = 0,
3x+2y+z+2 = 0.
16. Find the coordinates of the point common to the three planes:
x 2y + z 7 = 0,
2x + 3y 4z + 26 = 0,
3x+y+3z+7 = 0.
17. Find the coordinates of the point where the line determined by the two planes
x 3y z + 8 = 0,
x y+ z 2 = 0
cuts the plane containing the x and y axes.
Miscellaneous Exercise 3
1. Find the area of the trapezium whose vertices are:
(x3, 0).
1.
65
COORDINATES
[3
Two fixed lines OA, OB are drawn and a variable line, passing through the
fixed point C, cuts OA, OB at P and Q respectively. If the feet of the perpendiculars from P, Q to OB, OA are U, V, prove that UV passes through a fixed
point.
6. Two fixed straight lines, L1and L2, meet at 0. Through a fixed point A two
lines AP1P2and AQ1Q2are drawn to cut L1at P1and Q1, and L2 at P2 and Q2.
Prove that whatever the position of the two lines drawn through A, the point of
intersection of P1Q2 and P&Llies on a fixed straight line through 0.
7. Points P1, P2, P3 are taken on the x axis, and Q1, Q2, Q3 on the y axis. L1
is the point of intersection of P2 Q3 and P3 Q2, L2 of P3 Q1and P1 Q3, L3 of P1 Q2
and P2 Q1. Prove that L1, L2, L3 lie on a straight line.
(This is a particular case of Pappus's Theorem, which holds more generally
for two sets of three collinear points on any two straight lines.)
8. Prove that the lines
x+1 y-1 z-3
and
x1
3
y 3
1
z 2
6
are skew.
By considering the family of planes through one of the lines, prove that
there is just one common transversal to the two lines which passes through the
origin and find its equation.
9. Prove that no three of the points (1, 1, 2), (-2, 6, 3), ( 1, 1, 5), (2, 4, 2) are
collinear but that all four points lie on a plane.
10. Explain why the three planes
x z +1 = 0,
x y z+5 = 0,
x+2yz+2 = 0
have no common point.
What can you say about the intersections of the planes:
xz+1 =0,
xyz+5 = 0,
x+2y z-7 = 0?
11. ABCDA'B'C'D' is a cube, with square faces ABCD, A'B'C'D' and vertical
edges AA' etc. M is the mid-point of C'D'. The plane AB'M cuts BD' at X
and CC' produced at Y. Find the ratios BX: XD' and CC': C' Y.
12. Prove that the three lines . x _ y _ z
.x-1 _y _z
.
+1
L3.
are skew.
66
y z
12
5]
MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE 3
(a a) Alt ctfl
ct7A. = 0.
67
4. Polynomials
1. POLYNOMIALS
xs - 3x2+ 4x + 2
x5- x + 1
an (ac, + 0)
mean the value of the polynomial when x = 1; that is, the numerical value
attained by the polynomial when 1 is substituted for x. In the case just
quoted, P(1) = 1 - 3 -2 = -4 and P( -2) = -8+6-2 = -4.
Ex. 2. If P(x) x4 -3x3+ 4x2 - x-1, show that P(1) = 0 and find P(- 1), P(0)
and P(2).
Ex. 3. Show that, if P(x) Q(x), then P(k) = Q(k) for all values of k. The
converse of this proposition is also true: if P(k) = Q(k) for all values of k,
then the coefficients of xr in P(x) and Q(x) are the same for all r (see Ex. 7).
Either statement may be taken as the definition of 'identically equal to'.
68
POLYNOMIALS
1]
Exercise 4(a)
1. If P(x)
(x a)3= a3?
4. If a(x 2)2 + b(x 2)+ c
5. Express 7x3 x2 + 3x-4 in the form a(x 1)3+ b(x 1)2+ c(x-1)+ d.
6. Express 4x3 +12x2 + 6x in the form a(x +1)3+ b(x +1)2+ c(x +1)+ d.
7. Express 3x3 +2x2 11x 10 in the form a(x +1)3+ b(x +1)2+ c(x + 1)+d and
also in the form cc(x-2)3 + fi(x 2)2+y(x 2) + a.
Find the three roots of the cubic equation 3x3 +2x2 11x 10 = 0.
8. Express x3+ 4kx2+ 3k2x k3in the form a(x+ k)3+ b(x+ k)2+c(x+ k)+ d.
9. If (ax2+ bx+ c) (x +1) E- 0, prove that ax2+bx+c -m 0.
f We shall not associate a degree with the zero polynomial. The reader will appreciate
that, by elementary algebra, the product of a polynomial of degree m by a polynomial
of degree n is a polynomial of degree m+n. This result holds good even if one or both
of the polynomials is a constant polynomial, but fails if one of the polynomials is the
zero polynomial if a finite degree is associated with this polynomial.
69
[4
POLYNOMIALS
10. If (ax+b) (cx+d) a-(ax+ c) (bx+ d) prove that:
(i) if a 0, then b = c; (ii) if b c, then a = d = 0.
-
{a, b, c} =
and so the cubic polynomial 2x3+ 5x2 3x 10 has a linear factor (x + 2).
(It also has a quadratic factor (2x2 +x 5))
It is important to realise at the outset that possession of a factor is not
an absolute property of a polynomial but depends on the restrictions we
place upon the coefficients. For example, if we restrict our polynomials
to have only rational numbers as coefficients, the polynomial x2 2
has no linear factors; on the other hand, if we allow our coefficients to be
real numbers, x2 -2 = (x V2) (x + V2). (This is often expressed by the
statement: 'x2 -2 is irreducible over the rational field but reducible over
the real field'. The word 'field' has a technical meaning and will be defined
in Volume 2; all that is necessary at the moment is to realize that over
the rational field' means that all polynomials under discussion must have
rational numbers as coefficients.)
The theorems we are about to prove do not depend upon whether we
choose the rational field or the real field for our coefficients provided, of
course, that we are consistent. We shall not, therefore, allude to the field
from which the coefficients are drawn, but the reader may, if he wishes
interpret all the coefficients as, say, rational numbers.
It is easy to see that, if P(x) has a factor (x a), then P(a) = 0. For
P(x) has a factor (x a)
P(x) (x a) Q(x)
=- P(a) = 0 Q(a)
P(a) = O.
A converse of this result is known as the Factor Theorem.
70
2]
xr_e
(x
-i axp-2 0,2xr-3
ar-1).
Suppose
Then
and so
+ b n _1].
2x2+ 4x
3x+2
3x +6
4
In elementary algebra the result of this process would be described by
saying that, if x3 4x2 +x +2 is divided by x 2, the quotient is x 2 2x 3
and the remainder is 4. There are advantages, however, in restating the
process as follows: x3 4x2 +x + 2 is identically equal to the product of
(x-2) by the quotient (x2 2x-3), plus the remainder 4. In symbols
x3-4x2 + x + 2(x-2)(x2-2x-3)-4.
=
(1)
This identity holds for all values of x, whereas the division process given
above is true for all values of x other than x = 2.
Ex. 5. Check that x = 2 does indeed satisfy (1).
We now prove our second result, the Remainder Theorem, which general-
[4
POLYNOMIALS
R3 = P(--1) = --g--1+1+2 = g.
Exercise 4(b)
2]
3. Factorize the following polynomials over the rational field as far as possible:
(ii) 12x3 + 5x2 19x 12;
(i) 2x3 + 7x2 5x 4;
(iv) x3 + 3x2 2x 6;
(iii) 2x3 +7x2 17x 10;
(vi) x3 7x2 +7x +15;
(v) x3 x2 x 2;
(viii) 8x3 +12x2 2x 3.
(vii) x3 + 2x2 7x 2;
4. Factorize the polynomials given in Question 3 over the real field as far as
possible.
5. If x3 5x2+7x a has a factor x 2, find a.
6. If 2x3 +ax2 5x-1 is divisible by 2x + 1, find a.
7. If x3 + 3x2 + ax 1 leaves a remainder of 3 on division by (2x +1), find a.
Theorem 4.3. If P(x) is a cubic polynomial with leading term ao x3, and
if P(a) =
= P(y) = 0 for 3 unequal numbers a, 13, y, then
P(x) = ao(x ct) (x-13)
Proof. Since P(a) = 0, P(x) (x a) Q1(x), where Q1(x) is a polynomial
of degree 2.
Thus, since PO = 0, 0 = (fi a) Q,(13). But 161 + 0 and so Q103) = 0.
Q1(x) therefore has a factor (xfl).
Q1(x) (x ie) Q2(x), where Q2(x) is a polynomial of degree 1.
By the same argument,
Q2(x)
[4
POLYNOMIALS
P(a)
0.
x2 b2
x2 a2
x2 - C2
+ 1 = 0 (a b c).
+
+
(a b) (a c) (b c) (b a) (c a) (c b)
Write
x2 a2
x2b2
x2 - C2
P(x) a+
+
1,
(a b) (a c) (b c) (b a) (c a) (c b)+
then
P(a) = 0+
a+b a+c
+
+1
cb bc
b+c
+1
b c
= 0.
Similarly
P(b) = P(c) = 0.
Exercise 4(c)
1. Prove that
(x b) (x c) (x c) (x a) (x a) (x b)
(a b) (a + (b c) (b a) (c a) (c b)
74
O.
31
2. Prove that
x(x a)
.4
x(x b)
x(x c)
x
=
bc(c a) (a b) ca(a b) (b c) ab(b c) (c a) abc 0.
5. By considering the quadratic polynomial axe + bx + c, show that, if n * 0,
n * 1 and
a+b+c = 0,
an2+bn+c = 0,
a+bn+cn2 = 0,
then a = b = c = 0.
6. Prove that the cubic polynomial P(x) defined by
P(x) =
is the unique cubic polynomial such that P(a) = a, P(/?) = b, P(y) = c, P(8) = d.
Find the cubic polynomial P(x) such that
P( 1) = 3, P(0) = 2, P(1) = 5, P(2) = 12.
7. Find the cubic polynomial P(x) such that
P(0) = 1, P(1) = 1, P(2) = 1, P(3) = 13.
8. Find the cubic polynomial P(x) which takes the value 5 when x has the
values 1, 0, 1 and is such that P(2) = 1.
9. State and prove the identity theorem for quartic polynomials.
Miscellaneous Exercise 4
1. We shall say that a polynomial P(x) 'has the property R' if the remainder on
division of P(x) by the fixed factor x a is R. Prove that
(i) if P1(x) and P2(x) both have the property R, so also has the polynomial
P(x) where P(x) = P1(x) + P2(a);
(ii) if P3(x) has the property R and P4(x) has the property S, show that the
polynomial Q(x) E P3(x) P4(x) has the property RS.
What can be said about the polynomial P(x) if it has the property 0?
75
POLYNOMIALS
[4
P(x) (x a) (x b) Q(x) + Rx + S,
(x 1) (x + 2) Q(x)+ Rx + S
and show you can check your values for R and S by putting x = 1 and x = 2.
3. Find the remainder on dividing the following polynomials by x2 x 6:
(i) 7x3 x2 30x 30; (ii) x8 1.
4. The remainder when the polynomial P(x) is divided by (x a) (x b), where
a * b, is expressed in the form A(x a) + B(x b). Find explicit values for A
and B.
Prove that, if identically equal remainders are obtained on division by
(x a) (x b) and (x a) (x c),
then
What can you deduce about the remainder when P(x) is divided by
(x b) (x c)?
5. By using the Remainder Theorem or otherwise, find the factors of
a3+ b3 + c3 = 3abc.
Find (i) the factors of
(Cambridge)
aafl+b(a+fl) +c = 0.
aaft+b(a+fi)+c = 0
then ax2+ 2bx + c can be written in the form A(x a)2 +B(xfi)2 ?
7. Prove that, if lx2+ mx + n is equal to zero for three distinct values of x,
then / m = n = 0.
Hence, or otherwise, prove the identity
3]
MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE 4
3x+a+b+c.
(0 & C)
8. Factorize:
a
+
+
=1
xa x/3 x-7
prove that, for all values of x other than x = a, x =
a
xa+x/3+x
- y
x=y
(x p) (x q) (x r)
(x a) (x/3) (x-7)
c02
fir
(p a) (q a) (r a)
/6) (a
(p q)(p r)
/3) (P Y)
(0 & C adapted)
10. When divided by (x2 + x+ 1), a cubic polynomial F(x) leaves a remainder
(2x+3). When F(x) is divided by x(x + 3), the remainder is 5(x + 1). Find F(x).
(Cambridge)
11. f(x), g(x) and G(x) are cubic polynomials in x. The polynomials h(x) and
H(x) are respectively the remainders left when f(x) is divided by g(x) and by
G(x). Prove that, if ax3 and Ax3are respectively the terms of highest degree in
g(x) and G(x), then
[aG(x) Ag(x)] f(x)
(Cambridge)
77
1. FUNCTIONS
The concept of an association between the elements of two sets is of prime
importance in mathematics. For example, the table of sines in a book of
mathematical tables exhibits an association between the set A of angles
between 0 and 90 and the set B of real numbers between 0 and 1. We
could exhibit the fact that sin 30 = 0.5 by writing the ordered pair
(30, 0.5). The word `ordered' used here reminds us that the order in
which we write the elements down within each pair must be taken into
account; that is, the ordered pair (a, b) is not the same as the ordered pair
(b, a).
We can put this concept of an association between the elements of two
sets in a more precise way if we introduce the idea of the Cartesian product
of two sets A and B. The Cartesian product of A and B, written A x B is
the set of all ordered pairs (a, b) where a E A and b E B. For example, if
A = {1, 2, 3},
B = {3, 4, 5},
then
A x B = {(1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5), (2, 3), (2, 4), (2, 5), (3, 3), (3, 4), (3, 5)1.
Ex. 1. If the set A has m elements and the set B has n elements, how many
elements has the set A x B?
78
1]
FUNCTIONS
Fig. 5.1
If we have a function f:
B the set A is called the domain off and the
set of image points (a subset of B in general, but possibly the whole of B)
is called the range of f. The set B is called the codomain of f. The image
of the element a e A is written f(a), thus, f(a) is an element of B or, in
other words, (a, f(a)) is an element of A x B.
Example 1. The function f: R+ R+ is defined by
f(x) = +x (x u R+).
Find:
(i) the range off;
(ii) f(2) and f(N12);
(iii) the value of x which maps into +.
(i) For 0 < x1< x2,
1
1
> 0.
1>
>
1+
+x2
Thus, since 1/(1+ x) can take any positive value less than 1 by a suitable
choice of positive x, the range off is the set 0/ e R+: 0 < y < 11.
(ii) f(2) = 1/(1+ 2) = 1;f(N/2) = 1/(1+ V2) =
1. (Notice that both
2 and N/2 belong to R+ and so f(2), f(V2) are defined.)
(iii) If 1/(1+x) = 1, x = 3.
If there is no doubt as to the domain, a particular function is often
defined by phrases such as 'the function f(x) = x2 3x 2' or 'y is a function of x such that y = x2 -3x-2' or even 'the function x2 3x 2'.
From the context we are presumed to appreciate that x is, say, a real
79
number. Even so, the phraseology is loose: the notation f(x) (or y) stands
for the image of x under f, not for the function itself.
*Ex. 2. Comment upon the statement
1
,/x
and 11 +Vx
1 x
-
Ex. 4. Answer the same question as in Ex. 3 for the function g: Q > R defined
-
by g(x) = x3 3x2 5x + 2.
-
A useful pictorial representation of certain functions f: R-> R (or subsets of these sets) may be obtained by taking the x axis to represent the
domain and the y axis to contain the range. If y is the image of the number
x under f, that is, if y =f(x), we represent the element (x, y) off as the point
with Cartesian coordinates (x, y). The set of all such points is called the
graph of the function. For example, suppose f: R->. R is defined by the
equation f(x) = x2 -5x+ 4. The graph of this function for the part of the
domain -1 x S 6 is shown in Figure 5.2. This graph may alternatively
be referred to as ' the curve y = x2 -5x + 4'.
Certain relations which are not functions may also be represented
graphically; for example, consider the subset of R x R consisting of all
ordered pairs of the form (x, y) where x e R, y e R such that y2 = x.
That part of the graph for x < 6 is shown in Figure 5.3.
y
(0,4)
Fig. 5.2
Fig. 5.3
Ex. 5. Explain why the relation depicted in Figure 5.3 is not a function.
80
I]
FUNCTIONS
Exercise 5(a)
1. The function f:R> R is defined by f(x)
f(3),f(-1).
x2 +x+1
x.i I
( x if x < 0,
0 if x = 0,
x if x > 0.
(This is normally written f(x) = IxI; read f(x) equals the modulus of x'.) What is
the range of f? Sketch the graph of f.
A second function g: R --> R is defined by g(x) = x Ix 1. What is the range
of g? Sketch the graph of g.
81
[5
82
11
FUNCTIONS
16. If x is a real number, [x] denotes the greatest integer less than or equal to x.
(For example, [- 2-1-] = - 3, [4k] = 4, [- 1] - 1.) The function f: R - Z is
defined by f(x) = [x]; sketch its graph.
A functionfis called periodic if there exists a number k such that f(x+ k) = f(x),
for all x in the domain; k is then called the period of f. Show that the function
defined by f(x) = x-[x] is periodic and find its period.
What feature does the graph of any periodic function possess?
2. INEQUALITIES
The function, f, defined by
1
fix) 3 - 2x
has for its domain the set R with the single point x = i deleted; if we call
this set D, we may write D = R-{3}. The inequality
1
3 -2x
(1)
<1
D:
1
< 1};
3 2x
that is, A is the subset of elements of D which map into elements less
than 1. By `the solution' of the inequality (1) is meant the determination
of the simplest expression for the set A.
It is always good practice, in solving an inequality, to express one side
of the inequality as zero. Thus
A = {x E D:
3 -2x
2(x- 1)
1 <0} {x e D: 3-2x <
2(x-1) < 0
3 -2x
it is best to express the working in tabular form (see Chapter 1.7). The
critical values of x E R are x = 1 and x = Z.
D
x-1
3-2x
x-1
3-2x
x<1
x=1
1<x<2
+
-
x>
+
_
-
83
Thus
[5
Figure 5.5 shows a graph of the function f defined above; the domain of
f is denoted by the whole of the x axis with the point x = i deleted, the
range off is represented by the y axis, with y = 0 deleted. The subset A
of D is denoted by that part of the x axis drawn in a thick line. (Note
carefully that 1 0 A,1 0 A; indeed, i 0 D.)
Fig. 5.5
(x-3) (x+ 1)
has as its domain the set D where
D=R {
1, 3};
that is, the set of real numbers, less the two numbers 1 and 3. (D may
be written alternatively as the complement of the set
{x E R: x =
84
1 or x = 3}.)
INEQUALITIES
2]
2 5x +2x2 4x 6
(x-3) (x+1) 5 5(x-3) (x+1)
Now
2x2 +x 6
5(x-3)(x+1)
(2x 3) (x + 2)
- 5(x-3) (x+1)'
We thus seek a simpler description of the set A, where
(2x-3) (x +2)
0).
5(x-3) (x+1)
The critical values of x e R are x = 2, x = 1, x = 2, x = 3.
As above, we set out the work in tabular farm.
A = c D:
x+1
(x+2)(2x-3)
5(x-3)(x1)
1<x<1
3
x=-2.
2- <x<3
x> 3
x < 31.
x < 1} u {x e
Thus A = {x e D: 2
Figure 5.6 shows the graph off, the set A is represented by that part of
the x axis drawn in thick lines.
Fig. 5.6
85
[5
Ex. 7. Verify the solution of Example 2 by evaluating f(- 3), f(- 11), f(0), f(2),
f(4). Explain why these are appropriate values to use for checking.
*Ex. 8. Show that the two expressions
(2x-3) (x +2)
and (x-3) (x- (x +1) (x+ 2)
(x - 3) (x + 1)
have the same sign for all values of x -1 or 3. Hence solve the inequality of
Example 2.
Exercise 5(b)
Solve the following inequalities, illustrating your solutions by means of a sketch.
1
1. - < 2;
x
3- x
< 2;
x
3.
2
..>.- 1;
3- x
'
4.
x
< 21+x
'
5.
7.
2
> x;
x-1
8.
x- 3
9.
-.C. x;
10.
2
< 1.
x2 - 5x+ 6
'
x4 < 2;
11. x2-1
13.
x-4
< 1.
x2 4
'
14.
6(3x + 1)
<1
(x-1) (x- 2) (x+ 3)
'
x- 3
< 1;
x2+ x-3
16.
1
<
x2 -3
15.
1
17. -1 <2- x< 2.
19.
3
< 1;
2-3x
21.
x2 -3x+3
x2 - 4x + 3
86
18. 0 <
20.
1;
1
< 1.
'
1-x
2.
22.
1;
1
< 3.
2x- 5
1
< 1;
x2 -1
I x2 -21
< 1.
I x2 - 7x+ 6
12.
<
x+1 3'
5x+7
1,
x2+5x+6 >
P (ii)
(i)
Fig. 6.2
We shall adopt the usual convention that angles are measured as positive
in the anticlockwise sense, the sense being denoted, when necessary, by an
arrow. Figure 6.2(i) shows an angle of Pr, Figure 6.2 (ii) an angle of
31_ both measured from OA.
One advantage of measuring angles in radians is that the expressions for
"
87
[6
152-g rad,
1]
RADIANS
OP = xi +yj.
Fig. 6.3
A = {0 E R, k c Z: 0 = (2k +1)17-4.
89
[6
The following table of the images of the sine, cosine and tangent functions for some commonly occurring angles is worth memorizing:
0
7r/6
7r/4
77/3
77/2
sin
1/2
1 /V2
V3/2
cos
V3/2
1 /V2
1/2
tan
1A/3
/3
Undefined
The corresponding images of the secant, cosecant and cotangent functions may be obtained from the following important identities, which are
valid for all angles 0 at which the functions are defined:
-=
cot 0 -7
cos 0
sin 0
1
tan 0"
sec 0 =
1
1
cosecsi .
n0
cos 0"
; (v) sec(-4n);
21
Fig. 6.4
PPM
91
[6
sines (and cosecants) are positive; in the T quadrant, only tangents (and
cotangents) are positive; in the C quadrant, only cosines (and secants) are
positive. Notice, as an aid to remembering the diagram, that the letters
(read anticlockwise) spell the word 'CAST'.
{-1
6Tr,
fir,
Tm}
Fig. 6.6
Suppose OP is the unit vector defined by the angle 0 and OQ the unit
vector defined by the angle -17r 0 (see Figure 6.6). If OP = xi +yj, then
OQ = yi+xj. It follows that
sin (17r 0) a- cos 0, cos (-1-7r 0) E sin 0,
cosec
92
0)
tan (-177. 0)
cot 0,
tan 0
2]
(provided, of course, that 0 lies in domains for which both sides are defined).
*Ex. 5. Find similar simplifications for the values of the trigonometric functions
for the angles
(i) -1-7/- + 0; (ii) Tr 0; (iii) n +0.
N.B. Be careful about the signs!
47T q5 ....
Trial of these solutions shows that the values of 0 lying in the given range
are
fig, in, -16117*}.
(cos
k
0 sin 0 / \cos 0 sin 0)
(sine 0 + cos2 0)/(sin 0 + cos 0)
1/(sin 0+ cos 0)
= L.H.S.
4-2
x = a cos 0,
(1)
y = b sec 0 + c tan 0,
(2)
93
[6
Exercise 6(b)
1. Write down the values of cos 47r, tan lir, cosec lir, cot PT, sin P
' T, sec iv,
cos fa, tan in, cosec (in), sec (-177).
2. Write down the values of cos 315, tan 135, cosec 330, sin ( 135),
cot (-120), sec 240, sin 480, sec ( 210), cot ( 60), sin 1020.
3. Use your tables to find the values of sin 215, cos 128, tan ( 40), cosec 161,
sin (-200).
4. Solve the following equations for 0, giving all values lying in the interval
0
27r:
(i) sin 0 = 1;
(ii) tan 0 +1 = 0;
(iii) sec 0 +2 = 0;
(iv) cot 0 = V3;
(v) 4 sin2 0 = 3;
(vi) 2 cos (0 170+ ,/3 = 0;
(ix) sec (0 + Pr) = 1;
(vii) sin 0+ cos 0 = 0; (viii) 2 sin 30 = 1;
(x) 3 sect +
= 4; (xi) cosec2(0 + Pr) = 1; (xii) tang 20 = 3.
5. Solve the following equations for 0, giving all values lying in the interval
7T < 0 <
(i) 2 sin2 0+sin 0 = 0;
(iii) cos 20 = sin 0;
(v) sin (iir 0)+ cos 0 = 0;
(vii) tan 0 + cot air = 0;
(ix) cote 0+ cosec 0 +1 = 0;
0.
cos 0 _
sin 0
94
2]
sec 0 cosec 0.
10. Prove that, provided all the values of the functions are defined,
cosecs 0 = 1 + cos 0 cot 0 cosec 0.
11. If sin 0 = s find, without using tables, the possible values of sec 0 +cosec 0.
12. If tan = find, without using tables, the possible values of 2 cos 0 + cot O.
13. Use your tables to find all values of 0, lying in the interval 0 <
-4 360,
which satisfy the following equations:
(i) 2 sec2 0 = 5tan 00;
(ii) 3 cost 0 = 7 cos 0-2;
(iii) 2 sine 0 sin 0 cos 0 cos20 = 0;
(iv) cote 8 = cosec 0';
(v) 16 tang 8 = 9;
(vi) 3 sec2 0 = 2 cosec 0 ;
(vii) tan 0 = 2(sec 0 + cos 00);
(viii) sec2
= 1 + 2 tan 0.
14. Eliminate 0 between the following pairs of equations:
(i) x = 2 cos 0, y = 3(1 + sin 0);
(ii) x = cos 0 sin 0, y = cos 0 + sin 0;
(iii) x = 2 cos 0 sin 0, y = cos 0+ sin 8;
(iv) x = 3 tan 8, y = 4 sin 0;
(v) x = cosec 0 1, y = cos 0+1.
15. A particle oscillates along the x axis in such a manner that its coordinates at
time t seconds after the start of the motion are (sin (cot +e), 0).
(i) Where is the particle at the start of the motion?
(ii) Between what two points does the particle oscillate?
(iii) How long does the particle take to move from one extreme point to the
other?
16. If a particle is projected with a velocity V cos ai+ V sin aj under gravity
then its position vector at time t is given by
r = (Vt cos a) i + (Vt sin a Igt2)j.
If r is written in the form
prove that
r = xi + yj,
1 (gx2
= x tan a - ssec2 a.
2 V2)
x2 + y2 + z2 = a2
95
[6
Is the following converse result true? Values of 0 and can be found such that
any point on the surface has a position vector of the form
r = a cos 0 cos g5i+ a sin 0 cos cbj+ a sin qlk.
19. What are the maximum and minimum values of the expression 4/(2 + sin x)?
Without attempting to solve the equations exactly, state how many values of x
in the range 0 < x < 27 satisfy
(i) the equation cos x(2+ sin x) = 4;
(ii) the equation tan x(2 + sin x) = 4.
Thus, a trigonometric function is a periodic function, period 27r (see Exercise 5(a), Question 16).
Figure 6.7 shows the graphs of the sine function (continuous line) and
cosine function (dotted line), for values of the domain 27r x 27r.
Fig. 6.7
Ex. 6. How do the graphs of sin x and cos x illustrate the identities
sin (-Pr x) E cos x,
sin an + x) a" cos x,
sin (Zi - x) cos x, sin an + x) cos x?
Ex. 7. Sketch roughly the graphs of 2 sin x, sin 2x, sin xj.
Figure 6.8 shows the graph of the tangent function (continuous line)
and cotangent function (dotted line) for values of the domain
27r < x < 27r. Recall that the tangent function is undefined at values
of x which are odd multiples of 17r but, by taking x sufficiently close to such
96
3]
values, we make 'tan x I arbitrarily large. A similar remark holds for the
cotangent function at values of x which are even multiples of 1-Tr. (A line
such as x = in is called an asymptote for the curve y = tan x.)
i
I
I
il
1%.
I\
I \ I
I \I
I
I
I
I
IT
2 ; I
I
I
I
\I
I
II
.Y
11
I
I
\,
I.
...
V
I
I
1I
I \
1 \
3 iN
27r
I
I
11
ilt
It
2. \
I \%
1
I
I
I
/1
"\
*.
I
I
I
II
I1
I \
I
ir
\I
IC III
I,I
Fig. 6.8
Ex. 8. How does Figure 6.8 illustrate the identities tan air x)
cot x, tan (171. x) = cot x, tan air +x) cot x?
cot x,
tan (PT+ x)
Figure 6.9 shows the secant function (continuous line) and cosecant
function (dotted line).
It
II
YI
I
I
t
t
t
i
1
t
t
I
Ii
s
t
II
I %
--I
27737r -71
ir
it
2
\
1
tt
1
II
Fig. 6.9
Ex. 10. How does Figure 6.9 illustrate the identities
sec (Pr + x)
sec ag x) = cosec x,
sec (lir x)
cosec x;
cosec x?
Ex. 11. Sketch roughly the graphs of sec 2x and Icosec xi.
97
[6
IT
Fig. 6.10
Fig. 6.11
4]
Fig. 6.12
x2.
Thus cos y = + V(1 x2); but 17r y frr and so cos y > 0; it follows
that cos (arcsin x) = ,/(1 x2).
Exercise 6(c)
1. Show that the function f defined by
f(x) = cos x+ sin x
27r.
99
[6
Estimate from your graphs the required angle, giving your answer in degrees
to the nearest degree.
(0 & C '0')
5. Solve graphically the equation tan 2x = 2 cot x, giving all solutions x such
sin x = cos 2x +1
for values of x for which 0 < x <
IT.
8. Using the same axes sketch the graphs of: (i) sin x, (ii) 2 sin x, (iii) 1 +2 sin x.
9. Using the same axes, sketch the graphs of (i) sin x, (ii) sin x, (iii) 2 sin x.
10. Sketch the graph of 2(1 cos x).
11. Sketch the graph of 1 tan x.
12. Sketch the graph of 1+ 'sin x I.
13. Sketch the graph of sin (x+ kir).
14. Sketch the graph of 1 + 2 cos (x
15. Find the values of:
16. Simplify the expressions (i) tan (arcsin x); (ii) sin (arctan x).
17. Sove for x the equation tan (arccot x) = 2 sin (arccos x).
18. Simplify the expression sec {arccos [tan (arccot x)]}.
Miscellaneous Exercise 6
1. A chord PQ of a circle of radius r subtends an angle 20 rad at the centre of
the circle and 20 < 7r. Find an expression for the area of the smaller of the two
portions into which PQ divides the circle.
100
MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE 6
4]
If this area is a fraction 1/27r of the area of the circle, prove that sin 20 = 20 1.
Obtain graphically an approximate solution in radians of this equation.
(0 & C '0')
2. If a circle of radius a is drawn with its centre on the circumference of another
circle of radius a, find the area common to both circles.
3. Find the maximum and minimum values of the expression
sin2 0+6 sin 0+4.
4. Solve the equation
12 cost 0 = 6 + sin 0
giving all values of 0, in radians, lying between 0 and 27r.
5. A globe representing the earth consists of a sphere of radius 10 cm. Find the
length of the circumference of the small circle representing the 30 parallel of
latitude.
Two points A, B on the 30 parallel of latitude differ in longitude by 90.
Calculate:
(i) the length of the straight line joining A and B;
(ii) the angle subtended by AB at the centre of the globe;
(iii) the great circle distance between A and B, in cm, correct to 3 S.F.
(0 & C O')
`
101
[6
16. In a circle centre 0, two radii OP, OQ contain an angle 0 radians (0 < 7r).
If the area of the sector OPQ is A and the length of the chord PQ is 2c show that
1 - cos 0 = c20/A. Draw on the same diagram on squared paper the graphs of
the functions y = 1- cos 0 and y = c20/A in the particular case where
A = it cm2, c = 1.3 cm
for values of 0 between 0 and 7T. (Take 1 cm to represent 0
1 on the x axis and
4 cm to represent one unit on the y axis.) Read off from your graphs the value
of 0 between 0 and it which satisfies the equation 1- cos 0 = c20/A in this particular case. Use your value of 0 to find the radius of the circle in this case.
(Cambridge)
17. The function f: R+ R is defined byf(x) = x sin 1/x. Sketch the graph of the
function.
102
x (n r + 1) =
ni
(n r)!*
103
[7
We may modify our question again and ask: 'how many different hands
of four cards may be dealt from a standard pack?' The difference here is
that we are not concerned with the order in which the cards are dealt:
we only want to know the number of selections (sometimes called combinations) of four cards that can be made from fifty-two cards. Suppose for the
moment that this number is N. Then each of these N different hands may
be rearranged in 4! = 24 ways. There are then 24N different arrangements
of four cards. But we already know that the number of different arrangements is 52 x 51 x 50 x 49. Thus
52 x 51 x 50 x 49
= 270725.
24
Once more, our argument may be generalized: since there are nP,
possible arrangements of n objects taken r at a time, the number of selections, or combinations, of n unlike objects, taken r at a time, is
P,
r!
n!
r! (n
)e
n r n!
r r!(nr)!
n
(Notice that again, since 0! has been defined as 1, 9,C, = 1 by the formula,
which accords with the commonsense result that there is just one way of
selecting n objects from n.)
104
1]
= 1 X2 =
4C2
C3= 4 ways.
Total (iii): 4.
The total of possible committtees is thus
12+18+4 = 34.
Second solution. There are
7
C3 =
7x6x5
1 x 2 x 3 = 35
105
We complete this section by mentioning one further technique for counting which is frequently useful in probability: to find the number of ways
of arranging n objects, r at a time, if repetitions are allowed. We shall
illustrate the method adopted in Example 2.
Example 2. In a simplified football coupon there are ten matches whose
results (home win, 1; away win, 2; draw, x) are to be forecast. In how many
ways may the coupon be completed?
The first result may be forecast in three different ways (1, 2, x ); for
each of these choices there are three different choices for the second
match (1, 2, x) and so on. The total number of ways of completing the
coupon is thus 3' = 59049.
Ex. 9. A multiple choice paper consists of ten questions, to each of which is
attached five possible answers, labelled A, B, C, D, E. A candidate selects one
of these answers for each question; in how many ways may he complete the paper?
Exercise 7(a)
1. Five boats are entered for a race. Assuming that they all finish and that there
are no dead heats, in how many possible orders can they pass the finishing line?
2. In a fonn of thirty boys, a first and a second prize are to be awarded; in how
many ways can this be done?
106
1]
3. You have a form on which you have to give your first six choices for university, in order of preference. If you have a list of twelve universities offering the
course you want, in how many ways can you complete the form?
4. A fruit machine has three windows, in each of which appears independently
one of six pictures. How many different arrangements (taking the order into
account) are possible?
5. How many five-digit numbers can be formed from the digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
using each digit once? How many of them are even? How many are even and
greater than 30000?
6. A committee of four is to be selected from six Labour and six Conservative
M.P.s. How many possible committees are there? In how many will the members of the Labour Party have a majority?
7. In how many ways may a tennis team of six members be selected from fifteen
available players? In how many ways may a first and second team be chosen?
8. Twelve people are to divide up into three sets of four players for a whist drive.
In how many ways can this be done?
9. Of ten electric light bulbs, three are faulty but it is not known which. In how
many ways may three bulbs be selected ? How many of these selections will
include at least one faulty bulb?
10. How many different bridge hands (thirteen cards) are there which contain
(i) all four aces, (ii) three aces and one king? (Leave your answer in factorial
form.)
11. Criticize the following attempted solution of Example 1:
`A man must sit on the committee, and he can be chosen in four ways. The
remaining two members may now be chosen arbitrarily from among the six
remaining people: this may be done in 6 C2 = 15 ways. Thus, the total number of
possible committees is 4 x 15 = 60.'
12. Prove that the numbers of distinguishable arrangements of n objects in a
row, if two are alike and the rest different, is in!.
What is the number of distinguishable arrangements if three are alike and the
rest different?
How many different telephone numbers can be made using all the digits of
the number 4225267?
13. How many different arrangements are there of the letters of the word
QUEUE? In how many of these arrangements do the letters QU appear together,
in that order?
14. Find in how many ways a batting order (eleven men) may be made if Smith
is to bat before Brown.
15. A diagonal of an n-sided polygon is a line joining two non-adjacent vertices.
How many diagonals does an n-sided polygon possess?
16. In how many ways can two ls, two 2s and two 3s be thrown with six dice?
107
[7
17. Given n unlike objects, find the number of ways of dividing them into three
unequal groups of sizes p, q, r where p + q+ r = n.
In how many ways can they be divided into two groups of size p and one of
size n 2p, if no attention is paid to the order of the groups?
18. A pair of integers is selected from the set of positive integers 1, 2, 3, ..., n.
In how many ways may this be done? [In each pair the order of the integers is
immaterial, e.g. (2, 3) and (3, 2) count as one pair only.]
If the integers in each pair are multiplied together show that, in the case when
n is odd, the number of products which will be odd integers is - k (n21). If
n is large show that this number is approximately one-quarter of the total number
of products. (Cambridge)
20).
108
2]
the outcome space: any other set whose elements represent distinct possible outcomes and which exhausts all the possibilities will do, e.g.
S2 = {G, F, P},
where G denotes a good result (no defectives);
F denotes a fair result (one or two defectives);
P denotes a poor result (more than two defectives).
Generally speaking, it is best to choose as an outcome space one that
gives as much detail as possible about the result obtained, but there are
exceptions to this and other criteria may be adopted.
Ex. 10. Two coins are tossed and the result (in terms of heads and tails) noted.
Suggest three possible outcome spaces.
Ex. 11. A card is drawn from a pack and its value and suit noted. Criticize the
following outcome space:
S = {card is an ace, card is a heart, card is neither a heart nor an ace}.
Ex. 12. Suggest an outcome space for Ex. 11 if the experiment is concerned only
with the drawing of a heart or an ace from a pack of cards.
Ex. 13. A count is made of the numbers of girls and boys in a family. Under
what circumstances would the set
S = {there are more girls than boys, there are more boys than girls}
constitute an outcome space?
3. PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTIONS
We now assign to each elementary event si of our outcome space S a
positive fraction pi (i.e. 0 < pi < 1) called the probability that the outcome
of our experiment will be si. Furthermore, for consistency, we shall make
the sum of all the probabilities piover the entire outcome space 1. Thus,
the probabilities associated with an outcome space S = {si, s2,
sn } are
real numbers such that
0 < pi < 1,
(1)
(2)
Pi+P2+133+ +Pn = 1.
[7
3]
PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTIONS
Ex. 16. Suggest an outcome space for the experiment of throwing two dice
that may be given a uniform distribution.
Ex. 17. From the weather records of a certain town taken over the past thirty
years, on the average five days in November have been recorded as foggy. Is
it justifiable to assume that the probability of a November day in that town
being foggy is i?
Ex. 18. The number of boys and girls in a family of five children are noted.
Justify the assumption that the outcome space
S = {there are more girls than boys, there are more boys than girls}
has a uniform distribution (i.e. p = I for each of the two elementary events).
4. PROBABILITIES OF EVENTS
Any subset E of the outcome space S of an experiment is called an event.
(Notice that the use of the word in `elementary events' is consistent with
this definition, since {s} c S.) If we have assigned a probability distribution to our outcome space it becomes meaningful to consider the probability of the event E (by which we would mean, in a practical example, a
measure of our degree of belief that the experiment will result in one of the
elementary events belonging to E). A moment's consideration should
show that the following definition is plausible, at least in simple cases.
Given a sample space S with associated probability distribution, and an
event E c S, then the probability of the event E, written Pr (El S) (read: `the
probability of event E given S'more explicitly, `the probability of E
given the probability distribution of the outcome space S') is defined as
the sum of the probabilities of all the elementary events belonging to E.
More formally, if S = {s1, s2,
sn} and piis the probability associated
s,} then
with si, and if E {s, s
Pr (EIS) = 1911 Prz+Pr3+ +Pr..
Example 3. If a card is drawn from a well-shuffled pack, what is the probability that it will be an ace?
A suitable outcome space, S, is the set of 52 elementary outcomes corresponding to the fifty-two different cards in the pack.
To continue, we must make an assumption about the probability distribution. Since the pack is well shuffled, we shall consider this as a case of
fifty-two equiprobable events and so associate with each element of S the
probability -512. The event E is the subset of S consisting of the drawing of
the ace of spades, hearts, diamonds or clubs.
Then
Pr (EIS) = +-511- +
512 512 =
[7
Exercise 7(b)
1. Consider families consisting of six children, all of different ages. The 'type'
of family is defined by an ordered set of the form {B, B, G, B, G, B} the elements
of which represent the sex of each child, starting with the eldest. How many
different types are there? In how many different types are there three boys
and three girls? What is the probability that a family of six children will consist
of three boys and three girls?
112
4]
PROBABILITIES OF EVENTS
is given, where the elements represent each of the possible number of boys in a
family. Assign a probability distribution to this space.
3. A number is chosen at random from among the integers 1, 2, 3, ..., 20. What is
the probability that
(i) it is a multiple of 3 or 7?
(ii) it is a multiple of 3 or 5 ?
4. If a committee of four is chosen at random from ten women and ten men,
what is the probability that there will be two women and two men serving?
5. If, in Question 4, the male chairman is certain to be re-elected, what is now
the probability of equal numbers of men and women?
6. Two numbers are selected at random from the integers 1 to 10. (You may
assume that all numbers are equally likely to be selected and that the same
number may be selected twice.)
The elements 0, 1, 2, ..., 9 of the outcome space represent the magnitude of the
difference between the two numbers. Assign a probability distribution to this
space which you feel represents a suitable mathematical model for the experiment.
7. If two numbers are selected at random from the numbers 1 to 10, what is
the probability that the larger number will be greater than 8 ?
8. If two cards are drawn from a pack of fifty-two cards, what is the probability
that
(i) they will both be spades,
(ii) they will be of the same suit?
9. Two people are asked independently to write down an integer between 1 and
10 (inclusive). The sum, s, of the two numbers is then calculated. Write out an
outcome space for the possible values of s and assign a probability distribution,
on the assumption that each person is equally likely to select any one of the ten
numbers.
What is the probability that s will be prime?
10. In a mixed bag of screws there are twice as many large as small. 10 % of the
large screws are defective and so are 5 % of the small screws. Assuming that every
screw has an equal probability of being selected, what is the chance of picking
a defective screw?
Comment upon the assumption made.
[7
j)
Example 5. Two dice are thrown. What is the probability of scoring either a
double, or a sum greater than 9 ?
We take as our outcome space the set of 36 pairs (i, j), where i, j run
independently from 1 to 6. We make the assumption that the events are
equiprobable and so attach a probability to each elementary event of -316.
Write
E1= {(1, 1), (2, 2) (3, 3) (4, 4) (5, 5) (6, 6)},
E2 = {(4, 6) (5, 5) (6, 4) (5, 6) (6, 5) (6, 6)},
t The notation n means the union of the n sets E1, E2,
i-1
E1 UE2 U...U E,,.
114
E,.; that is
51
and so
We thus have
Pr (El ls)
and so
E2 IS)
Example 6. Two dice are thrown. What is the probability of not getting a
double?
Making the same assumptions as in Example 5 and using the same notation,
Pr (E.; = 1Pr (E,IS), by Theorem 7.3,
1-*
5
-
E.Y. 25. In a class of boys, one-third have black hair and one-quarter have brown
eyes. What deductions can you make?
Ex. 26. If a card is drawn from a well-shuffled pack what is the probability that
it is either an ace or a king?
Ex. 27. If a card is drawn from a well-shuffled pack, what is the probability that
it is an ace or a heart?
Ex. 28. If a number is selected at random from the integers I, 2, ..., 30 what is the
probability that it is
(i) divisible by 2;
(ii) divisible by 3;
(iii) divisible by 6;
(iv) not a multiple of 2 or 3 ?
Ex. 29. If one thousand tickets are issued in a lottery in which there are two
first prizes, eight second prizes and ten third prizes, what is the probability of not
securing a prize with one ticket?
FIF).)
115
[7
Now since F is the new outcome space, the new probability distribution
for F must have the property that the probabilities of the elementary
events contained in F sum to 1. Making the plausible assumption that the
relative proportion of the weights attached to the elementary events of F
remain unaltered, this is equivalent to scaling up the probabilities in F by
a factor 1/Pr (FM S). The probability that E will occur is thus Pr (E n FMS),
scaled up by this factor 1/p(FIS). We are thus led to make the following
definition:
Pr (E n FMS)
Pr (ELF) =
Pr (FMS)
Example 7. A bag contains twenty balls, ten of which are red, eight white
and two blue. The balls are indistinguishable apart from the colour. Two balls
are drawn in succession, without replacement. What is the probability that
they will both be red?
We take as our outcome space S the set of 20 x 19 = 380 possible
selections of two balls. Since the balls are indistinguishable apart from
colour, we may impose a uniform probability distribution upon S.
Now define R1as the event 'the first ball picked is red', R2as the event
`the second ball picked is red' and similarly W1, W2, B1, B2.
We require to find Pr (R1 n R2 15).
Now Pr (R1 S)=14) and Pr (R,IRDthe probability that a red ball is
selected from a bag now containing nine red, eight white and two blue
balls is -A,-.
Thus,
Pr (R, n R2 I S) = Pr (R2 IR1) . Pr (R,IS)
9 10
19.20
_ 9
- 38
Example 8. With the data of Example 7, what is the probability that we obtain
a blue and a white ball (in either order)?
Adopting the notation of Example 7, we are required to calculate the
probability of obtaining one or other of the two mutually exclusive events
n W2and W n B2; that is Pr {(B, n wo u
n Bois).
Now
Pr {(B1n W2) U
n BO = Pr (B1n S)+ Pr (W1n B2 S),
since the events are mutually exclusive using Theorem 2;
= Pr (W21B1). Pr (.1311 S)+ Pr (B2 I
= 1 9. A+-A-.-A
116
. Pr (W, IS)
6]
The arguments employed for the solution of the preceding examples may
be represented diagrammatically by a probability tree (see Figure 7.1).
Starting at 0 on the extreme left, the end-points of the first three branches
represent all the possible (mutually exclusive) results of the first draw.
The end-points of the next three sets of branches represent all the possible
9
R1
.,.........-
R2
8
19
2 ___
W2
0 ."'"'s
B2
-----""*"
10 /1
E
10
8
20
7
19
2 ,
13
Wi
R2
W2
B2
10 ....,./.. R2
20
.1
8
Bi - 19
.'.'"''''1
D '''''''
W2
/32
Fig. 7.1
outcomes of the second draw, the various sets corresponding to the different draws on the first round. The various probabilities are then attached
to the branches as shown and the probability of any desired path from
0 to some end-point on the right may be found by multiplying the successive branch probabilities together.
For example
Pr (W,r) R, IS) = io x9 =9
1
10
117
[7
Fig. 7.2
61
Ex. 31. A bag contains two white balls and six red balls; a second bag contains
four white balls and four red balls. The balls are indistinguishable apart from
colour. What is the probability of obtaining two white balls if
(i) one ball is drawn from each bag;
(ii) two balls are drawn from the first bag;
(iii) two balls are drawn from the second bag?
Ex. 32. Criticize the following argument:
Ex. 34. A coin is spun twice and a die is thrown twice. Find the probability of
obtaining at least one head or at least one six (or possibly both).
Exercise 7(c)
1. What is the probability of not throwing a six with four throws of an unbiased die? What is the probability of throwing at least one six?
2. On average, 2 % of the electric light bulbs of a certain type prove to be
faulty: what is the probability that a batch of twelve such bulbs will be free
of defectives ?
3. If four people are chosen at random, find the probability that no two of them
were born on the same day of the week.
(M.E.I. '0')
4. A bag contains a dozen apples, of which three are bad. If two apples are
withdrawn at random, find the probability that
(i) both are good ;
(ii) both are bad;
(iii) one is good and one bad.
(M.E.I. '0')
5. Show that there is a better chance of throwing at least one 6 with four throws
of a single die than there is of throwing at least one double 6 with twenty-five
throws of a pair of dice. (This is a modification of a famous problem in the hiStory of probability, first proposed by a gambler, the Chevalier de Mere and
transmitted by him to the French mathematician Fermat, who managed to solve
it.)
6. A bag contains two red, three white and four blue balls. If two balls are drawn
in succession without replacement, what is the probability of drawing a red and a
blue ball, in either order? What is the corresponding probability if the first ball
is replaced before the second is drawn ?
7. A bridge hand consisting of thirteen playing cards contains two aces. If
five cards are drawn at random from the hand, find the probability that the five
(M.E.I. '0')
will contain neither of the aces.
119
120
6]
19. Two men A and B play a game in which A should win eight games to every
seven won by B. If they play three games, show that the probability that A will
win at least two games is approximately 0-55.
(Cambridge)
20. The chance of any one engine of a four-engined aeroplane failing on a long
journey is 5 %. If only one engine fails the chance of the aeroplane completing
the journey is 80 %; if two engines on opposite wings fail, its chance of completing the journey is 50 %. It cannot fly with two engines out of action on the
same wing. Find the chance that the aeroplane will complete the journey.
(0 & C)
21. (i) From a bag containing five red, four white and three green balls, three
are drawn together at random. Find the chance of their being
(a) all of different colours,
(b) all of the same colour.
(ii) Two six-faced dice whose faces bear the numbers 1 to 6 respectively are
thrown together. Find the chance of
(a) the total score being exactly 8,
(b) the total score being greater than 8.
(0 & C)
B) = Pr (A). Pr (B).
B) = Pr (Al B) . Pr (B) .
AnB=BnA
we have, for any two events A, B
Pr (AIB). Pr (B) = Pr (A fl B) = Pr (B n A) = Pr (B IA) . Pr (A).
This form of the multiplication law is often useful, for example, when it
is desired to calculate Pr (A 1B) and the three probabilities Pr (A) , Pr (B) ,
Pr (BSA) are known or easily found.
121
[7
Example 10. Two bags contain coloured balls as shown in the table below.
Red
White
Blue
Bag I
Bag II
= 9.
Thus
( n
Pr (II W) = Pr prI ( w)
Pr (Wn I)
Pr (W)
Pr (WI1).Pr (I)
Pr (W)
=
7]
Pr (B) = -M,;
-
Pr (C) =
Now Pr (AIF) = Pr (A n F)/Pr (F) and so the problem reduces to determining Pr (A n F) and Pr (F), given the numerical values above. But
Pr (A fl F) = Pr (F fl A)
= Pr (FIA). Pr (A)
_
loo
Again F = (F n A) U (F n B) U (F n C) and these three events are
mutually exclusive (no component can come from more than one machine).
Thus
Pr (F) = Pr (F n A) + Pr (F n B)+ Pr (F fl C)
= Pr (FI A) . Pr (A) +Pr (FIB) . Pr (B) +Pr (FI C). Pr (C)
= 11
j_
3 _
100 200 1000
9_
500
Thus
Pr (AlF)
Pr A n F)
pr (F)
(
Ex. 35. Of two pennies, one is double-headed, the other normal. If one of the
pennies is selected at random and tossed twice, what is the probability of obtaining two heads? If one of the coins is selected at random, tossed twice and gives
two heads, what is the probability that it is double-headed ?
Ex. 36. Find the probabilities that the faulty article of Example 11 came from
(i) machine B, (ii) machine C.
5
PPM
123
[7
Ex. 37. With the data of Example 11, find the probability that a component
selected at random and shown to be not faulty comes from machine A.
Ex. 38. Two articles come from one of the machines of Example 11, but it is
not known which one. On testing, both are found to be faulty. Find the respective probabilities that they come from machines A, B and C.
Notice that in Example 11 we had an outcome space partitioned into
three mutually exclusive and exhaustive events A, B, C, and were required to
find the probability of A conditional upon the occurrence of some event F.
More generally, we define a partition of a set S as a set of subsets
Pr (1/J 1E)
Pr (E1119) Pr (115)
= Pr (E1H1). Pr (HD+ Pr (E1H2). Pr (HD+ ...+ Pr (E1H). Pr (H)
Proof. Since the Hiare exhaustive,
E = (E n Hi)u (E n
u u (E n
n)
But the Hiare mutually exclusive and it follows that the E fl Hiare also
mutually exclusive. Thus, by Theorem 7.4
but
Pr (H; E)
Pr (II; n E)
Pr (E)
Pr (E n H5)
Pr (E)
Pr (Ell/2) . Pr (H,)
Pr (E)
Pr (El H;) . Pr (H9)
Pr (EIHD . Pr (Hi)+ Pr (E1H2). Pr (H2)+ ...+ Pr (Ellin) . Pr (H).
124
7]
IV
II
III
A die is thrown; if a one appears, bag I is chosen, if a two or three, bag II,
if a four or five, bag III and if a six, bag IV. A ball is then drawn at random from
the bag selected.
5-2
125
a, i
9. The probability that a radio message sent from a ship is not picked up by a
land-station is p. The land-station replies to all messages received and its transmission back has probability q of not being picked up by the ship. Find the
probability that the land-station failed to receive the message if the ship gets
no reply.
Miscellaneous Exercise 7
1. A number is drawn at random from the set of thirty-seven numbers
0, 1, 2, ..., 36,
and is then replaced.
(i) What is the chance that the number drawn will be odd?
(ii) What is the chance that in two consecutive draws the numbers drawn will
be the same?
(iii) What is the chance that in one hundred consecutive draws the number 0
will not be drawn?
(iv) What is the chance that in five consecutive draws none of the numbers
will be odd?
Give the answers to (i) and (ii) as vulgar fractions, and evaluate the answers
to (iii) and (iv) approximately as decimals.
(Cambridge)
2. An encyclopaedia consisting of n (? 4) similar volumes is kept on a shelf
with the volumes in correct numerical order; that is, with volume one on the
left, volume two next and so on. The volumes are taken down for cleaning and replaced on the shelf in random order. What are the probabilities of finding
exactly n, (n-1), (n-2), (n 3) volumes in their correct order on the shelf?
(Cambridge)
126
71
MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE 7
3. You have available two pairs of dice. The dice of one pair are both true but,
in the other pair, one is true and the other is known to be biased in some way.
Which pair would you choose if you were playing a game in which to win you
had to throw (a) a score of 7; (b) a double?
4. Two persons X and Y play a game in which X deals from a standard pack of
fifty-two cards. Each player receives three cards and the game is won by X if he
holds more red cards than there are black cards held by Y.
By considering the number of black cards in play or otherwise, calculate the
probability that the dealer wins a game. What odds should be fixed by the dealer
in order that he may expect just to show a profit? (M.E.I. ' A')
5. Four cards, the aces of hearts, diamonds, spades and clubs are well shuffled
and then dealt two to player A, the other two to player B. A is then asked whether
at least one of his two cards is red. He replies in the affirmative. In the light of this
information we wish to calculate the probability that he holds both the red aces.
Consider the argument:
`We know that he has one red ace; without loss of generality we may suppose
that it is the heart ace. Among the other three cards there is no reason why one
more than another should be the diamond ace: one only out of three equally
likely possibilities gives A both the red cards: the required chance is thus 4.'
Criticize this argument and produce a correct argument and answer.
(C.S.)
6. A bag contains twelve coloured balls: 4 yellow, 3 white, 2 black, 2 red and
1 green. A prize is offered for obtaining 2 red balls in two draws, there being an
option of either replacing or not replacing the first ball. Which would you choose ?
Generalize your result to the case of a bag containing N balls of s different
colours where there are m, balls of colour i, and prove your conjecture.
7. Raffles of two types, A and B, are held. In raffles of type A there are 2N
tickets, of which 2n carry prizes; in those of type B there are N tickets of which
n carry prizes. Which would you prefer: two tickets in a raffle of type A, or two
tickets in separate raffles of type B?
8. A six-digit telephone number (i.e. any number between 100000 and 999999)
is dialled at random. Show that the probability that one or more digits are dialled
in succession (as in 322916 or 322216 or 322911 but not as in 329216) is about
41 %.
(Cambridge)
9. An experiment consists in drawing balls one at a time from a bag containing
eight white and two black balls initially. Balls drawn from the bag are not
replaced. A note is kept of the number r (1 ' r < 9) of the draw which first yields
a black ball. If the experiment is repeated many times what is (i) the most probable value of r; (ii) the probability that r exceeds 5?
(Cambridge)
10. Articles are distributed among three boxes in such a way that each article
has the same chance of being placed in any one of the boxes. Find the probability
that at least one of the boxes remains empty when r articles have been distributed.
Deduce that, if r articles are similarly distributed among five boxes, the probability that exactly two boxes remain empty is 6(3r-1 2r + 1)/5r-1.
(Oxford)
127
[7
12. In a game of bridge each of four players is dealt thirteen cards after the pack
has been shuffled. One of the players has four diamond cards and he can see four
more diamonds in the exposed dummy hand, which has been put down on the
table by one of the players. What is the chance that the five remaining diamond
cards are split three in one hand and two in the other?
If, in the first three rounds of play, each player has used exactly one diamond
and two other cards, what is the chance that one of the players has no diamond
cards remaining in his hand?
(M.E.I.)
13. Half the population of the city of Ekron are Philistines and the other half
are Canaanites. A Philistine never tells the truth but a Canaanite speaks truthfully with probability s and falsely with a probability f. What is the probability
that a citizen encountered at random will give a correct answer to a question?
Tabulate (as fractions, decimals or percentages) the probabilities that 0, 1, 2, 3
men out of a sample of three citizens taken at random from Ekron will affirm a
proposition (i) when it is true, (ii) when it is false.
The proposition has a prior probability of i of being true. What is the (posterior) probability of its being true conditional on its being affirmed by only one
out of three? (Cambridge)
14. A farmer keeps two breeds (A, B) of chicken; 70 % of the egg production is
from birds of breed A. Of the eggs laid by the A hens, 30 % are large, 50 %
standard and the remainder small; for the B hens the corresponding proportions
are 40 %, 30 % and 30 %. Egg colour (brown or white) is manifested independently of size in each breed: 30 % of A eggs and 40 % of B eggs are brown. Find
(i) the probability that an egg laid by an A hen is large and brown;
(ii) the probability that an egg is large and brown;
(iii) the probability that a brown egg is large;
(iv) which size grade contains the largest proportion of brown eggs;
(v) whether colour and size are manifested independently in the total egg
production.
(Cambridge)
15. A and B are two events and B' is the complementary event to B. Show that
Pr (A) is between Pr (AFB) and Pr (Ain
(M.E.I.)
16. Prove that, if A and B are independent events, so also are A and B'. If
Al, A2, A3 are three mutually independent events such that
Pr (Ai n A; n
then
= pi
(i
* j * k),
128
7]
MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE 7
drives at 30 m.p.h. but if forced to stop at the lights, he accelerates uniformly from
rest at 4 ft/s2until he attains that speed. Estimate the probabilities of his finding
(i) both sets of lights in his favour;
(ii) both sets of lights against him;
(iii) only one set of lights against him.
Suggest two ways in which the relative timing of the two sets of lights could
be adjusted to ensure that the probabilities would be the same if travelling in
either direction and calculate the probabilities.
(Assume throughout that his progress is not interfered with by other vehicles,
and also, that he drives at 30 m.p.h. right up to the lights and then stops
instantaneously if they are red at that instant.) (SMP)
18. Three players, X, Y, Z, play a game and at each round of the game they have
an equal probability of winning that round. The player who wins each round
scores one point and the game is won by the first person to score a total of
3 points. X wins the first round; calculate the probability that Y wins the game.
(M.E.I.)
19. The basic premium under a certain motor insurance policy is EA p.a. The
scale of No Claims Bonus provides 25 % discount after the first year without
claim, 331 % after two consecutive years free of claim and 50 % after three or
more consecutive years free-of claim. In addition a preferred policy holder's discount of 20 % is given on the basic premium (which may already be discounted
by the No Claims Bonus) for four consecutive years without claim. If a preferred
policy holder's discount has been granted it is not lost by reason of a claim.
Suppose that for a given driver there is a constant probability q of no claim in
a given year. Evaluate the probabilities for the possible premiums in the sixth
year of the policy, in terms of q.
(M.E.I.)
20. n2balls, of which n are black and the rest white, are distributed at random
into n bags, so that each bag contains n balls. Determine the probability that at
least one bag contains no black ball.
129
1 357
2r -1
Fig. 8.1
1]
of the sequence {r 3-1} are 0, 7, 26, 80, 124, .... Again, the sequence
1, 3, 5, 7, 9, ... could be written {2r -1}-but see Ex. 5, which illustrates
the danger of assuming that the form of the rth term is determined by the
first few terms of a sequence.
Sequences are sometimes defined by giving, say, the first term and a
relation between the (r - 1)th and rth terms. For example, the sequence
defined by the relation
Ur =
+1
(1)
u, = 1
has, for its second term 2.1 +1 = 3, for its third term 3.3+1 = 10,
for its fourth term 4.10 +1 = 41 and so on.
*Ex. 1. What are the first four terms of the sequence given by
ur= ru_,+ 1,
(i) if It, = 0; (ii) if u1 = 2?
A relation such as (1), connecting general terms of a sequence, is called a
recurrence relation. As another example of a recurrence relation we might
have
(2)
+ Ur-2.
uT =
To define this sequence {ur} we need two initial terms (why ?). Thus, if
= 1, u, = 1
then (2) defines the sequence
1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, ....
Ex. 2. Write down the first four terms of the sequences defined by the following
recurrence relations and initial terms:
(i) u, = 2/4-1, U1 = 1;
(ii) Ur = ur_ 1+1, u, = 1;
(iii) UT = rur_i+ r2, u1 = 0;
(iv) u,.= r(ur_,- ur_2),
U1= 1, u, = 2;
2
(v) u, = 2(u.,-.1+ -), u1 = 1.5.
Ex. 3. Write down the first six terms of the following sequences:
(iii) {2r-1};
(i) {3r};
(ii) {3r-5};
(iv) {r(r2 1)};
(v) {1 +(- 1)1;
(vi) {11[r(r +1)]};
(vii) {rr-3};
(viii) {r + (
(r+ 1)}.
-
Ex. 4. Suggest possible fifth and sixth terms for the following sequences, whose
first four terms are given, indicating how you arrived at them:
(i) {1, 4, 7, 10, ...};
(ii) {1, -1,
...};
(iii) {1, 2, 4, 7, ...};
(iv) {0, 3, 8, 15, ...};
(v) {1, 3, 6, 11,...}.
131
[8
1+1+++1+...+1/n
are the series obtained respectively from the sequences {2r 1} and
{1/6.
If n is known, such sums may be found simply by obtaining the necessary terms and adding them one by one, but the process is naturally
laborious. In this chapter we shall explore more sophisticated methods for
summing certain simple series, but, before doing so, it is desirable to
introduce a shorthand notation for sums, the E notation (read 'sigma
notation').
n
i r = 1+2+3 + 4 = 10;
r =1
5 (3r
r=1
1) = 2+5+8+11+14 = 40.
r=0
2
The general rule for finding E uris to determine the value of ur for r = m
r--in
and all subsequent r, in steps of 1, until we arrive at unand then to sum all
the terms so obtained.
(i) E ra;
r =1
5
(iv) Z ( - Or r;
r =1
4
r
(vii) E
r =0
132
r + 2'
1]
Ex. 7. Evaluate:
3
E r2;
(i) E (r + 2);
r=1
r=1
r=1
1
(V)
r =0
r=0
4
r=2
r+2'
(1
(vii) E 2r;
r=0
E r3;
r=1
1 \
kr r+11
(ii) 1-2+3-4;
(iv) 1+2+4+8+16;
(vi) 1.2+2.3+3.4+4.5+5.6+6.7;
(viii) 1+2+3+4+...+n.
*Ex. 9. Prove that, if {u7 } and {v,} are two sequences, then
(ar + v7) = E ur +
r=172
r=m
r=m
*Ex. 10. Prove that, if {ur} is any sequence and a a fixed number, then
n
aur = a
r=m
r=m
*Ex. 11. Interpret and evaluate E c, where c is fixed. (That is, find the sum of the
r=1
2. ARITHMETIC SEQUENCES
Sequences such as (1, 3, 5, 7, _I, {11, 21, 3i, 5, ...}, {4, 1, -2, -5, _} are
called arithmetic sequences, their distinguishing feature being that the
difference between any pair of successive terms is constant. If we call this
common difference d, and the first term a, then the arithmetic sequence
takes the form {a +(r-1) d}.
Ex. 12. Write down the rth terms of each of the following arithmetic sequences:
{1, 4, 7, ...}, {1, 2+, 4, ...}, {2, 0, -2, ...}.
Ex. 13. Find to which integer r the following terms correspond in the given
arithmetic sequences:
(ii) 139 in {3, 7, 11, ...);
(i) 91 in {1, 3, 5, ...};
(iii) -253 in {2, -1, -4, ...};
(iv) 61.7 in {3.2, 4.7, 62, ...};
(v) -67 in {71, 61, 5i, ...}.
133
[8
Ex. 14. Taking what you consider to be the simplest continuation in each case,
write down, in E form, the sum of the first n terms of each of the following
series:
(i) 1.4.7+4.7.10+7.10.13+10.13.16+...;
(ii) 2.3.5+4.6.9+6.9.13+8.12.17+...;
(iii) 24 +44 + 67 +8"+...;
(iv)
1
2
3
4
(v) 1.2.3 3.5.10+ 5.8.17 7.11.24'
E r. Writing
r=1
S = 1+2+3+...+n
and
S = n+(n-1)+(n-2)+...+1.
Adding:
2S = (n+1)+(n+1)+(n+1)+...+(n+l)
= n(n+ 1).
S = -n(n+1).
Thus
[a + (r 1) =- a+
r=1
r=1
r=1
r=1
= na++dn(n+1)nd
= -in[2a + (n 1) d].
This method is easily applicable to any arithmetic series and depends only
upon memorizing the single important result
E r = in(n + 1).
r=1
a+ 19d = 69,
134
21
ARITHMETIC SEQUENCES
= 620.
Exercise 8(a)
1. Evaluate:
6
(i) E (r2+ r);
4
2.=.1
r=1
(iii) E (1 +r+r2).
-;
-2
2. Write in E notation :
(i) 1.3 + 4.6 + 7.9 + (to n terms) ;
(ii) 1.2.3 2.3.4 + 3.4.5 4.5.6 + (to n terms) ;
(iii) 12_32+52_72 + (to n terms).
3. Find the first four terms of each of the sequences defined by the following
recurrence relations and initial terms:
(i) ur = 3/4_1+1, u1 = 1;
(ii)
= 0, u1 = 1, u2 = 1;
(iii) u, =
ui = 2;
(iv) 2ur a,-1 -4,_1 = 3, u1 = 1.
4. If {ur } is an arithmetic sequence with common difference d and first term a,
show that ursatisfies the recurrence relation
llr
= ur_i+ d.
(ii)
...};
[8
11. How many terms of the series 1 + 8+15+ ... are required to give a sum of
5500?
12. How many terms of the series 12+ 6+ 0+ ... are required to give a sum of
- 3348?
13. Show that
(r+1)2 = E r2 +2 E r + n
r=1
r=1
r=1
E r = in(n+ 1).
r=1
14. If E sr = n2 + n, prove that {s7} is an arithmetic sequence, and find the first
r=
three terms.
15. Prove that the sum of n terms of any arithmetic series may be written in
the form an2+ bn + c. Prove the converse of this result: that if
r=i
s,. = an2+bn+ c,
3. GEOMETRIC SEQUENCES
Sequences such as {1, 2, 4, 8, ...}, {3, -6, 12, -24, ...}, {1.5, 0.75, 0.375...},
in which each term is a fixed multiple of the preceding term are called
geometric sequences. If we call the first term of the sequence a, and the fixed
multiple, or common ratio, p then the geometric sequence takes the form
{apr-1}.
Ex. 15. Which of the following sets of numbers could be the first three terms of
geometric sequences?
(i) {1, -5, 25, ...};
(ii) {2, 24, 2F1, ...}
(iii) {l, 4, 9, ...};
(iv) {1, - Fl, 121, ...}; (v) {7, -1, -4, ...};
(vi) {1, -1, 1, ...).
Ex. 16. Find to which value of r the following terms correspond in the given
geometric sequences:
(i) 256 in {2, 4, 8, ...};
(iii) 10-" in {10, 1, 0.1, ...}.
136
3]
GEOMETRIC SEQUENCES
S=E
r=1
Let
ap+ap2+ ...+apn-l+apn
apn.
.*. (1p) S = a
p=1
Since, for Ip I < 1, lim pn = 0 (consult a calculus text-book for the deryb>C0
r =1
o0
we have
r=1
r =1
%,
apr-' = 1
provided
IPI<
1.
[8
50[1-1.05-10]
1.05-1
1-1.05-1
= 1000[1-1/1.0512]
= 1000[1-1/1.6289]
= 386.2.
Ex. 17. Comment upon the number of decimal points used in the calculations in
Example 2 and on the accuracy achieved.
Exercise 8(b)
1. Find the sum of the following geometric series, simplifying your answers as
far as possible, but without evaluating terms of the form p":
(i) 1 + 4 + 16 + ... (12 terms);
(ii) 1 2+4 8+ ... (20 terms);
(iii) A/2+ 2+24 + ... (16 terms);
(iv) 1+1+
... (50 terms)
2. The third term of a geometric sequence is 5 and the eighth is 160. Find the
first term and the common ratio.
3. Find two possible geometric sequences whose fourth term is 9 and whose
eighth term is 144.
4. Which is the first term of the geometric sequence 1, +, ... which is less than
10-8 ?
5. How many terms of the geometric series 1 +1++ + ... must be taken to give
a sum greater than 2-10-6 ?
6. How many terms of the geometric series 1 +i+A+... must be taken to
give a sum greater than 4-10-3 ?
7. If x 4, x, x + 6 are the first three terms of a geometric sequence, find x and
the fourth term.
-
8. How many terms of the series 1 +5 +25+ ... must be taken to give a sum
greater than 1016 ?
9. A piece of paper is 0.1 mm thick (so that when it is folded over, the resulting
thickness is 0.2 mm). If a very large sheet of paper could be folded fifty times,
what would be the resulting thickness? (This is a variant of a famous problem;
another form it can take is to find how much corn is required if one grain is to be
placed on the first square of a chess board, two on the second, four on the third
and so on. The answers, when first met, are surprising.)
10. The sum of the first n terms of the sequence {Sr} is *(3n _ 1). Prove that the
sequence is geometric, and write down the first three terms.
138
31
GEOMETRIC SEQUENCES
r=1
r =1
.9 = E apr-1, evaluate
16. If
17. If furl is a geometric sequence with common ratio p, find a recurrence relation involving ur and 14_1. If sn = E ur, show that srsatisfies the recurrence
r=
relation
= a.
What is SI ?
18. If a1, a2, a3, a4, ... are terms of a geometric sequence with common ratio r, find
the sum of n terms of the series
(a1 a2)2+(a2 a3)2 +(a3 a4)2 +
[8
If all the terms on the left-hand side are added together we have precisely
E r(r +1); if all the terms on the right-hand side are added together, we are
r=1
left with 4-0.1.2 at the beginning and in(n + 1) (n+2) at the end, all
the others having cancelled out in pairs. Thus
r=1
r(r+1) = r r+1
E
i
1= 1 1 .
r=1 r(r+ 1)
n+1
More generally, if the rth term of the sequence {sr} can be expressed as
the difference between the (r+ 1)th term and the rth term of a new sequence {ur}, that is, if we can find a new sequence {ur} with the property
that, for all r,
Sr = Ur-Fi Ur,
7L
E sr =
then
r=1
r =1
In the example given above, sr = r(r+ 1) and ur= 4-(r 1) r(r+ 1);
in Ex. 18,
1
s,.
and u,. = 1/r.
r(r +1)
This technique for summing series is called the method of differences; its
use depends, of course, upon our ability to discover the new sequence {ur}.
*Ex. 19. Show that
r(r + 1) (r + 2) = i[r (r +1) (r + 2) (r + 3) (r 1) r(r + 1) (r + 2)]
and deduce that
n
r=ir(r+1)(r+2)
4 2(n+1) (n+2).
r(r+1)(r+2)(r+3) = In(n+1)(n+2)(n+3)(n+4)
r=1
and evaluate
140
4]
FURTHER SUMMATION
1
=1
18 3(n +1) (n+ 2) (n + 3)
1
(r+2)
(r+ 3) (r + 4).
r=lr(r+ 1)
and evaluate
Example 3. Evaluate
r=1 r(r
+ 2)'
1
1
1
r +1
+
r(r +2) r(r +1) (r +2) (r +1) (r +2) r(r +1) (r+2).
Then
1+Z
1
1Wi~n++
+ 2) r (r +
+ 2) r _ 1. r(r+1) (r + 2)
irr=d_r+i
3
2n + 3
4 2(n+ 1) (n+2)
(Note the check by putting n = 1.)
The method of difference is thus seen to constitute a powerful technique
for summing series. The reader should commit the method to memory,
especially the particular approach used for the series given at the beginning of this section and in Ex. 19 and Ex. 20. We shall complete this
section by using the results already proved to deduce two more important
sums:
r =1
r=1
r=1
E r 2 = E r(r + 1) r
r=1
+1)
[8
Proof of (ii):
r(r +1) (r +2) = r3+3r2 +2r
and so
r3 = r(r + 1) (r +2) (3r 2+ 2r)
= r(r + 1) (r +2)-3r(r+1)+r.
n
Thus
r3 =
r=1
r(r + 1) (r+2) 3
r=1
r(r+1)+ r
r=1
r=1
r=1
Example 4. Evaluate
(r +1) (n+ r).
r=1
(r+1)(n+r) = E (r2+r(n+1)+n)
r=1
r=1
r=1
Exercise 8(c)
1. Sum the following series:
2. By expressing r(r + 1) (r +3) in the form r(r +1) (r + 2) + r(r + 1), sum the series
r(r + 1) (r +3).
r=1
r(r+ 1) (r+4).
r=1
r2(r + 1).
3. Find
r=1
4. Find
(rs+r+2).
r=1
5. Find
r(n r)2.
r=1
142
FURTHER SUMMATION
4]
n
(r2 + 2r)
6. Find
r=1
r2 + E 2r;
(i) by expressing it as
r=1
r=1
r=1
0,
1
1
(r+1)(r+2)(r+3) (r+2)(r+3) (r + 1) (r + 2) (r + 3)
Hence evaluate
8. Evaluate
r 1
(r+2)(r+3).
r(r
+1)
r=1
9. Evaluate
1
r(r+
1)
(r+
r=1
E
(r + 4)'
(i) 1.4+4.7+7.10+10.13+...;
(ii) 12 .2+22 .3+32 .4+42 .5+...;
(iii) 1.2.3+4.5.6+7.8.9+10.11.12+...;
(iv) 12 .2.3+22 .3.4+32 .4.5+42 .5.6+....
11. Show that
x(x+ 1) (2x + 1)
for certain constant values of A and B, and find these values. Hence find the sum
of the first n terms of the series
1.2.3+2.3.5+3.4.7+4.5.9+....
(0 & C)
(0 & C)
13. Deduce
24r2 +2.
r=1
r=2
1'(r2 1)
14. Evaluate
15. Prove that the sum of the squares of the first n even numbers exceeds the
sum of the squares of the first n odd numbers by n(2n + 1). Hence, or otherwise,
find the sum of the squares of the first n odd numbers.
(0 & C)
143
[8
x+ a
(x + a)4 =
+ =
x2+2xa+ a2
+ a)3 =
x3+3x2a + 3xa2 + a3
x4 + 4x3a + 6x2a2 + 4xa3 + a4
(x + (2)4_ =
1
1
1
4
5
1
3
6
10
1
4
10
1
5
Fig. 8.2
Each line of Pascal's triangle starts and finishes with a 1; terms in between are obtained by adding together the two terms on either side of it in
the row above.
*Ex. 23. Supply the sixth, seventh and eighth lines of Pascal's triangle.
Ex. 24. Check that the expansion of (x+a)6satisfies conditions (i), (ii) and (iii)
above.
Ex. 25. Show that, if we add the 'zeroth' line, 1, to Pascal's triangle, the expansion of (x+ a) satisfies conditions (i), (ii) and (iii).
By direct verification as above, we may show that conditions (i), (ii) and
(iii) hold for all suitably small values of n; the Binomial Theorem can be used
to show that they are true for all positive integers n. However, before
proceeding to the general theorem, we shall solve an example by means
of Pascal's triangle.
144
(x + a)n = xn
=
r =0
n
)
n-rar __Fan
2
r
xn-rar.
1.)
145
[8
(iii) Since
in-1\ + in-1\
kr - 1 ) k r )
(n-1)!
4. (n-1)!
(r -1)! (n- r)! r! (n- r -1)!
[1
11
(n-1)!
= (r-1)!(n-r-1)! n-r +r
n!
( r: 0 + (n ;1) = (nr)
Vandermonde's Theorem.
Example 6. Obtain the first three terms in the expansion of (1 - 2x)" in
ascending powers of x.
(1 -2x)2 = (1)20 + (210.),.,19
ki) k 2x)1+ (1) (1)18 (-2x)2
,_
= 1 + 20( - 2x) +
20 . 19
(4x2) ...
1.2
Exercise 8(d)
1. Write down the expansions of
(ii) (2x+4y)6 ;
(iv) (2x+6y)6.
(i) (x -31)6 ;
(iii) (1 +2x)7;
2. Find the coefficient of x2in the expansions of each of the following expressions:
(i) (3x+1)';
(ii) (2-x)7;
(iii) (1 +2x)'2;
(iv) (3 -4x)6.
3. Write down the first three terms in the expansions of each of the following
expressions in ascending powers of x:
(i) (1 +2x)8;
(ii) (1+-1x)16 ;
(iii) (2-x)10 ;
(iv) (3x-y)7.
4. Write down the general term in the expansion of
2x-1)8.
(
146
5]
Hence determine the constant term in this expansion (that is, the term not
involving x).
5. Determine the constant term in the expansion of
(x2 _- 1
)6
3x
6. Find correct to five significant figures, the values of
(iii) (9.99)5 ;
(i) (1.01)8;
(ii) (0.998)8;
In each case, justify the accuracy of your result.
(iv) (2.98)5.
n \
(11+
r2) _
r 21 4.
n \ in\
- + kr ) '
Miscellaneous Exercise 8
1. Find (i) the sum, (ii) the product, of the first n terms of the geometric sequence
{l, 3, 9, .}.
2. The first term of a geometric series is 18 and the sum to infinity is 20. Find
the common ratio and the sum of the first six terms. Find also in its simplest form
the ratio of the nth term to the sum of all the subsequent terms of the infinite
series.
(J.M.B.)
147
[8
= 2(C1+ C2
for n = 1, 2, .... Find C2, C3 and C4 and prove that the numbers C2, C3, C4, ...
form a geometric progression.
Find the sum of n terms of the series
C1+C2 +C3 +....
(0 & C)
(0 & C)
148
MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE 8
5]
9. Prove that
lm(m + 1).
is (
(O & C)
10. Prove that (V2+ 1)2a = AA/2 + B, where A and B are integers. Prove further
that B2 2A2 = 1.
11. Show that
(nr)
ry
(1 .7C2)2m,
(2m) 2 = 1\ (2m)!.
t
1- 2m
(m!)2
n+(n-1)a+(n-2)a2+... +aa-1
and deduce from this the sum to n terms of the series
1 +26+ 3b2 +...+(n 1) ba-2+nba-1.
(0 & C)
13. Find, in binary form, the square of the number whose expression in binary
notation consists of the r digits 1.
14. Evaluate
rs).
r=1 s=1
By putting m = n, deduce that the sum of the product in pairs of the first n
integers is
n(n21) (3n+ 2).
15. Verify that
Prove that
and find the sum of the cubes of all odd numbers less than 50 that are not multiples of 5.
149
[8
...
(i.e. each bracket contains two integers more than the preceding bracket).
(i) Find the total number of integers in the first (n 1) brackets.
(ii) Show that the first number in the nth bracket is n2 2n + 2.
(iii) Show that the sum of the numbers in the nth bracket is n3 + (n 1)3 .
(iv) If the first number in the nth bracket is denoted by a and the first number
in the (n + 1)th bracket is denoted by b show that the sum of the numbers in the
nth bracket is exactly divisible by (b a) and that the quotient is an odd number.
(Cambridge)
150
Revision exercise A
1. If the expressions
x3 (a+ 2) x + 2b and 2x3 + ax2 4x b
have a common factor x+ 3, find the values of a and b, and find a second common factor.
(0 & C '0')
2. Find the mid-point of the line joining the points (-4, 2) and (2, 6), and
show that the equation of the perpendicular bisector of this line is 3x 4y = 5.
Prove that the point (3, 1) is one vertex of a square of which the points (-4, 2)
and (2, 6) are opposite vertices, and find the coordinates of the fourth vertex.
(0 & C '0')
3. You are given that the equation
3x5 -9x+5 = 0
has a root approximately equal to 1. By substituting x = 1 + h, and neglecting
h2and higher powers show that x = 11 is a closer approximation to this root.
4. (i) The fourth term of an arithmetic series is 55, and the tenth term is 45.
Calculate the sum of all the positive terms.
(ii) Find, correct to one decimal point, the sum of the first fifteen terms of the
geometric series
1 +(1.02)+ (1.02)2 + (1.02)2 +
(0 & C '0')
5. In how many distinct ways may the letters of the word SYZYGY be arranged?
In how many of these do the three Ys appear together ?
(What does the word syzygy mean ?)
6. Without using tables, prove that tan 60 =
A rectangle ABCD lies in a horizontal plane and DE is a line of length h
drawn vertically upwards from D; EA, EB, EC are joined. If the lines AE, CE
make angles of 60, 45 respectively with the horizontal, express AD and CD in
terms of h, and hence calculate the angle which BE makes with the horizontal.
(0 & C '0')
7. Find the equation of the line of gradient 1 which passes through the point
of intersection of the lines x + 3y 5 = 0 and 2x y 7 = 0.
8. If x2+2x + 2 is a factor of x4 + axe + b, find a and b. Express x4 + 16 as the
product of two quadratic factors whose coefficients are real numbers.
9. ABC is a triangle: points Q, R are taken on AC, AB respectively so that
AQ = 2QC, 2AR = RB.
REVISION EXERCISE A
I purchase it. If I dislike the first hat that we are shown, there is a probability of
that my wife will like it. If she does like it she naturally overrules my choice
but, when I hear the price, there is a t probability that I shall veto the purchase.
What is the probability that I buy her the first hat we are shown? If I do buy her
the hat, what is the probability that we both like it?
20. Prove that, if n is an integer, none of the numbers 7n + 3, 7n+5, 7n+ 6 can
be a perfect square.
21. Find the equation of the plane through the point (1, 1, 1) containing the line
z
x-3 y- 1 =
5
2
4
Find also the direction cosines of the line of intersection of this plane with the
plane Oxy.
152
REVISION EXERCISE A
22. The set S consists of all points in a plane whose coordinates relative to a
given pair of perpendicular axes are both integers (in the units used). If A, B, C
are members of S, prove that the area of the triangle ABC is a rational number
of square units.
23. Eliminate 0 between the pair of equations
a sec 0+ b cosec 0 = c,
a' sec 0 b' cosec 8 = c'.
24. Solve the inequality
x 1
< 2
x2-3x-4
25. Evaluate
r =1
i+j+k, 2i j+2k
Find the position vector of the point of intersection of this plane with the line
r = 3i+ 5j 5k+ v(2i + 3j k).
153
REVISION EXERCISE A
31. A bag contains three white and four red balls, another bag contains four
white and three red balls. One of the bags is selected at random and two balls
are drawn from it. If both balls are red, what is the probability that, of the five
balls remaining in the selected bag, two are red?
32. A and B are two points with position vectors a, b relative to a given origin 0.
Prove that the equation of the internal bisector of the angle AOB is
r = A(A + 6).
154
9. Mathematical induction
1. A NOTE ON MATHEMATICAL PROOFS
In a mathematical proof we proceed from one step to the next by processes
of deductive logic; that is, each step is logically implied by the previous
step or steps of the proof. In other words, a mathematical argument has
a direction. The first step must depend upon certain premises or known
theorems which may or may not be stated explicitly. For example, in the
traditional form of proof for a geometrical problem, the premises (data)
are usually stated before the proof commences and the argument leads
from this statement to the final deduction, using previously proved results
of elementary geometry. If, however, we are asked to prove that the probability of a double with a throw of two unbiased dice is A, we must commence
by asserting that the set consisting of the thirty-six pairs of numbers
(1, 1), (1, 2), ..., (1, 6), (2, 1), (2, 2), ..., (6, 6) constitutes a possible outcome
space and that we assume that each of these elementary events has a
probability of 33.(`The dice are unbiased.') We are then able to deduce
the required probability.
Since a mathematical argument has a direction, we shall frequently
meet the situation in which a sequence of statements p, q, r are strung
together in the form ' statement p implies the statement q which, in turn,
implies the statement r and so on'. The notation
0, for real
0, for real
x, y, z,
x, y, z.
The reader must always be on his guard, when writing p q, that this
is indeed what he means: a genuine deduction from the immediately preceding statement is implied. One of the principle sources of error among
6
PPM
155
MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION
[9
sine A cost A
which is manifestly true, since
1
cos A
= sec A.'
q and q p both
>.
-:.
156
x2 148x+ 576 = 0
(x-4)(x-144)=0.
1]
157
MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION
[9
Ex. 11. If p is the statement n is an odd number' and q is the statement 'an
integer k can be found so that n = 4k +1' prove that q p and disprove the converse result p q.
To complete this section we mention one final method of proving that
the implication p = q holds. If a statement p is modified by the addition
of the word `not', a new statement 'not p', written p' (sometimes
is obtained. For example, if p is the statement 'the integer n is divisible
by 3' p' is the statement `the integer n is not divisible by 3'. p' is called the
negation of p.
t Another way of expressing implications is by using the phrases 'necessary condition'
and 'sufficient condition'. A necessary condition for p is q means that p q; a sufficient
condition for p is q means that q = p. A necessary and sufficient condition for p is q means
that p a q.
158
1]
q'.
Thus r' q' and so q
r.
Exercise 9(a)
1. Disprove the converse of the result 'if a quadrilateral is a rectangle then its
diagonals are equal'.
2. All angles 0 of the form 0 = kir (k an integer) have the property that
sin 0 = tan 0. Is the converse result true?
3. If a, b e Z+ and if the operation o is defined by
aob
ab a b
a+1 '
MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION
4. Solve the equation V(x 4)+ 2 = V(x + 12), stating which steps in your
solution are reversible and which are not.
5. Solve the equation Al(2x +1) Aix = 1, stating which steps in your solution
are reversible and which are not.
6. Solve the equation V(2x 1) + V(x + 3) = 9, stating which steps in your solution are reversible and which are not.
7. Explain the fallacy in the following argument:
`n2 +1 has no real factors. Put n = 3: thus 10 is a prime number.'
8. Prove that the difference of the squares of two odd numbers is divisible by 8.
State and prove a converse theorem.
9. Prove that (x+h) is a factor of axe + bx+ c if and only if ah2 bh+ c = 0.
10. Prove that, if a * 1, then the simultaneous equations in x, y:
ax+y = b,
lx+ay = b
can be solved for x and y.
What happens if a = 1?
Is it true that the equations cannot be solved if a = 1?
11. Two well-known theorems of number theory are:
(i) any odd prime of the form 4n + 1 is expressible as the sum of the squares
of two integers;
(ii) any odd prime of the form 4n + 3 is not expressible as the sum of the
squares of two integers.
Combine these two theorems into a single theorem by using the phrase `if and
only if'.
12. a, b, c, d are four unequal, positive numbers. Prove that
ac
b d
(a2 +c2
b2+d2)
if and only if
a c
=
P(x) = (x h)2Q(x),
where Q(x) is a polynomial, prove that (x h) is also a factor of P'(x). (P'(x) is
the derivative of P(x).)
14. Prove that, if 0 < x < 1,
4 3x
.
4x
15. ABC is any triangle and M is the mid-point of BC. Prove that
then
(1 x)1 <
160
1]
divisible by 6.
Show that the statement 'if x is a number such that x+ 1 or x-1 is divisible
by 6, then x is a prime' is false.
Show further that the statement 'if x is divisible by 6, then at least one of
x+ 1 or x 1 is a prime number' is also false.
17. Prove that a sufficient condition for the integer x to be divisible by 17 is that
there exists an integer n such that
x = 35n-18n.
Prove further that this is not a necessary condition for x to be divisible by 17.
2. MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION;
AN INTRODUCTORY EXAMPLE
Consider the series
1
1
1
1.2+ 2.3+3.4 +
Suppose we define the sequence {sn} in such a way that snrepresents the
sum of the first n terms of this series. Then by direct computation,
S3 = 4,
S1 =
S4
The form taken by the first few values of s7, suggests that
sn
n
(n c Z +) .
n+1
n
fn_ n +1'
Then we wish to prove that the two sequences {sn} and {fn} are the same,
in the sense that sn = fnfor all n E Z.
As a first step, we observe that
n+1
by the definition off
n+2'
1
=
n+1 (n+1) (n+2)
1
=
1
fn+i=
Also,
Sn+i = Sn
(1)
(2)
161
MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION
(1) and (2) define recurrence relations (see chapter 8.1); with the initial
terms they enable us to determine uniquely any term of either of the
sequences {sn}, {M. But we further observe, in this case, that
(i) the two recurrence relations are the same;
(ii) sl = z =
Since the recurrence relations (1) and (2) develop successive terms of the
sequences {s} and {fn} in the same way, and since the two sequences
have the same starting point, we deduce that sn = fnfor all n.
The observation that (1) and (2) represent the same recurrence relation
enables us to deduce that if sn = fn, then sn+, =
or, expressed
alternatively,
sn = fn
Sn+1 =fn+
1.
The fact that s1 = flthen enables us to infer the equality of s and fn for
all n E Z ; for
s1 =f s2 =
s, =f3
sn = 1.2+2.3+3.4+...+n(n+1),
fn, =
+1) (n + 2).
Show that (i) s1 = fl, (ii) s and fnsatisfy the same recurrence relation. Deduce
that sn =
INDUCTION
Suppose that /Inis some statement about the positive integer n. For example (see example 5 below), we might have
pn: 'the expression On 6'2is divisible by 7'.
and the truth of the statement pnmay be asserted for all n m. Such a
process is called proof by mathematical induction.
The method of mathematical induction is used to prove a conjecture
about the positive integer n. The conjecture itself is usually arrived at by
inductive argument from a few simple caseshence the use of the word
`induction', though the method of proof is deductive.
162
3]
(i) verify that the induction starts; that is, we find an integer m for
which p, is true;
(ii) prove the implication pk Pki for a general positive integer k m.
*Ex. 14. Show that n2 + n + 41 is a prime number if n = 1, 2, 3. Prove that the
statement `n2 + n + 41 is a prime number for all positive integers n' is false.
(n2+n+ 41 is, in fact, prime for n = 1, 2, 3, ..., 39 but it is false when n = 40
and whenever n is a multiple of 41: pk* Pk+1.)
*Ex. 15. If pnis the statement 5n25n +2 is divisible by 10', prove that
Prove also that pnis false for all positive integers n. (The induction has
no starting point.) Hint. To prove the falsity of pn, observe that pk p Pk+i and
Pk" Pk-1-1
thus pk
sn = 1.1!+2.2!+3.3!+...+n.n!.
(n +1)!
1'.
= (k+1)!-1+(k+1)(k+1)!, by pk ;
sk+i = (k+1)! [1+k+1]-1
sk+i
sk+1 = (k+2)! 1
and thus pk p
kiand the result is true for all n
induction.
1, by mathematical
Example 5. Prove that 13n 6n-2is divisible by 7 for all positive integers
greater than m, where m is a certain integer, to be specified.
Write un = 13" 6n-2; we have to prove that unis divisible by 7 for all
n m, where m is some integer, to be found.
(i) u1 is a fraction, and the concept of divisibility does not apply.
yr, = 132 -6 = 168 = 7.24 and u2is therefore divisible by 7: the induction
starts.
Let pnbe the statement `unis divisible by 7'.
163
MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION
[9
xn +
1
a+ 2 xn-2a2+ +
xn-rar + +
an
xn-rar + a ( n ) xn'-rar-1
r 1
F
/ + (r n 1)1 xn+l-rar
by Vandermondes
(n
+
1) xn+l-rar,
=
r
Theorem (see Chapter 8).
Thus
(x+a)[xn + (7) xn-ia+ ( ) xn-2a2+ ... + (n) xn-rar + ...+an]
2
r
3]
= 2n 2.
But the result is true for n = 1 and n = 2, hence it is true for n = 3 and so
on.
n-1
2 and the
initial value u1 = 4, prove that un = 2n(n 2). (Make the assumption that, for
k 2, u3 = 28 for all s in the interval 2 S s k.)
U Eils) = E Pr(E,IS).
(i=1 i=i
165
MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION
[9
(i) The result is certainly true if n = 2, by Theorem 7.2, and the induction starts.
k-1
k-1
EkIS) =
k-1
= E Pr (Ei lS)+ Pr
i=1
(Ek i S),
= E Pr (Ei lS)
i=i
and the theorem is proved, by mathematical induction.
Exercise 9(b)
Throughout this exercise, It represents a positive integer. Prove the results 1-14.
using the principle of mathematical induction.
1. 1 +2+3+4+...+n = in(n+1).
2. 1+3+5+...+(2n-1) = n2.
3. 12 +22 +32 +42 +...+n2 = in(n +1) (2n +1).
4. 13 +23 +33 + ... +n3= 4n2(n +1)2.
1
1
1
1
1
1
+
+
' 1.2.3 2.3.4 3.4.5 + + n(n +1) (n + 2) 4 2(n+ 1) (n + 2).
8.
1
1
1
1
3
2n+3
13+ 24 + 35+-+n(n+2) = 4 2(n+1)(n+2).
9. n6 -n is divisible by 30.
10. 12n +2.5n-4is divisible by 7.
11. 26n + 32n-2is divisible by 5.
12. 52n +22n-2.3n-3is divisible by 13.
1, n > 1.
15. The terms of the sequence {u,.} are all positive and s = E ur. Prove that
r=1
166
77
2.
3]
16. Prove that 5n < rz! for all sufficiently large n. Add such precision as you can
to the phrase 'sufficiently large n'.
17. Prove by mathematical induction that the sum of the angles of a convex
n-sided polygon is (2n 4) right-angles.
18. Prove that an n-sided convex polygon has -in(zz 3) diagonals.
19. A straight line separates a plane into 2 regions; two straight lines separate
the plane into 4 regions and so on. If n straight lines (no three concurrent, no two
parallel) separate the plane into u regions, prove that
un= 1-(na + n + 2).
20. If n is a positive integer, prove that
52n-1-2_ 24n 25
is divisible by 576.
(Cambridge)
1 1
1
f(n) = 1+ + + ...+
22 3
2
n2
21. If
prove that
(Cambridge)
23. If al, a2, a3, ..., anare all positive, prove that
11
1
(ai+ a2 + + a) (-+-+ ...+ )
an
a1 a2
n2.
2n(2n 2)
2n(2n 2) (2n 4)
+
+ ... (to n terms) = 2n.
(2n 1) (2n 3) (2n 1) (2n 3) (2n 5)
(0 & C)
25. A motorist estimates that, by travelling along a main road at a certain steady
speed, the probability that the next set of traffic lights will be green if the last
set was green is aand that the probability that the next set of lights will be
green if the last set was red is 4. He sets out one day to test his theory. Prove that,
if the first lights he meets are green and if
pn = Pr (the nth set of lights is green when he reaches them)
then
Pn
3(a)n-1 (n
% 1).
26. A man repeatedly tosses an unbiased coin, scoring 1 for each head and 2
for each tail. If pnis the probability that his score will ever be n, prove that
Pn = +
Dn
27. n bags, numbered 1 to n, each contain one white and one black ball. A
ball is taken at random from bag one and placed in bag two; a ball is then taken
167
MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION
[9
from bag two and placed in bag three and so on, until finally a ball is taken from
bag n. Prove that the probability that this ball is white is
(
1
2 1 + 3n-1
given that the first ball drawn was white.
0 (n i 1)
0 (n i 1)
prove that
un =
,*5
(an /J")
where a =
1 +0
2
and 13 =
1 V5
2
is even.
168
10. Expectation
1. RANDOM VARIABLES
In Chapter 7 we considered random experiments described by outcome
spaces. With each elementary event we associated a number, its probability, which denoted our degree of belief that the experiment would result
in that particular events occurring. The elementary events themselves
may be described in various ways: in some cases, it is natural to denote
them by a number, e.g. for the fall of a die we could denote our elementary
events by the numbers 1, 2, 3, ..., 6; but sometimes no such natural numerical description exists. For example, for a single toss of a coin, the two element set {heads, tails) is the natural choice of outcome space, the elements
being labelled by the descriptions ' heads' and `tails'. In order to make a
mathematical analysis of random experiments it is helpful to describe the
possible outcomes numerically even in those cases where no such 'natural'
description exists. Thus, in the case of coin spinning, the event ' tails' could
be denoted by the number 0, the event ' heads ' by the number 1. Such
values are called values of a random variable.
Let us pause here to recapitulate. Suppose we have a random experiment whose possible outcomes are the n elementary events sb s2, sn.
Then we may take as our outcome space the set
S
sz, , sn}
We now attach two numerical ' labels ' to each element si of S:
(i) the probability, pi, of that event occurring;
(ii) the corresponding value xiof the random variable (see Figure 10.1).
To help fix ideas, consider the following examples:
1. An unbiased die is thrown and the score noted. The outcome space
with the associated probabilities and values of a possible choice of random
variable are shown in Figure 10.2. If the experiment is repeated a number
of times, then the sum of the values of the random variable obtained gives
us our aggregate score.
2. Two unbiased dice are thrown in an attempt to score a double.
Since we are interested in just two possible outcomes, we may take our outcome space, S, as shown in Figure 10.3. Associated probabilities together
with a possible choice for values of a random variable are as indicated.
In this case, if the experiment is repeated, the sum of the values of the
random variables obtained gives us the number of doubles thrown.
169
EXPECTATION
[10
I
I
1
.P2=6 A=6 P6=6
1 1 n -1 1 -1 1
P1 = 3 I '3-6 I P 6-6
P1 P2
f t
s 4I 4I
1 1
stssb
PIT
11
I I
I I
,
"o
I
I
_L
I
I
I
1
1
1
Saal
l 530 540 s50 ScEl
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
I
I
I
I
1
= 1 x3 = 3 I x4 = 5 I
x2 = 2 x4 = 4 xa = 6
Fig. 10.2
1
Xn
XL X2
Fig. 10.1
r,
1
ri= -6
5
P2 = 6
I
I
I
I
Not a
Double
double
x1= 1 X2 = 0
Fig. 10.3
1
4
FL =
F3 = 74
f1 = 74
tI
1
3 3 I 34 1
:1=1
r
=1
1
It
I
I
s1 1 $2 I
Th
xi. =-I-5
x3 = 0
x4 = 5
Fig. 10.4
x2 =0
170
1]
RANDOM VARIABLES
cerned with the financial outcome and our choice of random variable
reflects this concern. If the experiment is repeated a number of times,
the sum of the values of the random variable obtained denotes A's net
gain in pence.
With these examples behind us we now make the following definition:
a variable whose value is a number determined by the outcome of a random
experiment is called a random variable.
The discerning reader will have observed that a random variable is a
function from a given sample space into a set of numbers, the values of
the random variable being the images under this function. The words
`random variable', however, are often loosely used to denote the image
a vice to which we ourselves shall succumb from time to time for the sake
of brevity.
In the same way that a function is denoted by f and the image of z
under./ by f(z), so a random variable may be denoted by X and its associated value for the ith element of the outcome space by xi.
Ex. 1. A man pays 10 pence to throw two dice. For any double he receives his
stake momey back, together with a prize: one pound for a double six and 20
pence for any other double. Suggest a suitable outcome space, probability distribution and random variable for this experiment.
Ex. 2. A man insures his life for 1000, paying a premium of EX. Suggest a
suitable choice of random variable to describe the situation.
2. EXPECTATION
A mass of numerical data often has an indigestible appearance and conveys
very little, unless subjected to considerable analysis. A device commonly
used to give an overall impression of the data is to determine their average
value. For example, if the heights of a hundred boys are measured, the
complete set of results may usefully be characterized by giving their average
height.
We shall now investigate what meaning can be attached to the phrase
`the average value of the random variable X associated with a given
probability distribution'. If an experiment is repeated N times, where N
is a large number, our interpretation of the probability p, as a measure
of our confidence in securing the outcome s1leads us to expect roughly
pi N occurrences of si, with similar results for s2, s3, etc. Thus we should
anticipate a score of x1 on IAN occasions, x2 on IAN occasions and so on,
giving an approximate average value of our random variable X for all N
171
[10
EXPECTATION
repetitions as
Nxi +p2Nx2+
N
+pNx,,
= Pixi+P2x2+ +Pnxn
n
= 1=1
E Pi xi.
The larger the value of N, the more confidence we should place in the value
of E pi xias an estimate of the average. We are thus led to formulate the
i=
following definition:
The expectation e(X) of the random variable X is defined by the equation
e(X) = pi xi
Example 1. An unbiased die is thrown; what is the expected score?
Here p, = a for each elementary event, and the associated values of the
random variable X are the integers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. Thus
S(X) =
r
1-1 u
21
= 3.5.
It is perhaps surperfluous to remark that no one sufficiently familiar
with an unbiased die would expect a score of 3.5 on any one throw. 3.5
simply represents the best estimate available, prior to the actual experiment,
that we can make of the final average score if the die is thrown a number of
times; the larger the number of throws, the better we expect our estimate
to be. (The reader is strongly recommended to test the accuracy of this
forecast if ever he finds time lying heavily on his hands by throwing a die,
say a hundred times, and computing his average score.)
Example 2. Two players, A and B, play the following game with three coins:
A pays a stake of 10 pence and tosses the three coins in turn. If he obtains
three heads, his stake is returned, together with a prize of 30 pence; for two
consecutive heads, his stake money is returned, together with a prize of
10 pence. In all other cases, B wins the stake money. Is the game fair?
We must first consider what is meant by the question `is the game fair ?'
Intuitively it seems reasonable to label a game as ' fair ' if, in the long-run
neither side anticipates any considerable financial gain. Mathematically,
a game between two players is fair if the expectation of gain for either
player is zero.
172
2]
EXPECTATION
HHH
'HHT
1t.
30
10
e(x) =
THH
1
10
Anything
else
i
10
= 0.
173
[10
EXPECTATION
Exercise 10(a)
1. The values of a random variable, together with their associated probabilities
for four different experiments, are given in the tables below. Calculate AX) in
the four cases.
(i) xi
p,
A-
A-
IAA
xi
pi
Ai
AAA
x;
(iv) xi
10
pi
174
Blue
Red
Green
Bag I
Bag II
2]
EXPECTATION
A player stakes a certain sum of money for the privilege of drawing two discs,
one from each bag. For two discs of the same colour his stake is returned and, in
addition, he is awarded a prize of 10p for two reds, 20p for two greens and 25p
for two blues. For two discs of different colours he loses his stake.
Show that, if the stake money is 8p, he can anticipate gaining in the long run,
but that with the stake at 9p he should expect to lose.
8. The game of Question 7 is repeated, but the player now tosses a coin to decide
which bag he must choose from: if he tosses a head, he chooses bag I, if a tail,
bag II; he then draws a disc at random from the chosen bag, notes its colour and
replaces the disc. He repeats the process again and is paid prizes as in the previous question. Determine the minimum stake (to the nearest penny) required to
ensure that the player will show a loss in the long run.
9. The game of Question 8 is repeated but the discs are not replaced between
draws. Determine the minimum stake (to the nearest penny) required to ensure
that the player will show a loss in the long run.
10. The game of Question 7 is repeated, but the player is now required to place
his stake after the result of the first draw from bag I is known. If he draws a red
disc first time he pays 2p, if a green, 9p, if a blue, 12p. Show that, in the long run,
the player expects to win.
Show further that the above stakes are the fairest available that still give an
advantage to the player, in the sense that, if any one of the stakes were increased
by 1p, the bank would then expect to win.
11. A man pays a stake to throw two dice. If he scores a total of 3 or 11, he
receives 40p. For a total of 5 or 9 he receives 20p, and for a total of 7, 10p (in
each case the stake money being returned too). He loses his stake money for any
even score. Show that he expects to win if the stake money is 21p, but that, if the
prizes for scoring 5 or 9 and 7 are reversed, he would then expect to lose.
12. Two identical bags contain respectively (i) four fivepenny pieces and twelve
tenpenny pieces, (ii) nine fivepenny and seven tenpenny pieces. You are allowed to
select a bag and draw a coin at random from it. If the coin you draw is a fivepenny piece, what would be a fair price for you to offer for the bag you did not
select ?
13. The path in Figure 10.5 represents a simple maze along which a rat is made
to run. It starts at S and has to finish at F. If it makes a mistake at A by turning
along AA' it will return to A and be forced by the construction of the maze, to
turn towards F, and similarly at each of the other junctions. The probability of
taking either of the two paths available at each junction is -. Find the expected
number of mistakes the rat will make in running from S to F.
A' B' C' D'
0
Start
F
A BCD
Finish
Fig. 10.5
14. What is the expected number of moves that can be made by (i) a bishop,
(ii) a knight, placed at random on an empty chess board?
175
EXPECTATION
[10
15. Two dice are thrown in 'one turn', each turn costing 5p. If a prize of 40p is
given for a double six and a prize of 20p for any other double (together, in both
cases, with the stake money), determine the loss to a person playing the game
one hundred times.
16. A man puts three coins into a bag, deciding at random for each coin separately whether it is to be a fivepenny or a tenpenny piece. Calculate the expected
total value of the coins he puts in his pocket.
17. A man puts three 5 notes into one envelope and three E1 notes into a similar envelope. Each year at Christimas, he chooses one envelope at random and
gives his nephew a note from it. As soon as either envelope is emptied by his
taking the last note from it, the process ends.
(i) State the different totals which the nephew may have received when the
process ends;
(ii) for each of these totals calculate the chance of its occurrence;
(iii) deduce that the nephew's expectation of gain is 12.375.
(Cambridge adapted)
176
3]
For die I,
For die II,
STANDARD DEVIATION
2-5 + 2.5) = 0.
For die I,
g(Z) = 6.25.
Pi(Xi Max)2.
i=1
[10
EXPECTATION
we may define the expectation of f(X), e[f(X)], by
.fiX)] = E Ptflxi);
i=1
cr
= eq(xit.)2].
Ex. 6. Find the mean and variance of the random variable X whose probability
distribution is shown in the table below:
X 0
Pi
III
3 4
I
Ex. 7. Find the variance for the number of heads showing if three unbiased coins
are tossed.
*Ex. 8. A random variable has mean # and variance a-2. If a constant c is added
to each value of the random variable, describe (without embarking upon any
detailed working) what difference this will make to (i) the mean, (ii) the variance.
e[(X-a)2]
e[(x--a)] = E pi(xi a)
i=i
n
= EPixi Epia
i=1
i=1
= au a E Pi
i=1
= a,
178
since E pi = 1.
i=1
SOME THEOREMS
(ii)
a)2] =
=
i=i
i=i
pi(xi a)2
Pi[(xi -10+(lt a)]2
71,
=102 +
i=1
P
J=1
since 2(1a a) and (,ua)2are common factors and thus may be taken
outside the summation; thus
[(Xa)2] = o 2+(ua)2, since E pi = 1
J=1
and E pi(xima) = 0 (from Theorem 10.1(i) putting a =
Example 3. Find the mean and variance of the numbers 1, 2, ..., 20, assuming
that they are uniformly distributed.
We use Theorem 10.1, with a = 10,
e[(y-10)] = -216{-(9+8+...+1)+(1+2+...+9)+10]
= 0.5,
p = 10.5;
e[(x.- 10)2] = 26 [2(12+22+ ... +92) + Hp]
= -216[1.9.10.19+100]
= 33.5,
o.2 = 33.5 (0-5)2
= 3325.
The next theorem determines the mean and standard deviation of a
linear function of the random variable. Intuitively, the results are easy to
understand: multiplication of every value of X by A clearly results in a
proportionate increase in the measures of the average (mean) and spread
(standard deviation), while a shift of origin shifts the average by the same
amount but has no effect upon the spread.
Theorem 10.2. If A, a are any numbers:
(i) the mean of the random variable Y = AX+ a is Ap,+ a,
(ii) the standard deviation of the random variable Y = AX +a is Ao-.
Proof (i)
E pi xi+a E pi
1:=1
1:=1
= Alt+a.
=A
179
[10
EXPECTATION
= E Pi[Axi AA]2
i=1
= A2 EPi(xi -/L)2
i=i
= A2o2
Our final theorem of this section is a result due to the great Russian
mathematician P. L. Chebyshev (1821-94). Its importance lies in the fact
that it gives us an interpretation for standard deviation in terms of probabilities; that is, it gives us, in terms of A, an upper limit for the probability
that a value of the random variable lies further away from the mean than
A standard deviations, whatever the associated probability distribution.
(Of course, if we are given some information about the probability distribution we can usefully refine the inequality, but this does not detract
from Chebyshev's result viewed as a general theorem.)
Theorem 10.3 (Chebyshev's Theorem). If A is any positive number,
Pr ( ixi/.1 > Ao-) < 1/A2.
Proof. Define the subset A of the outcome space S by
A = {xi:I xt
> A20.21.
> Flo'} =
0-2 =
EPi(xi /02
A'
pi(xi ,u)2
0,
A'
E pi.
A
> Au).
A.2 0-2:
SOME THEOREMS
4]
Ex. 9. A probability distribution has mean 3 and variance 0-2 = 1-2. Give an
approximate limit for the probability
Pr (lx-31 > 2u).
The probability distribution for the random variable X (X = 1, 2, ..., 5) is
given in the following table:
X 1
3 ' 4
P A 1 4
1 A
Find the mean and standard deviation. What is Pr (Ix-31 > 2a)? Comment
upon the results obtained and any discrepancy you observe.
Ex. 10. Find an expression for g[(X,u)3] in terms of e(A-3), p and u.
G(t) = S[r] =
i---1
181
[10
EXPECTATION
but
= Pr (X = 0 and Y = k) + Pr (X = 1 and Y = k - 1) + . . .
+Pr (X = k and Y 0)
= Poqk+Plqk-1P2qk-2+ +Pkg0,
Gs(t) G (t) = (po+ pi t + t2 + + pfltn)(q0 + qit + q2 t2 + + qfltn)
= Pogo+(Poqi+Pigo)t +(Pog2+Plql+P2q0) t2
=Gz(t).
G(1) = Fi Pr
r=1
(ii) G'(t) =
1;
E rps tr-i
r=1
n.
G'(1) =
E rPr
r=1
= g(X)
= ft;
182
5]
G"(t) =
G"(1) =
E r(r 1) pr
r =1
E r(r 1) pr
r=1
= E r 2 pr r=1
E rpr
r=i
= 1(X2)- 1(X)
= (Cr2 /42) -it,
Example 4. Two unbiased dice are thrown. Find the expectation of the total
score, and its variance.
Let the random variable X denote the score from the first die; the random variable Y the score from the second die. Then we have to calculate
the expectations and variance of the random variable Z = X+ Y. Now
Gz(1) = *(ti+t2+ + te),
GAO = 6 (t1+0+ ... +16),
t6)2,
.*. Gz(t) = -P6(t1+ t2+
assuming that the dice fall independently. Thus
Gat ) = 118(t1 +12
) +2t + 3t2+ 4t3+ 5t4 + 6t5),
Gat) = _ii6(t 1+0+
Gal) = 476.
By Theorem 10.5, p, = 7
#2 +
T2_itt = 4775_,
p= 7, 0.2 =
Ex. 11. Three coins are tossed and the number of heads noted. Find the p.g.f.
for the resulting distribution and determine pand 0-2.
EXPECTATION
[10
E Pr (X = r) = =
1 11
2
1,
r=0
which is as it should be. Indeed, all the results of Chapter 7 hold for such
outcome spaces; detailed proofs will be omitted, because they depend upon
the manipulation of convergent series. However, assuming the obvious
generalizations of the definitions and theorems, the calculations involved
are not difficult. For instance, in the example above
1 .
1
6r(X) =
But
r=0 X
r.2
2r+
r = (1 X)-1(IXI
< 1)
rxr-1 = (1 x)-2,
and so
r=0
r=o
( x)
and, putting x =
= 1.
(Dr ( ) =
r =0
6]
Since the game can go on indefinitely, X may take any positive integral
12 1)r-1 1
value 1, 2, 3, ...
Pr (X = rIA wins) =
33' 3
9
(1y-1
6'(X) = E
and
r=1
7
= 9
9
1
D2
Ex. 12. A man tosses a coin until a head appears and is paid a number of pence
equal to the number of tosses he makes. What is his expectation?
Exercise 10(b)
1. X is a random variable with mean it and standard deviation a. Write down
the means and standard deviations of the following random variables:
(i) X;
(ii) X+1;
(iii) 3X-1;
(iv) (X#)/(r.
2. Calculate the mean and variance for each of the following distributions:
(i)
(iv)
15
25
'A
10
T35
T243
230
215
110
1-1,3
As
235
1
4
50
100
150
200
250
T.%
3. Calculate the means and variances for X2in each part of Question 2.
4. A cubical die is so weighted that the probability of obtaining any face is
proportional to the score showing on that face. Find the mean and variance of
the score obtained.
5. If the random variable X can take the values 1, 2, 3, ..., n, all values being
EXPECTATION
110
Miscellaneous Exercise 10
1. Two bags contain red and white discs as shown in the table below:
Red
White
Bag I
15
Bag II
10
10
One of the bags is selected at random and a disc drawn from it proves to be red.
If the red discs are now valued at 1 each and the white discs are valueless, what
would be a fair price to pay for the remaining discs in the selected bag?
2. (The St Petersburg Paradox.) A coin is spun. If a head is obtained first time
you are paid 1p ; if you get a tail followed by a head you receive 2p; for two tails
followed by a head 4p, the next prize being 8p and so on. Show that, however
much you are prepared to pay to play the game, your expected profit will be
positive.
186
MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE 10
6J
Criticise any assumptions you have made and indicate what further knowledge you would require before offering a more realistic 'fair price' for the game.
If the banker against whom you are playing starts with a capital of 100p, what
would be a fair price for you to offer him before playing the game?
3. A and B alternately throw an unbiased die, A having the first throw. The game
terminates when a six is thrown. B agrees to pay A 1 if A throws a six on his
first throw, 3 for a six on his second throw, 5 for a six on his third throw, and
so on. What would be a fair price for A to offer to play the game?
4. Two men play a game with two dice. A has a true die, whereas B has a die
which is biased so that each of the even faces is twice as likely to occur as each
of the odd faces. The two players throw their own die and A wins from B the
sum of the numbers thrown when the sum is even and the numbers are unequal.
B wins the sum from A when it is odd; and the game is drawn when the two numbers are equal.
Calculate the expectation of the game to A.
5. X and Y are two random variables defined over the same probability distribution. A new random variable Z is constructed, where Z = X+ Y. Prove
that the mean of Z is the sum of the means of X and Y.
Is it also true that the variance of Z is the sum of the variances of X and Y?
6. If X is a random variable with mean uand standard deviation a prove that
the standard deviation of the random variable (X--#)2 is
{6[(x -F)4] - a4}1.
7. n points are marked on a line at 1 cm intervals. If two of the points are chosen
at random, find the probability that they will be r cm apart. Deduce that the
expected distance apart of the two points is +(n +1).
8. A and B play a game in which A's chance of winning is p, while B's is q, where
p+q = 1. They have a contest, the winner being the first to score two consecutive
successes. Prove that the expected number of games is
(2 +pq) (1- pq)-1
9. Xis a random variable such that Pr (X < 0) = 0 and the mean and standard
deviation of X are respectively g and a. Prove that, for any k 1,
Pr (X < kit)
k 1
s=r+1
PPM
187
[10
EXPECTATION
and if the p.g.f. for Xis G(t) and
H(t) =
prove that
qr tr,
r=0
H(t) = {1
G(t)}
1t
Prove, furthermore, that H(1) = 4u where A is the mean of X, and determine
the value of H'(1).
12. A die is thrown n times. If S denotes the total sum obtained, prove that
g(S2) = 7n(21n + 5)/12.
13. n identical cards are numbered 1, 2, 3, ..., n, and a random sample (with replacement) of size k is drawn. If the number on the highest card is taken as the
value of the random variable X, prove that
Pr (X = r) = (r 1)9Ink
and deduce that, for large n, the mean value of X is approximately
nk
k +1.
14. A and B play a game of golf. At each hole A's chance of winning is a and
B's is b. Find the chance, h, that the hole is halved, in terms of a and b.
Show that the chance of A being r up after n holes is the coefficient of x to the
power (n+ r) in the expansion of (ax2+ hx+
If a = b = h, find the chance that A wins 5 and 4, i.e. that he was either 5 up
with 5 to play and then halved the fourteenth hole, or was 4 up with 5 to play
and won it.
Leave your answer in terms of powers of 3 and binomial coefficients.
(M.E.I.)
15. A man consistently stakes a fixed proportion of his available capital on a
fair bet, that is, a bet with zero expectation of gain. If he wins, his existing
capital is increased by a %, but, if he loses, he decreases it by b %. Show that he
must expect to lose in the long run, whatever values a and b might take.
16. Two numbers X and Y between 1 and 100 (inclusive) are selected at random,
all possible pairs (X, Y) having equal probabilities. Let Z denote the maximum
of X and Y. What is the probability that Z 50? By use of the formulae
n
r = -1-n(n +1)
r=1
and
r=i
or otherwise, show that the mean of Z is just over 67. Find a median of Z.
(A median of Z is any number such that Pr (Z
and Pr (Z
(C.S.)
17. Is it possible to devise a coin tossing experiment with a single unbiased coin
to give a probability of+ for some event?
If you are given a coin which is biased in some unknown way, show how to
devise an experiment in which the probability of success, to be defined, is
188
b
Fig. 11.1
7-2
189
FURTHER VECTORS
[11
(between 0 and 180) through which one of the vectors must be rotated to
bring it into coincidence in the same sense as the other vector (see Figure
11.1). It follows that the sign of the dot product is positive if the angle thus
defined between the two vectors is acute and negative if the angle is obtuse.
We have said that the word ' multiplication ' is used in this context
because of the similarity shown between dot products and ordinary products. This similarity we now endeavour to display, but to give added force
to our warning against pressing the analogy too far, we start by observing
two laws of multiplication of ordinary numbers that do NOT hold for
dot products.
Dot multiplication does NOT give closure; that is, a.b is not a vector.
Dot multiplication is NOT associative; indeed, (a .b).c is not even defined,
for (a . b) is a number, not a vector. (On the other hand, we can talk about
(a .b) c, which represents a vector in the direction of c and whose magnitude is lad lb I cos 0 times that of c.)
However, there is a sort of associative rule that holds: if a, b are two
vectors and k is a number,
k (a .b) = (k a) .b = a. (kb) .
The proof of this follows immediately from the definitions and may be
left as an exercise for the diligent reader.
Another reassuring note may be struck by observing that the commutative law holds for dot products
a.b = b . a.
Again, the proof of this is immediate from the definition and may, with
even more confidence, be left as an exercise for the reader.
The final rule for dot products, that of distributivity over vector addition, i.e.
a.(b+c) = a.b+a.c
is more subtle and the proof is not immediately obvious. However, the
effort expended in demonstrating this result is amply rewarded, for with
it we shall have set up all the apparatus necessary for an effective algebra
of vectors.
We begin by defining the projection of a vector a in a direction specified
by a unit vector u. Suppose the displacement OA represents a; draw the
plane n through 0 perpendicular to u. Then, if D is the foot of the perpendicular from A to 7r,
a = OD+DA
= OD +pu
(see Figure 11.2). Further, the expression of a as the sum of two vec190
1]
tors, one in the plane it and one in the direction u is unique. For suppose
that
a = OD +pu
= OD' +piu,
Fig. 11.2
IT.
Then, by subtraction
= D'D + (p p') u
and so
DD' = (p p') u.
But this is impossible unless D and D' coincide and p = p', for DD' and
(p p') u lie in different planes and so cannot possibly be equal, unless
each is the zero vector.
The number p that arises in this construction is called the projection of a
in the direction u. We now prove the fundamental result for projections:
if the projection of a1in the direction u is Piand the projection of a2 in the
direction of u is p2, then the projection of a, + a2 in the direction u is
Pi +P2.
Suppose, with the obvious notation, that
a1 = OD,+ piu,
But OD1+ OD, is certainly a vector in the plane 7T, and so, by the uniqueness of the expression for a1 + a, as the sum of two vectors, one in n and
the other in the direction of u, the projection of a, + a, in the direction of u
is p, +p,.
Having defined the projection of a vector in a given direction we may
obtain a simple geometrical interpretation for the dot product of two vectors a and b. Represent a, b by the displacements OA, OB; let C be the
foot of the perpendicular from A to OB, and D the foot of the perpendicular from B to OA. Then OC is the projection of a in the direction of b, and
OD is the projection of b in the direction of a (see Figure 11.3).
191
[11
FURTHER VECTORS
Now
= OA.OD
and
a . b = OB(OA cos 0)
= OB.00,
and thus the value of a . b is the product of the magnitude of either of the
vectors with the projection of the other in its direction.
Our proof of distributivity for dot multiplication over vector addition
has been long delayed but our result, which we shall state as a theorem,
now follows very readily and the results we have proved concerning projections have an interest and importance in their own right and were
doubly worth pursuing.
Theorem 11.1. For any vectors a, b, c,
a.(b+c) = a.b+a.c.
Proof Let the projection of b and c in the direction a be pi and p2 respectively. Then
a.(11)+c) = lal (pi+ p2) = lal pl+ lalp2
= a.b+a.c
(by distributive law for ordinary numbers).
Ex. 1. A, B have position vectors a, b referred to some origin 0. If OA is perpendicular to OB, show that a .b = 0. Is the converse result true?
*Ex. 2. If a is the position vector of the point A, interpret the scalar product a. a.
*Ex. 3. Show that
(a b) .(ab) = a .a + b.b 2a . b.
If a, b are the position vectors of the points A, B, interpret this equation (i) when
OA and OB are perpendicular; (ii) when OA, OB are not perpendicular.
Example 1. Prove that, if the sum of the squares of two opposite edges of a
tetrahedron is equal to the sum of the squares of
A
another pair of opposite edges, then the remaining
pair of opposite edges are perpendicular.
We are given that
AB2 +CD2 = BC2 + DA2
and have to prove that
ACIDB.
C
Fig. 11.4
I]
Now
(b a) . (b a) + . (d = (c b). (c b) + (d a) . (d a)
b.b-2a.b+a.a+d.d-2c.d+c.c=c.c-2b.c+b.b+d.d-2d.a+a.a
= a.b+c.d
(c a) . (b d) = 0.
But c a * 0, b d * 0,
.*. AC _LBD.
Exercise 11(a)
1. Show that a.ab.b = (a b). (a + b).
Interpret this equation geometrically and discuss the particular case la I = lb I.
2. If a, b are non-zero vectors such that la + b I =
are perpendicular.
(r a) . (r a) = c . c
what can be said about the position of P?
4. Prove that b+ c = 0 and lal = Ibl
(a b). (a c) = 0.
FURTHER VECTORS
[11
i.i = j. j = k.k = 1,
(1)
(2)
cos 0 =
a.b
lallbl
x.y = =8+6+8 = 6.
x.y = Ix' ly1 cos LBAC
= V36,/17 cos LBAC.
194
2]
Thus
i.e.
and so
u=
Ex. 4. If a = i 3j + k, b = 2i + 2j k, find a. b.
Ex. 5. Show that the two skew lines
(x-1
2
x +1
1
y+1z+1
=
2 '
3
y-2
2
are perpendicular.
Ex. 6. Find the unit vector perpendicular to the plane A (3, 1, 1), B (2, 5, 0),
C (-1, 1, 15).
Ex. 7. Deduce the two distance formulae of Chapter 3 using dot products.
Ex. 8. Prove vectorially that the angle between two diagonals of a cube is
arccos
FURTHER VECTORS
[11
A line is specified given a point P1lying upon it and its direction; let
us suppose its direction is defined by the unit vector u = /i +rnj. Here
/ = cos 0, and m = cos 02, where 01and 02are the angles made by the
vector u with the axes Ox and Oy respectively (senses being taken into
account) (see Figure 11.5).
The line through P1(x1, y) in the direction u thus has the equation
x x, _y y, _
r
m
(see Figure 11.5, where 01+ in). Since cos 02 = sin 01, this equation may
be rearranged in the form
sin 0
Y = cos 011 (x x1)
y Yl = tan 01(x x1)
Or
agreeing with the form given in Chapter 3. (Notice, however, that the letter
m was used differently on that occasion.)
Given two lines, one through P1in the direction u1= /,i+ m,j, the other
in the direction u2 = /21t +m,j, the angle cr5 between the two lines may be
found by computing the dot product u1. u2
u2 =
Ull ludcos ft
(3)
3]
1 2
2 3
v5.03+ v5.03
4
= V65
Notice in particular that, from equation (3) the two lines are perpendicular
<r> 412+
= 0.
4 /2 = 1.
m1 m2
But, as was noted above, 4/m1and 12/m2are the gradients of the two lines;
we have thus regained, by an alternative method, the result of Chapter 3.4.
Fig. 11.6
= ([x2
rni+
+ [Y2 j).( mi+
+lj)
197
FURTHER VECTORS
[11
Theorem 11.3. The perpendicular distance from the point P2(x2, y2) to the line
ax+by+c =0 is
ax2+by2+c
(a2+ b2)
Proof. The given line may be rewritten in the form
x+ c/a y
a
or, making the denominators components of a unit vector, in the equivalent form
x+ c/a
b (az b2) aIV(a2+ b2)
Thus the unit vector defining the direction of the line is
b.
u = v(412 4.b2)
a
4J(a2
b2)
If P1(x1, y,) is some (arbitrary) point of the given line, the perpendicular
distance, d, from P2 is given by
d=
a(x, x2) b(y, y2)
= V(a2+b2) +V(a2+b2).
But axi +by, = c, since P1lies on the line and hence
d
ax2+by2+c
V(a2+ b2)
For example, the perpendicular distance from the point (1, 2) to the line
2x 5y + 1 = 0 is
2 10 +1 _ 7
.,/29
,,/29
(The significance of the negative sign is explained below; the magnitude of
the perpendicular distance is 7/A/29.)
Suppose now that the line joining OP2cuts the line
ax+by+c = 0
at P1(see Figure 11.7). Then, if OP1:P1P2 = 1: A, the coordinates of Piare
( x2
Y2
kl+A' 1+AJ
198
3]
Fig. 11.7
From this equation it follows at once that, if ax2+ by2+ c and c have
the same sign, A is negative and, if they have opposite signs, A is positive.
Since c may be written as a .0 + b .0 + c, we may summarize the result as
follows.
If, in the expression ax+ by+ c, the substitution of the quantities
(i) x = 0, y = 0; (ii) x = x2, y = y2gives two values of the same sign, then
P2and 0 lie on the same side of the line (for, in this case, P, divides OP2
externally and so A < 0); if on the other hand, it yields values of opposite
signs, P2 and 0 lie on opposite sides of the line.
Ex. 9. Find the perpendicular distances of the point (2, 1) from the lines
3x + 4y + 3 = 0 and 4x 3y 6 = 0. What can you deduce about the position of
(2, 1) relative to the two given lines?
Ex. 10. Sketch the two lines 3x +y 3 = 0, 3x +y 6 = 0 and shade in the region
determined by the four inequalities x > 0, y > 0, 3x + y 3 > 0, 3x + y 6 < 0.
Ex. 11. Find the equation of the bisector of the acute angle between the lines
x = 0 and 5x + 12y 60 = 0. Find the incentre of the triangle formed by the
lines x = 0, y = 0, 5x+12y 60 = 0.
Ex. 12. a, b, c are constants. Show that, as 0 varies, the straight line
x cos 0+y sin 0+acos0+b sin 0 + c = 0
touches a certain circle. Find the centre and radius of the circle.
Ex. 13. Find the equations of the lines parallel to 8x+ 6y+3 = 0, and distant
1 unit from it.
Exercise 11(b)
1. Determine the projection upon (a) the x axis, (b) the line 3x 4y +1 = 0 of
the line segments joining the following pairs of points:
(i) (2, 3), (4, 4);
(ii) ( 1, 2), (1, 5);
(iii) (-1, 2), (2, 3);
(iv) (a, b), (a+ b, a b).
199
FURTHER VECTORS
[11
2. Find the cosines of the acute angles between the following pairs of lines:
(i) xy+ 1 = 0, 3xy+2 = 0; (ii) 3x+2y+1 = 0, x-2y-3 = 0;
(iii) 4x y + 1 = 0, 3x +4y = 0; (iv) ax+ by = 0, axby = 0.
3. Determine the perpendicular distances between the following points and lines.
(Leave your answers in surd form.)
(i) (0, 0), x + 4y 1 = 0;
(ii) (-1, 2), 2x 3y 4 = 0;
(iii) (-2, 3), x 3y+ 5 = 0;
(iv) (h, k), hxky+2hk = 0.
4. Find the distances between the following pairs of parallel lines:
(i) x 2y +1 = 0, x-2y+3 = 0; (ii) 2x+y 3 = 0, 4x+2y+ 3 = 0;
(iii) 5xy-1 = 0, 5x y+ 3 = 0; (iv) ax+ by + a = 0, ax+ by b = 0.
5. Find the equations of the pairs of lines, parallel to the following lines, and
distant three units from them:
(ii) 8x + 6y +5 = 0;
(i) 3x 4y + 1 = 0;
(iii) 5x+ 12y + 2 = 0;
(iv) 3x + 2y + 1 = 0.
6. Draw rough sketches and shade in the areas determined by the following
inequalities:
(i) x > 0, y > 0, y < 2, 2x + 3y 8 <0;
(ii) x > 0, y > 0, xy 1 < 0, 3x+y-7 < 0;
(iii) 2x y > 0, x 2y < 0, 2x y + 2 > 0, x 2y + 4 > 0;
(iv) 1x+y1 < 1; lxY1 < 1;
(v)
+ y 11 < 1; 12x 3y 11 < 1.
7. Find the equations of the bisectors of the acute angles between the following
pairs of lines:
(i) x = 0, 3x 4y = 0;
(ii) 3x-4y-1 = 0, 4x-3y-2 = 0;
(iii) 5x + 12y +3 = 0, 6x 8y + 3 = 0.
8. Find the equation of the image by reflection of the line xy = 4 in the line
2x+y = 1.
(London)
9. ABC is a triangle; A is the point (0, 3) and B is the point ( 5, 2). The
orthocentre (meet of the altitudes) of the triangle is the point ( 1, 1). Find
(ii) the area of the triangle;
(i) the coordinates of C;
(iii) the tangent of the angle ACB.
10. Show that the reflection of the point (a, ft) in the line y = mx is the point
l+m2
A is the point (p, q), B is the reflection of A in the line y = x and C is the
reflection of B in the line y = x. Find the coordinates of C.
Show that C is the reflection of A in the line px +qy = 0.
(London)
200
31
11. A triangle ABC lies wholly within the first quadrant and has an area of
4-1- sq. units. The equation of one side is 2x 5y + 23 = 0 and the vertices A and
B are (1, 5) and (3, 4) respectively. Find the equations of the other two sides, the
angle ABC, and the coordinates of the orthocentre of the triangle. (London)
12. If f(x, y) a--ax + by + c, discuss the changes in value and sign of f(X, Y),
when the point P with coordinates (X, Y) moves in the x, y plane, in relation to
the line whose equation is f(x, y) = 0.
Determine the smallest value attained by the expression
22x+ lly-21,
when x and y vary subject to the simultaneous restrictions
3x+4y 12,
2x y 2.
(Cambridge)
AP = r a
AP.n = 0,
(ra).n = 0,
i.e.
(4)
r.n = a.n.
Equation (4) represents the vector equation of
0
the plane through A with unit normal vector n.
Fig. 11.8
If Cartesian axes are taken in the directions i, j, k
and n = 11i+ 12 j+ 13k, a = a,i+ a2 j+a3k, r = xi+ yj+ zk, then (4) takes
the Cartesian form
+ 12y+ 13z = 11a1+ 12a2+ 13a3.
(5)
Thus, equation (5) represents the Cartesian equation of the plane
through A(ai, a2, a3) with normal whose direction cosines are 11, /2, /3.
Conversely,
r.n = p (p constant)
(6)
represents a plane with unit normal vector n. For r.n is the length of the
projection of OP in the direction n, and, if this is constant for all P, P
clearly lies on a plane perpendicular to n. Thus, (using components),
ax+by+cz = d
201
FURTHER VECTORS
[l1
(
v(a2 + b2 + 0)) + (v(a2+ b2 + 0)) :I+ (v(a2 + b2 + 0)) k
and it follows from equation (6), that the perpendicular distance from the
origin to this plane is the numerical value of
d
4/(a2 +b2+0).
Ex. 14. Write down the unit vectors perpendicular to
(i) x-2y+2z = 0; (ii) 3xy+z = 6; (iii) 3x+2y+z = 2.
Ex. 15. Write down the equation of the planes through the given points and
perpendicular to the given vectors:
(i) (1, 2, 0), 3j + k; (ii) (2, 1, 1), j+k;
(iii) (3, 4, 2), 2i+ 3j 5k.
Theorem 11.4. The perpendicular distance from the point P1(x1, yl, z1) to the
plane ax + by+ cz + d = 0 is
ax1+
cz1+ d
,l(a2+62+ c2)
Fig. 11.9
Proof Let 1'2(x, y2, z2) be any point of the plane ax + by + cz +d = 0 and
let N be the foot of the perpendicular from P1to the plane (Figure 11.9).
If n is the unit vector perpendicular to the plane, then
P,N = P2 P1. n
= [(x, x2) i+ (y1y2) j+(z1z2) k]
LV(a2+62+ c2) I+,l(a2+62+ e2) j+V(a2+ b2 +c2)J
a(x1 x2)+b(Y1Y2)+ c(z1 z2)
4]
P2
axi+ byi+czi+d
P,N v(a2+b2+c2)
Again, axi+ by1+ czi+ d may be positive or negative, depending upon
which side of the plane P1lies. The result is completely analogous to that
for the straight line.
We conclude this chapter by giving some worked examples of coordinate
geometry in two and three dimensions.
Example 3. Find the complete locus of a point which moves so that its perpendicular distance from 8xy+ 18 = 0 is twice its perpendicular distance
(0 & C)
from 7x+ 4y 6+= 0.
Let P(x, y) be any point of the plane. If d1, d2represent the perpendicular
distances from P to the two lines
t
7x + 4y + 6
8xy+ 18
; d2
V65
V65
The required locus is the totality of points P which satisfy d1 = 2d2; that is
{(x, y) :
8xy+18 _
V65
This is equivalent to
(0c, y)
8xy+18
J65
x _y+1 z-1
01
1
FURTHER VECTORS
[11
y+ 1 z1 = p,
-
and so a general point P of the first line has coordinates (A+3, A+2, 3A+4)
and a general point Q of the second line has coordinates (,u, 1, +1).
The two lines are clearly not parallel, since their direction cosines are
different. Thus they are either skew or else they meet in a point. If they
meet in a point, we must have
.
tA+3=
A +2 = 1,
3A+4 = ,u+1,
i+k.f
and
#+3)+(a+3)+3(3A,a+3) = 0
(A ,u+ 3)
+ (3a-12+3) = 0.
204
4]
Note: A more elegant method for finding the direction of the common
perpendicular to two skew lines will be described when the vector product
is introduced.
Example 5. Find the image by reflection of the point (11, 13, 8) in the plane
2x-3y+z+1 = 0.
The vector 2i 3j +k is perpendicular to the given plane and so the line
through (11, 13, 8) perpendicular to the plane has equations
x-11 _ y+13 _ z 8 _ a
2
3 1
and
14A+70 = 0
A = 5.
Thus, the reflection of (11, 13, 8) in the plane is given by A = 10, i.e.
(-9, 17, 2).
Exercise 11(c)
1. Prove that the vectors:
a = i+2j+4k, b = 2i-3j+k
are perpendicular.
Find the angle between the vectors
c = 3i+ j + 2k, d = i 2j 3k.
2. Find the equations of the planes through the given points which are normal
to the given vectors:
(i) (0, 0, 0),
j + k;
3. Find the cosines of the angles between the following pairs of lines. (Leave
your answers in surd form.)
x
2
z-1.
2
'
205
FURTHER VECTORS
Ell
(ii)
(iii)
x y z- a x- a _ y- a _z
(iv) = 1 ()
-1'
1
-1 0.
4. Find the cosines of the angles between the following pairs of planes. (Leave
(i) 3x-y+z = 0, x = 0;
(iii)
x-2
2
y-1
z
= -1' 3x-2y+2z+4 = 0;
2
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
x- a
4x-3y-4z = 0;
= y-b=z-c px+qy+rz = 0.
m
n'
6. Find the unit vectors normal to the planes through the following sets of points,
and deduce the equations of the planes:
(i) (1, 1, - 1), (2, 3, 1), (5, -1, -13);
(ii) (2, 6, 1), (0, 3, 1), (4, 0, -2);
(iii) (1, 4, 1), (2, 7, 2), (-3, 0, -1);
(iv) (1, 0, -1), (0, -4, - 1), (3, 2, 2);
(v) (1, 1, 2), (2, 2, 3), (-2, 1, 11);
(vi) (0, c/b, b/c), (c/a, 0, - a/c), (b/a, alb, 0).
206
4]
x-2
y-3
2
z+1
2
(ii) 2x y z 6 = 0;
(iv) 2x+ 3y+ z = 0.
x + 1y
2
(iii)
i
z- 4
= 1 = 1 ;
x 7 = y + 1 = z 4
1
0'
3
(ii)
x 3 y 1 z
=
= 5
1
2
1 '
x-3
(iv)
y-8 z-3
=
=
3
4
2
10. Find the foot of the perpendicular from (7, 1, 2) to the line
x-9 _ y 5 = z-5
,
1
3
5
11. Where does the line
x-2 y-7
1
3
z- 2
x-10
9
y-4
1
z- 2
0
x
1
in the line
y-3
1
z+ 6
5
x _ y-3 _ z+6
2
1 1
207
[11
FURTHER VECTORS
14. Prove that the following pairs of lines are skew:
x y-3
1
x-5
z
= -1'
y-8
7
z2
1
Find the direction ratios of the common perpendicular and determine the
shortest distance between the two lines.
15. ABCD is a rectangle and 0 is a point on the normal at C to the plane of
this rectangle. AB = a, AD = b, and CO = h. P is a point on AO and the line
through P in the plane AOB which is perpendicular to AO meets AB at M.
If AP = x, show that
PM = xAl(b2+ h2)1 a ; AM = x .,1(a2+ b2+ h2)1 a .
Prove that the cosine of the acute angle between the planes OAB and OAD is
abla(a2+ h2) (b2+ h2)].
(London)
(SMP)
x+1 y
-1 z+1
5
208
4]
(M.E.I.)
18. Prove that the equation of the plane which cuts off intercepts a, b, c on the
axes of x, y, z respectively is
x
z
-+-= 1.
a b +-c
The foot of the perpendicular from the origin to a plane is P(2, -1, 2). Find
the equation of the plane. If the plane meets the axes of x, y, z at A, B, C respectively, prove that AP is perpendicular to BC, and find the angle between AP and
CP.
(J.M.B.)
19. Two planes, iT1and 77.2, have equations
2x+y+z = 1 and 3x+y -z = 2,
respectively. Prove that the plane 773, which is perpendicular to n. and contains
the line of intersection of 7r1and 7r2has the equation
x -2z = 1.
Points P and Q lie on the planes ir1and 7T3respectively and the line PQ is
perpendicular to Tr2. If the coordinates of P are (-2, 4, 1), find the coordinates
of Q. Determine the angle between the line PQ and the perpendicular from P to
the line of intersection of the three planes. (J. M.D.)
20. The straight line whose equations are
x -2 y z +1
= =
-2 1
2
meets the plane x + 2y - 2z = 8 at B, and A is the point (2, 0, -1) on the line.
The foot of the perpendicular from A to the plane is C. Find
(i) the coordinates of B and C;
(ii) the length of AC.
Show that the sine of the acute angle between BA and BC is
The line AC is produced to D so that AC = 2CD. Find the coordinates of D.
(J.M.B.)
Miscellaneous Exercise 11
1. The perpendicular distance from the origin to a straight line 1 is of length
p and makes an angle a with the positive x axis. Prove that the equation of the
line may be taken in the form
x cos a +y sin a = p.
What is the equation of the parallel line through the point P1(x1, yi)? Deduce
the perpendicular distance from P1to the given line.
2. Find the equations of the straight lines which bisect the angles between the
straight lines
3x- 4y- 11 = 0, 12x + Sy - 2 = 0.
(0 & C)
209
[11
FURTHER VECTORS
3. Find the equation of the bisector of the acute angle between the lines
4x + 3y 12 = 0, 12x + 5y 60 = 0.
(0 & C)
(0 & C)
8. Prove that the perpendicular bisectors of the sides of a triangle are concurrent (at the circumcentre) and that the altitudes of a triangle are concurrent (at
the orthocentre).
9. Prove that the circumcentre S, the centroid G and the orthocentre H of a
triangle ABC have position vectors (referred to any origin 0) which satisfy the
relation
h+2s-3g = 0.
Deduce that SGH is a straight line and determine the ratio SG: GH.
Prove further that the mid-point, N, of the line SH is the centre of the circle
through the mid-points of the triangle ABC. What is the radius of this circle?
10. OABC is a tetrahredron in which OA is perpendicular to BC and OB is
perpendicular to AC. PQR is a triangle such that A is the mid-point of QR, B
is the mid-point of RP and C is the mid-point of PQ.
210
4]
MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE 11
(0 &C)
13. Prove that there is one and only one line which joins two given skew lines
and is perpendicular to each of them.
Two fixed skew lines AL, BM have a common perpendicular AB, and the angle
between them is 0. Prove that
LM2 = AL2+ BM2-2AL . BM cos 0.
Prove that, if 0 = -PT and the points L and M vary on the fixed skew lines so
that LM is constant, the locus of the mid-point of LM is a circle.
(0 & C)
14. The common perpendicular of two skew lines 1 and l' meets them at A and A'
respectively. Points P and P' are taken on land 1' respectively so that AP+ A'P'
is constant, where the sense of AP and A'P' is taken into account.
Show that the locus of the mid-point M of PP' is a straight line in, and describe its relation to 1 and 1'.
If AP A'P' is constant, show that the locus of M is another straight line m',
and describe the relation of m and m'.
(0 & C)
15. Find the reflection of the line
x -7 y+ 2 z
=
= 2
1
1
3
in the plane xyz+ 2 = 0.
16. Prove that, given two skew lines and a point 0 not lying on either of them,
that just one transversal may be drawn through 0 to cut each of the lines.
Prove that the lines
x+ 5 _ y
y-7 z
.
1
1
2
x-4 y+3 z+2
and
=
=
2
0
1
are skew and find the equation of the common transversal that passes through
the origin.
17. Obtain the equation of a plane in the vector form
n . r = p (n a unit vector),
explaining precisely what you mean by each of the three symbols n, r, p.
211
FURTHER VECTORS
[11
Prove that the length of the perpendicular to the plane from the point S with
position vector s is In .s pi; and find the position vector t of the mirror image
T of S in the planethat is, of the point T such that TS is perpendicular to the
plane and bisected by it. (M.E.I.)
18. Referred to a given system of rectangular coordinates in space of threedimensions, the points A, B have coordinates (1, 0, 0), ( 1, 0, 0) respectively.
A variable point P has coordinates (x, y, z). Write down the direction-cosines
of PA, PB and prove that, if 0 is the angle between them, then
cost 0 =
x 3y + 2z = 2,
2x y z = 9,
(C.S.)
20. Find the value of k such that the line joining the points ( 2, k, 9), (2, 1, 7)
intersects the line joining (-2, 4, 4), (7, 2, 1).
What are the coordinates of the point of intersection?
21. A regular tetrahedron ABCD has the face ABC in the xy plane, the origin
is the centre of that face, the vertex A is at the point (1, 0, 0) and the vertex D
is on the positive half of the z axis. Find the coordinates of B, C, D and of the
centre of the tetrahedron, and the direction ratios of the normals to the four
faces.
Hence or otherwise show that, if any line makes angles a, y, 8 with the faces
of a regular tetrahedron, then
sine a + sin2/3 + sin2y + sin2 8
22. Prove that the equation of the straight line through the given point A,
position vector a, and in the direction of the unit vector b is
r = a+tb,
where t is the distance from A of the variable point P of the line whose position
vector is r.
Prove also that the equation of the plane through the point C (position
vector c) whose normal is in the direction given by the unit vector d can be
expressed in the form
r .d = c.d.
212
4]
MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE 11
The plane through the point C(1, 2, 4) has normal in the direction
d=
Find the length of the shortest distance from the point A (3, 4, 5) to the plane.
(M.E.I.)
23. To find the position of an underground rock layer a number of vertical
borings are made at points on horizontal ground which form a coordinate grid.
Results are as follows, the unit of distance both horizontally and vertically
being 300 m:
(0, 2)
(2, 0)
(2, 2)
(0, 0)
Grid-point
0.225
0.162
0.117
0.270
Depth
Show that these results are consistent with this part of the rock layer being a
plane. Find the (x, y) equation of the line in which this plane when produced
would meet the ground, and show that the plane would be inclined at about 31
to the ground.
What would you conclude if a boring at (1, 1) gave a depth of about 0.18?
(M.E.I.)
24. Calculate the shortest distance between the line of intersection of the planes
x-8y+2z+9 = 0, x-2yz+6 = 0
and the line of intersection of the planes
2x+y+8z-12 = 0, xy+z-6 = 0;
and show that the line which cuts both these lines at right-angles passes through
the point (-4, 12, 8).
25. Find the coordinates of the mirror image of the point (p, q, r) in the plane
ax+by+cz+d = O.
A ray from the origin is reflected successively in the planes
x+yz+l = 0
x y + 2z 1 = 0,
and
and then passes again through the origin. Find the points at which it meets the
two planes.
26. Prove that the lines
x+1 y+1 z+2 x-1 y+3 = z
1
2
2
3
1
3
do not intersect.
Find the equation of the plane through the origin which contains the first
line, and find also the direction cosines of the line through the origin which meets
both lines. (Oxford Mod.)
27. The line x// =ylm = zln is reflected in the plane ax+ by+ cz + d = 0. Show
that the equation of the resulting line is
b2 c
2) y+2bd
(a2 + b2 + c2) x+ 2ad
b+c2) 1 2a(al + bm+ cn) =(a2+ b2 c2) m-2b(a1+ bm + cn)
(a2+ b2+ c) z +2cd
02+1,2 +C2
n 2c(a1+ bm+ cn)
213
[11
FURTHER VECTORS
Hence, or otherwise, find the equation of the plane such that the angle between
it and the plane /x + my+ nz = 0 is bisected by the plane ax+ by+ cz = 0.
(Oxford Mod.)
28. Write down the equations of the axes Ox, Oy, Oz. What is the equation of the
plane containing Ox and the point (a, b, c)?
The roof of a rectangular house consists of four inclined planes, each sloping
upwards at an angle of 45 to the horizontal. What is the angle between two
adjacent faces of the roof?
29. ABCDA' B'C' D' is a cubical box, with faces ABCD, A' B'C' D' and edges AA',
BB', CC', DD'. E is the point on BB' such that BE = lEB'; F is the mid-point
of CC'. Find the angles between
(i) the line A' B and the plane AEF;
(ii) the plane A' BC and the plane AEF.
30. Two lines through the origin have unit direction vectors 11i + mi j + nik and
121+ m2 j + n2 k. Prove that the locus of points equidistant from the two lines is a
pair of planes and deduce the equations of the straight lines which bisect the
angles between the given lines.
31. Two straight paths on a plane hillside are at right-angles, and make angles 0
and 0 respectively with the horizontal. If the hillside itself makes an angle a with
the horizontal, prove that sine
0 + sin2 = sine a.
Prove also that the acute angle between the projections of the paths on a
horizontal plane is
arccos (tan 0 tan cb).
32. A line of slope, in an easterly direction, of a plane hillside is inclined at an
angle a to the horizontal. A line of slope of the hillside in a southerly direction
is inclined at an angle fi to the horizontal. Prove that the actual inclination, 0,
of the hillside to the horizontal is
0 = arctan (tang a + tan2 fi)1.
A vertical pole of height h is placed on top of the hill. Show that the angle 0
subtended by it at a point distant a down the line of greatest slope through the
foot of the pole is given by
h
tan 0 = a sec
0 + h tan 0.
(London)
AP2+2BP2 30P2
is independent of the position of P.
What is the locus of a point which moves so that the sum of the squares of its
distances from the vertices of an equilateral triangle is constant?
214
12.
Further trigonometry
FURTHER TRIGONOMETRY
[12
The proof of (i) and (ii) is effected by expressing the unit vector r (a) in
terms of i and j directly and (b) in terms of p and q and hence in terms of i
and j.
QB
Thus
(a) r = cos (0 + 0) i+ sin (0+ 0) j
and
But
p = cos Oi + sin Oj
and
Fig. 12.2
(c) r = cos 0(cos Oi+ sin 0j) + sin 0( sin Oi+ cos OD
= (cos 0 cos 0 sin 0 sin 95) i+ (sin 0 cos 95+ cos 0 sin 95) j.
But, in a plane, the expressions for the components of a vector r in the
two directions i and j are unique (see Chapter 2) and so, comparing (a)
and (c),
(i) cos (0 + 0) = cos 0 cos 95 sin 0 sin 0;
(ii) sin (0 + 0) = sin 0 cos 95+ cos 0 sin 95.
Formulae (iii) and (iv) now follow immediately, on writing 0 for 0 and
recalling that sin ( 0) sin 0, cos ( 0) = cos 95,
(iii) cos (0- 0) = cos 0 cos 0 + sin 0 sin 0;
(iv) sin (o 0) = sin 0 cos 0 cos 0 sin 0.
Ex. 2. Express sin 15and cos 15in surd form by writing 15 = 45 30.
Ex. 3. Express cos 165 and sin 105 in surd form.
Ex. 4. If sin x =
Theorem 12.2. For any angles 0, 0 for which all of the expressions appearing
are defined
tan 0+ tan 0
(v) tan (o+0) =
1 tan 0 tan 0 '
_ tan 0 tan 0
(vi) tan (0 0) =
1 +tan 0 tan 0'
216
1]
(vii)
(viii)
(ix)
Proof (v) The right-hand side is not defined if 0 or 0 = (2k +1) 17T;
neither side is defined if 0+ = (2k+ 1) in. For any other values of 0 and 0
tan (0 + 0) =
divide top and bottom of the fraction on the right-hand side by cos 0 cos 0
(a non-zero expression, by the restrictions on 0 and 0).
(vi) As for (v) by using (iii) and (iv);
(vii) set 0 = cb in (ii);
(viii) set 0 = cb in (i), and recall that sin' +cost
1;
(ix) set 0 = 0 in (v).
*Ex. 6. What values of 0 and cb must be excluded in (a) formula (vi); and (b)
formula (ix)?
Example 1. Find an expression for cos 75 in surd form.
Method (i).
cos 75 = cos (30 + 45)
= cos 30 cos 45sin 30 sin 45
1 11
=
2 V2 2.V2
V3 1
2V2
Method (ii).
or
4-20
= cos' 75.
8
Thus
cos 75 =
1
2V2
(We reject the negative square root since cos 75 > 0.)
Example 2. Prove the identity
cos 0 sin 0
sec 20tan 20 (0 + (2n+1) 177).
cos 0+ sin 0
217
FURTHER TRIGONOMETRY
[12
L.H.S.
1
sin 20
cos 20 cos 20
1 sin 20
cos 2 0 '
(cos 0sin 0)2
(sine 0 + cos2 0, since 0 + (2n +1) *ir)
cos2 0 sine 0'
cos20+ sine 0 2 sin 0 cos 0
cos 20
1 sin 20
cos 20
-
The formulae we have proved are also useful in dealing with combinations of inverse trigonometric functions, as is shown in the next example.
Example 3. Find the value of arctan 2 + arctan 3.
Write x = arctan 2; y = arctan 3, then
rr
<
x+ y <
77,
x+ tan y
tan (x+y) =, t_antan
x tan y
=
Since 27r < x+y <
IT)
2+3
16
1.
this gives
x +y = 1T+ arctan ( 1)
=
Thus
arctan 2 + arctan 3 =
3
V61'
1]
Fig. 12.3
Thus,
No.
Log.
0.4771
61
1.7853
,,/61
0 8926
cos67 25'
I 5845
i.e.
.*.
and
G17
1
sin
20+V17
cos 20)
Fig. 12.4
sin cb 5 1,
.. V17
V17.
270, i.e. B
97.
Ex. 7. Find the maximum and minimum values of the following expressions:
(i) sin x
3 cos x;
Ex. 8. Solve the following equations, giving all solutions lying between 0 and
360 inclusive:
(i) cos x sin x = 1;
PPM
219
FURTHER TRIGONOMETRY
[12
Ex. 11. If cos x = 4, find cos 2x. If, furthermore, 0 < x < 77, find sin 2x.
Ex. 12. Find the maximum and minimum values of 1 + sin x cos x.
Ex. 13. Find the values of x in the interval 0 < x < 27r which satisfy the equation cos 2x = 3 sin x 1.
-
Ex. 14. Find the value of tan irr without using your tables.
Ex. 15. Find sin (2 arcsin x) and cos (2 arccos y).
Ex. 16. By writing x = arctan 4 and y = arctan 4 and considering tan (x+y),
show that arctan 4+ arctan i = arctan i.
= 1 tan2 210
sec2-1-0
= 1 t2
1+t2 '
(iii) tan 0 =
12t t2'
220
1]
l+sin
1+
L.H.S.
cos 0
2t
l+t2
t2
(0
(2n + 1) +n) ,
by (i), (ii),
1 +12
+1)2
= 1 -12
1 +t
1 t'
R.H.S.
tan-In
4 + tan 1
20
1tan ill' tan 10
1 +t
since tan in * 1.
1 t'
Example 7. Solve the equation of Example 4, using the substitution
tan 10 = t.
5 cos 0-6 sin 0 --- 3,
6 V(36 + 16)
8
=
3 V13)
= 0.151 or 1.651,
10 = 8 35' or 121 12',
0 = 17 10'
or 242 24'.
Note. Some discrepancy arises between the results obtained here and in
Example 4. Rounding-off explains the error in the larger answer; the
smaller answer is seriously affected in Example 7, since the subtraction
3 + V13 loses a significant figure.
Ex. 18. Express sin x+ cos x in terms of t, where t = tan ix.
8-2
221
[12
FURTHER TRIGONOMETRY
Theorem 12.4.
(i) sin A sin B Ecos (A B) cos (A + B)] ;
(ii) cos A cos B +[cos (A + B)+ cos (A B)];
(iii) sin A cos B = Esin (A + B)+ sin (A B)];
(iv) cos A sin B = l[sin (A + B) sin (AB)].
Proof. (i) R.H.S. = +[(cos A cos B+ sin A sin B)
(cos A cos B sin A sin B)]
= 1.2 sin A sin B
= L.H.S.;
(ii), (iii), (iv) are all proved in a similar fashion.
Theorem 12.5.
A B
2
2 cos
B
(i) sin A+ sin B= 2 sin A+
2 B;
(ii) sin A sin B= 2 cos A +
2 Bsin A(iii) cos A+ cos B
A B
2 ;
2 cos A +
2 cos
B
2 sin A 2 B sin
B A
2
Proof.
FA+BABl
+
+sin FA+B AB1
2
j
2 t
L 2
L 2
by Theorem 12.4 (iii)
= sin A+ sin B
R.H.S. = sin
= L.H.S.
2]
A+[cos B+ cos C]
= 1-2 sin24
2 +2 cos
B+C
B C
2 cos 2
B+C = 90 A
= 1-2 sin2
A +2 sin A BC since
2
2 cos 2 '
2
2
= 1 2 sin A
[sin A cos13 Cl
2
2
2
= 1 2 sin A
[cos BI- C cosB C1
2
2
2
A
B
C
= 1-4 sin sin sin
2
2
2
= R.H.S.
0 or
sin 2x = Z.
x = 15 or 75 or 195 or 255.
[12
FURTHER TRIGONOMETRY
Ex. 20. Prove the identity sin x+ sin 2x + sin 3x E sin 2x(2 cos x+ 1). Hence
find all values of x in the interval 0 x 27r satisfying the equation
sin x+sin 2x+ sin 3x = 0.
*Ex. 21. Solve the equation sin x+ sin 2x = 0 by expressing the left-hand side in
x < 271. Solve the equation
factor form, giving all solutions in the interval 0
again in the following alternative ways:
(i) by rewriting it as sin 2x = sin ( x), etc.;
(ii) by rewriting it as sin x + 2 sin x cos x = 0.
Exercise 12(a)
1. Evaluate in surd form:
(ii) cos 105;
(i) sin 75;
2. Prove that sin 3A = 3 sin A 4 sin3 A and that cos 3A = 4 coss A -3 cos A.
By considering the equation sin 2A = cos 3A, express in surd form:
(iv) tan 108.
(i) sin 18;
(ii) cos 18;
(iii) sin 54;
3. Prove that the following identities hold for all angles A, B for which the
expressions appearing are defined:
(i) sin (A+ B) sin (A B) E cos2B cost A;
(ii) cos (A B) sin (A + B) E (cos A sin A) (cos B
( ii )
sin B);
= cot B;i
tan 2A.
A
B C
4 cos cos cos
2
2
2
224
2]
clusive:
(i) 2 sin x = sin (x+45);
inclusive:
(i) cos x+ sin x + N/2 = 0;
7. Solve the following equations, giving all solutions between 0 and 360:
then
stating what restrictions you impose on the value of sin a for a solution to be
possible. Hence find the values of x between 0 and 360 which satisfy the equation
5 tan x = tan (x + 30).
(0 & C)
sec2 0;
(0 & C)
10. Prove that cos [(n + 2) 8] 'a' 2 cos 8 cos [(n +1) 0] cos n0.
Hence express cos 30 and cos 48 in terms of cos 8, and prove that
cos 50
11. Prove that
(0 & C)
cot 0
225
FURTHER TRIGONOMETRY
[12
and hence, using the formula sin 30 -a-. 3 sin 0-4 sin' 0, show that cos 36 is
a root of the equation
(0 & C)
8x4 -8x2 +x+1 = 0.
12. (i) Prove that
cos 20 7._
1tan2 0
1+tan2 0
(Cambridge)
15. Prove
Deduce that
+ cos 4r =
(Cambridge)
16. Express the function cos x+2 sin x in the form R sin (x +a) where R is
positive and 0 < a < 360. State the values of R and a. Hence, or otherwise,
find the values of x in the range 0 to 360 inclusive which satisfy the equations
(i) 2 cos x + 4 sin x = 1; (ii) cos x(cos x + 2 sin x) = 1.
(Cambridge)
(0 & C)
18. Find all the pairs of values (8, 93) lying between 0 and 27-r that satisfy the
equations
cos 0+ cos 95 = cos -4-7r,
sin 0+ sin = sin 17r.
(0 & C)
19. Prove, by induction or otherwise, that
cos a + cos (a + fl)+ cos (a + 2fi)+ + cos [a + (n-1) fl]
E cos [a +1(n 1) fl] sin -infl cosec
provided that fi is not a multiple of 27r.
A regular polygon has n sides of length a; the vertices of the polygon are
Vn. Show that
V1, V2,
(V1V3)2 + ( Va V3)2 + + ( V)2 = ina2cosec2(7r/n).
(Cambridge)
the solution of triangles; that is, the determination of the remaining sides
and angles of a triangle some of whose sides and/or angles are given. For
consistency, we employ the following notation: ABC is a triangle with sides
BC = a, CA = b, AB = c and the radius of the circumcircle of A ABC is R.
A triangle may be solved uniquely in the following three cases :
(i) given the three sides;
(ii) given two sides and the included angle;
(iii) given two angles and a side.
A triangle may also be solved (but not necessarily uniquely) in the following case:
(iv) given two sides and a non-included angle.
The Cosine and Sine Rules of elementary trigonometry are employed in
the solution, the Cosine Rule in cases (i) and (ii), the Sine Rule in cases (iii)
and (iv). Before illustrating their use, we give the proofs for the benefit of
the reader unfamiliar with them.
Fig. 12.5
r2
Fig. 12.6
a2 = b2 +c2-2bc cos A,
[12
FURTHER TRIGONOMETRY
and show that, with the notation used above, this reduces to the second form of
the Cosine Rule.
a
sin A
_ b
2R.
sin B = sin C
(i)
Fig. 12.7
Ex. 23. Show that the area, A, of the AABC is given by the formula
A = ibc sin A.
Write down the two similar expressions for A and deduce the Sine Rule in the
form
a
sin A
sin B
sin C.
SOLUTION OF TRIANGLES
3]
Clearly we must use the Cosine Rule to begin with. We select the angle B,
since this is the smallest angle, and the tables of cosines are marginally
more accurate for smaller than larger angles.
16 = 25 + 36 60 cos LB,
cos LB = 0.75,
LB = 41 24'.
By the Sine Rule
LA = 82 42'.
By the angle sum property of a triangle
LC = 55 54'.
FURTHER TRIGONOMETRY
[12
Fig. 12.9
In LAFB,
AF = h cot 20.
In A AFD,
230
4]
SOLUTION OF PROBLEMS
tan 0 = h/DF = tan 20 cos 60
In 0 DFC,
0.1820,
0 = 10 19'.
Example 13. Prove the theorem of Apollonius that, in any triangle ABC with
median AM,
AB2+ AC2= 2AM2+2BM2.
An aircraft flying on a constant course and at constant height with speed
V is observed from a station on the ground at times 0, t, 2t to have elevations
a, fl, y respectively. Prove that
V = kl(cot2 a-2 cote ft+ cote -y)/tV2.
If the bearings of the aircraft from the station at times 0 and 2t are 0,
and 02respectively, determine the course of the aircraft.
Fig. 12.11
Fig. 12.12
B' Vt M' Vt A'
Fig. 12.13
In R AMC,
But BM = MC and cos 0 = cos (180 0) whence the theorem of Apollonius, by addition.
AB represents the course of the aircraft, A, M, B being its position at
times 0, t, 2t. The projections of A, M, B on the ground are A', M', B',
231
FURTHER TRIGONOMETRY
[12
i.e.
= 01+ arcsin
Exercise 12 (b)
1. Two points B and C on the bank of a straight river are 120 metres apart.
It is observed that a point A on the opposite bank is such that the angle ABC
is 72 15' and the angle ACB is 38 30'. Find the width of the river, correct to the
nearest metre.
(0 &C '0')
2. In LABC, s = 1-(a + b + c); deduce from the Cosine Rule that
IFscsL be
cos 4
2 V
(i) si
n-=
[(s - b) (s -c)-1
bc
(i) a+ b
(ii) tan
232
A- B
a-b
C
= a+bcot 2 .
(0 & C '0')
4]
SOLUTION OF PROBLEMS
In a triangle ABC, a = 13.41 cm, b = 9.63 cm and LC = 34. Find the size
of the angles LA and LB.
If in a triangle a = 5, b = 4 and cos (A B) =
prove that cos C = *
(0 & C)
and that c = 6.
5. A straight river is 80 m wide. A man on one bank observed that the angle of
From the points A, B, C which are on level ground, the top of a flagstaff has
the same angle of elevation, 30. Calculate the height of the flagstaff.
(0 & C '0')
7. A snow-slope is a plane inclined to the horizontal at an angle of a. A man on
skis traverses this slope in a straight line which makes an angle ftwith the horizontal. Show that the angle 6' which his path makes with the line of greatest
slope of the plane is given by the equation
(0 & C '0')
AB = 2a and the height of the pyramid is h. Express the sines of the following
angles in terms of h and a:
(i) the inclination of OB to the horizontal;
(ii) the inclination of a slant face to the horizontal;
(iii) the angle between the faces OAB, ODC;
(iv) one-half of the angle between the faces OAB, OBC.
(0 & C)
10. ABCD is a regular tetrahedron and M is the mid-point of the edge CD. Find
the angle between the plane ABC and
(i) the plane ABM;
11. From the top of a cliff the angle of depression of a ship, steaming on a constant course at 12 km per hour, is 15 and its true bearing is 75 north of west.
Two minutes later, the angle of depression is 12 and the true bearing is due west.
Find
(i) the height of the cliff (to the nearest metre);
(ii) the ship's course (to the nearest half-degree).
12. A and B are two points on one bank of a straight stretch of a river, P is a
chimney exactly opposite A and 20 m from the other bank. The angles of elevation of the top of the chimney from A and B are a and fi respectively. Calculate
the width of the river to the nearest metre, given that
a = 45, ft = 30 and AB = 200 m.
233
[12
FURTHER TRIGONOMETRY
Prove that, if the angle of elevation of the top of the chimney from a point C,
midway between A and B, is y, then
4 cote y= 3 cot' a + cot2 ft
whatever the height of the chimney, the width of the river, and the distance
(0 & C)
AB may be.
13. In the quadrilateral ABCD, AB = 13 cm, BC = 20 cm, CD = 48 cm,
LBCD is 90 and LBAC = LDBC. Without using tables
(i) prove that cos LBAC = A;
(ii) prove that cos LACB = f;
(iii) find the area of the quadrilateral by adding the areas of the triangles
ABC and ACD.
(Cambridge)
14. A right pyramid has vertex V and rectangular base ABCD. AB = 4 cm,
BC = 6 cm and the height of the pyramid is 8 cm. Find
(i) the angle a sloping edge makes with the base;
(ii) the angle the face VAB makes with the base;
(iii) the angle between two adjacent sloping faces.
15. From a point P in a horizontal plane a man observes the summit S of a
mountain to be due north at an elevation 0. When the man has walked a distance 2a on a bearing a east of north to a point Q in the horizontal plane, he
observes that the elevation of S from Q is again O. If h is the height of S above
the horizontal plane containing P and Q, show that h = a tan 0 sec a. When
the man has walked a further distance a in the same plane and in the same direction to a point R he observes that the elevations of S from R is q. Show that
cot2cb = (3 cos2a + 1) cot2 0
and that the distance RS is
a(sec2 a sect 0+3)I.
(Cambridge)
lb
b' BV =
lb
.
c b
4]
SOLUTION OF PROBLEMS
(0 & C)
Miscellaneous Exercise 12
1. Prove that arctan i + arctan 4 = 41r and that
arctan i + arctan i + arctan 4 = in.
2. Solve the equations:
(i) arctan 1+ arctan x = arctan 4;
(ii) 2 arcsin (x y) = 3 arccos (x+y) = Tr.
3. Two circles with centres 0 and C meet in P and Q. The radii of the circles are
a and b and the angle CPO is a. Prove that the angle between the common tangents of the circles is 0, where
(a b)2 cot2 40 = 4ab sine 4a.
(0 & C)
(SMP)
x +y
1 xy
Find values of x, y for which the relationship above is (i) true, (ii) untrue.
6. Prove that, in any triangle ABC,
a
sin A
b
c
sin B sin C
In the triangle ABC the angle B is a right-angle and 0 is a point inside the triangle at which all the sides subtend the angle 120. If 0 is the angle CBO, prove
that
c+a,13
tan 0 =
a+ cA/3
If the angle C = 30, show that CO = 2A0.
7. Show that 4 arctan 4 arctan th
Machin's Formula).
(0 & C)
[12
FURTHER TRIGONOMETRY
8. Find all pairs of angles x, y such that 0 < x < ir 0 < y < 77-which satisfy
the simultaneous equations
,
(0 & C)
10. Find the maximum and minimum values of the expression a sin 0 + b cos 0.
By making the substitution t = tan 4-0, deduce the condition for the existence
of real roots of the quadratic equation
x tan3 x
tan 3x = 3 tan
1 3 tan2 x
t3 -3t2 -3t+1 = 0
are tan
1rT,
cos x+ cos y = b,
x+ y = a.
236
4]
MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE 12
16. The wave-train well away from a ship is modelled by the equation
z = a sin [(x+y ct)Ip]
where z is the height of the sea's surface above the mean horizontal plane in
which (x, y) are Cartesian coordinates, a is the maximum height of the waves, c
is the fixed speed, and p a fixed length. Sketch a diagram showing an airman's
view of the waves, indicating the lines of the crests and troughs and the direction
in which the waves are travelling; and prove that the wave velocity and distance
between successive waves are c/V2 and irpV2 respectively.
The wave train of another ship, given by
z = a sin [(x y ct)Ip]
is superimposed on the other one. Prove that on the lines y = (N + I-) rip, where
N is an integer, the sea is undisturbed.
(SMP)
17. Find the range or ranges of values of c such that the simultaneous equations
cos 0+ sin q5 = 1,
sec 0+ cosec 95 = c
are satisfied by real values of 0 and 0.
Obtain the general solutions of these equations when c = 61.
237
13.
Matrices
1. INTRODUCTION
Any pair of simultaneous equations in two unknowns, x and y,
f ax+ by = c,
(dx+ey = f
is completely specified if we know
(i) the coefficients on the left-hand side, which we may write as the
rectangular array
(ad be)
and (ii) the two numbers on the right-hand side, which we may write as
the rectangular array
(Cf)
Ex. 1. Solve the simultaneous equations whose coefficients are given by the
rectangular array
P 1)
2
( 112)
The answer is the pair of values 4 (for x) and 3 (for y), which can be expressed
as an array
34) ,
as we saw in Chapter 2.
11
INTRODUCTION
(read `three by five matrix'; that is, a matrix with three rows and five
columns):
ABCDE
M 2
5
7 6
3
E
1
6
8
6
2 ).
F 3
5
8
7
0
(
(878)
(ii) the 3 x 2 matrix
(2 5
1 6);
35
More generally, any rectangular array of m rows and n columns of elements is called an m x n matrix:
an
a21
a12
a13
a22
a23
aml am2
... al.
1423 am,
2. LINEAR TRANSFORMATIONS
If we are given a pair of axes in a plane, any point P may be located by
its coordinates (x, y), so that OP = xi +yj. Suppose we now associate
with each point P(x, y) a unique point P'(x', y') such that
x' = x +2y,
y' = x y.
For example, the point P(1, 2) gives rise to P'(5, 1); the point Q( 2, 3)
gives rise to Q'(4, 5). Such an association of points is a mapping, or func239
MATRICES 1
[13
tion, of the set of points in the plane into itself and is often referred to as a
transformation of the plane into itself. We may specify our mapping by the
2 x 2 matrix
which we call the matrix of the given transformation. For the present,
such a matrix is to be regarded simply as an inert array of coefficients
defining a transformation. In Section 3 we shall consider combinations of
transformations and the resulting matrices; in Section 4, rules for combining
matrices will be developed and the inert arrays which we have at present
will come to life. Finally, in Section 5 matrices, with their new-found
vitality, will be used to illuminate the concept of a geometrical transformation.
We may also regard the transformation as mapping the vector OP into
the vector OP' and the vector OQ into the vector OQ'. If we call the
transformation T, then we write
T(OP) = OP'
and
T(OQ) = OQ'.
Notice carefully that T(OP) is a vector: the position vector of P'. T(OP) is
called the image of OP; P' is the image of P and may be written T(P).
The transformation defined above has an important property: it maps
the vector OP + OQ into the vector sum of T(OP) and T(OQ). Let us
demonstrate this property first with the points P and Q above:
OP = i+2j, OQ = 2i+ 3j.
Let
OR = OP + OQ
Now let P be any point (h1, k1), Q any point (112, k2) and let R(h3, k3) be
the point such that
OR = OP + OQ,
or
240
h3i+k3 j = (111-Fh2)i+(k+k2)j,
LINEAR TRANSFORMATIONS
2]
*Ex. 3. By writing x in the form x+0, show that, for any linear transformation
T, T(0) = 0.
An example of a mapping, T, that is particularly easy to visualize geometrically is that in
which the image P' of P is obtained by a halfturn about the origin (see Figure 13.1). The coordinates of P'(x' ,y') in terms of P(x,y) are given
by
x' = x,
P(x, y)
ax
= Y
and thus the matrix of this transformation is
k 0 -1
241
[13
MATRICES 1
= (Ahl+
,uk,) j
A( hii ki p+ 14h,ik,j)
= AT(OP) + T(0Q).
Thus, T is a linear transformation.
*Ex. 4. Write down the matrix for the transformation
x' = kx,
y = ky.
This transformation is called the enlargement transformation, or dilatation
transformation. Draw a diagram and consider the effect on the points (2, 3),
(-1, 2) when k is (i) 2, (ii) 4. Can you suggest a reason for the name?
*Ex. 5. Prove that the enlargement transformation is linear.
*Ex. 6. The function f: R > R defined by f(x) = ax+ b is a linear function (that
is, its graph is a straight line). Show that, regarded as a mapping of points of the
x axis into points of the x axis, it is not a linear transformation.
Ex. 7. The function f:R > R defined by f(x) = x2maps the x axis into itself.
Prove that f is neither a linear function nor a linear transformation.
Example 1. The transformation T maps the vector OP into the vector OP'
where
lop I = 10P/ I and Z.POP = a,
a fixed angle measured in the anticlockwise sense. Find the matrix for T
and verify that T is a linear transformation.
Suppose OP makes an angle /3 with the x axis
(see Figure 13.2). Writing lOP I = 1013'1 = r we
have
x' = r cos (a+,8) (r cos ,8) cos cc (r sin /3) sin a,
y' = r sin (a+/3) = (r cos /3) sin a+ (r sin /3) cos a
2]
LINEAR TRANSFORMATIONS
To prove that T is linear, consider P(hi, k1), Q(112, k2), R(h,, k3) where
OR = AOP +//0Q,
T(OR) = T(h,i+ k,j)
= (h3cos a lc, sin a-) i+ (h, sin a + lc, cos a) j, by the equations
for T defined above,
= [(Ai+ uj h,) cos a (Aki+ ,ak,) sin a] i
+ [(Ahi+ ich,) sin a + (Aki+ ick,) cos a] j
= Afthicos a k1sin a) i + (hisin a + kicos a)
F4(h2 cos a k, sin a) i + (h2sin a + k2 cos 0) j]
= AT(OP) + T(0Q)
and the result is complete.
3. LINEAR TRANSFORMATIONS
AND THEIR MATRICES
Suppose we have a linear transformation T whose matrix A is given by
A=
(a b\
c
Since i is the position vector of the point /(1, 0) and j is the position vector
of the point AO, 1), we have
b\
d)
243
MATRICES 1
[13
(a b
(w
ta+w b+x\
kc-Fy d+z)
For we have
(i) U(Ax +icy) = S(Ax+ py)+T(Ax+gy), by definition of U,
= (a+w)i+(c+y)j.
Similarly
U(j)
(b + x) i + (d + z) j
3]
Ex. 9. If
A=
2 3/
, w = (2
1\
kl 1)
and P is the point (1, 1) sketch in a diagram the effects of S, T and U upon the
point P.
*Ex. 10. The transformation L is defined by
L(x) = cT(x).
(L is sometimes written as cT.) Prove that L is a linear transformation and that
its matrix is
cw ell
cy czl
(
0 0
1 C).
0 0 1
0
Exercise 13(a)
1. The transformation T is defined by the equations
x' = 2xy,
y' = x-3y.
245
MATRICES 1
[13
What is the image of the point P( 1, 3) ? What point Q gives rise to the point
Q'(3, 5) ?
2. A transformation is represented by the matrix
(
2 3)
Find the image of the point (-1, 2) and also the point whose image is (14, 9).
What points are invariant under this transformation? (A point is invariant
under a transformation if it maps into itself.)
3. What points are invariant under the transformation whose matrix is
(4 6)
1 1
4. A transformation whose matrix is
ki)
is called a shear. Consider its effect upon the square with vertices (0, 0), (1, 0),
(1, 1), (0, 1) and suggest a reason for the name.
5. Prove that the shear transformation defined in Question 4 is linear.
6. Describe the following transformation in geometrical terms:
x' = y,
y' = 0.
Draw a sketch to illustrate the transformation; mark in a number of points and
their images.
Prove that the transformation is linear.
7. Answer the same questions as in Question 6 for the transformation
x' = 2y,
y' = 2x.
8. Sketch a diagram to illustrate the effect of the transformation which has matrix
(ac b
d)
on the four points P(0, 0), Q(1, 0), R(1, 1), S(0, 1).
Determine the area of the image quadrilateral Pf Q' R' S'.
What can you say about the particular transformation in which ad bc = 0?
9. Prove that the translation transformation defined by
x' = x,
= y+ 1
is not a linear transformation.
246
3]
10. Find the matrix of the linear transformation which maps the points U, J
whose position vectors are given by
u= (1), ]= (?)
into the points U', J' whose position vectors are given by
= Y;
and the matrix for the reflection R, given by
x' = x,
= Y.
Two new transformations T1and T2are defined as follows. To find TAP),
find R(P) = Q', say, and then find S(Q'); to find T2(P), find S(P) = Q", say,
and then find R(Q). Prove that T1and T2 represent different transformations.
and
(-4
1 26)
and
(0 2 0
kS 1 0
different ?
247
MATRICES 1
[13
c 2
e
3\
'
/0 2 0
k5 1 0
and
are not equal.
1 3
0
1 1
(
A= 4
then
(1+2
A+B = 4+1
1+3
If
2)
2 2 3
3 , B = (1 3 4) ,
2
3 3 1
3+2
0-3
1-3
2-3
3 1 1
3+4 = 5 3 7.
2+1 )
4 4 3
1 3
C = (1 1),
2 4
4]
Example 4. If
1 2
3 6
A = 3-1, 3A= 9-3,
1 1
3 3
2A =
2 4
6 2.
2 2
We may now define the subtraction of two matrices A and B which are
conformable for addition by the equation AB = A + ( 1) B.
Example 5. With the matrices A and B of Example 3
1 5 5
AB = ( 3 3 1).
2 2 1
(iv) Zero matrices.
A zero matrix is a matrix all of whose elements are zero. Provided no
confusion is likely to arise, a zero matrix may be written 0 but note that
there are many different zero matrices; for example,
(0\
\ /
0\
\O) k0 Of k0 0 0)
are all zero matrices, and are all different.
(v) Multiplication of matrices.
Two matrices A and B are said to be conformable for the product AB if the
number of columns in A is the same as the number of rows in B. We now
define the product AB of two matrices A and B which are conformable for
the product AB as follows: the i, jth element of AB is obtained from the ith
row of A and the jth column of B by multiplying together the corresponding
elements and adding. If A, B are not conformable for the product AB, then
AB is not defined.
Example 6. If
(1 3
A= 5 1
1 1
2
3
2
and B=
1
2
0
1 1
0 2,
3 1
then
(5 7 7
-7 14-4.
1 7 3
249
[13
MATRICES 1
If
1 2)
2 8
1 0 then AC = 12 19
2 3
4 8
C=
but CA is not defined.
Ex. 13. If
3
A =(
B= 1
2
1/
0
1
2)
1
0
find
(i) A+B;
(ii) 2A-3B;
1 1
3
A = (2
1), B = (23
\ 2
0
2
Ex. 14.1f
find
(i) AB;
*Ex. 15. If
(iv) BA.
(iii) AB;
1)
0
(ii) BA.
,
A = (1 1) B = (0 2) e = (1
1/'
21'
0 0
\2
verify that
(i) A+B = B+A;
(iii) A(BC) = (AB)C;
Show also that AB = BA.
In Ex. 15 above, certain of the basic laws of algebra have been shown to
hold good for the particular matrices A, B, C. With the definitions of
equality, addition and multiplication we have given, the following laws
may be shown to hold good for all matrices A, B, C, provided all the sums
and products are defined:
(i) Matrix addition is
(a) Commutative: A+B = B+A;
(b) Associative: A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C.
(ii) Matrix multiplication is
(a) Associative: A(BC) = (AB) C;
(A(B+C) = AB + AC,
(A +B)C = AC + BC.
However, matrix multiplication is non-commutative; indeed, two
matrices A, B may be conformable for the product AB and yet BA is
not defined. This is not to say that matrix multiplication is never commutative.
(b) Distributive over addition:
Ex. 16. If
A = (4
1 2)
1 4
and B = ( 8
3)
41
1 0)
0 1
5. LINEAR TRANSFORMATIONS
AND THEIR MATRICES (CONTINUED)
The rules for matrix addition and multiplication given above enable us
to obtain a deeper insight into the machinery of linear transformations.
If P has coordinates (x, y) and its image, P', has coordinates (x', y') then
the position vectors (in column vector form) of P and P' are respectively
P = (x) and P' = (x')
Y')
If we have a transformation P to P' defined by the matrix
A=
(a b\
c d)
then x, y, x', y' are related by the equations
x' = ax+by,
y' = cx+dy
and these may be written, on using the definition of multiplication of
matrices, in the form of the matrix equation
(xi \ _ la b\ ix\
ky'l c dlkJ?)
or, more briefly,
9
PPM
p' = Ap.
(1)
251
MATRICES 1
[13
(2)
= (BA) p.
Thus, if the linear transformation whose matrix is A is followed by the
linear transformation whose matrix is B, the combined effect is a linear
transformation whose matrix is BA.
In three-dimensional space, precisely similar results hold. Indeed, if
p, p' are the position vectors (in column vector form) of the point P and its
image P', and if A is a 3 x 3 matrix, then the linear transformation defined
by A takes the matrix form p' = App
which is precisely equation (1), although p', A, p have different meanings.
Example 7. The linear transformation P to P' of points in three-dimensional
space is defined by the matrix:
0 2 1
A = (3 1 2).
3 1 1
Show that, under this transformation,
(i) any point P is mapped into a point lying in a certain plane;
(ii) all points of the line
x-1 _ y +1 _ z 2
1
1
2
are mapped into the same point.
(iii) Find the set of points that are mapped into the origin.
(i) The transformation is given by the equations
x' = 2y + z,
y' = 3x+y+2z,
z' = 3x y+z.
But y'z' = x' and so all points map into the plane xy+z = 0.
(ii) A general point P of the given line has coordinates (A + 1, A 1,
2A + 2). Thus, the position vector of the image of P is given by
(0 2 1) ( A+ 1)
(0
3 1 2
A 1 = 6,
3 1 1
2A+2
6
and so all points of the given line map onto the point (0, 6, 6).
252
51
(iii) If the image of the point P(x, y, z) is the origin, then x, y, z satisfy
the equations
2y+ z = 0,
(a)
(b) 3x+ y+2z = 0,
(c) 3x y+ z = 0.
Planes (a) and (b) meet in the line x = y = --1z which clearly lies also in
plane (c). Thus, all points with coordinates of the form (A, A, 2A) map
into the origin.
Exercise 13(b)
1. If
= (1
3 234
2) and B = (-1
2 2
evaluate
(i) A+B;
(iii) 2AB;
(ii) AB;
0
4)'
(iv) 2A+ 3B.
2. If
A = 3 0 3 and B = 1
1
2 1
2 1
evaluate
(i) A+B;
3. If
(ii) 2A-3B;
(iv) 4A-2B.
c = (011/\
3 0
\ ' B= /\
A = (-1 2
)'
2
2 3/
I 1
evaluate
(i) A-3B+2C;
(iii) 3AB;
(ii) 2A(13C);
(iii) A2 AB+AC.
Verify that (A+B)2 = A2 +AB+BA+B2; can this be put in the simpler form
A2 +2AB+B2 ?
4. A, B, C are all 3 x 3 matrices. Remove brackets in the following expressions:
(i) A(B-2C); (ii) (A+B) (A C);
5. If
A=
I
1
2
31), B= (
3 1
2
2
0)'
(ii) BA;
(iii) A2;
(v) (2AB)2;
2
1
1
1 1
1
2), B =
2
1/
0
2
1
3
2 1
1
C2),
253
MATRICES 1
[13
find
(i) AB;
(iv) B2 ;
8. If
A=
(ii) BA;
(v) A2 -4B2 ;
1
2
1
3
1
2
(iii) A2;
(vi) (A 2B) (A + 2B).
(
2, B=
3
2 1 0, C=
0 2 3
evaluate
(i) AC;
(ii) BC;
Verify that (A + 2B) C = AC + 2BC.
9. If
A=
find
(i) AB;
2
2
1 ,
1
(iii) A + 2B.
1
2)
B=120
3
0,
1 0 1)'
2 1
(ii) BA;
(iii) ABA;
(iv) BAB.
10. A matrix M is said to be transposed into the matrix M' if the first row of M
becomes the first column of M', the second row of M becomes the second column
of M', and so on. Write down the transposes of the matrices:
0 b 0)
M =(x)
y, T = (0 0 c .
a 0 0
Calculate the matrix products M'M and TM; show also that (TM)' = M'T'.
If the elements of M are the Cartesian coordinates of a point P, what information is provided by the element of M'M?
If the matrix T describes a transformation of the point P of three-dimensional
space, interpret geometrically the equation:
(TM)' (TM) = M'M,
and find all appropriate values of a, b and c.
(SMP)
11. Show that under the linear transformation defined by the matrix
3 1 1)
A= (2 2 1
8
0 1
any point P in space is mapped into a certain plane, and find the equation of this
plane.
Show further that all points of the line
x-1 = y 1 = z 3
1
5
8
are mapped into a certain point, and find the coordinates of this point.
12. Show that, under the linear transformation defined by the matrix
2 1 1)
A= (3 2 1 ,
1 1 0
any point P in space is mapped into a certain plane, and find the equation of this
plane.
254
5]
z 1
1
map into a certain point and find the coordinates of this point.
13. The linear transformation T of three-dimensional space into itself maps
the point P into the point P' and the point Q into the point Q'. The points P and
Q are distinct. Show that
(i) if P' and Q' are distinct, then all points of the line PQ map into points
of the line P'Q'
(ii) if P' and Q' coincide, then all points of the line PQ map into P'.
14. The linear transformation T of the plane into itself has matrix
1 2
A=(
1 1)
Show that T maps the interior of the triangle 0(0, 0), P(2, 0), Q(1, 1) into the
interior of another triangle O'P'Q' and find the coordinates of the vertices
0' P', Q'.
Prove also that the image of the centroid of the triangle OPQ is the centroid
of the triangle O'P'Q'
.
Miscellaneous Exercise 13
(a b
A = c d) does (I = A (1
1. If
map a set of parallel lines into another set of parallel lines when ad * bc?
What happens to the transformation defined by A when ad = bc? Is it still
one-one? (A transformation is said to be one one if each image P' arises from a
unique P.)
-
2. What are the position vectors of the images of the points whose position
vectors are i, j, k under the linear transformation whose matrix, A, is given by
a2 a,
1)2 13) ?
A=
C1
C2 C3
0 0 1
3. Describe the effect of the linear transformations whose matrices are:
(1 1
(\
(i) 1 0);
2 _1
4
2) ;
... (0 0 \
(in)
0 Of
For each transformation determine the set of vectors which are transformed into
the zero vector.
255
MATRICES 1
[13
4. A is the matrix of the transformation that rotates all points in the plane
through an angle a; B is the matrix of the transformation that rotates all points
in the plane through an angle Calculate BA and simplify the resulting matrix.
What result does this illustrate?
5. Can you find a point P with position vector x which is mapped into itself by
the tranformation whose matrix is A, where
A=
( 8 13 \
2 2f
Can you determine any real values of A which would enable you to find non-zero
vectors x such that Ax = Ax? If you can, find both A and the corresponding vectors.
6. Answer the same questions as in Question 5 for the linear transformations
with matrices
(i) (3 5)
7 5)
2 1
5)
4
7. The transpose of the matrix A, denoted by A', is defined as the matrix whose
ith row is the same as the ith column of A. For example, if
1
3
2), B = (42
1. 3 5
2
1),
1
4
A= (
3 5 2
then
1 1
2
A' = ( 3 4 and B' = 1
25
3
4
3
2 5 .
12
51
MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES 1
Show that
(i) all points are mapped into points on a certain plane;
(ii) all points on the line
x -1 =
y 1 z -1
1
3
5
are mapped into the same point.
11. Let A, B, C be real 2 x 2 matrices and write
[A, B] = ABBA, etc.
Prove that
(i) [A, A] = 0;
(ii) [[A, B], C]+ [[B, C], A] + [[C, A], B] = 0;
(iii) [A, B] = I
At each step you should state clearly any properties of matrices which you use.
The trace Tr(A), of a matrix
A = (an a12)
a fi a22
is defined by
Prove that:
Tr(A) = an+a22.
/1 0
k1 2
(10 0
1)
M2= 3M 21.
(M.E.I. adapted)
257
14. Matrices
1 0 0
0 1 0) ,
= (0 0 1
A = (1 0\
k0 11
1 0 0
I = (0 1 0
0 0 1
The question thus naturally arises: 'Is there a matrix analogue to the
reciprocal of a number ?' ; that is, `given a square matrix A, does there exist
a matrix B such that BA = I?'
We begin our investigation by actually constructing such a matrix B
for a given 2 x 2 matrix A. Suppose
(1 3
A=
2 7/
We effect the construction in two stages : we first form a matrix Clsuch that
258
1]
1
the product C,A has as its first column ( ); we then form a matrix C2 such
0
that C2(C,A) = I. By associativity, it follows that C2 C, = B.
Since the element all of A is already 1, we have only to assume that C,A
makes the element of the second row and first column of the product zero.
Choose
1
1 3
2
_ ()) then CI A = (0 /) .
Cl =
1
Next choose
C2 =
; then C2(C,A) = (1 0
0 1)
Thus if we take
B = C2 C1 = (_ 27 3
1) we have BA = I.
We write B = A-1and call A--1the inverse of A.
(Notice that we have not yet justified the use of the definite article `the' :
in fact, B is unique, although the intermediate matrices C, and C2 are not.
Notice also that we have shown that BA = I but not that AB = I although
this latter equation does indeed hold, as we shall soon show.)
In this example, the choice of C, and C2 was determined by trial and
error. Whilst this is easy for 2 x 2 matrices, in more complicated cases
we shall need a more general method. This is given by considering the socalled elementary row operations on a matrix.
We shall consider the 3 x 3 matrix
(an an al,
A= an a22 a23
au a
n a,
although our results will easily be seen to generalize to the n x n case (and,
in particular, to cover the 2 x 2 case).
(i) The first elementary row operation: the interchange of two rows of A.
Consider the matrix
1 00
E1 = 0 0 1),
0 1 0
all
EiA = (a3,
and the effect of pre-multiplication by E1has been to interchange row 2 and
row 3 of A. A can be any 3 x 3 matrix; taking A = I, since E,I = E E1is
formed by interchanging row 2 and row 3 of I. If r1, r; represent the ith
259
[14
MATRICES 2
a32
a33
and the effect of pre-multiplication by C1has been to multiply the first row
of A by c (r; = cr1, r2 = r2, r3 = r3). Notice again that C1has been obtained by performing the required elementary row operation on I. (The
reader may wonder why the restriction c 0 has been imposed; so far as
the result is concerned, this is of course unnecessary, but multiplication of a
row by zero must be specifically excluded when we use elementary row
operations to determine inverses.)
(
MI. A
all
a21
a12
a22
a13
a23
7)
(0
1 3
1)
(01 0
1).
1 0
2 1)
11 3\
\O 1)
We now leave the second row as it is and subtract from the first row three
times the second row (K =
3r2, r2 = r2); that is, we multiply by
C2 = (10
3)
X,X,I = XXn_1...X2X =
A=
3 4\
2/'
MATRICES 2
[14
(-1
2
4)
1
3 2
4) ri = r2
r,' =
ri = r1
rz = r2+3r1
( 12
C)
ol
0
1)
0
1
0)
1
13)
r1=5K
( "
0 10
0)
r2--= ra
(-05 10
0)
ra = r,
= r, r,
ri = r,/5
r2' = ra
1 0\
0 10/
( 0
1
01)
r1
1
1
3
2
5
1_
10
-5
3_
10
= r2/10
1
B = I
A" A
Thus
(ii) A =
(12 5\
(iv) A=
5 2/ '
Example 2. If
A
find B such that BA = I.
262
1 2 5
2 3 4),
= (1 1 2
2
(-2
4/ '
/2 5\
k3 9 .
11
1
2
1
2
3
1
5)
4
2
(1 2 5)
0 1 6
1 1 2
1
( 0
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
1
( 0
2
0
0
1
(1 2 5)
0 1 6
0 1 3 r; = r3 r,
( 1
2
1
0
1
0
0)
0
1
1 2 5
0 1 6
(0 0 3
0)
r2 = r2 -2r1
1
0 7
0 1 6
(0 0 3
(1 0 7)
0 1 0
0 0 3
1
(
0
0
3
(1
0
0
1
0)
0
(1
0
0
1
0)
0
B=
Thus
r,,-' = r3 r2
2 1
1 1
0
1
I.,' = r1+2r2
3
2
2 1
1 1
0
0
1
r2 = r2 +2r3
K = ri +3r,
(-3 2
0 1
1 1
0)
2
1
01
1 1
1 1
1
1
I -3
3)
0
1 2
rz
= r2
7)
3
1 2
1
3
rg = ir3
2
1 2
B .
3)
Ex. 10. Find, using elementary row operations, matrices B such that BA = I in
4
(ii) A= (2
7 3
5 2);
5 13 5
263
MATRICES 2
[14
4 3 5
(iii) A = (4 2 3);
6 3 5
4 1 1
(iv) A = (3 2 3).
4 3 4
Exercise 14(a)
1. Find matrices B such that BA = I in each of the following cases:
(i) A = /2 1\ .
/2 3\ .
(ii) A =
kP
3 2) '
k5 4
(iv) A =
(3
k2
\.
7/ '
(v) A =
1h
(iii) A =
0 1\
3)
k -2
h+1\
h f
kh 1
/3 2\
k6
is singular.
4. Find matrices B such that BA = I in each of the following cases:
(i)
1 0 2)
3 1 1 ;
(ii)
4 8 3
3 5 1 ;
1 4 3
2
(iii) (3
2
(v)
3 4 5
4 3 11 ;
1 0 3
3 6 2
(vi) (1 4 2.
2 4 2
(4 1 4
(iv)
3 4 1
2 3 1 ;
(3 7 2
is singular.
264
(1
2
1
2
3
1
3
1
2
2
7
5
1
2);
2
1]
(1 a b
0 1 c
0 0 1
with zeros in every entry below the leading diagonal and 1 as each element of that
diagonal is called an echelon matrix.
Prove that every echelon matrix is non-singular and that, if A is echelon and
BA = I, then B is also echelon.
7. If
6 9 8
A= 3 5 4),
2 4 3
(
1
v = (y), w= (3),
2
If
6x+9y+8z = 1,
3x+5y+4z = 3,
2x+4y+3z = 2
3x+2y+3z = 17,
2x-3y +4z = 7,
2x y+3z = 1
(4
2
3
3
4
5
1
a
4
singular?
10. If AX = B where
(3 4 4
1
A = 1 3 2, B = 2
2 3 3
3
1
0
1
3
1 ,
5
find X.
265
[14
MATRICES 2
2. DETERMINANTS
Recall that a square matrix A is non-singular if a (pre- or post-) inverse
may be found; otherwise it is singular. We now establish a simple criterion
for singularity for 2 x 2 matrices.
Theorem 14.1. If A is the matrix
(a11 a
12)
a21 a22
then A is non singular all a22 a12 a21 + 0.
Proof (i) Suppose A is non-singular.
-
A is non-singular a matrix B = (x
Z
y
w
BA = I,
am. + O.
0
a22 an au an au a22 a21 an
0
an a22 ai2
an au a21 a2
then
a22
BA = I where B
A is non-singular.
The quantity an a22 ai2a21is called the determinant of A and is written
a12
a21 a
22
all
266
DETERMINANTS
2]
3 4
2 -1
-3 -2
= -2;
= -7;
cos a sin a
= 1.
- sin a cos a
3 1
(ii)
0 1
1
2
-2
(iii)
1 -2
3
1
a22 a23
a31 a32 a3
then the determinant of A written
all an a13
a21
a22 a23
a31
a32 a
33
is defined by
det A =
a22 a23
a32 a33
- a12
= an aa22 a
a13 a22 a31
a33 all a23 a32 - a12 a21 a33 +a12 a23 a31 +a13 a21 a32 It is simply verified by direct calculation that det A may be expressed in
the two alternative forms
det A = -1121
[14
MATRICES 2
or
a12
a13
a22
a23
an a12
an a13
+ a33
a21 a23
a21 a22
These three forms give the expansion of the determinant by rows. The
determinant may also be expanded by columns; for example, expanding
by the first column
det A = a31
det A = all
a32
a22 a23
a32 a33
The term
a21
a12 a13
a12 a13
+ a31
23
a32 a
33
a22 a
a23
a32 a
33
a22
12
au a
32
a31 a
or (a a32
a31).
an 012 an
021 an -023- -33
a32 /2
Fig. 14.1
Fig. 14.2
2]
DETERMINANTS
the second row, or by the third column, we should include the term
a23
all a
12
a31 a32
A minor, together with its correct sign as given in Figure 14.2, is called a
cofactor, the cofactor of the term ad being written A. Thus
A22 =
all
a31
a13
=
a33
a33
an;
an a13
= a13a21 a11a23.
a21
a2.3
In terms of cofactors, the expansion of the determinant may be written
A32 =
or
a33 a
34
a31 a32
a41
an a13 a14
a31 a
33
a43 a
44
all
a12
a21
a22
a31
a32
a14
a34
1 0 5
(i)
(iv)
2 1 6
1 1 3
1
2
1
1
1
2
(ii)
0
3
3
1
0
4
2
3
1
2
1
2
3
(v)
1
0
4
(iii)
1 1 2
1 1 3
2 4 9
a h g
h b f
g
269
MATRICES 2
[14
3. PROPERTIES OF DETERMINANTS
We shall now develop some simple properties of determinants, restricting
ourselves to the 3 x 3 case for simplicity, although the results and proofs
all extend to n x n determinants.
First observe that the interchange of rows and columns does not affect
the value of a determinant: for we may expand in the first case by the first
row and in the second case by the first column and, in either case, the
corresponding cofactors remain the same. Thus, any property possessed
by the rows of a determinant is possessed equally well by the columns.
For brevity, we shall denote the determinant
an a12 a13
a22 a23
a31 a32 a33
Property 1.
an +x
+y
a21
a22
a31
a32.
z
a,
a33
a13
For
L.H.S.
by A.
z
x y
a21 a22 a23
a31 a32 a33
a13
a23
a21 a22
a31 a32 a33
au.
A13 =
R.H.S.
= c det A,
3]
PROPERTIES OF DETERMINANTS
MATRICES 2
[14
One simple but useful result that follows immediately from property 2
can now be derived. It will be recalled that aA+aA+aA = det A
and similarly for other rows and columns. Now suppose we multiply each
element of some row (or column) by the cofactors of the corresponding
elements of another row (or column); for example
all A21 + a12 A22 + a13A23.
Now
an a12 a13
33
all A21 a12 A22 +a13A23 = a31 a32 a
an a12 a13
= 0 (r = r3)
A similar result holds for any other combination of rows (or columns).
Such an expansion is called an expansion by alien cofactors and we have
demonstrated that expansion by alien cofactors gives the value zero.
Example 3. Evaluate the determinant
8 4 12
9 3 3
5 15 10
8 4 12
9 3 3
5 15 10
2 1 3
= 4.3.5 3 1 1
1 3 2
(removing factors)
2
= 60 1
1
r2 = r2 rl
1
0
3
3
2
2
2 1 7
=60 1 0 0
1 3 4
1 7
3 4
= 60
= ( 60) (-17)
= 1020.
Example 4. Express the determinant
1
a2 b2 c
2
be ca ab
as the product of factors.
272
3]
PROPERTIES OF DETERMINANTS
a2
b2
1
c2
= A(b c) (c a) (a b) (a + b + c).
be ca ab
By comparing the term in ab3on both sides, the value of A is clearly 1.
Ex. 13. Evaluate the following determinants:
(i)
3
1
1
(iii)
11
2
16
7 4
1 3 ;
3 1
3
3
15
5
2
4
(ii)
2
1
4
2
5 1
1
1 ;
2
(iv)
8 13 3
1 14 8
19 55 22
All
A21
A31
A13
An A33
that is, the adjugate is obtained by substituting for each element its cofactor and transposing (see Miscellaneous Exercise 13, Question 7).
MATRICES 2
[14
Proof (3 x 3 matrices)
an a12 ai3
A (adj A) = (21 a22 a23
a3, 32 a3,
(All
A21
A31
a)
Al2
A22
A32
A13
A23
A3
0
A
0
0
0I,
A
31
PROPERTIES OF DETERMINANTS
Theorem 14.4.
_ adj A
det A
is the unique inverse of the non singular matrix A.
Proof. Suppose L is a left inverse other than A-1; that is, suppose that
LA = I, L A. Then
-
= A-1,
which contradicts the assumption that L A-1. Similarly for right inverses.
Exercise 14(b)
1. Evaluate the following determinants:
1 3
(ii)
(i)
2 4 ;
(iii)
6 5
(iv)
5 4 ;
-7
-1
-2
-4
-5
-4 7 4
3 1
2
5 -9 -4
(iv)
4 3 1
3 4 2 ;
10 8 3
(vii)
1 3 5
2 7 1 ;
5 16 19
(x)
(v)
(viii)
1 2 3
12 13 14 ;
-7 -3 1
(iii)
3
2
5
3 7 4
2 7 3 ;
5 4 9
(vi)
-4
2
7
6
-2
5
(ix)
7 17 16
13 33 30
10 21 23
5
3
4
7
5 ;
6
4
7
17
8
1
3
-5
-3
2
5);
1
16 6 31
(iii) (17 9 29);
11 5 20
8
1
-7
6
2).
0
275
[14
MATRICES 2
4. Find the adjugate of each of the following matrices and, in each case, evaluate
the product of the matrix with its adjugate. Write down the determinant of each
matrix.
5
1 2
1 2 1
5
4 ;
(ii)
2
3 7 5);
2
3
6
(i) (5 13 9
4 11 5
(iv) (1 4 2) .
1 2 1
1 3 1
(iii) (3 10 5);
1 4 5
3 7 2
(iii) (2 6 3);
1 4 2
1 3 7
4 2 5 ;
(5 5 a
(ii)
7 13 1
1 a 3 ;
3 7 2
(iii)
( 1 3
2
6
4 11
1 1 1
a b c
a2 b2 c2
1 1 1
a b c
a3 b3 c3
2
1 2 7
A= (0 1 2), B = (1
1 2 8
0
(iii)
a b c
a2 b2 c2
be ca ab
0
1
2
0
0.
1
2
1
2
1
0,
1
3 4 4
A= (2 1 5) ,
1 8 8
1
2
1 -- 1
1
C= (2
276
0
B = (1
3
2
1 3 1
2, D= 2 2 1 .
3 0 1
2
5
a).
16
PROPERTIES OF DETERMINANTS
3]
Solve for X the matrix equation
AXB = CX+ D.
2
A= 1
0
10.
1
1
2
4
3 , B=
1
4
11
16
2
5
7
1
3
5
Miscellaneous Exercise 14
1. Prove that
11
11 )
(-1 0) (0
01
1 0) (a b)
1) (1 1 c d
c d\
b)
(a
c
a= (b)
a
so that the transpose a' is given by
a' = (a b c)
write down the 3 x 3 matrix aa' and prove that the determinant of this matrix
has value zero.
Obtain the analogous result when
a 0)
a .(1, 1 .
(SMP)
c 2
4. If A is any 3 x 3 matrix and P is a non-singular 3 x 3 matrix, prove that
det (A
MATRICES 2
[14
la
= V)
I),
b
aan:Il (a * 0).
0
1
()
CO
0[ nib)
1) is (1
b
1
).
= (al x) (a2 x) (a3 x) (a4 x) (1 + x
7--1.(1, x
(0 & C)
a h g
M= (h b f)
g f c
(0 & C)
(0 & C)
3]
MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE 14
(a 0 0 d
0 b 0 e
A=
00 c f
d e f x
where a, b, ..., fare real and a > b > c, prove that the equation
det (A xI) = 0
has real roots.
(0 & C adapted)
12. If A and B are square matrices such that AB = 0, prove that either A = 0
or B = 0 or det A = det B = 0.
13. Two matrices A and B are said to commute if AB = BA. Let
1o)\
A= (2
prove that every matrix B that commutes with A can be expressed in the form
B = AA
where A and it are scalars and I is the unit matrix. Obtain expressions of this form for A2 and A.
(M.T.)
14. Prove that, if a is a 3 x 3 matrix, with adj a = A and det a = a, that
aA = Aa = aI.
Assuming that a * 0, prove that:
(i) det A = a2;
(ii) X = A is the only solution of the matrix equation aX =
(iii) adj A = aa.
Which, if any, of the above results, are still valid if the restriction on a is
removed?
15. If A is a 3 x 3 matrix with an* 0, and if the cofactor of every element of
A is zero (that is, if adj A = 0), prove that A has the form
an a12 a13
kale ka12 ka13
/an 1
a12 Ian
aiabafl)
fl=1 cc = 1
a=1
fi = 1
279
MATRICES 2
[14
(M.E.I.)
17. The non-singular matrix B has the property BB' = B'B, where B' is the
transpose of B. Prove that B'B-1= B-113'. Prove also that, if C = B-113', then
CC' is the identity matrix.
Find B', BB', B-1and C when
2
2
1
1
2 .
B= 2
(M.E.I.)
1 2
2
280
LINEAR EQUATIONS
[15
discussion pedantic. However, if the coefficients are unknown, this possibility must be remembered.
To summarize; given two equations in two unknowns, one of three
possibilities occurs:
(i) The equations have a unique solution. (The two lines are distinct
and intersect.)
(ii) The equations have no solution. (The two lines are distinct and
parallel.)
(iii) The equations have one degree of freedom. (The two lines coincide.)
(2 a) x = 4 b.
b 2a
, Y = 2 a
Case (ii). If a = 2, we have 0.x = 4 b.
Sub-case (iia). If b + 4, no solution for x exists.
Sub-case (iib). If b = 4, x may take any value, y then being determined
4 b
x= 2
a * 2: x =
2a
2 a' Y = 2a ;
a = 2, b * 4: no solution;
11
3x y =
Fig. 15.1
,u(x + 2y 5) + A(3x y 1) = 0.
Setting Aldu = z we obtain the third equation. This example illustrates the
general result, that, if three equations in two unknowns have a solution,
then any one equation is a linear combination of the other two (see
Chapter 2.4).
Writing
(1)
(61)
x = (x)
b2
b
Y
the equations (1) may be rewritten in the matrix form
21)
A = (a11 a
22
a21 a
Ax = b.
10
PPM
(2)
283
[15
LINEAR EQUATIONS
(x), is the
point B, with position vector (b1). Thus, the problem of solving a pair
2
x = A-13
and we see that the unique point P, whose position vector is A-lb, has
image B under the linear transformation T.
Ex. 1. Show that A-1is the matrix of a linear transformation S.
[You must show that, for every point Q with position vector y, the image S(y)
exists and is unique and that S(Ay+,uz) = AS(y)+ ,uS(z).] The linear transformation S so defined is called the inverse of the transformation T; S and T satisfy the
relations
S[T(x)] = x; T[S(y)] = y for all x, y.
and we have
ix\
= 1
\ y)
19
22 \
2]
3x 2y = 4,
2x+3y = 1
Fig. 15.2
Fig. 15.3
*Ex. 3. If det A = 0, show that every point P of the plane maps into a point of
the line OF.
Since, in this latter case, T maps every point P into a point of the line
01', a point B not lying on the line cannot be the image of any point under
T: the equations Ax = b are inconsistent.
However, if B does lie on 0/', we may write the position vectors of J',
I', B as r, mr, cr respectively; that is
Aj = r, Al = mr, b = cr.
Then, P(x, y) is a point which maps into B
cr = A(xi +yj)
cr = x(Ai) + y(Aj)
cr = (rnx+ y) r
ra P lies in the straight line y + mx = c,
and infinitely many points map into B, by the reversibility of the argument.
10-2
285
LINEAR EQUATIONS
[15
2. Solve for x the following equations, commenting upon any special cases that
arise in the two cases:
(ii) ax+ b = bx+ c.
(i) ax + a2 = b2 bx;
3. Solve for x, y the following pairs of equations, commenting upon any special
cases that arise for particular values of the coefficients a:
3x+ ay = 2,
(ii\ f x+ 2y = 4, f 3x+ ay = 1,
ax+ 12y = 2.
3x +2y = 3; 2x+ay = 2a;
4. Solve for x, y the following pairs of equations, commenting upon any special
cases that arise for particular values of the coefficients a, b:
f ax+ by = 2,
t12x-4y = a+ b;
(11)
f ax+ 3y = 6;
x by = 2;
(iii) ax+by = 1,
tbx+ ay = 1.
286
2]
7. Discuss fully the solution of the following simultaneous equations for the
unknowns x, y:
f ax+by=c,
la2x+b2y = c2.
8. Under what conditions do the homogeneous equations
fai x+biy = 0,
ia2 x+b2y = 0
have a non-trivial solution (that is, a solution other than x, y = 0) ? Solve the
equations fully in the case where non-trivial solutions exist.
9. Solve for x, y the equations:
f x cos 0 +y cos cb = cos a,
x sin 0+y sin q5 = sin a.
10. Sketch the set, E, of points in the plane whose coordinates satisfy the
inequality x+y > 0. The linear transformation, T, has matrix A where
A= (1 2)
5 0
Sketch the image set T(E).
11. T is a linear transformation whose matrix is A, where
A = (2
1)
If E is the set of points whose coordinates satisfy the inequality y > 0, sketch the
image set T(E).
(x+ y+ z = 0,
ix+2y+3z = 3,
lx+ y z = 4,
Fig. 15.4
have in common the single point (1, 1, 2)a result readily derived by
successively eliminating two of the variables.
287
LINEAR EQUATIONS
[15
Fig. 15.7
Fig. 15.6
288
3]
x+y+z = 1,
x+y+z = 2,
_( x+y+z = 3.
The equations are manifestly inconsistent and thus have no solution. Geometrically, they represent three parallel planes.
Finally, we may have two or three equations which reduce to the same
equation, in which case we have one or two degrees of freedomgeometrically, two or three coincident planes. (Or, possibly, two coincident
planes and the other plane parallelgiving no solution.)
To summarize: given three equations in three unknowns one of four
possibilities may occur:
(i) The equations have a unique solution (no two of the planes are
parallel and the planes do not have a common line of intersection).
(ii) The equations have no solution (either at least two of the planes are
parallel or the three lines of intersection are parallel but not coincident or
two of the planes coincide and the third is parallel).
(iii) The equations have a one-parameter solution (the planes have a
common line of intersection).
(iv) The equations have a two-parameter solution (the planes all coincide).
The situation is more complicated than in two dimensions, as was to be
expected but, if the reader keeps the various geometrical possibilities in
his mind, he should avoid confusion.
x=
15+5a-12b+2ab
a 2 ab+4b
' Y=
5b
5b
LINEAR EQUATIONS
[15
Zu, Y = z =- 4 ii
x+ y+ z = 0,
2x 3y+ z = 3,
x+ 3y+ z = 2,
3x+ 14y+ 4z = 9,
all of which contain the point (1, 1, 2). In practice, the best way of tackling such a system is to solve three of the equations and check whether or
not the fourth equation is satisfied.
+ ai2Y+ an z =
f aux
anx+ a22 Y +a23z = b2, l
(3)
1a31x+a32y+a33z = b3,1
Ax = b.
(4)
4]
x = A-lb;
the unique point P, whose position vector is A-1b, has image B under the
linear transformation T.
Ex. 7. Show that A-1is the matrix of a linear transformation Sthe inverse
of the transformation T.
1 1 1
i
1 1 ; A-1 =
= (1 2 1
and we have
0(by theusual
es
inversion pro+ H-
yx) = (4.
0 A- 1
0) (_ 24
(z
1)
/1
=
The solution is x = 1, y = 1, z = 2 or, in terms of the linear transformation whose matrix is A, the point (1, 1, 2) maps into the point (4, 2, 1).
291
LINEAR EQUATIONS
[15
The analysis of the case in which det A = 0 follows the same pattern as
the two-dimensional case and is pursued in the following series of exercises.
Ex. 8. Show that, under the linear transformation T whose matrix is given by
a, a2 a
3)
3
1)1 b2 b
A = (c1 C2 Cs
the images of the points I, J, K, whose position vectors are i, j, k, are I', J', K',
whose position vectors are respectively the first, second and third columns of A.
Ex. 9. Show that, under T, the unit cube, three of whose edges are 04 OJ, OK,
transforms into a parallelepiped (a figure all of whose faces are parallelograms).
Ex. 10. Show that the volume of the parallelepiped obtained in Ex. 8. is det A.
(This result is necessary for the remaining exercises in this section, but its proof
is rather hard and may be omitted at a first reading. The best proof depends
upon the triple scalar product, which will be met in Book 2.)
Ex. 11. If det A = 0, show that 0, I', J', K' are coplanar. What does this tell us
about the columns of A?
Ex. 12. If the point D, with position vector d, is the image of a point P under
a linear transformation whose matrix is singular, what can be said about
(i) the point D;
(ii) the vector d?
Ex. 13. Show that, if det A = 0, and if D lies in the plane OI'J'K', then all the
points of a certain line map into D.
Ex. 14. In the extreme case in which 0, I', J', K' are collinear, what can be said
about the columns of A? If Ax = d has a solution in this case, what can be said
about (i) the point D; (ii) the vector d?
x+ay+ z = b,
ax+3y+ z = 1,
{
5x+8y+3z = 1
4]
Thus det A = 0 if a = 2 or 3.
Case (i). a * 2, a * 3.
The equations have a unique solution for all values of b.
Case (ii). a = 2.
The equations reduce to
x+2y+ z = b, (1)
2x+3y+ z = 1, (2)
5x + 8y + 3z = 1. (3)
Eliminating z between (2) and (3), and between (1) and (2),
x+ y
. x+ y
(4)
= 2,
= 1b. (5)
a21x+a22y+a23 z = 0,
an x+ any+ a33z = 0,
.[
or
Ax
O.
LINEAR EQUATIONS
[15
_y_
1 1
3x+7y+ z = 0,
x- y - 3z = 0,
x+3y+ z = 0?
Exercise 15 (b)
1. Solve the equations
{3x+ y+ z = -2,
2x+2y+3z = 8,
x+3y+2z = 6
5]
HOMOGENEOUS EQUATIONS
2x 7y-5z = c
(i) when a = 4, b = 1, c = 2;
(iii) when a = 1, b = 6, c = 0.
3. Solve the equations
(ii) when a = 1, b = 1, c = 1;
x 2y+ z = 1,
3x+2y-3z = 7,
15x-2y z = 9
/3 1
2)
3 1
A = (2
1 15 10
is singular.
Discuss the solution of the equations
13x y+ 2z = 4,
(i) -(2x+ 3y z = 1,
x-15y+10z = 8;
(3x y+ 2z = 4,
(ii) 2x+ 3y z = 1,
x-15y+ 10z = 9,
x+y+z = 1,
ax+ay+2z = 1,
13x+3y+(a+1)z = b
for various values of a, b.
Interpret your various results geometrically.
7.
A = (2
1
1
4
1), B = (3
1/
5
1
1
2 .
2)
A maps the point P into the point Q and B maps the point Q into the point R,
whose coordinates are ( -5, 0, 0). Find the coordinates of P.
295
[15
LINEAR EQUATIONS
when a = b = c = 0 and hence write down the general solution of the equations
when a = 1, b = 3, c = 2.
11. A linear transformation T has matrix
3
1
A = (1
4
2 3
2)
1.
1
z
11
into the origin, and find the line of points that maps into the point (6, 6, 0).
What is the relation between these two lines ?
12.
a, b1 c1
2
a2 b
2 c
3 C3
= (a3 b
If A = 0, what does the value of the expression diAl+ d2 A2 + d3 A3 tell you about
the solution of the given system of equations?
296
5]
HOMOGENEOUS EQUATIONS
di
a, b1 c1
\
A = (a2 b
2 c
o), d =
d,
a3 b3 C3/
(),
x)
x= (
z
z
a1 b1 d1
1
a2 b2 d2 = det A
a3 b3 d3
Y
a1 d1 c1
a2 d2 c2
a3 d3 c3
1
2
1
2
1) .
4
E is the set of points in space whose coordinates satisfy the inequalities x > 0,
y > 0, z > 0, x+y+ z < 1. Determine the image set T(E).
Miscellaneous Exercise 15
1. Find the inverse of the matrix
( 1
1
2
Given the equations
0
2
4
3
1 .
1
2x1-4x2 + x, = a,
+3x3 = b,
xi
xi+ 2x3 -- x3 = c,
(ii) when a = 1, b = 2, c = 0.
(M.E.I.)
LINEAR EQUATIONS
[15
3. If
M=
2 3 6
6
2 3),
3 6
2
/4\
or AX = B.
li
\y)= '21
5)
ax+ by+ cz = a+ b+ c,
la2x+b2y+c2z = bc+ ca+ab,
rx+y+ z = 1,
if and only if
iAy+ Bz = b+ c
Cz = a2+b2.
Solve the equations, assuming a, b, c are all different.
Describe geometrically the configuration of planes, in three-dimensional
Euclidean space, with equations:
x+ y+ z = 1,
x+2y+2z = 5,
x+4y+4z = 8. (SMP)
298
5]
MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE 15
x+ y+ z = 3,
x+2y +3z = 6,
x+3y+kz = 4+k
(i) when k rr 5;
(ii) when k = 5, giving the general solution.
7. If A is the matrix (a b
c d
(SMP)
(x) show
(Oxford)
1 1
a b c
a2 b2 c
2
(iii) a = b = c.
(M.T.)
10. Prove that the only value of A allowing a real non-trivial solution of the simultaneous equations
z = Ax,
x
y+ z = Ay,
4x + 2y z = Az,
is A = 1.
(M.T.)
11. If A, B are 3 x 3 matrices and x a three-rowed column vector such that there
exist numbers A, it such that
Ax = Ax, Bx = px,
prove that there exists a number v such that
ABx = vx.
Prove further that, if x1, x2, x3are three linearly independent column vectors
with this property, then A and B are commutative for multiplication.
299
[15
LINEAR EQUATIONS
12. Write the two sets of three equations
a.ixi+ai2 x2 +as3x3= c, bilY1+ bi2Y2+ bz3 Y3 =
Xi
(1 =
1, 2, 3)
in matrix form, and prove that they can be solved uniquely for xi, x2, x3, Y1 Y2 y3
if and only if det AB * 0, where A and B are the 3 x 3 matrices of coefficients
in the two sets of equations.
Show that the equations
,
are inconsistent if k * 7, and find the most general solution for xi ... y3 if
(M.T.)
k = 7.
13. Prove that, if k
300
1. INTRODUCTION:
THE UNIFORM DISTRIBUTION
In Chapter 7 we discussed the concept of an outcome space for a random
experiment. To each elementary event we ascribed a probability and the
entire set of probabilities was described as a probability distribution for the
outcome space. In this chapter we shall enumerate various possible probability distributions that find frequent use as mathematical models for
random experiments. We shall generally define our outcome space in terms
of an associated random variable X (see Chapter 10), and we shall thus be
able to talk about the mean and variance of the distribution; however, it
must be remembered that, for example, the mean is defined as e(X) and
so, if a new random variable, Y, is chosen, the mean naturally changes, too.
Unless there is any possibility of confusion, we shall refer to the mean and
variance of X as ,tt and cr2respectively.
Suppose we have an outcome space consisting of n elementary events,
with associated random variable, X, where
X = {1, 2, 3, ..., n}.
Perhaps the simplest assumption we can make about the n possible outcomes is that each one is as likely to occur as any other. Thus we take
Pr (X = r) =
(1)
=Er
r=1
.-
= +(n+1).
(2)
301
[16
1)2
(3)
The reader will find a large number of examples on the uniform distribution at the end of Chapter 7.
Ex. 1. A man spins a coin and throws a die. For a head he scores 1, for a
tail +1, and this he adds to the score showing on the uppermost face of the die.
The values of the random variable, X, where
X = {0, 1, 2, ..., 7}
represent his total score. Why do you think a uniform distribution would be
an unsuitable mathematical model for this eight-point space? Suggest a way of
subdividing the sample space so that a uniform distribution would be suitable.
2]
(1
r
(4)
= p. tl+q .t
= pt+q.
= n) nr qn-r ..
(r '
The probability distribution defined by equation (4) is called the binomial distribution. It is easily verified that (4) does indeed define a valid
probability distribution. For Pr (X = r) > 0 and also
i (1) prq"-r = (p+q)n, by the Binomial Theorem;
r=0
= 1, since p+q = 1.
It finds a wide field of application as a probability model but the reader
must always take care to remember the binomial distribution applies only
if we have n independent repetitions of a Bernoulli trial. A binomial distribution is known completely if the two parameters n and p are given; the
phrase `the binomial distribution arising from n repetitions of a Bernoulli
trial with probability of success p' is often abbreviated to B(n, p).
Example 1. Six unbiased dice are thrown. What is the probability of securing
three or more sixes?
The dice may be assumed to fall independently and so the random variable X (= number of sixes showing) has a binomial distribution with
probability * of success on each of the six Bernoulli trials.
Thus
Pr (X?.... 3) = 1 p(X < 3)
= 1- NY + CO
V 0 + (2) (:)402)
0.06.
303
[16
We next derive expressions for the mean, ,u, and variance, 0-2, of the
number of successes in a binomial distribution. We shall give two methods,
the first one using the definition (4) directly, the second employing the
probability generating function (and using Theorem 10.5).
Method I. By definition
,u = "f (X)
r=()
pr qn-r
n (n-1) nrqn-r,
since
r-1 r
r= 1
= np E
n-1)
1
r=1 (r
= np(p +q)n-1-,
n!
n (n-1\
r!(nr)! r r-11
pr-1 qn-r
by the Binomial Theorem,
= np, since p +q = 1.
Again
o2 = e[(X,u)2] = e[x2],a2, by Theorem 10.1,
= En r 2 (12)prqn-r_ n2-p2, using the first part,
r
r=0
=
nr (n-1) r n-r 2 2
p q n p
r=1
r1
= r=2n (n-1) p2
)pr-2qn-r
r2
np
(r -- 1) pr-ign-r
_ n2p2,
r=1
on writing r = (r-1)+1,
= n(n 1) p2np n2p2, since p + q = 1,
= npq.
Thus we arrive at the important result: the mean and variance of the
number of successes in a binomial distribution B(n, p) are given by
,u = np, Cr2 = npq.
Method II. Since the p.g.f. for the binomial distribution is given by
G(t) = (pt +q)n
we have
G'(t) = np(pt
304
(5)
2]
Example 2. A very large number of balls are in a bag, one-eighth being black
and the rest white. Twelve balls are drawn at random. Find
(i) the probability of drawing three black balls and nine white balls;
(ii) the probability of drawing at least 3 black balls;
(iii) the expected number of black balls in the sample;
(iv) the most likely number of black balls in the sample.
Drawing a ball from the bag and noting its colour may be regarded as a
Bernoulli trial (a black ball drawn being a success, p = 1). Since a ball is
not replaced before its successor is drawn, the twelve Bernoulli trials
constituting our sample are not strictly independent; however, since the
number of balls in the bag is very large, we may assume that Pr (black ball
drawn) remains sensibly constant at *; that is, each trial is independent of
what has previously occurred. Thus the random variable
X = number of black balls contained in a sample of 12
has a binomial distribution B(12, *).
(i) Pr (X = 3) = (132) (8)3
(ii) Pr (X
3) =
0429;
1 _ (G)12 + (12
1) (87)11 (1
8) (12) (87)1 (8
1)2)
0182;
(iii)
(iv) Write
e(X) = np
= 1.5.
p(r) = Pr (X = r)
12
Then
(12)
r
nrn12-r .
r+1 /7\11-r
Thus
and so
is the maximum of the p(r); that is, the most likely number of black balls
is 1.
305
[16
P2 = -11*P] =
HPO,
Ex. 4. Calculate the mean and variance for the binomial distribution B(9,1).
Ex. 5. In a family of four children, what is the probability of there being two
boys and two girls? What is the probability that the eldest two are boys and the
youngest two girls? What are the odds against having all four children of the
same sex?
Exercise 16(a)
1. A coin is tossed four times. Find the probability that heads appear
(i) at the first two tosses, followed by two tails;
(ii) just twice in the four throws;
(iii) at least twice.
2. 10 % of the very large number of articles produced by a machine are faulty.
What is the probability that a random sample of ten articles will
(i) be free of faulty articles;
(ii) contain more than two faulty articles?
3. From a packet containing a large number of seeds, 40 % of which are advertised to give red flowers and the others white, 10 plants are produced. What is the
probability
(i) that all the plants have red flowers;
(ii) that all the plants have white flowers;
(iii) that half the plants have red flowers and half white?
4. 10 % of the very large number of articles produced by a machine are faulty.
If articles are taken at random and tested, how many articles will be tested, on
average, before the first faulty article is found? What is the probability that the
testing procedure will have to go on longer than this before the first faulty article
is found?
5. (i) In a trial, eight coins are tossed together. In one hundred such trials how
many times should one expect to obtain three heads and five tails?
306
2]
that each gun should score on the average one direct hit in every five shots,
and that three direct hits are needed to destroy the emplacement. If each gun
fires one shell, calculate the probability that the emplacement will be destroyed.
With new gun crews it is reckoned that two of the guns should score one direct
hit in every three shots and that the other two guns should score one direct hit
in every four shots. If each gun now fires one shell, calculate the probability that
the emplacement will be destroyed. (Cambridge)
7. Nine unbiased dice are thrown. Find p(r), the probability that r sixes appear,
and hence determine the value of p(r+1)1p(r). Find
(i) the expected number of sixes;
(ii) the most likely number of sixes;
(iii) the probability of obtaining more than one six.
8. (i) In a binomial distribution where the probabilities of the occurrence of an
event are given by the terms of the expansion of (p+q)m, the mean it and the
standard deviation o of the distribution are given by the formulae
,u = mp; o = (mpq)
Prove these formulae in the case where m = 3.
(ii) Two men A and B play a game in which A should win eight games to
every seven won by B. If they play three games, show that the probability that
A will win at least two games is approximately 0.55. (Cambridge)
9. Playing a certain 'one-arm bandit', which is advertised to 'increase your
money tenfold ', costs 5p a turn; the player is returned 50p if more than eight balls
out of a total of ten drop in a specified slot. The chance of any one ball dropping
is p. Determine the chance of winning in a given turn, and for p = 0.65, calculate
the mean profit made by the machine on five hundred turns. Evaluate the proportion of losing turns in which the player comes within one or two balls of
winning (p = 0.65). (Cambridge)
10. Prove that, in the binomial distribution B(2n, 1), the probability of scoring
an even number of successes is 1.
11. An experiment consists of tossing an unbiased coin twelve times and counting the number of heads obtained (X). If the mean and variance of X are ,u
[16
have been obtained, we reverse the process by asking how long we must go
on repeating the trial until a stipulated number of successes is obtained.
First, suppose we wish to calculate the probability that the first success
occurs at the rth repetition of a Bernoulli trial, the probability of success
in any one trial being p. (As in Section 2, we assume that each trial is
independent of what has previously occurred.) We take as our random
variable X, where
X = number of trials up to and including the trial which results in the
first success.
There is no upper limit to the value X may take: we can theoretically
continue obtaining failures for ever, although the probability of doing so
steadily decreases.
Now Pr (X = r) = Pr (initially (r -1) failures, followed by a success),
i.e.
Pr (X = =qr 1p.
(6)
Equation (6) defines the geometric distribution for the random variable
X = {1, 2, 3, ...}. It is easily seen that this is a valid probability distribution,
for
co
qr-1
p
=__ P
E
1q
r=1
= 1.
The mean, ,u, and variance, o-2, of the random variable X for a geometric
distribution may be derived without undue difficulty: we give two possible
methods.
CO
Method I.
g(X)= Erpqr-1,
r= 1
qS(X) = E rpqr =
r=1
Subtract:
E (r 1) pqr-1.
r= 2
co
pg(X) = p+ E pqr--1
r=2
Pq
= P+1q
= 1, since p+q = 1,
,u = S(X) = llp.
Again
e(X2)
= E r2pqr-1,
r=1
qe(x 2) =
E r2pr
y = E (r-1)2 pqr-1.
r=1
308
r= 2
BINOMIAL DISTRIBUTIONS
3]
Subtract:
r=2
P + 2(14 P)-177
= P + 2{(1/P) P} (1 P)
= (2/p) 1,
o.2 = e(X2)#2
2 1 1
=
P P2
= qip2
Thus, for the geometric distribution,
It = 1
=p2
q
-
(7)
G(t) =
or)
= E pqr-i tr
r=1
= pt/(1qt).
Thus
[16
20)
oo
= 1-r=E20 (2o)r-1(20)
= 1 Kit)"(2-top[1-1t]
0.623.
The concept underlying the geometric distribution may be generalized
by asking how many Bernoulli trials will be required up to and including
the kth success. Taking as our random variable X = {1, 2, 3, ...} we
observe that, if X = r, the rth outcome must be the kth success, probability
p, and the previous (k 1) successes are binomially distributed B(r 1, p).
Thus
r 1)
(p, r k)
Pr (X = r) =
-
P K-1 P q
= (k 1) ple qrk
k).
(8)
yk.
G(t) =._ pktko
G(t) = ak tk ak & k+iT +2&k+2
qt
Writing
we have for r k,
Pr (X = r) = ak+r,
E Pr (X = r)
s=0
r=k
ak+.
= G(1)
= 1.
Furthermore,
G'(t) = kpktk-11(1qt)k1,
k(k 1+2qt) Pk ik-2
1 qtyc-1-2
G"kt /
= p,
kg'
=
(9)
3]
BINOMIAL DISTRIBUTIONS
Ex. 6. Devise an experiment for which you feel the negative binomial distribution would constitute a suitable mathematical model.
Ex. 7. Dice are thrown in succession until two sixes have appeared; find
(i) the probability that two dice in all are thrown;
(ii) the probability that more than four dice are needed;
(iii) the expected number of throws required.
X = {0, 1, 2, 3, ...}
is the Poisson distribution, defined by the equation
Pr (X = r) = e-a . ar (a > 0).
Since
E Pr (X = r) = ea E rtr =0. -
r =0
(10)
= eaea
=1
and Pr (X = r) > 0, for all r, equation (10) does constitute a valid probability distribution.
We shall show that the Poisson distribution arises as the limit of a
binomial distribution in which n-->- cc and p--->0, in such a way that np = a
remains constant. Thus the Poisson distribution will form a suitable
probability model, not only to situations where the binomial distribution
applies directly and n is very large and p very small but also to situations
where the binomial distribution is not directly applicable. For example,
consider requests for trunk call connections made at a telephone exchange.
Suppose that, for the period 7.00 a.m. to 8.00 a.m. they average out at
three and suppose further that the request takes a negligible time to make.
Dividing the hour up into a large number of short time intervals (say 720
of 5 seconds each), the probability of there being a call in any one of the
intervals may be taken as 7T1T), on the assumption that the calls arrive
independently throughout the hour, and the probability of two calls in
the interval is negligible. Thus we have 720 independent repetitions of a
Bernoulli trial (`Is there a call or not in a given 5 second interval ?') with
small probability of success p = rzt-c), and the Poisson distribution may
be regarded as a good mathematical model to employ.
We must now verify our original assertion that a binomial distribution
311
[16
0 in such a way
Pr (X = r) = (nr) pr qa-r
n(n 1) (n 2) ... (n r + 1)
P
r!
1
1 (
\ 11
n1 k
- 1
- 2
\ ... (1
n1
19)n (1 P)-r
ar
r!
pyr,
since np = a.
ar
r=0
ao
= 2.E
ar-1
=1 (r 1)! . a e-a
Similarly,
= a.
0.2 = 60(A72)__ 1,2
= a l as above.
312
41
Ex. 8. Prove that, if the random variable X = {0, 1, 2, ...} has equal mean
and variance, this does not necessarily mean that X has a Poisson distribution.
(Hint: consider a suitable uniform distribution.)
Example 4. Traffic accidents are reported in a certain town at an average
rate of four in a week. Estimate the probabilities:
(i) of a given week being accident free;
(ii) of there being three or fewer accidents in a given week;
(iii) of there being more than four accidents in a given week.
To produce reasonable estimates of these probabilities we have first to
set up a mathematical model of the situation. The assumption that accidents occur independently of one another is arguable but, without more
detailed data, it would be difficult to make a more plausible assumption.
With this hypothesis, a Poisson distribution for the number, X, of accidents
per week would appear to be a reasonable model, for the reason outlined
earlier. Thus we have
(i) Pr (X = 0) = e-4
0.018;
(ii) Pr (X 5 3) = e-4(1 + 4 +124 -I- cl)
0.433;
Exercise 16(b)
1. The random variable X can take values 0, 1, 2, 3, .... Given that X has a
Poisson distribution, mean 2, calculate the probabilities
Pr (X = 0), Pr (X = 1), Pr (X = 2), Pr (X = 3),
Pr (X = 4), Pr (X = 5), Pr (X > 5).
2. Samples of forty articles at a time are taken periodically from the continuous
production of a machine and the number of samples containing 0, 1, 2, ... defective articles are recorded in the following table:
No. defective per sample
No. of samples
Total
30
23
27
14
100
[16
Assuming that this is the mean of the population and that the Poisson distribution applies, find the chance of:
(a) a sample containing four or more defectives;
(b) two successive samples containing between them four or more defectives.
(0 & C)
3. The following table shows the results of recording the telephone calls handled
at a village telephone exchange between 1.00 p.m. and 2.00 p.m. on each
of a hundred weekdays (e.g. on thirty-six days no such calls were made):
Calls
Days
36
35
2
22
3
7
4 or more
0
Use the binomial distribution to calculate the chance that a random group of
ten candidates should contain at most two failures.
Use the Poisson distribution to calculate the chance that a random group of
fifty candidates should contain more than one distinction.
(Cambridge)
5. The road accidents in a certain area occur at an average rate of one per two
days. Calculate the probability of 0, 1, 2, ..., 6 accidents per week in the district.
What is the most likely number of accidents per week ?
How many days in a week are expected to be free of accidents?
(M.E.I.)
(Note. This question is best attempted using a hand calculating machine, if
one is available.)
6. Explain briefly what is meant by a Poisson distribution and show that for
such a distribution the mean is equal to the variance.
In a bakery 3600 cherries are added to a mixture which is later divided up
to make 1200 small cakes.
(i) Find the average number of cherries per cake.
(ii) Assuming that the number of cherries in each cake follows a Poisson distribution, estimate the number of cakes which will be without a cherry and the
number with five or more cherries.
(0 & C)
7. 10 % of the output of screws from a machine are faulty. If screws are taken
at random from the output until two faulty screws are found, what will be the
average number of screws tested? What is the probability that precisely this number of screws will be needed?
8. 20 % of the butterflies in a district are of type A. If a random sample of size
10 is taken, find the probability
(i) that there will be just two butterflies of type A in the sample;
(ii) that the tenth butterfly caught will be the second one of type A.
314
4]
9. Mass-produced articles are taken at random from a batch and tested until a
faulty article is found. If the twenty-first article proves to be the first defective,
is this at variance with the assumption that 10 % of all the articles are faulty?
10. If X is distributed according to a Poisson distribution with mean A, write
down the probability that X = r.
How is this probability modified if the values X = 0 are unobservable? Prove
that the mean is now A/(1 e-A), and find the second moment].about X = 0.
(Oxford)
11. Evaluate Pr (X = r+ 1)/Pr (X = r) for the Poisson distribution P(a). If
the numbers of misprints on pages of an uncorrected proof have a Poisson
distribution with mean 2.7, what is the most likely number of misprints to be
found on a given page?
12. The average proportion of bad eggs in an egg packing station is one in
2000. The eggs are packed in boxes containing six eggs each.
(i) Evaluate to two significant figures the probability that a box contains
one bad egg.
(ii) A housewife complains if she obtains two or more boxes, with one bad
egg each per hundred boxes. What is the probability that she complains.?
(M.E.I.)
13. During World War II, 537 flying bombs fell on south London. The distribution of the number of hits in 576 areas, each of 0.25 km2, is given in the
table. Compare the actual frequency with the theoretical frequency obtained by
assuming that the aim was effectively random and followed a Poisson distribution
with the same average number of hits.
No. of hits
0
1
2
3
4
5
6 or more
Frequency
229
211
93
35
7
1
0
(M.E.I. adapted)
e (r) .
315
[16
however, here assume that such a sample has been drawn, and concentrate
upon the second part of the problem: inferring the quality of the population.
A simple approach would be to take a sample of size n, test each article
and reject the batch as sub-standard if, say, more than m of the articles
prove faulty. We begin by assuming that we have some percentage, 100p
say, as an upper limit to the number of faulty articles which may be allowed
before the manufacturing process is stopped and corrected for any fault.
Example 5. Samples of size 20 are taken from a large batch of articles produced by a machine; if more than two faulty articles are discovered the
batch is withdrawn, otherwise it is accepted. What is the probability that, if
the machine is producing 5 % of faulty articles, the batch will be accepted?
If the proportion of faulty articles rises to 10 % of the total output, what is the
probability the batch will now be rejected?
Since the batch is large, we may assume that the removal of twenty
articles does not sensibly alter the proportion of defectives and so the
binomial distribution B(20, 0.05) may be taken as a suitable mathematical
model for the experiment, where our random variable is the number, X,
of defectives in a sample of size 20.
(i) If Pr (article faulty) = -2-10-, then
Pr (not more than 2 faulty articles in 20)
/19\20+20 /19\19( 1
0 .1 (19\ 18 12
(20)
k2o)20)
k
20) +21.29 k20/ (20)
0.925.
(ii) If Pr (article faulty) = -A-, then
Pr (more than 2 faulty articles in 20)
= 1(190)20_ ( 9 )19 ( 1 ) 20.19 ( 9 )" ( 1 )2
10
20 10
10
1.2 10
0.649.
Thus, if only 5 % of the articles produced are faulty, the chance of accepting the batch is about 921 %, whereas, if the number of faulty articles
increases to 10 %, there is a 65 % chance of rejecting the batch.
Ex. 9. Comment upon the efficiency of the test given in Example 5. Suggest
ways in which you feel it could be improved.
5]
Ex. 10. What objections are there to increasing the sample size in order to reduce
a and ft?
If the probability, p, that an individual article is faulty is now regarded
as a variable, and the testing procedure is defined (that is, the sample size
and number of faulty articles required for rejection are given), the probability P of accepting the batch is a function of p. The curve obtained by
plotting P against p is called the operating characteristic for the testing
plan. For example, with the test outlined in Example 5, the operating
characteristic has the following shape:
P
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
Fig. 16.1
11-2
317
[16
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
Fig. 16.2
HYPOTHESIS TESTING
6]
11.
6. HYPOTHESIS TESTING
Probability theory finds a further application in the testing of statistical
hypotheses. Consider the following problem.
Example 7. A coin is tossed ten times and shows nine heads. Is this sufficient
evidence to support the claim that the coin is biased?
In order to attack this problem, we adopt the approach made in testing
scientific theories: we make a hypothesis and then consider whether or not
observational evidence supports this hypothesis. In problems of statistical
inference, our hypothesis is generally called the null hypothesis (because it
often takes the form of an assumption about the absence of bias in the
population): in this example, we shall take as our null hypothesis the statement the coin is unbiased; that is, Pr (heads on any toss) = 2.
Having set up our null hypothesis we may ask the question 'Is the probability of obtaining a result as bad as or worse than, the observed result so
small that we are reluctant to ascribe it to chance ?' If it is, we agree to
reject our null hypothesis in favour of some alternative hypothesis.
To complete the framework of our solution we must further decide
what numerical value to prescribe to the indefinite phrase so small' ;
following common practice, we shall define p = -216as a small probability
(the so-called 5 % significance level'); in other cases it might be more
reasonable to take p = o o (` 1% significance level ').
Returning to the given example, our null hypothesis, H,, is given by
11,:p = 1
we may take as our alternative hypothesis
H1:p
.
319
[16
Our question now takes the form ' What is the probability of obtaining
a result as bad as, or worse than, nine heads with an unbiased coin ?' Since
we are comparing the hypothesis 1-10:p = 2 with the alternative hypothesis
111:p -I, we are simply testing for absence of bias and thus we have no
reason to distinguish between an apparently abnormal number of heads
or tails; it follows that a result `as bad as, or worse than, nine heads' is to
be interpreted as the result 'nine or ten heads or tails '.
We adopt as our probability model for the situation the binomial distribution. Thus we have
Pr (9 or 10 heads or tails/Ho) = 2[(2)1+
warm
47.
Since this is less than -A, we infer that the result is significant at the 5 %
level: we have reason to believe that the coin is biased.
Sometimes a test of a statistical hypothesis is constructed before the
observational evidence is obtained. For instance, in our last example, we
might have compared the null hypothesis:
Ho :P =
with the alternative hypothesis:
and so decided what results we should require before accepting or rejecting Ho.
In Example 7, our null hypothesis took the form of a statement about the
probability of an event; more generally, a null hypothesis is a statement
about the probability distribution of a population. We conclude this chapter
with a further example, in which our null hypothesis is a statement about
the mean of a random variable.
Example 8. Batteries are sent out by manufacturers in batches of five
hundred. On average, 2.4 batteries per batch are faulty. How many batteries
would we need to find faulty in a particular batch before we could adduce
evidence that more faulty batteries were appearing than could be ascribed
to pure chance?
Since we are here concerned only with the question of finding more than
the expected number of faulty batteries, we take as our null hypothesis
1/0: mean number of batteries per batch = 2.4,
and as our alternative hypothesis
I/1: mean number of batteries per batch > 2-4.
We adopt as a mathematical model of the situation the Poisson distribution (there is a large number of batteries in every batch and the prob320
HYPOTHESIS TESTING
6]
ability of any particular battery being faulty is small), with random variable
X, where
X = r when there are r faulty articles in a batch.
Thus we have
Pr (X = rIH0) = e-2.4 x
(2.4)r
r!
0.95.
By direct computation
Pr (X < 4114) = e-2.4 (1+2.4+ 2.2412 + 2.3413 + 2.414)
0.0907(1 + 2.4+2.88+ 2.304 +1.382)
0.90,
Pr (X < 5IHo) = Pr (X < 4IH0)+ Pr (X = 51H0)
0.96.
Thus, n = 5: if we were to find 5 or more faulty batteries in a batch, we
should have reason for rejecting our null hypothesis H, in favour of our
alternative hypothesis H1.
Exercise 16(c)
1. A machine is believed, on average, to produce 0.1% of faulty articles. Estimate, to 2 D.P., the probability of finding a batch of five hundred articles free of
defectives
(i) by using a binomial distribution;
(ii) by using a suitable Poisson distribution.
A batch of five hundred is tested and found to contain two faulty articles.
Comment.
2. A large batch of manufactured articles is accepted if either of the following
conditions is satisfied:
(i) a random sample of 10 articles contains no defective article;
(ii) a random sample of 10 articles contains one defective article and a second
random sample of ten is then drawn which contains no defective articles. Otherwise the batch is rejected.
If, in fact, 5 % of the articles in a batch to be examined are defective, find the
chance of the batch being accepted [(0.95)10 = 0.5987].
(0 &
3. From a batch of manufactured articles a sample of ten is taken and each
article is examined. If two or more articles are found to be defective the batch is
321
[16
P = (1 P)9(1+9P).
Find an expression for P if it is now decided to modify the scheme so that when
one defective is found in the sample a second sample of ten is taken and the batch
rejected if this second sample contains any defectives.
In the second case, what will be the average number sampled per batch over a
large number of batches when p = 0.05?
(M.E.I.)
4. In a certain inspection scheme a sample of fifty items is selected at random
from a very large batch and the number of defectives is recorded. If this number is more than three the batch is rejected; if it is less than three the batch is
accepted. If the number of defectives is exactly three a further sample, this time
of twenty-five items, is taken and the batch is rejected if there is more than one
defective in the second sample but accepted otherwise.
If the proportion of defective items in the batch is 1 % determine the values of
the following probabilities:
(i) that the batch is accepted as a result of inspection of the first sample;
(ii) that a further sample has to be taken and the batch is accepted as a result
of inspection of that sample;
(iii) that the batch is rejected.
Take (0.99)48as 0.6173.
(M.E.I.)
5. State the formula for the probability that a variable following a Poisson
distribution of mean m takes the value r. Prove that the variance of r is m.
Past experience has shown that the number of defective items produced in a
shift by a certain machine is a Poisson variable of mean 4. A new employee in his
first shift produced six defectives. Is this clear evidence that he is operating the
machine inefficiently? (Cambridge)
6. The probability P(r) that there will be r damaged tomatoes in a crate can be
taken as
P(r) =
mr
r!
7. A die is thrown six times. If a score of six is made on three of these occasions,
have you any reason for believing that the die is biased?
8. A cubical die with faces marked 1 to 6 is thrown n times. Show that on the
hypothesis that the die is unbiased the chance that the face marked 4 will appear
uppermost not more than once is p, where
P
322
1,1+5\ 15\n
=
k6f
6]
HYPOTHESIS TESTING
If n = 40 and the face marked 4 comes uppermost exactly once, test whether
the hypothesis that the die is unbiased is contradicted
(a) at the 1 % significance level;
(b) at the 0.1 % significance level.
(Cambridge)
9. A bag contains ten balls, each of which is either black or white, but otherwise
the balls are indistinguishable one from another. Three balls are drawn without
replacement, and all are found to be white. Test the hypothesis
Ho : there is an equal number of black and white balls in the bag.
The three balls are now replaced and three more are drawn; these are found to
be two white and one black. Test the hypothesis Ho again.
10. A sampling inspection scheme is operated by taking a random sample of size
10 from each large batch of a product. The batch is rejected if more than one
defective is found and otherwise the batch is accepted. Plot the operating characteristic of the given plan.
Explain the applications of operating characteristics when choosing a suitable
plan.
(M.E.I.)
[You are advised to use a hand calculating machine for the first part, if you
have one available.]
11. A double sampling inspection scheme is devised as follows: a sample of size
15 is drawn from a batch of articles; if the sample contains none or one faulty
article the batch is accepted, if more than three, it is rejected. If it contains two
or three faulty articles a second sample is taken; the batch is now rejected if this
second sample contains more than one faulty article. If the batch contains
100p % faulty articles, find
(i) the probability that the batch will be accepted;
(ii) the value of p which gives the largest expected sample size;
(iii) the size of this largest expected sample.
12. An assembled instrument contains two critical components A and B. Sample
tests show that we may expect one in ten of A and one in eighteen of B to be
defective. Estimate and compare the costs of the following inspection plans,
per hundred fully tested instruments:
(i) to test every component before assembly at a cost of 2p for each A tested
and 3p for each B tested; or
(ii) to test every instrument after assembly, if this test adds nothing to the cost
but making good a defective instrument costs on average 24p.
(M.E.I.)
Miscellaneous Exercise 16
1. A pack of cards is cut and the suit of the exposed card noted; the pack is then
well shuffled and the process repeated. Find
(i) the probability that a spade will appear for the first time on the fourth cut;
(ii) the average number of cuts required before the first spade appears;
(iii) the average number of cuts required to expose cards of all four suits.
2. Show that the probability of r successes in n independent trials is the coefficient
of tr in the expansion of (q + pt)n , where p is the chance of success in a single
trial and q = 1p. Prove that the mean number of successes is np.
323
[16
Samples, each of eight articles, are taken at random from a large consignment
in which 20 % of the articles are defective. Find the most likely number of defective articles in a single sample and the chance of obtaining precisely this
number.
If a hundred samples of eight are to be examined, calculate the number of
samples in which you expect to find three or more defective articles. (0 & C)
3. Two coins are identical in appearance, but one is unbiased while the other
gives, on the average, heads three times as often as it does tails. One of the coins
is taken at random and tossed four times. If two heads and two tails appear,
what is the probability that it is the unbiased coin?
4. Explain briefly what is meant by a Poisson distribution of rare events and its
relation to the binomial distribution. Prove that the mean of the distribution is
equal to its variance.
A shopkeeper's sales of washing machines are four per month on the average.
Assuming that the monthly sales fit a Poisson distribution, find to what number
he should make up his stock at the beginning of each month so that his chance
of running out of machines during the month will be less than 4 %. (0 & C)
5. A machine depending for its energy upon four complexes of solar cells, each
complex functioning independently of the others, will work provided one of the
four complexes is working. Each complex has probability p of failing. The
machine is redesigned to have six complexes and will function if two of the six
complexes are working. Is the new design an improvement on the old?
6. A and B play N games, each of which must result in a definite win to one or
other player. A's chance of success in any one game is p. For his rth win, A
receives from B r, for his sth loss, he gives B s. Find A's expected gain.
7. A coin is tossed repeatedly an even number, 2n, times. Show that, whatever
the bias (provided Pr (H) = 0 or 1) the probability of obtaining the same
number of heads as tails decreases as n increases.
8. In lawn tennis a set is won by the first player to win six games, except that
if the score reaches 5-5 the set is won by the first to lead by two games. Two
players have chances respectively p and q of winning in any game (p+q = 1);
games may be treated as independent. Find the chance that a set lasts exactly
2n + 2 games (n 5).
(Cambridge)
9. The number of eggs laid by an insect has Poisson distribution with mean it.
If the probability that an individual egg survives is p, show that the number
of eggs surviving has Poisson distribution, and determine its mean value. (You
may assume that the survival of an egg is independent of the fate of the other
eggs laid.)
10. An experiment has probability p of success. In n independent trials, pois the
probability of an even number of successes (pa = 1). Prove that
Pn-(1-2P) P.-1 = P.
If f(t) = i po,r, prove that
n=0
Deduce that
324
Pn = i0 + (1 -2P)ni.
61
MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE 16
pennies ?
If the probability that a penny is a Queen Elizabeth one is q, what is the probability that there are exactly s Queen Elizabeth pennies among the r pennies of this
sample?
Write down the probability that a sample of n coins will contain s+ k 10p
pieces, only s of which are Queen Elizabeth ones, and calculate the sum of these
probabilities for all possible values of k. (C.S.)
14. A bag contains a large number of red, white and blue dice in equal numbers.
If n are drawn at random, show that the probability P(n, r) of drawing exactly
r red dice is equal to the term containing (-Dr(4)n-rin the expansion of ef + ip.
If r dice are thrown, find the probability Q(r, s) of throwing exactly s sixes.
If n dice are drawn from the bag and the red dice drawn are thrown, show
that the probability of throwing exactly s sixes is
n-s
I P(n, s+ t) Q(s+ t, s)
t=o
and prove that this is equal to a term in a binomial expansion. Explain why a
binomial distribution is obtained.
(C.S.)
15. A random sample of size 10 is taken from a batch of a thousand components
and one defective is found.
(i) What is the largest possible percentage of defectives in the batch?
(ii) p is the smallest proportion of defectives in the batch such that the
probability of obtaining not more than one defective is not less than 95 %. Find
the value of p to two decimal places by trial of suitable values of p.
(iii) Find the most likely percentage of defectives in the batch (i.e. such that
the probability of obtaining one defective in the sample is a maximum).
(M.E.I.)
325
[16
of twenty is taken; if none or one defective occurs in the sample the batch is
accepted, if three or more defectives occur the batch is rejected. If two defectives
occur a second random sample of twenty is taken and if in the combined sample
of forty less than four defectives occur the batch is accepted; otherwise it is
rejected.
Assuming that the proportion p of defectives in a batch is sufficiently small for
the Poisson distribution to apply, show that the chance P of the batch being
accepted is given by
P = e-2" (1+20p) (1 + 200p2 e-2P).
(i) Find the chance of a batch which is 2 % defective being rejected.
(ii) Find the chances of batches which are respectively 5 and 10 % defective
being accepted.
(iii) Sketch the operating characteristic curve for the inspection scheme.
Determine the average sample size per batch ifp = 0.05.
(0 & C)
17. The number of a certain type of organism in a given volume of water has
Poisson distribution with mean 2. A test, applied to indicate absence of the
organism has a 90 % chance of success if the organism is in fact absent, but also
indicates absence in 10 % of those cases in which they are present. If the test is
applied and indicates absence, what is the probability that the water is free of
the organism?
18. The probability that a source emits r a-particles in a given time is propor-
a and Pr (r
Unip = 0.4)
61
MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE 16
Partial binomial
RIM
11
13
15
17
317
580
768
881
942
973
988
87
290
517
704
831
909
954
10
96
267
467
647
783
874
19
99
247
426
597
736
25
99
229
390
552
29
98
213
359
32
95
199
10
34
92
11
35
(Cambridge)
s=r S
20. At a certain seed testing station it is found that a proportion 0.4 of a certain
type of seed is fertile. By accident the remaining stock of this seed (whose total
amount is very large) is completely mixed with an equal quantity of a second
type of seed which is believed to be completely infertile. If this latter assumption
is true, what is the probability that a seed taken at random from the mixture
will germinate?
Each of seven pots is planted with two seeds taken at random from the mixture.
Six pots eventually produce one or more plants each. Is this result consistent, at
the 5 % level of significance, with the infertility postulate for the second type of
seed? (Cambridge)
21. Derive the probability p(r) of obtaining exactly r successes in n independent
trials, the probability of a success being p at each trial. Determine the mean and
variance of this distribution.
Find an expression for [p(r)]/[p(r I)] and hence or otherwise find the conditions that rff, must satisfy if p(r) is such that no other value of p(r) is greater
than p(rm).
Show that the mode of a binomial distribution differs from the mean by less
(M.E.I.)
than unity.
327
Revision exercise B
1. Find the equation of the line L1through the origin with gradient 1, and
also the equation of the line L2 perpendicular to L1and passing through the point
(4, -1).
2. In a large university, one-third of the men and one-quarter of the women
read science. If four men are selected at random, what is the probability that not
more than one reads science? If two men and two women are selected at random
what is the probability that not more than one of the four reads science?
What is the probability that, in a mixed group, one man reads science and the
other man and the two women read something else?
3. A square lamina ABCD of side a is held with the corner A on a horizontal
plane. The feet of the perpendiculars from B, C, D on to the plane are B', C', D'
and the angles B' AB, D' AD are a, /3. The angle B'AD' is O. Prove that
(i) cos 0 = - tan cc. tan )3;
sine a sin2 fl)1;
(ii) the area of the triangle B'AD' is -1a2(cos2 a cost
(iii) the inclination of the lamina to the horizontal can be expressed in the
form
(0 & C)
arccos [cos (cc+ fi) cos (a-/3)]t.
4. If a + -14(4n +1)7r, find x if sin (x+ a) = cos (x- a).
What can you say about x if a = 1(4n +1)70
5. Find the sum to infinity, S, of the geometric series
1
1 + -+
+
A/10 10 1000
If SN denotes the sum of the first N terms of this series, find the least value of
N such that S and SN are the same correct to 3 D.P.
6. A tennis match usually consists of either three or five sets, and ends when one
side has won a majority of the sets. If the probability of a side winning a set is p,
and if the result of each set is independent of any previous results, show that the
probability of a match going its full legth is 2pq in the case of a three-set match
and 6p2q2in the case of a five-set match (q = 1-p).
Show that the first probability is always greater than the second, if p 0 or 1.
7. The function f: R -> R+ is defined by
f(x) = Ix+1I+ I2x-11+
Sketch the graph of f and determine the least value of f(x).
8. Call a matrix of the form
328
cx
xy)
REVISION EXERCISE B
powers of x?
Find the value of 0.9824, correct to 4 D.P.
14. Show that, whatever value is chosen for k, the equation
REVISION EXERCISE B
16. If A is the point (a cos a, b sin a) and B is the point (a cos /3, b sin /3), show
that the equation of the line AB is
fi
x
a+ fi y a+13
sin
Q cos
= cos
2
b
2
21. Two boxes each contain one hundred cards, numbered 1 to 100. A card is
taken from each box, the numbers on the two cards noted, and they are then
returned to their respective boxes. If the process is repeated fifty times, find the
probability that at no stage a pair of cards bearing the same number will be
drawn. How many draws are needed for the probability to be >1?
22. Prove that lg 15 is irrational. (lg 15 means log 15.) Is it true that lg x is
irrational a x is not a power of 10?
23. Evaluate the following determinants:
b c c a a b
(x-p)2 (y-p)2 (z-p)2
I
0,
(i) c a a b b c ;
(11)
ab b c c a
(X r)2 (y r)2 (z r)2
24. Define the projection of a vector in a given direction. ABCD is a quadrilateral in which LA = LC = 90. The feet of the perpendiculars from B, D
to AC are X, Y respectively. Prove that AX = CY.
25. In a large crate of oranges, 100p % are bad. A random sample of ten oranges
produces two bad ones. On the assumption that this is the most likely number
of bad oranges to find in the sample, what can you say about the possible values
of p?
26. ABCD is a square lying in the plane 2x y 2z = 5. If A has coordinates
(1, 1, 2) and C has coordinates (5, 5, 0), find the coordinates of B and D.
27. The function, f, defined by
f(x) = sin x+ cos x
has for its domain the set of real numbers {x e R: 0 < x < zr}. Find the range
off.
330
REVISION EXERCISE B
28. Factorize the expression ax2+(ac+ b c) x+ c(b c) into two linear factors.
Hence factorize the expressions
(i) a+bc+bc+cac2;
(ii) a b + c+bc ca c2;
(iii) a3b2+ a2bc + ab2 abc + bc c2.
29. Describe geometrically the transformation of three-dimensional space represented by premultiplying the position vector of the point (x, y, z) by the matrix
0 1 12)).
0
Which points are left unaltered by this transformation?
(O.S.)
30. When A and B play chess the chance of either winning a game is always
+ and the chance of the game being drawn is always 4. Find the chance of A
winning at least three games out of five.
If A and B play a match to be decided as soon as either has won two games,
not necessarily consecutive games, find the chance of the match being finished
in ten games or less. (J.M.B)
31. Solve the equations
(i) 2 sine x+ sin 2x = 0;
(ii) sin x = cos (-Pr x);
giving all solutions in the interval 0
32. Solve the inequality
x2 -1
1
x2 -4 5
REVISION EXERCISE B
35. Find the image by reflection of the point (4, 3, 1) in the plane
3x+2y+3z+ 1 = 0.
36. A and B are two towers, B being four miles due east of A. The true bearings
of a flagpole C from A and B are a east of north and a west of north respectively; the true bearings of a second flagpole D from A and B are (cc + fi) east
of north and (oc j3) west of north respectively. Draw a sketch-plane to indicate
the positions of A, B, C, D.
Assuming that A, B, C and D are on level ground, prove that D is 4 sine f3 cosec 2a
(0 & C)
miles south of C and 2 sin 213 cosec 2a miles east of C.
37. If ax4+ 3x3+ bx2+ cx+ 2 is exactly divisible by (x+2) (x2 -1), find the
values of a, b, c.
38. Sketch the graph of the function defined by
f(x) = x+ lxi (x e R).
In a separate diagram, shade in the set of points satisfying simultaneously the
three inequalities
y > x+ Ixl, y...-- Ixlx, xy+l > 0.
What is the maximum value of the expression
E -= x+y+1
if x and y are subject to the three given inequalities?
39. Prove that, if A, B are two non-singular 3 x 3 matrices, then AB is a nonsingular matrix and (AB)-4 = B-1A-1.
If
1 0 0
63
5
1 0 0
E, = 0 0 1 , E, = 0 1 0
A= (
1 1 1
3 4 2
\0 1 0
/
find A-1, Ell, EV-.
What are the inverses of the following matrices:
(i)
6 3
-3 4
(2 5
5
2);
2
6 3
(ii) ( 3 4
5 12
5
2)
5
40. Using the formula for tan (A+ B) in terms of tan A and tan B, show that,
if A, B, C are the angles of a triangle, then
tan A + tan B+ tan C = tan A tan B tan C.
Calculate, in degrees and minutes, the angles of a triangle ABC if
tan A: tan B: tan C = 1:2: 6.
(Cambridge)
41. Find the equation of the plane containing the origin, the point (1, 1, 1)
and the point (3, 1, 1). Find also the direction ratios of the line of intersection
of this plane with the plane x+yz 4 = 0.
332
REVISION EXERCISE B
42. In a game of tennis one point is scored either by A or by his opponent B.
The winner of the game is the player who first scores four points, unless each
player has won three points, when ' deuce' is called and play proceeds until one
player is two points ahead of the other and so wins. If A's chance of winning any
point is and B's chance is calculate the chance of
(i) A winning the game without `deuce' being called;
(ii) a similar win by B;
(iii) ' deuce ' being called.
If `deuce' is called, prove that A's subsequent chance of winning the game is I.
Deduce that A's chance of winning the game is nearly six times that of B.
(Cambridge)
43. Prove that
( ) = 2 n.
r=0 r
5x+2y+(6k) z = 13
that
(n-1
for r = 2, 3, ..., n.
r 1)
By comparing the binomial expansions, or otherwise, prove that, when
a > 0, b > 0,
(a + b)n a" < nb(a + b)"-1.
(0 &C)
<n
333
REVISION EXERICSE B
49. Factorize the determinants
(i)
(ii)
x a b c
a x c b
b c x a
c b a x
(0 & C)
50. Find the image by reflection of the plane x = 0 in the plane x+y+z = 4.
51. Using the same axes draw the graphs of y = sin x and y = 1-270 for
values of x from 0 to 360. Estimate from your diagram the roots of the equation
x
sin x + = 1.
270
The equation sin x = mx+ c, where m and c are constants, has roots x = 60,
x = 330. With the aid of your diagram estimate
(i) the other root of the equation;
(Cambridge)
(ii) the values of in and c.
52. Prove that, when any polynomial f(x) is divided by (x a), the remainder
is f(a).
The remainder, when f(x) is divided by (x a) (x b) is written in the form
A(x a)+ B(x b); prove that
A=
f(b)
f(a)
B =
b a '
a b
(0 & C)
cos 0 sin 0)
(sin 0
cos 0
(c,) = A(0) ( y)
show that the point (X', Y') is the mirror image of (X, Y) in the line y = x tan -I-0.
(ii) Prove that
A(0,) A(82) = B(95),
where 95 is some angle (to be determined), and hence, or otherwise, explain the
relation between the points (X', Y') and (X, Y) when
p\ = we)
Y'f
(iii) Prove that
y)
REVISION EXERCISE B
54. One side of a hill has the form of an inclined plane, the line of greatest
slope, AB, being due north. A man starts from A and walks to B, the distance
being d1km. At B he walks for a distance d2km in a straight line, inclined at
an acute angle 0 to AB, reaching a point C. The vertical heights of B and C
above the level of A are h1km and h2km respectively. Prove that
di(h2 hi)
cos 0o =
h1d2
(.-4 sin 0
h2A1(42 h'f)
(0 & C)
55. Show that, for all but two specific values of k, the equations
x ky+2z = 3,
3x+ y 2z = 1,
k x 9y+2z = 7,
represent three planes with a s'ngle common point.
Interpret geometrically the two special cases.
56. In how many different ways may a red balls, b white balls and c black balls
(indistinguishable apart from colour) be arranged in a straight line?
Find the coefficient of x4y4Z4in the expansion of (x+ y+2z)12.
57. Solve the inequality
5x + 1
< 1
x2 x-6
5x +1
Y = x2x-6'
58. Three spheres of radii 1, 2, 3 units, touch each other externally. Prove
that a plane which touches each sphere makes an angle arcsin V13) with the
plane containing the centres of the spheres.
(0 & C)
59. Find all values of x, y and z which satisfy the equations
y+z = u,
x z = v,
x+y = w,
v-2w = a,
where
u
2u-3v
+3w = b,
= c.
(C.S.)
60. If I deal cards one by one from a well-shuffled pack, find the expectation of
REVISION EXERCISE B
61. ABCDA'B'C'D' is a rectangular box with faces ABCD, A' B'C' D' and edges
AA', etc. AA' D' D is a square of side 1 unit, AB = 2 units and M is the midpoint of C' D' . By setting up a suitable coordinate system, or otherwise, find the
acute angle between the planes BMA', AB' D' , correct to the nearest degree.
62. Prove that
= 0.
(C.S.)
x = y+3 = z+1
and
x = -1-(y+ 4) =
+ 3)
intersect. If P is the point of intersection, find the equation of the line through
P perpendicular to both given lines.
(J.M.B.)
64. Two jars, one white and the other black, contain a + b balls each; in the white
jar there are a white and b black balls and in the black jar b white and a black.
Single draws are made as follows: at the rth draw a ball is drawn from the white
or black jar according as the (r 1)th ball drawn was white or black, the colour
of the ball noted and then returned. If pnis the probability that the nth draw is
white, show that
(a+b)p= b + (a 1) P.-1.
By means of the substitution
pn = +qn,
or otherwise, determine pn, when the jar from which the first draw is made is
(i) chosen at random, (ii) white. What is the probability in the two cases that
both jars have been drawn after three draws?
(O.S.)
65. The number n whose digits in the scale of 10 are a, b, c, din that order is the
same as the number whose digits in the scale of 9 are d, b, c, a in that order; in
other words, we have
103a+ 1026+ 10c+ d = 93d+92b+ 9c+ a
and the digits a, b, c, d all lie between 0 and 8 inclusive. Prove that there is
exactly one number n (4 0) with this property, and find n.
(C.S.)
66. Prove that, if
then
A1 0
0 A 1),
A= (0 0 A
An ran-1 fn(n 1) An-2
nAn-1
An
An
0
0
An = (0
336
REVISION EXERCISE B
67. The points P1and P2on the surface of the earth (assumed to be a sphere of
radius r and centre 0) are at the same (northern) latitude A, and their respective
longitudes are L1and L2. Show that the length C of the route from P1to P2 via a
circle centre 0 (called a great circle) satisfies the equation
cos ( = sin2A + cos2A cos (L2 L1).
r
C = 2r arcsm
cos A)
V2
or
C = 2nr 2r arcsm
(cos A \
V2
(Cambridge)
Ax+ Icy + v = 0.
Prove that the perpendiculars from the vertices A1, A2, A3 of the triangle formed
by the lines
1,x+ my+n, = 0 (i = 1, 2, 3)
on to the sides B2B3, B3 B1, B1B2respectively, of the triangle formed by the lines
Ai x+ Ay+ vi = 0 (i = 1, 2, 3)
are concurrent if
(11 A2 + In11't2) (12 A3 + m2 A3) (13 Al + M3 Fl)
= (11A3 + M1/23) (13 Al M2F1) (13 A2 + M3/12)
rim, the radius of the sphere being 0.6 km. A man walks up from a point of the
rim to the peak at a steady speed of 1.6 km per hour but never ascending at a
gradient of more than arcsin (4). Find the minimum time the walk can take him,
and sketch roughly a possible minimum path (as seen from above); does it necessarily have no sharp corners?
(C.S.)
71. In a population of identical elements, an element produces no or one
progeny with equal probabilities 1. If the population consists of 0, 1, 2, ...
337
REVISION EXERCISE B
elements with probabilities po,pi,p2, ... show that the probability PT of r progeny
is given by the coefficient of i r in G(t), where
G(t)= E p
rty
n=0
When
Pn"
= 2n+1
find the probability that the number of progeny is greater than or equal to N.
By considering G(t) and its derivatives, or otherwise, find T., the expected value
of r, the number of progeny, and the expected value of (r r)2.
(O.S.)
72. A, B and C are the three angles of a triangle. Show that
= 0.
(C.S.)
73. If 11 is a positive integer and p a prime number, ccp(n) denotes the greatest
integer k such that plc divides n. If n is written in the form
N
n = E ary (0--5 a,
p-1),
r=0
show that
n a,
a(n!) =
r=0
p 1
(C.S.)
74. ABCD is a parallelogram and E a point not necessarily in the plane ABCD.
Show that a2 +c2 +g2 +h2 = b2+ d 2 +e2, these being the lengths shown in the
figure, and find a relation involving only a, b, c, e, f. (You may use vector
geometry.) (C.S.)
338
Bibliography
GENERAL
Allen, R. G. D. Basic Mathematics (Macmillan). A broad survey of mathematical
ideasuseful as a reference book.
Backhouse, J. K. and Houldsworth, S. P. T. Pure Mathematics (Longmans,
2 volumes). Written some years ago, with traditional 'A' levels in mind
consequently rather old-fashioned, but workmanlike in its approach and
contains a great number of examples for the student.
Kemeny, J. G., Murkill, H., Snell, J. L. and Thompson, G. L. Finite Mathematical Structures (Prentice-Hall). An introductory survey of some modern
topics, containing a much more thorough account of the ideas sketched in
Ch. 9.1 and also including chapters on linear algebra and probability.
S.M.P. Advanced Mathematics. (Cambridge, 4 volumes). Specifically written
for the new S.M.P. 'A' level, these books are full of new ideas, presented in
a lively and stimulating manner.
ALGEBRA
Beckenbach, E. F. and Bellman, R. An Introduction to Inequalities (Random
House.) A readable introduction to the subject.
Birkhoff, G. D. and Maclane, S. A Survey of Modern Algebra (Macmillan,
New York). Really a university text book, but beautifully written and containing much that can be read with profit by sixth-formers. Gives a much more
thorough account of the ideas outlined somewhat sketchily in Ch. I.
Cohn, P. M. Linear Equations (Routledge and Kegan Paul). A sound introduction at low cost.
Durell, C. V. and Robson, A. Advanced Algebra (Bell, 3 volumes). Written a
long time ago, but these books wear well and still contain a great deal of valuable reading; they also contain an excellent selection of problems, many of
which are stimulating and challenging.
Ferrar, W. L. Higher Algebra for Schools (Oxford). A good introductory course
in traditional sixth-form algebra.
Maxwell, E. A. Algebraic Structures and Matrices (Cambridge). Carries the work
beyond 'A' level standard; contains some good exercises.
Neill, H. and Moakes, A. J. Vectors, Matrices and Linear Equations (Oliver and
Boyd). Covers the course of linear algebra required for the M.E.I. 'A' level
examinations. Approaches the subject from a rather different standpoint to
that adopted in this book.
Niven, I. Numbers: Rational and Irrational (Random House). A comprehensive
account of the work of Ch. 1.
339
BIBLIOGRAPHY
CALCULUS
Hardy, G. H. Pure Mathematics (Cambridge). A very famous book. Not easy
reading, but repays careful study. A work for the specialist.
Matthews, G. Calculus (Murray). An excellent modern text.
Maxwell, E. H. Calculus (Cambridge, 4 volumes). A comprehensive text, useful
as a work of reference.
Quadling, D. A. Mathematical Analysis (Oxford). An excellent introduction to
university work: presupposes some acquaintance with the calculus.
Scott, D. B. and Timms, S. R. Mathematical Analysis (Cambridge). A university
text, but contains much good reading for the serious sixth-form student.
Siddons, A. W., Snell, K. S. and Morgan, J. B. A New Calculus (Cambridge,
3 volumes). A standard text-book; volume 3 is a particularly good introduction to advanced work.
Toeplitz, 0. The Calculus, A Genetic Approach (Chicago). A stimulating approach to calculus by tracing its historical development.
PROBABILITY
Feller, W. An Introduction to Probability Theory and Its Applications, Volume 1
(Wiley). An advanced text, but highly recommended for the serious post'A' level student.
Mosteller, F. Fifty Challenging Problems in Probability (Addison-Wesley). Some
good material here for the problem addict.
Mosteller, F., Rourke, R. E. K. and Thomas, G. B. Probability and Statistics
(Addison-Wesley). A very elementary introduction to probabilitywordy at
times, but thorough.
Parzen, E. Modern Probability Theory and its Applications (Wiley). A very
thorough introduction, carrying the subject well beyond 'A' level.
340
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Whitworth, W. A. Choice and Chance (Hafner). Published seventy years ago,
the bookwork is distinctly old-fashioned, but it ends with a delightful collection
of problems, some distinctly tricky. Excellent bedside reading for the inveterate
problem-solver; a key is published to prevent insomnia.
341
BIBLIOGRAPHY
but can be read by the specialist with profit. Strongly recommended to all
sixth-formers.
Smith, D. E. A Source Book in Mathematics (Dover, 2 volumes). Contains
excerpts from the writings of great mathematicians of the pastall within the
understanding of the sixth-former.
Weston, J. D. and Godwin, H. J. Some Exercises in Pure Mathematics (Cambridge). A fine collection of problems, based on the Welsh 'A' level (alternative syllabus). Contains detailed solutions.
342
Answers
CHAPTER 1
PAGE
Exercise 1(a)
1. (i) 10; (ii) 1110; (iii) 10000; (iv) 101.
2. 100010011, 101012, lte.
3. 8e242.
0.
Exercise 1 (b)
9 4. (i) 0.3; (ii)
6. (i) True; (ii) True; (iii) False; (iv) True; (v) True (provided rational
number is not zero); (vi) False.
11 Ex. 17. (i) 242; (ii) 3A/2; (iii) 3A/6; (iv) 500; (v) 42 \/3.
Ex. 18. (i) 11+4.N/6; (ii) 3J6; (iii) 2A/3; (iv) 8.
Ex. 19. (i) 1A/3; (ii) (2+ V2); (iii) M2+ V2); (iv) 3+ A/6; (v) 7-4V3.
Exercise 1(c)
12 1. (i) 5 A/2; (ii) 11A/3; (iii) 20A/6; (iv) 8A/3; (v) 22A/3.
343
ANSWERS
PAGE
16 Ex. 26. {x e U:
U}.
6
Ex. 27. (i) U; (ii) 0 ; (iii) U; (iv) A; (v) A; (vi) 0 ; (vii) 0 ;
(viii) U.
Ex. 28. (i) {a, a}; (ii) {a, b, d, e}; (iii) {c}.
Ex. 29. (i) {2} ; (ii) {2} ; (iii) {- 2}; (iv) IN/2, 2};
(v) {- V2,- 4, V2, 2).
18 Ex. 31. (i) x < - 2; (ii) x < 1; (iii) x < 4.
Exercise 1(d)
20 2. (i) R; (ii) {x e R: 3 < x < 4); (iii) {x e R: x < 4}.
3. (i) {x e Z: x < 0); (ii) {x e
(iii) {x e Z: x< - 3 or x 3).
x/6 e Z+};
6. (i) {x R: x < -5); (ii) {xe R: x > 2}; (iii) {x e R: x < 7};
(iv) {x e R: x > 0}; (v) {x e R: x < 0 or x > 1).
7. (i) {x E R: x < -3 or x> 1}; (ii) {x e R: x< -3 or x >
{x E R:
< x < 3); (iv) 0 ; (v) {x e R: -1 < x < 5}.
344
ANSWERS
PAGE
12. 10.
13. 12.
16. 20 m.
17. 3 m2; AB = 1 m, AD = I m.
15. 600.
Miscellaneous Exercise 1
1. 1111000; Seven: -fp, 1p, 2p, 4p, 8p, 16p, 32p.
6. a = 1, b = 4, c = 3.
22 2. a = 2, b = 3.
8. 1-1/J7.
11. (Expressions not unique) (i) A n C; (ii) A' n B'; (iii) C' n B;
CHAPTER 2
28 Ex. 5. (i) 8 units N; (ii) 3 units W; (iii) 4V2 units NW;
(iv) 2V17 units N 14 2' E; (v) 10 units N 36 52' W.
Ex. 6. x = (2a + b)/7, y = (a- 3b)/7.
Ex. 7. (i) V7 units N 19 6' E; (ii) V3 units S 30 E;
(iii) 1 unit S 60 E; (iv) V7 units S 40 54 W.
Ex. 8. (i) 2J2 units at 45 with downward vertical in plane through SN
line;
(ii) 3V2 units at 45 with downward vertical in plane through EW line;
(iii) 6V3 units at 45 to N, E and upward vertical;
(iv) 6V3 units at 45to N, W and downward vertical.
Ex. 9. (i) 2a + b; (ii) 2a-b; (iii) a + b; (iv) a- b.
30 Ex. 12. x= b + y = b - la, a = x - y, b = -f(x + y).
30 Ex. 13. Yes, no.
Exercise 2(a)
1. (i) 3a+ b; (ii) 8a + b; (iii) - 5a + 5b, (iv) - 2a+ 6b.
2. a = (u + 3v)/7, b = (2u - 0/7.
345
ANSWERS
PAGE
8. -20x -10,,l2y.
9. A = 2 sec 70, u = -2 tan 70; A' =
1.02.
u + v, w = iu -
18. (i) (4u - 2v)/3; (ii) (4v - 2u)/3; (iii) 2(v - u).
19. (i)
(ii)
Exercise 2(b)
40 1. 2b-a,4(2c+a),-4(-a+ 3b+c).
346
ANSWERS
PAGE
9. u + v, + w),
OX *WO.
10. 3:1.
42 15. t,
Miscellaneous Exercise 2
1. b+2 cos 72 a, a+2 cos 72 b.
3. (i) Parallelogram; (ii) equal diagonals; (iii) rectangle.
43 14. 3:1:2.
15. W2 -001(7182 72 al), ( 6.71
CtY2)/(71 82 72 81) ; c,
not parallel.
CHAPTER 3
47 Ex. 2. (
i
. Ex. 3. ( 31),
2
Ex. 4. 2, 6.
48 Ex. 6. (2, 1).
Ex. 9. (0, 4)
Ex. 11.
(I, I).
Exercise 3(a)
0
5
51 1. (i) (2); (ii) ( 4
2
8
5
0
4
(iii) ( 3); (iv) ( 0); (v) ( 3).
/
8
1
\-1
( 18).
;
2. (i) (-1); (ii) ( 13)(iii)
25
14
4
+); (ii) (2).
3. (i) (-1
2
2
0
4
4. (i) x = ( ;7) , y = ( 171); (ii) x = ( 4), y = (0),
-5
1
_ .7
12 PPM
z=
2
64).
347
ANSWERS
PAGE
51
-I, -I);
52 8. (i) (2, 6), (3, 8); (ii) ( 1, '='), (0, Y); (iii) (a+ b, b a), (a, b);
(iv) (1, I, i), (i, t, -V); (v) (a -kb, ia + ib, i-a + b),
(a if), ia + ib, fa+ b).
9. (i) J8; (ii) V40; (iii) V10; (iv) V51; (v) V(8a2 + 4102).
11. 22..
13. 20.
14. 1:2.
Ex. 25. x + 3y 1 = 0.
Exercise 3(b)
1. (i) 2x y 2 = 0; (ii) 2x + y + 3 = 0; (iii) x + 2y-1 = 0;
(iv) ax + by (a2+ b2) = 0.
2. (i) 3x y 5 = 0; (ii) 7 x y+ 11 = 0; (iii) y +1 = 0;
(iv) 3bx + 2ay 5ab = 0.
3. (i) i; (ii) 1; (iii) 5; (iv) (b+ a)/(b a).
4. (i) 2x y 7 = 0, x+ 2y-1 = 0;
(ii) 5x+ 4y 11 = 0, 4x 5y 17 = 0;
(iii) x 3 = 0, y+ 1 = 0. 2V5.
5. (i) (3, 2); (ii) ( (a3 + b3)I(a2+ b2), ab(a NI(a2+ b2)).
6. (i) 43x + 3y = 0; (ii) 7 x y 2 = 0; (iii) 10x 6y 9 = 0.
58 7. ( 3, 10).
9. (2,
3).
ANSWERS
PAGE
58 12. 3:4.
(iv) 2x-3y-12 = 0.
62 Ex. 27. (i) z = 0; (ii) z = 2.
63 Ex. 31. 3y- 5z = 0.
A 2,
-
3A 5), (1,
-
1, 2).
Exercise 3(c)
1. (i) [1, 1, 1], [1/J3, 1A13, 1/V3]. The direction ratios only are given in
the remaining seven parts; (ii) [1, 2, 1]; (iii) [-2, 2, 1]; (iv) [1, 0, 1];
(v) [ 1, 1, 1]; (vi) [1, 2, 3], (vii) [0, a, b+ c]; (viii) [1, 0, 1].
2. (i) x+y+z = 1; (ii) x+y-2z = 5; (iii) 2x+y z = 4;
(iv) 3x y 2z = 4; (v) 5x + 3y 2z = 2; (vi) 5x z = 2.
- -
4. (i) 3x 3y + z = 0;
(ii) 5x 4y 1 = 0;
(iii) 3y 5z-- 3 = 0.
64 6. 3y + 2z 7 = 0; 7x 4y 5z = 0.
-
7. 2x+y+ 2z+ 7 = 0.
8. (3A+8, A+1, 1), (5, 01).
9. (1, 1, 0).
16. ( 3, 4, 2).
Miscellaneous Exercise 3
4. mx y +(b am) = 0.
2. 2:1, 51.
66 8. x = y =
10. (i) Planes form a prism;
(ii) planes all pass through the line x
z + 1 = 0, y = 4.
12-2
15. x z.N/3 2 = 0.
349
ANSWERS
CHAPTER 4
PAGE
68 Ex. 1. 3, 6, 6.
Ex. 2. 8, 1, 5.
69 Ex. 4. 1, 1, 0.
Exercise 4(a)
1. 10, 2, 318, 82. 2. 1, 9, 26, 24.
4. 3, 4, 5.
5. 7, 20, 22, 5.
3. 0.
6. 4, 0, 6, 2.
7. 3, 7, 6, 0;
8. 1, k, 2k2, k3.
70 11. 9, 27, 3.
Exercise 4 (b)
72 1. (i) 62; (ii) 8; (iii) 2; (iv) 241; (v) 1i; (vi)
2. (x 2) (x 3) (x + 1).
73 3. (i) (2x+ 1) (x + 4) (x-1); (ii) (x+ 1) (3x-4) (4x+ 3);
(iii) (x + 5) (x 2) (2x+ 1); (iv) (x+ 3) (x2 -2); (v) (x-2) (x2 + x+1);
(vi) (x+1) (x-3) (x 5); (vii) (x 2) (x2 + 4x + 1);
(viii) (2x 1) (2x+ 1) (2x+ 3).
4. As for Qu. 3 except (iv) (x + 3) (x
(vii) (x 2)(x + 2 V3) (x+ 2+ 0).
5. 2.
6. 5.
7. 61.
8. 4, 5.
(x + V2);
9. 2, 2.
Exercise 4(c)
7. 2x3-5x2+x+1.
75 6. x3 x2 +3x+2.
8. x3 x 5.
Miscellaneous Exercise 4
76 2. R = 2, S = 3.
3. (i) 18x + 6; (ii) 1261x + 2777.
ANSWERS
PAGE
CHAPTER 5
78 Ex. 1. mn.
80 Ex. 3. 2, 3, -12, -13; 0, (3 V29)/2.
Ex. 4. 2, 3, -12, -13; 0.
Exercise 5(a)
2. 11, 21, 3i.
82 4. -1, 1.
12. 1.
Exercise 5 (b)
2. x < 0 or x > 1.
86 1. x < 0 or x > 1.
3. x < 0 or
4. x < -2 or
x > 1.
x>
1.
5. 1 < x < 3.
6. x < i or x > 1.
8. x > 3 or
9. -1 < x < 1.
x = 2.
x > 2.
x > 5.
- 8
351
ANSWERS
CHAPTER 6
PAGE
IT IT n 577 377 577 1177
87 Ex. 1. - - 6'3'4' 12' 4'4' 6
Exercise 6(a)
117r 577- 197r
88 1.
4' 6 'T' 6
2. 30, 60, 135, 75, 210, 810, 54, 900, 50, 63.
3. 0.445, F244, 2.552.
7. 18.5 cm.
10.
9. 2r sin 0, nr0190.
1.7
m, 8 m2.
Exercise 6(b)
94 1. -1, -1, 2, -V3/3, -V2/2, 2, 0, V3/3, -V2, -2V3/3.
2. A/2/2, -1, -2, -V2/2, V3/3, -2, V3/2, -2V3/3, -V3/3, -V3/2.
3. -0.5736, -0.6157, -0.8391, 3.0716, 0.3420.
27r 477.
7T 777
117r t..37r 777
(iii) T,
(iv) 6 , 6;
' 6 ; I 4 4
77 27r 477 577
137r 177 .
37 77
s , 3 , T ,3; (vi)
, j, ,(vii) 7, 4 ,
A (
.1777
`11 6
(v)
(viii)
7T
57r 137r 177r 2577 2977.
577
,
.
' (x) 0, gin, 7r, la, 27r;
18 18' 18 ' 18 ' 18 ' 18 ' (ix) 3
77 777
.. 77 n 2rr 577
6,
-y-, w.
577
5. (i)
,
-
- 71. '
n,
352
7;
(vi)
7T
-
577
(...\
7T
(Ill)
2; (xxj\)
n n
-
2 , 2'
37r
.717
..
(vu)
577
rr n 577 .
7T 77 377 777
ANSWERS
PAGE
12. 3 6A/10/10.
13. (i) 45, 123.7, 225, 303.7; (ii) 70.5, 289.5; (iii) 45, 225, 153.4, 333.4;
(iv) 38.2, 141.8; (v) 36.9, 143.1, 216.9, 323.1; (vi) 30, 150;
(vii) no solution; (viii) 0, 63.4, 180, 243.4, 360.
14. (i) 9x2 + 4(y- 3)2 = 36; (ii) x2 +y2 = 2; (iii) 2x2 -2xy+ 5y2 = 9;
(iv) x2(16 -y2) = 9y2; (v) y(2 -y) (1 + x)2 = 1.
16. a =
TT
Exercise 6(c)
99 2. 0, in, 7T, Ir 2n..
,
3. 35-2.
4. 65.
7. 0.90, 2.25.
15. (i) A/3/2; (ii) V3/2; (iii) A/3/3; (iv) - A/2/2; (v) 1; (vi) 3;
(vii) 4;
(viii) - A/3/3.
16. (i) x/A/(1 - x2); (ii) x/A/(1+ x2).
17. V2/2.
18. x, Ix'
19. x2+ y2 = 1.
1.
Miscellaneous Exercise 6
1. 0.967.
101 2. 2a2(ka-V3/4).
3. 11, -1.
5. 54.4 cm. (i) 12.25 cm; (ii) 75.5'; (iii) 13.2 cm.
6. 0.
7. sin x # sin y
8. ar1
5 T, 2
;7570 or ( g, AlT).
ANSWERS
CHAPTER 7
PAGE
Ex. 3. 120, 6.
Ex. 5. 1.
Ex. 9. 51.
Exercise 7(a)
2. 870.
1. 120.
4. 216.
107 3. 665280.
9. 120, 85.
12. in!, 840.
6. 495, 135.
14. 19958400.
16. 90.
18. ln(n- 1).
109 Ex. 10. {HH, HT, TH, TT}, {0H, 1H, 2H}, {coins fall the same, coins fall
differently}.
112 Ex. 20.
Ex. 22. A.
(ii)
(iii) 4.
Exercise 7(b)
1. 64, 20, 6
113 2 ,614, 64
39 1.1
uy,
1
664, 614,
4 W.
3. (i) i; (ii) A.
5 4-34.
(i)
7. A-.
(ii)
9. {2, 3, 4,
20},
o,
10.
115 Ex. 26. las.
Ex. 29.
Ex. 27. 6
1 .
ta.
Ex. 34. fa
ANSWERS
Exercise 7(c)
PAGE
119
... 1296,
2. 0.784.
1627916
3.
7. It.
6. 9, 81.
(ii) H.
11. 66.
16. a
17. 13 times.
121
20. 0.956.
21. (i)
123
Ex. 35. 8, t.
13. H.
14. 0.22.
Ex. 38. H, y
3
S s, 5
e
Exercise 7(d)
125
2. 0.1997.
1. 36047.
3. A
7 A-.
126 6. 1459 4 ;
4. +,
gr.
5.
8. 41, 0, A
9. pl(p + q - pq).
Miscellaneous Exercise 7
1. (i) P; (ii)
1
,., 1
n!'
4. Approx. 1. 5. 1.
6. Replacement-h-; no replacement h
7. Probability of securing no prize greater for B, but this is compensated
by greater probability of two prizes.
9. (i) 1; (ii) 9.
12.
5- (1) 162,5, 125,
14. (i) 0.09; (ii) 0.111; (iii) 0.336; (iv) small; (v) no.
16. (pi+ (P2+ A) (p3+ A) =
A2.
355
ANSWERS
PAGE
-q) q;
(1 -9) 94;
-9) R2;
CHAPTER 8
131 Ex. 1. (i) 0, 1, 4, 17; (ii) 2, 5, 16, 65.
Ex. 2. (i) 1,2,4,8; (ii) 1, 2, 3, 4; (iii) 0, 4, 21, 100; (iv) 1, 2, 5, 17;
(v) 1.5 F4, F41, F414, (approx.).
,
133 Ex. 7. (i) 18; (ii) 14; (iii) 100; (iv) 6; (v) 1A; (vi)
15;
r=1
r=1
r=1
(v)
r=1
r=1
r=1
r=1
Ex. 13. (i) 46; (ii) 35; (iii) 86; (iv) 40; (v) 100.
134 Ex. 14. (i) E (3r- 2) (3r + 1) (3r+ 4); (ii) E 6r2(4r+ 1); (iii) E (202r-2;
r=1
(iv)
r=1
(2r-1)(4r-1)(3r-1)-1; (v)
r=1
r=1
Exercise 8(a)
135 1. (i) 112; (ii)
(iii) 15.
(ii)
356
r=1
r=1
(-1)r}1(2r-1)2.
ANSWERS
PAGE
135 3. (i) 1, 4, 13, 40; (ii) 1, 1, 1, 1; (iii) 2, 22, 24, 28; (iv) 1, 2, 1a, 114.
4. s 2s + 5,2= d.
5. (i) 9r -6; (ii) 1(2r-1); (iii) 20-8r.
6. (i) 51; (ii) 70; (iii) 30.
8. 6- 5r, - 930.
14. 2, 4, 6.
18. 63.
Exercise 8(b)
138 1. (i) ;(412-1); (ii) -1(220 -1); (iii) (2+ ,/2) (28 -1);
(iv) 1[3 -3-48].
2. 1i, 2.
3. 18, 2i, 41, ... or -18, 2
5. 21.
6. 29.
7. 27.
9. 1.126x 108km.
4}, ....
4. 18.
8. 16.
10. 1, 1, 3.
12. 313.07.
14. NI .
17. ur =
Exercise 8(c)
142 1. (i) 650; (ii) 6084; (iii) 2865; (iv) -}n(4n2 - 1).
2.
5. 1. 2n2(n2_ 1).
ANSWERS
PAGE
-1{n(n+ 0)-1.
144 Ex. 23. 1, 6, 15, 20, 15, 6, 1; 1, 7, 21, 35, 35, 21, 7, 1;
1, 8, 28, 56, 70, 56, 28, 8, 1.
145 Ex. 26. (i) 81x4 -108x3y+ 54x2y2 - 12xy3 + y4;
(ii) 64x6 +192x5y+ 240x4y2 + 160x3y3+ 60x2y4 + 12xy6 + y6;
(iii) 128x' - 448x6 + 672x2 - 560x4 + 280x3 - 84x2 + 14x - 1;
(iv) 243x2 +810x4y+1080x3y2 +720x2y3 +240xy4 +32y2.
Exercise 8(d)
146 1. (i) x6 - 6x2y+15x4y2 - 20x3y3 +15x2y4 - 6xy6 + y6;
(ii) 32x6 +40x4y+20x3y2 + 5x2y3+ ixY4 +
(iii) 1 + 14x + 84x2 + 280x3 + 560x4 + 672x6 + 448x6 + 128x';
(iv) 64(x4 +18x6y+135x4y2 +540x3y3 +1215x2y4 +1458xy2 +729y4).
2. (i) 54; (ii) 672; (iii) 264; (iv) 19440.
3. (i) 1 + 16x+ 112x2 ; (ii) 1 + 121x +
(iv) - y7 + 21y4x- 189y4x2.
8
4. ( ) 2nx2r-8,1120.
r
147 5. 27.
7. 322.
8. 120, 4200.
Miscellaneous Exercise 8
1. (i) 1-(3n - 1); (ii)
3jn(n-1)
2.
A, 19.99998, 9.
148 3. e.
4. {nxn+i (n+ 1) xn +1)(x 1)-2,
{n2xn}2 -(2n2 +2n -1) xn-o- + (n+ 1)2 xn- x- 1) (x 1)-3.
-
5. in + 1\
kp + 11
149 12. {(1-bn) nYn(1 - b)} (1- b)-2.
ANSWERS
PAGE
Revision Exercise A
151 1. 5, 3; x
1.
5. 120, 24.
2. (-5, - 5).
6. 40.9.
7. 7 x +7y 29 = 0.
-
10. (i)
28. 1-2R.
27. 1.03.
29. - i -j - 3k.
34. 41 ..
-
CHAPTER 9
158 Ex. 6. ABC is right-angled at A.
Ex. 8. Not 'if'.
Ex. 9. Yes.
Exercise 9(a)
160 4. 13.
5. 0 or 4.
10. No solution if a =
6. 13.
1 unless b = 0.
ANSWERS
CHAPTER 10
PAGE
- X.
Ex. 4. Lose.
Ex. 5. Yes, if x = 1.
Exercise 10(a)
174 1. (i) 2+; (ii) - -,); (iii) 311; (iv) 51.
(iii) 6A; (iv) 10.
3. 3p.
175 8. 9p.
4. 13661.
5. 100.
9. 7p.
12. E1.32.
6. 0, 3.3.
13. 2.
3I 8 13 15 16 17
16. 22Ip.
17. X
Ex. 7. 1.
181 Ex. 9. 4, 0.
16p 2 3 3 2 3 3
Exercise 10 (b)
1. (i)
2. (i) 2.81, 4.41; (ii) 3.7, 2.01; (iii) 0.15, 3.53; (iv) 150, 3000.
3. (i) 12.31, 1211; (ii) 15.7, 102.8; (iii) 3.55, 16.75;
(iv) 2.55 x 104, 2.83 x 108.
2-(n2- 1).
5. (n+ 1), -i1
4. 41, 2+.
186 6.
7.
10. 15
8 7, 2.415, 1.71.
(ii) 0.
Miscellaneous Exercise 10
1. 7.33.
187
5. Yes, if X, Yindependent.
7. 2(n - r)l{n(n-1)}.
10. 0p-1.
6) (183) + (193)).
+ (4
16. 1, 71.
360
ANSWERS
CHAPTER 11
PAGE
Exercise 11(a)
193 3. Sphere, centre A, radius lel.
195 Ex. 4. -5.
Ex. 12. ( a,
-
b), lc'.
Exercise 11(b)
1. (i) 2, 1 ; (ii) 2, 1;
1; (iii) 3, I; (iv) b, (3a- 20/5.
200 2. (i) 245/5; (ii) 465/65; (iii) 807/85; (iv) (a2 62)1(a2+ b2)1.
-
3. (i) 417/17; (ii) 12413/13; (iii) 6V10/5; (iv) (h+ k)2(h2+ k2)-i.
4. (i) 245/5; (ii) 945/10; (iii) 2426/13; (iv) (a + b) (a2+ b2)-I.
5. (i) 3x - 4y + 16 = 0, 3x - 4y - 14 = 0;
(ii) 8x+ 6y + 35 = 0, 8x+ 6y - 25 = 0; (iii) 5x + 12y + 41 = 0,
5x+12y-37 = 0; (iv) 3x+ 2y+ 1 3,/13 = 0.
7. (i) 2x - y = 0; (ii) 7 x 7 y 3 = 0; (iii) 128x+ 16y + 69 = 0.
9. (i) (9, -9); (ii) 521; (iii) +1.
8. x 7y-18 = 0.
-
10. ( p, -q).
-
12. 37.
202 Ex. 14. (i)
16.
Exercise 11(c)
205 1. 110.9.
2. (i) x y+z = 0; (ii) 2x+y-3z = 13;
(iii) 3x- z = 1; (iv) 6x-3y- 2z = 2;
(v) 4x+ y - 3z = -1;
(vi) ax + by + cz = a2+ b2+ c2.
-
ANSWERS
PAGE
(v)
207 7. (i) (2, 3. -1); (ii) (4, 7, -5); (iii) (1, 1, 1); (iv) (0, -1, 3).
8. (i) (9, 5, 3); (ii) (7, -10, -3); (iii) (-6, 16, 6); (iv) (-9, 9, 12);
(v) (15, 13, 2); (vi) ( 2ad(a2+10 + c2)-1, -26d(a2+62+ c2)-',
-2cd(a2+ b2+ c2)-1).
-
9. (i) (1, 1, 3); (ii) (2, 3, 4); (iii) (6, 2, 4); (iv) (6, 4, 1).
3 = - (z+ 6).
- D.
Miscellaneous Exercise 11
1. 1p x, cos a - yisin al.
-
5. 3.75, 1.
6. (-4, 3).
9. 1 :2.
362
;y =
z.
17. s+21n.s-p1(n).
ANSWERS
PAGE
21. B(-1-, V312,0), C(-1, - 012, 0), D(0, 0, V2), (0, 0, V2/4); -4:0:V2,
2:2V3:V2, 0:0:1.
22. 2.
213 23. 5x+12y- 60 = 0.
24. 2V6.
32. 142.
CHAPTER 12
215 Ex. 1. Yes, e.g. A = B = 60.
216 Ex. 2. 4(V6- V2), 4(,/6+V2).
EX. 4. (1)
a g;
-14, H.
(b) 0 *inn
219 Ex. 7. (i) V10; (ii) V5; (iii) 10, 0; (iv) 1 V2; (v) 1(2 V2).
Ex. 8. (i) 0, 270, 360; (ii) 53.1; (iii) 90, 323.1; (iv) 4.9, 220.5.
Ex. 9. 1, 7.
220 Ex. 11.
Ex. 10. 1.
-4, 9V2.
2 sin 2x sin x;
ANSWERS
Exercise 12(a)
PAGE
224 1. (i) a(/6+ V2); (ii) - f(V6- V2); (iii) - (2 + V3); (iv) 2- V3.
7. (i) 0, 116.6, 180, 296.6, 360; (ii) 180; (iii) 45, 120, 135,
225, 240, 315; (iv) 0, 45, 90, 225, 360.
8. 'sin
b = 61; tan 0 =
16. R =
a = 26.6. (i) 140.5, 346.3';
(ii) 0, 63.4, 180, 243.4, 360.
17. -97.6, 0, 90, 171.3.
227 18. (Hi r, . 72;7 ), (
127T,
fin")
Exercise 12(b)
232 1. 76 m.
(iii)
6. 9.3 m.
7. 36
8. 127.8.
16. 1.12r.
12. 121 m.
Miscellaneous Exercise 12
-15-;
236 8. art, r!-1- 10,
14. -1-(1 J2).
2.
a.
364
ANSWERS
CHAPTER 13
PAGE
245 Ex. 9. S(P) = (3, 5), T(P) = (3, 0), U(P) = (6, 5).
Ex. 12. Reflection in Oxy plane.
Exercise 13(a)
1. (-5, 10), (t,
246 2. (-5, 4), (3, 5); (0, 0).
3. The line x 2y = 0.
(1- r rs\ .
ii. (1
0 k
i) , (1
0 _ 10).
q s )
(9 2
1
12
48
18 1 4
250 Ex. 13. (i) 2 1
2); (ii) ( 1 3
9); (iii) (12
9 2);
4 5 1
2 5 2
12 1 2
22 16 8
1
51
3\
(iv) ( 2 0
3). Ex. 14. (i) ( 7
4 2); (ii) (__
5/ '
9 4
7
6 4 0
Exercise 13(b)
1. (0 (2
1 5
1 4\ . (i
253
6/i)
' k
k -3
(iii) ( 4
7
1 8\
/3 13 8
8 Of ' (iv)1 4 0 16)
0 4 2
2. (i) (4 1 6; (ii)
3 1 1
6
(iv) ( 10
0
3. (i)
4\
5 2/ '
5 2 1
3 3-3 ; (iii)
4
7 8
4 4 2
8 1
6;
1
7 5
4 2
2
6) .
10 8
i 104
.
1 4p (ii)
(12612
10) ;
(iii)
(-218)
8
'
ANSWERS
PAGE
5
253 5. ( 5
8
6 3
1)' (1 6)
_ 15
5
6. (i) 2
8
/8
(iv) (0
5
0
0
1
0
3
( 5
254 8. (i)
10
3/
1
(ii) (-3
3
20
(v) ( 2
1
8
2
3
3
1
0
3
5 2 4
1); (iii) (-2 0 0);
2/
4 0 4
0
18
6); (vi) ( 6
19
8
3 8 0
1 4 5
6
3 3 5); (ii) ( 5 4 5); (iii) ( 1
0 3 1
7 1 2
1
7. (i)
(iv)
3
0
0
1);
2 5
5
11
9
2
6
1 ; (v) 11
2
19
1 6
4 1 ; (ii)
( 1 4
1
9. (i) ( 3
3
2
6
4
3
4
2
19
38
39
9
1 ; (vi)
2
2
1 ; (iii)
5
1
2
1
3
3
6
7
2
4
1
6
3
1
3);
6
10
27
33
11
40
43
30
5).
19
19
1
4
6
2.
9
2
.. ( 7 \
0); (ii)
3
11;
1
1
0
5 14
(iii) ( 21
6); (iv)
6
(-2
17 5
2\
1)
0 0 a
10. (x y z), (b 0 0 ; T preserves lengths; each 1.
0 c 0
Miscellaneous Exercise 13
2. Shear; x, z coordinates fixed.
3. (i) (0, 0) only; (ii) line 2x y = 0; (iii) all points in the plane.
256 5. (0, 0) only; no.
6. (i) (0, 0) only; A= 10: line 7x 5y = 0, A= 2: line x+y = 0;
(ii) all points of line x y = 0; A= 6: line 4x +y = 0.
-
366
ANSWERS
PAGE
256 8. AB = BA.
9. A diagonal, provided non-zero elements of D distinct.
CHAPTER 14
262 Ex. 9. (i)
(iii)
I 2
\-1 lf'
2\
51'
15
2); (iv) (_
0
1
2-3); (ii)
2
6
0
1
0
(iii) ( 1
5 4); (iv) ( 0 4
0 3
2
1
5
17
2;
6
-1
3).
3
Exercise 14 (a)
264 1. (i) I 2
k -3
(iv) ( -111,1
1\
2) ;
-15r
3 ;
-;
(ii)
(v)
Tr.
; (iii))
h-1 \
h j
k- h+1
2
2. As in Qu. 1. 4. (i) (3
8 4
1 1
1 _3
2
I -2
(iii) (- I
131
I
I); (iv) ( 1
1
1
(_1
5 ; (ii)
1
11
12
8
7
9
8
?,
I- 1
-1
-1); (v) ( i
1 -1
-i
5 ;
4
18,9_
3
1 _13);
I
0 -1
1
(v1) ( 1
+ -1).
3
-1
0
'I
1
265 7. ( 1
2
9. 6.
5
2
6
4
0
3),
5
8. ( 7).
6
v = (-160
5).
9
10. (-3
10
29
1
2
14).
35
367
ANSWERS
PAGE
Exercise 14(b)
275 1. (i) 2; (ii) 1; (iii) 1; (iv) 22.
2. (i) 30; (ii) 0; (iii) 0; (iv) 1; (v) 24; (vi) 9; (vii) 3;
(viii) 12; (ix) 8; (x) 6.
3. (iii) Singular.
2 5
276 4. (i) ( 2
4
4 3
3
2 , 21, 2; (ii)
1
14 14
14
16
16 16), 0, 0;
27 27
27
30 11
5
0 1
2
(iii) (-10
4 2), 21, 2; (iv) ( 1 1 3), I, 1.
2
1
1
2
3
5
2
10
5. (i) ( 5
1
1
2
2); (ii)
5
A(
7
1
15
1 5);
13 5
( 0 6
9
0 1
2
4 4).
(iii) 4 1
4 5); (iv) ( -4
1
2 5
4
0
2
6. (i) 12; (ii) 1; (iii) 10.
7. (i) (b c) (c a) (a b);
5 10
5 4
3
(
4
0.
0 9
9.
3
33
4
0 8
0).
( 2 2 1
66
36
100 173 95 .
277 10. (
39
147
249
136
Miscellaneous Exercise 14
1. (
1 10).
1
ac
()
a2 ab ac
a2
ab
3. (ba b2 bc ; ba b2 +1 bc+2 .
ca cb c2
ca cb + 2 c2+4
278 6. Yes.
368
ANSWERS
PAGE
-2
1
1 - 2 , 91,
2
2
2
1
1
2
-2,
2
-7
8
-7 - 4).
4
1
CHAPTER 15
285 Ex. 2. (ff, -A).
286 Ex. 5. True for any x provided b = 0.
Exercise 15(a)
1. (i) (2, 5); (ii) (- 3, 5); (iii)
2. (i) If a * - b, x = b- a; if a = - b, true all x.
(ii) If at b, x = (c- b) (a - b)-1; if a = b * c, no solution;
if a = b = c, true all x.
3. (i) x = (4+ 3a) (3a- 6)-1, y = 5(2-a)-1, provided a * 2.
If a = 2, equations inconsistent.
(ii) If a * 4, x 0, y = 2; if a = 4, x = 2(2 -A), y = A, all A.
(iii) If a * 6, x = 2(6 +a)-1, y = (6 +a)-1
If a = 6, x = A, y = 6(1- 3A); if a = - 6, equations inconsistent.
4. (i)If a * - 3b,x= (b2+ ab + 8)(4a+ 12b)-1,y = (24 - ab- a2)(4a + 126)-1 .
If a = -3h , 1,2 *4, equations inconsistent; if b = 2, x = A, y = 3A+ 1;
if b = -2, x = A, y = 3A-1.
(ii) If ab * -3, x = 6(1 + b) (ab + 3)-1, y = 2(3-a) (ab+ 3)-1.
If a = 3, b = -1,x = A, y = 2 - A ; if ab = - 3, a * 3 equations inconsistent.
(iii) If a2 * 62, x = (a - b)-1, y = (b - a)-1. If a = b, equations inconsistent;
if a+b = 0, x = A, y = (aA-1) a-1.
5. Inconsistent unless a = 3 or -1;
if a = 3, x = - 2, y = 3; if a = -1, x = 2, y = -1.
6. Inconsistent unless a = 1, 2 or -3. If a = 1, x =lsl,y = I;
if a = 2, x = 2, y = 0; if a = -3, x = y =
287 7. (i) a * 0, b * 0, a * b, x = c(b- c) a-1(b- a)-1, y = c(c- a) b-1(b - a)-1;
(ii) a = 0, b * 0, c * 0, equations inconsistent unless
b = c, when x = A, y = 1; (iii) a = 0, b * 0, c = 0, consistent,
x = A, y = 0; (iv) a * 0, b = 0, c * 0, equations inconsistent unless
369
ANSWERS
PAGE
8. al bs a2bi = 0, x = Aar', y =
9. If 0 * kff +0 (k integral), x = sin (q5 a) cosec (0 0),
Exercise 15(b)
294 1. (-2, 0, 4).
295 2.
(1 6
5
1 1
2I. (i) (0, 1, 1); (ii) (2, 0, 1); (iii) (-35, 5, 7).
1 1 1
Miscellaneous Exercise 15
1
6
3
1), (-2, 1, 1), (4,1, /).
I
0 2 1
(
1. 5
370
ANSWERS
PAGE
298 3.
- 4).
5. A = b - a, B= c- a, C (b - c) (c- a);
x = (b2 + c2) (a - b)-' (c - a)-1, y = (c2 + a2) (a - 6)-1(b - c)-',
z = (a2 + b2)(b- c)--1 (c -
2b
c,
inconsistent unless a = 0; a
b = c,
line;
plane.
-
c = 0, (A, 1
14. A * 4-, - 1,
2A, A
1).
CHAPTER 16
306 Ex
X. 2. n
n
n
09 1,, 5,01
6 5-,nO.
Ex. 4. F8,1.44.
Exercise 16(a)
1
.
16 s i,
,
, Il
4. 9, 0.387.
307 6. 6]15', M.
2. 0.348, 0-071.
(ii) 0.566.
5. (i)
1;4;(iii) 12.
Exercise 16(b)
4. 0.167, 0.594.
315 9. No: Pr (X
7. 20, 0.029.
21)
0121.
8. 0.302, 0.060.
10. (A2 +.1)/(1 -e-A).
ANSWERS
Exercise 16(c)
PAGE
0.09.
2. 0.79.
5. No.
Miscellaneous Exercise 16
1. (i)
324 3.
76; 00 4; (iii)
H.
2. 1, 0.335; 20.
4. 8.
6. IN(N+ 1) (2p-1).
8. s(2pq)n (p2+q2).
. FP.
(s+s lc)(sn k )
(rs)
ars.
17. 0.585.
372
ANSWERS
Revision Exercise B
PAGE
4. 3(4k+1) r.
328 1. x 2y = 0, 4x + 2y 15 = 0.
7. 3.
5. 9(10+V10), 7.
8. No.
329 9. (2x y + 1) (x+ 3y-2), two lines; (i) two lines; (ii) origin.
8
11 10
12 9). (i) (20, 20, 23);
11
10 13
(_ 137, _5, i
32).
12. 1( 9
(ii) 31x+27 = 0.
15. (i) 3x + 4; (ii) 5x+7.
1 2 2
1 2).
2 2
1
19.3- 2
20. 3:1.
A-.
26. (2, 5,
27. {y e R: 1 < y
x) (x y).
J2}.
331 28. (x+ c) (ax + b c). (i) (1 + c) (a + b c); (ii) (c 1)(b c a);
(iii) (ab + c) (a2bc + b c).
29. Plane x+z = 0.
30.
55132, 2048.
32. 2 < x
--I or -1,
34. Q"--1.1).
x < 2.
37. 2, 4, 3.
18
39. (
26 19
)
23 33
24/
(1 0 0
0 1 ,
0 1 0
( 1
0
1
1
10
38. 4.
0
0
1.
26
18
26 19
18 19
3 2).
(i) ( 2 2
3); (ii) ( 2
43 62
45
23
24 33
41. x 2y+z = 0, 1:2:3.
(i) 4n;
9;
W.
43. a = 2" 1, fl = 1.
-
373
ANSWERS
PAGE
50. x- 2y- 2z + 8 = 0.
51. 53, 155, 344. (i) 158'; (ii) in = -0.005, c = 1.7.
53. 0 = 01 -02.
335 55. k = 5, line; k = -7, prism.
56. 554400.
(ii)
65. 5567.
374
70. 23 min.
2.
74. 2a2+ 2c2+ f 2 = 2b2 2d2 e
Index
a posteriori, 125
a priori, 125
addition of vectors, 25
additive identity, 3
additive inverse, 3
adjoint matrix, 273
adjugate matrix, 273
alien cofactors, 272
ambiguous case, 229
Apollonius's Theorem, 160
arcsine, 98
arithmetic mean, 19
arithmetic sequence, 133
arithmetic series (progression), 134
arrangements, 103
associative, 3
axes of coordinates, 47
base, 1
base vectors, 45
Bayes's Theorem, 124
bearings, 230
Bernoulli trial, 302
bicimal, 7
binary system, 1
binomial distribution, 302
Binomial Theorem, 145
Cartesian equation, 52
Cartesian product, 78
centroid, 33
Ceva's Theorem, 43
Chebyshev's Theorem, 180
circumcentre, 50
codomain, 79
cofactor, 269
cofactor alien, 272
column vector, 239
combinations, 104
common difference, 133
common ratio, 136
commutative, 3
complement, 14
component form of dot product, 194
component of vector, 28
compound angles, 215
consistent, 286
coordinates, 47
cosine, 89
Cosine Rule, 227
cosecant, 90
cotangent, 90
counterexample, 9, 158
degrees of freedom, 281
de Morgan's Laws, 16
denary system, 1
Desargues's Theorem, 35
determinant, 266
deviation from mean, 176
dilatation transformation, 242
direction cosines, 61
direction ratios, 61
direction vectors, 61
displacement, 24
distributions
binomial, 302; geometric, 308; negative
binomial, 310; Poisson, 311; uniform,
110, 301
domain, 79
dot product, 189
double sampling, 318
elementary events, 108
elementary row (column) operations,
259
empty set, 14
enlargement transformation, 242
entry (matrix), 239
equality sets, 15
equality vector quantities, 24
equation of line, 37, 53, 60
equation of plane, 37, 59
equiprobable, 110
event, 111
Existence Theorem, 27
expectation, 172
Factor Theorem, 70
factorial, 103
Fibonacci Series, 168
fraction, 5
function, 78
geometric distribution, 308
geometric mean, 19
INDEX
geometric sequence, 136
geometric series (progression), 137
gradient, 53
graph, 80
homogeneous equations, 287, 293
hypothesis testing, 318
j, k, 46
identical polynomials, 68
identity matrix, 251
if and only if (iff), 157
image, 79
implication
4, 155
incentre, 154
inconsistent, 286
independent events, 118
inductive hypothesis, 165
inequalities, 17, 83
infinite outcome spaces, 183
inner product, 189
integer, 3
intersection, 15
invariant, 82, 246
inverse function, 81
inverse matrix, 259
inverse sampling, 309
inverse trigonometric functions, 98
irrational numbers, 8
linear combination, 30
linear dependence, independence, 30
linear equations, 54, 281
linear transformations, 241
inverse, 284; matrix of, 244; one-one,
255; product of, 245; sum of, 244
locus, 37
magnitude (vector), 25
mapping, 78
mathematical induction, 162
matrix, 239
addition, 248; adjoint, 273; adjugate,
273; conformable, 248, 249; diagonal,
256; echelon, 265; element of, 239;
elementary, 261; equality of, 247; inverse, 259; multiplication by number,
248; multiplication of, 249; non-singular, 264; orthogonal, 278; singular, 264;
skew-symmetric, 278; symmetric, 256;
trace of, 257; transpose of, 254; unit,
251; zero, 249
mean, 176
median, 188
Menelaus's Theorem, 43
method of differences, 140
376
minor, 268
modular arithmetic, 4
modulus, 81
moment, second, 315
multiple angles, 215
multiplication of vectors by numbers, 27
multiplicative identity, 3
mutually exclusive, 114
necessary condition, 158
negation, 158
negative binomial distribution, 310
non-trivial solutions, 287, 294
null hypothesis, 319
null set, 14
odds, 112
one-one, 78
operating characteristic, 317
ordered pair, 78
orthocentre, 58
orthogonal, 46
outcome space, 108
infinite, 183
parameter, 60
one-parameter distribution, 312; oneparameter solution, 281
partition, 124
Pascal's triangle, 144
periodic function, 83
permutations, 104
Poisson distribution, 311
polynomials, 68
identical, 68
position vector, 32
possibility space, 108
probability, 109
addition of, 114; of event, I 1 1 ;
multiplication of, 116
probability distribution, 109, 301
probability generating function, 181
probability tree, 117
projection, 190
proper subset, 14
Q, Q+, 16
R, R+, 16
radian, 87
range, 79
random, experiments, 108
random variable, 171
expectation of, 172; mean of, 176;
standard deviation, 177; variance, 177
rational number, 5
INDEX
rationalizing the denominator, 10
real matrix, 239
recurrence relation, 131
recurring decimal, 6
relation, 78
Remainder Theorem, 72
row vector, 239
St Petersburg Paradox, 186
sample space, 108
scalar product of vectors, 189
scalar quantities, 24
section formula, 33
selections, 104
sequence, 130
series, 132
set, 12
complement of, 14; empty, 13; equality
of, 15; intersection, 14; null, 13; union,
14; universal, 12
shear, 246
sigma notation, 132
sine, 89
Sine-Rule, 228
single sampling, 316
skew lines, 42
spread, 176
solution of triangles, 227
standard deviation, 177
subset, 13
sufficient condition, 158
suffix, 49
sum to infinity, 137
surd, 10
tangent, 89
terminating decimal, 6
terms of sequence, 160
transformation, 240
triangle rule (vectors), 25
trivial solutions, 287
uniform distribution, 110, 301
union, 15
Uniqueness Theorem, 28
unit vectors, 32
universal set, 13
Vandermonde's Theorem, 146
variance, 177
vector, 25
components of, 28; dot product, 189;
multiplication by number, 27; triangle
rule, 25; unit, 32
vector addition, 26
vector equations, 37
vector quantities, 24
Venn diagram, 15
Z, Z+, 16
zero matrix, 249
zero vector, 27
PURE
MATHEMATICS
2
S. L. PARSONSON
Senior Mathematics Master
Harrow School
Contents
Preface
page v
379
401
423
438
450
461
23 Polynomial equations
483
506
520
552
573
28 Further matrices
609
633
Revision exercise C
657
Bibliography
680
Answers
683
Index
703
iii
Preface
This book completes the course designed to cover the work required for
modern 'A' level pure mathematics syllabuses (including probability),
particularly the M.E.I. syllabus. As explained in the Preface to Volume 1,
the calculus has been excluded, since it is already adequately covered by
existing texts, but a knowledge of the subject is demanded throughout the
book, and particularly in Chapter 25, on continuous probability.
In places the subject is carried beyond the bare limits of ' A' level
requirements: most chapters contain a small proportion of work which
would probably best be left to a second reading, while Chapters 20, 24, 28,
29 contain a substantial proportion of ' S ' level work.
As in Volume 1, the book is liberally supplied with exercises for the
student. Most questions are straightforward applications of the bookwork,
though a few harder questions may be found in the Miscellaneous Exercises. The questions marked Ex. occurring in the text illustrate the associated bookwork: those marked with an asterisk should be regarded as
obligatory.
The same nomenclature as in Volume 1 has been used to indicate the
source of examination questions and I am grateful to the Examination
Board of the University of London and the Oxford and Cambridge Schools
Examination Board for permission to reproduce their questions. I should
also like to record my thanks to Dr N. A. Routledge and Mr A. J. Moakes
who read the book and made many valuable suggestions and to my wife
who once again lent invaluable assistance in checking the answers.
S.L.P.
x-2 = 0
has a root, but the equation
x+2 = 0
has not. The latter equation does have a root, however, if we postulate
the existence of negative integers. Thus, by augmenting the set Z+ of
positive integers into the set Z of integers we are able to solve a wider
variety of equations. Z+ is a subset of Z, and the familiar laws of algebra
governing the combination of elements of Z+, that is
(i) closure: if a, b, e Z+, then a + b, ab e Z+;
(ii) commutativity: a + b = b + a, ab = ba;
(iii) associativity: (a + b) + c = a + (b + c), (ab) c = a(b c);
(iv) distributivity: a(b + c) = ab + ac, (b + c) a = ba + ca ;
(v) the existence of a multiplicative identity: la = a
hold for the elements of Z. But we also have two new laws which hold for
Z but not for the subset Z+:
(vi) the existence of an additive identity: 0+ a = a;
(vii) the existence of additive inverses: ( a) + a = 0.
In a similar way, an equation such as
2x +1 = 0,
which has no solution in Z, has a solution if we augment Z into the set
Q of rational numbers. Again, Z is a subset of Q, and laws (i)-(vii) above
hold in Q, together with an additional law
(viii) the existence of multiplicative inverses: a-la = 1 (a + 0).
Laws (i)-(viii) define a field; that is, any set of numbers combined by the
operations of addition and multiplication and satisfying laws (i)-(viii)
above constitute a field.
379
[17
a3+ b312,
where al, ..., b3are all rational numbers. Check, in a similar way, the other seven
laws.)
The extension of the number system to the set Q vastly increases the
number of equations with a solution, but it is not difficult to formulate equations in terms of the elements of Q which have no rational solution:
consider, for example, the equations
x2 2 = 0 or 2 sin x = 1 or 10 = 5.
Many such equations acquire solutions if we augment the set Q into
the set R of all real numbers. Although it is possible to define R in terms
of the elements of Q, we have contented ourselves with the intuitive geometrical concept of R as `completing the number line' but, since real numbers may be approximated arbitrarily closely by rational numbers, it
seems reasonable to assume that laws (i)(viii) above hold in R as well.
Since we have `filled in the gaps' of the number line it might seem
reasonable to suppose that our work is done and that any equation involving elements of R as coefficients should have elements of R as solutions.
Such is not the case however; indeed, if we modify the three equations of
the previous paragraph only slightly to
x2 + 2 = 0 or sin x = 2 or 10 = 5,
none of these equations has a solution in R. However, these equations have
solutions provided we extend the number systems still further. It will be
the purpose of the remainder of this chapter to introduce such an extension
in a reasonably informal manner. The resulting augmented set we shall call
the set of complex numbers and denote it by C. Since C will contain R as
a subset, it will be necessary to verify that the laws of combination (i)(viii),
suitably redefined, hold in C also.
Up to this point, each extension of the number system has led inexorably
to a further extension. However, it has been shown (by C. F. Gauss in the
Fundamental Theorem Algebra) that no further such extensions are needed,
in the sense that any polynomial equation with its coefficients in C will
have all its roots lying in C as well. But the real significance of the set C
goes deeper than simply enabling solutions to be found for any polynomial
380
2]
In the same way that constant polynomials were identified with real
numbers, so a complex number of the form a+ Oj can be identified with
the real number a. Thus we write
2+0j = 2 and 2(3 4j) = (2+0j) (3 4j) = 6 8j,
as might have been expected. 0 + Oj is written as 0 (the complex number
zero). Similarly, we abbreviate 0 + bj to bj.
The existence of a multiplicative inverse for any non-zero complex number has already been postulated in Section 1. To find an explicit form for
such an inverse we use the fact that
(a + bj) (a bj) = a2 (bj)2 = a2 b2.
381
Thus
[17
1 2
= 2+
2- j 2+j 4+1 5 5j
more generally,
+
1
a+ bj a bj
a2+b2
b
bo (a, b, not both zero).
+
Ex. 4. Show that the multiplicative inverse of (2j) obtained above is unique;
that is, show that
(2j)-1= x+yj x = f, y =
1 13j
.
10 = io toJ
4j
(4 j) (1 3j)
1 +3j (1+3j) (1 3j)
=
382
z*
1z12.
2]
Ex. 8. Write down the real and imaginary parts of the following complex
numbers:
(i) 3 2j, (ii) (3 2j)2, (iii) (3 2j)--1.
Ex. 9. Show that Re, Im may be interpreted as functions C
Re [Im (a + bj)] and Im [Re (a + bj)],
R being regarded as a subset of C.
R. Find
(iii) 11/(1 DI, (iv) 1cos + j sin B1, (v) 11cos 0+j sin O.
Ex. 13. The word 'modulus' has, prior to its use in this chapter, been used in the
context of real numbers only, to mean Jae. Show that the two uses coincide if
R is regarded as a subset of C.
*Ex. 14. If z1, z2are two complex numbers, and z2* 0, prove that:
(i) (zi+z2)*
(ziz2)* = 44, (iii) zi z;' = 14 2,
1)* 1
z2
12 , (v) z1+4 = 2 Re (z1),
(iv)
Z2
Z8
i z2i
(vi) zl - zi = 2j Im (z,).
17(a)
1. If z1 = 1 +2j, z2 = 2j, z3= 4+ 5j, express as complex numbers in the standard form a+ bj:
(i) z,+ z2+ z3; (ii) 3z1 z2+ 2z3 ; (iii) z1i2 ; (iv) +2z3 ; (v) z2z3+z3 z1+z1z2;
(vi) z2 zs; (vii) (z1 jz2)/(z2 + 21z3) ; (viii)
Z2 Z3)/(Z2 z3 z1.
2. If z1= cos 01+j sin 01, z2 = cos 02 +j sin 02, show that
z1z2 = cos (01+ 02)+ j sin (01+ 02),
and find z1jz2. Evaluate zi2 and (z1z2)2.
3. Solve the following equations:
(i) x2 4x + 5 = 0; (ii) 2x2 2x + 1 = 0; (iii) x2 5x+ 7 = 0;
(iv) jx2 2x-2j = 0.
383
[17
jr
r=0
(i) by taking the complex conjugate of each side of the original expression;
(ii) by mathematical induction.
384
2]
385
[17
and thus the position vector representing the sum of two complex numbers
is the sum of the position vectors which separately represent the two numbers
(see Figure 17.1).
Fig. 17.1
Fig. 17.2
*Ex. 17. Describe the vector representing the complex number z1 z2.
Ex. 18. Mark in the Argand diagram the affixes of the complex numbers 2j,
2(2j) and 1(2j). Interpret multiplication of a complex number z by the
real number (i) a > 0, (ii) b < 0, in terms of an operation upon the vector OP
representing z in the Argand diagram.
3]
Fig. 17.3
j)
V2(cos
+ j sin in.),
[17
<
and
sin 0 = cos a
and
Thus, for 0 < a < it
cos 0 = sin a.
If
- 77 <
- 77 < 0 7T
and
sin 0 = cos a
and
cos 0 = sin a.
- 77 <
a < 0.
Ex. 21. Find the modulus and principal argument of each of the following complex numbers, and write each in modulus-argument form
(i) 1 + A/3j; (ii) 2+2j; (iii) 1; (iv) j; (v) j; (vi) A/3 j; (vii) A/3 j;
(viii) 1 + j tan a; (ix) tan a+ j; (x) 1 cos a j sin a (use half angle formulae).
*Ex. 22. Show that arg z = arg z* and hence find arg z-1in terms of arg z.
Ex. 22. By writing z in the modulus-argument form r(cos 0+j sin 0), discuss the
geometrical interpretations for the multiplication of the complex number z
by: (i) the real number a > 0; (ii) the real number a < 0; (iii) the pure imaginary
number bj, b > 0; (iv) the pure imaginary number bj, b < 0.
3]
Then
wz =
0)
= sr [(cos 0 cos
= sr
and thus the product, wz, is a complex number with modulus Mk! and
an argument arg w + arg z. In words, the modulus of a product is the
product of the moduli and an argument of the product is the sum of the
arguments. Geometrically, if the affix of z is P, multiplication by w
(i) enlarges OP by a factor I wl, and (ii) rotates OP anticlockwise through
an angle arg w.
Ex. 24. If z is any complex number and w = u+vj (u, v real and positive), plot
in the Argand diagram, the affixes of z, jz, uz, jvz, uz+ jvz. Deduce that
Iwzi =
Fig. 17.4
PRI
and /OR = arg w + arg z; thus R is the affix of the complex number
wz. (Notice that IP, which represents the complex number z 1, is rotated
into the displacement QR, which represents the complex number w(z 1).)
389
[17
Ex. 25. Form the product (1 +j) (J3 + j) and interpret your result geometrically.
What are the values of cos 75 and sin 75?
Now suppose that w, z1and z2 are any three complex numbers. Let
P, Q, be the affixes of z1and z1+ z2respectively (Figure 17.5). Then OP
represents z1and PQ represents z2. Now enlarge triangle OPQ linearly
by a factor I wl and rotate through an angle arg w to bring it into coincidence with the triangle ORS. Then OR represents wz1, RS represents wz2
and OS represents w(z1+z2). But OS = OR+RS and we have thus verified the distributive law
w(z1+ z2) = wz,+ wz2.
Fig. 17.5
*Ex. 27. Draw diagrams similar to that of Figure 17.4 to illustrate the construction from the affix of the complex number z, of the affixes of the complex numbers (i) z2; (ii) z3; (iii) z-1.
Example 2. z1and z2are arbitrary complex numbers. Give a geometrical
verification of the triangle inequalities
14+4 < 141+Iz2i,
lz,-z21
Describe geometrically the set S = {z c C:lz-1-j1 < 1} and show that
if z u S, then
4J2-1 < lz -21 < V2+1.
390
3]
In Figure 17.6, OP represents z1, PQ represents z2and thus OQ represents zl d-z, and RP represents z1 z2, where OPQR is a parallelogram.
But, in AOPQ, I OQ I . I UPI + I PQ I (with equality only if OPQ is a straight
line) and thus
Izi+z21 < Izil +1z21.
Again, in AOPR,
-
Fig. 17.6
For the second part of the question, we know that 1z wl gives the
distance between the affixes of z, w in the Argand diagram, and the set S
is thus represented by the circumference and interior of the circle, centre
(1+j) and radius 1.
We demonstrate two methods of deducing the final part of the question.
we have
lz-21 = 1(z-1 j)(1 j)1 ?: Hz 1 j1 11 j1 ?; V2-1,
lz-21 = 1(z-1---i)+(-1+DI
lz-1j1 + I 1-Fil
V2+1.
[17
Fig. 17.7
Ex. 28. The triangle inequalities stated in the Example above may be deduced
without recourse to geometry. Show that
z1 Z2 + z1 z2 =
2 Re (z1 4)
Re (z14)
Izi +z21
k1I1z21
Izil +
a + bj, (a b) (a + b) j, b + aj
the vertices of another square (Figure 17.8).
0,
Fig. 17.8
392
3]
kb
a) ak0
+b
0)
= al+bJ, say.
The result suggests that it might be profitable to associate the number 1
with the matrix I, the number j with the matrix J and the general complex
number a+bj with the matrix al+bJ.
Consider now two complex numbers a+bj, c+dj and the associated
matrices
la b\ fc d\
kb
a)' kd
cf .
We have
and
and
fa b
(a,b E R)
kb
a)
on the other is thus seen to preserve the structures of addition and multiplication.
Ex. 29. Confirm, by direct computation of (a+ bj)-1and the inverse of the matrix
ta
that the structure of division is also preserved.
kb
a
)
*Ex. 30. Interpret the correspondence between the complex number cos 0+ j sin 0
(cos 0 sin 0)
and the matrix
in the light of their geometrical properties.
sin e
cos 0
Ex. 31. If C, R have their usual meanings and M is the set of all matrices of the
form (b
a a
b), a, b e R, determine the nature of the function f: M
corresponds to the modulus function C
R which
R.
[17
J=(
01
10)
Thus
p = a+(-1-2j)
= 3 + j 1 -- 2j
= 2j
and
p' = 3+j+1+2j
= 4+3j.
394
3]
P
Fig. 17.10
Fig. 17.9
Similarly
q = b + ( 1 2j)
= 1+2j-1-2j
=0
and
= 1+2j+1+2j
= 2+4j.
AR =
(1 j1/3).
+jv3) (b a)
r = a + 1(1 + j8/3) (b a)
= 3 +j + 1(1 +jA/3) ( 2 +j)
= 2-10+(-1-0).i.
Similarly
and thus
AR' = y1-.0) (b a)
r' = 3 +j+ 1,(1 jA/3) (-2+j)
= 2+ i-V3 +(Z+ V3) j.
395
[17
Exercise 17(b)
1. Determine the modulus and principal argument of each of the following
complex numbers, where necessary leaving the modulus in surd form and giving
the argument in degrees, correct to the nearest degree: (i) 3-4j; (ii) 2+3j;
(iii) 1 2j; (iv) 1+j; (v) 2+5j; (vi) 2j; (vii) 12-5j; (viii) 9-40j.
2. Simplify the following complex numbers:
(i) (cos 0+j sin 0)3; (ii) (cos 8+j sin 0)/(cos 95j sin 95);
(iii) (cos 0+j sin 8) (sin 8+j cos 0); (iv) (cos 87r +j sin 71-)2;
+ j sin - 2-7r) (cos *IT +j sin .-277);
(v) (cos
(vi) (cos -7-r + j sin *77-) (cos *7 j sin *7);
.27r);
(vii) (cos *IT +j sin-A-7r)/(cos *Tr j sin ,.
(viii) (1 + cos 8 + j sin 0)(1 cos 95j sin q).
3. Determine the principal argument of the complex number
(sin 0+j cos 0) (cos 95+j sin 0)
(i) when 17-r < 6 s ; (ii) when frr < 0 s
4. If P is the affix of the complex number z, show how to construct geometrically
the affixes of: (i) 1+z; (ii) 1-2z; (iii) 2j+ 3z; (iv) 1 jz; (v) (1 j) z; (vi) j+ z2;
(vii) z+z2; (viii) (1 +j) (1 z).
5. If P is the affix of the complex number z, show how to construct the affixes
of: (i) z*; (ii) zz*; (iii) 1+2/z; (iv) (1+z)* ; (v) 1/(1+z); (vi) j/(jz);
(vii) z/(1 z); (viii) (1 z)-2.
6. If P, Q are respectively the affixes of the complex numbers z, w show how to
construct the affixes of: (i) 2z+ w; (ii) 1(z+ 2w); (iii) 2(3z w); (iv) z+jw;
(v) (1+j) (z+w); (vi) (z +1) (w +1); (vii) w/z; (viii) j(z w).
7. Describe geometrically the set S = {z e C: zI 2 j1 < 1} and prove that, for
all z e S, V5-1 < izi
0+1.
8. Describe geometrically the set S = {z e C:lz 21 < 2} and prove that, for
all z e S, 3 < jz+2+3j1 < 7.
10. Show that I z 3j1 < 1= 00-1 < 1z1 < N/10+1.
1=1
* = z1 Z: z3...z,,.
12. The function!: C -- C is defined by f(z) = 2z +j. Describe the effect of this
mapping geometrically and find the value of z which is invariant under the
mapping, again interpreting your result geometrically.
396
3]
16. Prove that the modulus of the quotient of two complex numbers is the
quotient of the two moduli, and that the difference of the two arguments is an
argument of the quotient.
z 1
= 2, prove that the locus of the
(i) If z is a complex number, and
z+1
point which represents z in the Argand diagram is a circle, and find its centre and
radius.
(z-1)
arg
(ii) If
z+ 1 =
(0 & C)
find the locus of the point which represents z.
17. If z is the complex number cos 0+j sin 0, express 1/(1 +z) and 1/(1 z) in
(0 & C)
Miscellaneous Exercises 17
1. By writing 1 = j2, express z = (V3 +1)+ j(V3 1) as the product of two
complex numbers and hence write down the values of 1z1 and arg z.
2. If lz 2 < 2 and 1w 5 5j1 < 1, find the maximum and minimum values
of Iz w(.
397
[17
If B, C are the affixes of the complex numbers 6j, 2+ 4j, find the two complex
numbers whose affixes, A, A' are such that the triangles ABC, A' BC are equilateral.
4. z, z2,w,,w2 are four complex numbers and
,
Z2)
A=
B
'
"71.
1112)
wi
By considering det (AB), prove that the product of two sums of four squares
is itself the sum of four squares.
5. Write down the product of the complex numbers xi. + Ai and x3 +Y2.i.
Show that this product has modulus ri r, and argument 60,+ 02, where r,, r2 are
moduli and 0,, 02the arguments of the given numbers. Solve the equation
z
z 1
5
+
3 + 4j 5j
3 4j
Show that, if (z-2)/(zj) is real, the point corresponding to z = x+yj in the
Argand diagram lies on a straight line through the points 2 and j, and find the
equation relating x and y when the ratio is purely imaginary.
(0 & C)
6. If the complex numbers
z3are represented in the Argand diagram by
points Z,, Z2, Z3, interpret geometrically (giving a justification) the modulus
and argument of the complex number (z,zi)/(z, zi).
If the complex numbers a, b, c, x, y, z are represented by points A, B, C, X, Y,
Z and if
x c = y a = zb
bc c a ab'
398
3]
MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE
x y z
x* y* z*
1
1
1
(0 & C)
10. If fiand y are complex numbers whose moduli are both equal to 1, prove
that (1 + ,87)1(fl + y) is real.
Hence, or otherwise, prove that, if a, b, c are complex numbers whose moduli
are all equal, then (a2 + bc)l[a(b + c)] is real.
(0 & C)
11. The points A, B, C are the affixes of the complex numbers a, b, c in the
Argand diagram. If the circumcentre of the triangle ABC is at the origin, prove
that the orthocentre H, is the affix of the point a+ b+ c. Deduce that 0, G, H
are collinear, where G is the centroid of the triangle, and that OH = 30G.
12. Points A, B in the Argand diagram represent complex numbers a, b respectively. 0 is the origin, and P represents one of the values of V (ab). Prove that,
if OA = OB = r, then also OP = r, and OP is perpendicular to AB.
A, B, C lie on a circle with centre 0, and represent complex numbers a, b, c
respectively. Prove that the point D which represents bcla also lies on the circle,
and that AD is perpendicular to BC.
The perpendiculars from B, C to CA, AB meet the circle again at E, F respectively. Prove that OA is perpendicular to EF.
(0 & C)
13. A complex number z is represented by a point Z on the Argand diagram.
Prove that multiplication of z by w is represented by taking the point Z' on OZ
(where 0 is the origin) such that OZ' = OZ1w1 and rotating OZ' through the
angle arg w.
If z is represented by a point on the circle of radius a which touches the y-axis
at 0 and lies in the first and fourth quadrants, prove that
z 2a = jz tan (arg z).
(0 & C)
14. A point P representing the complex number z moves in the Argand diagram
so that it lies always in the region defined by
Iz-1I
lzj1 and
1z 2 2j1 < 1.
[17
15. In the Argand diagram A, B, C and D are four points representing the complex numbers z1, z2, z3 and z4respectively. If 0 is the origin, prove that the
triangles OAB and OCD are similar if
Z1 Z3
Z2
Z4
(6j+ 8\ 2
3j 41 .
Find, by drawing to scale, the position of the point representing z on the Argand
diagram. Check your result by calculation.
(London)
16. The complex number z = x+ jy = r (cos 0 + j sin 0) is represented in the
Argand diagram by the point (x, y). Prove that, if three variable points z1, z2, z3
are such that z3 = Az2 +(1 A) z1, where A is a complex constant, then the triangle
with vertices z1, z2 and z3is similar to the triangle with vertices at the points 0, 1
and A.
ABC is a triangle. On the sides BC, CA, AB triangles BCA', CAB', ABC'
are described similar to a given triangle DEF. Prove that the centroids of the
triangle ABC and A'B'C' are coincident. (0 & C)
400
18.
P(x) (x a) Q(x)+ R,
where Q(x) is a polynomial of degree one less than the degree of P(x).
The actual coefficients of Q(x) are obtained by the process of long division,
but the process may be shortened by the method of synthetic division
which consists, essentially, of comparing coefficients on both sides of the
above identity, as illustrated in the following example.
Suppose that P(x) 2x4+3x3 5x +7 is to be divided by x +3. Then
the quotient, Q(x) will be a cubic polynomial, and we have
2x4+3x3 + Ox2
5x+ 7 = (x+3)(ax3+bx2+cx+d)+R.
Comparing coefficients
a = 2, 3a+b = 3,
giving
3
6
0
9
5
27
32
7 ( 3
96
103
95 482 2412
[18
coefficients.)
Given a polynomial P(x) of say, degree four,
and finally,
Thus the polynomial P(x) has been nested into the form
P(x) .= A0(x a)n + Ai(x a)n-l +A2(x a)'2" + ... + An_Ax a)+ A.
-
1]
EVALUATION OF POLYNOMIALS
0
20
5
100
7
475
2(5
2410
20
20
95
200
482
1475
2412 (5
40
20
295 1 1957
300
(5
60
20
595
(5
4 1 80
Thus P(x)
A0 enable us to
2. DIFFERENCES
Consider the quartic polynomial
f(x) .- x4 5x3 + x+ 2.
Tabulated overleaf are the values of f(x) for x = 4(1)5 (that is, for all
values of x in steps of 1 from x = 4 to x = 5). The first and second
columns give respectively the values of x and f(x), while each subsequent
column gives the successive differences between entries in the preceding
column.
It is seen from this table that, although the first and second difference
columns follow no readily discernible pattern, the third difference column
contains the terms of an arithmetic sequence and the fourth differences are
constant. This is no coincidence: for any polynomial of degree n, the nth
differences are constant (see Ex. 11).
403
574
215
Af
A2f
AY
[18
AY mf
359
200
159
2
56
90
49
1
20
49
58
24
110
66
44
0
24
42
2
0
24
18
16
19
0
24
6
10
29
0
24
30
20
0
24
54
74
65
If we are content to assume for the moment that the fourth differences
continue constant, it is an easy matter to extend the table working backwards from the constant fourth difference, to supply further values for
the polynomial :
x
20
of
Lvf
Ay
A4f
29
3
49
58
20
9
74
24
>152
24
65
5
217
6
224
254
471
404
695
2]
DIFFERENCES
Ex. 7. The cubic polynomial f(x) has the values f(0) = 2, f(1) = 8, f(2) = 20,
f(3) = 28. Form a difference table and deduce the values of f(4), f(5).
Ex. 8. Explain the following check on a difference table : the sum of any column
of differences is equal to the -difference between the first and last entries in the
preceding difference column.
f(x) = x x3
for values of x = 0 (0.1) 0.6. (That is, for values of x from x = 0 to x = 0.6
in steps of 0.1.) Since the values of f(x) are calculated to 3 decimal places
all the differences will also be to 3 decimal places and it is unnecessary to
enter the decimal point; for example, the constant difference (03f ), written
as 6, is really 0-006.
Of
0
0.1
0.099
A2f
A2f
99
6
93
0.2
0.192
0.3
0273
0.4
0.336
0.5
0.375
0.6
0.384
6
12
81
6
18
63
6
24
39
6
30
Ex. 9. Extend the table above, back from the constant difference in the 03f
column, to obtain f(- 0.1) and f(0.7).
Air = frd-i
and
A2f, = A(4) =
Af., etc.
Similarly, if we work back from x, through values x_1, x_2, x_3, ... to obtain
2 PPMII
405
[18
x_2
f
f-2
x -1
f1
Af
A3f
6,2f
AT-2
AY-2
AY-2
Af-t
X0
fp
2f 1
Afo
xl
fl
x2
fl
L 3f-1
fo
Ofi
*Ex. 11. Prove that any polynomial f(x) of degree n may be expressed in the
form
f(x) Aix(x- 1) (x - 2) ... (x - n + 1)+ A2 x(x 1)...(x n+ 2) + + An x+ A.+3.,
-
2]
DIFFERENCES
stant. Thus, we are able to build up the table of differences below to infer
the values of f(0) and Af(0).
zi2f
0
2
14
12
2
14
15
26
41
14
40
81
= 7n2 9n + 5.
The GregoryNewton formula was only proved for integral n, but
f(x) = 7x2 9x + 5
is the unique quadratic polynomial defined by the three values
f(2) = 15, f(3) = 41, f(4) = 81.
(We may thus be permitted to write formally
(x
1)
(2
1
lx(x 1),
Ex. 13. The quadratic polynomial f(x) has values f(1) = 0, f(2) = 1, f(3) = 6;
use the GregoryNewton formula to find the explicit form of f(x).
Exercise 18 (a)
1. Use the method of synthetic division to find the quotient and remainder:
(i) when x3 5x2 +x+16 is divided by x-2;
(ii) when x4 + 3x3 9x2 -23x+14 is divided by x+3;
(iii) when 3x4 + x3 -12x2 11x 24 is divided by x+2;
(iv) when x4 5x 5 is divided by x-4;
(v) when 7x5 -3x-5 is divided by x + 5.
2-2
407
[18
2. Use the method of synthetic division to find the quotient and remainder:
+ a,_1(xh)+
(i) x3+x2+2x+1, h = 1;
(ii) 2x3 17x2 + 30x, h = 2;
(iii) xa + 7x2 6x 4, h = 3;
(iv) x4-1, h = 2.
5. Use the method of synthetic division to find the quotient and remainder:
r=0
a,.(x+ 4)r.
What does your answer tell you about the shape of the curve
y = x4 + 16xa + 100x2 + 288x + 320
at the point (-4, 0)?
Solve the equation x4 + 16x3 +100x2 + 288x+ 320 = 0.
8. Show how the method of synthetic division may be modified for division
by the polynomial x2 + x+ 2.
Find the quotient and remainder on dividing
x7 +x6 x6 -3x4 -4x3 +3x2 +5x+3 by x2 +x+2.
9. If x2 +1 is a factor of x7 + Ax6+ xa +Bx2 + 2x + 1, find the values of A and B.
10. If x2 +4 is a factor of x6 + Ax4 x3 + Bx2 4x 4, find the values of A and B.
11. A cubic polynomial P(x) has values P(0) = 1, P(1) = 4, P(2) = 21,
P(3) = 62. Use a table of differences to find P( 1) and P(4).
12. A quartic polynomial P(x) has values P( 2) = 11, P( 1) = 2, P(0) = 5,
DIFFERENCES
21
3. PARTIAL FRACTIONS
The process of adding together fractions with polynomials as denominators will be familiar to the reader. For example
x -3 x 2
2(x 2) 3(x 3)
(x 3) (x -2)
5 x
(x 3) (x 2)
The reverse process is called 'resolving a rational function into partial
fractions'. Such a resolution is of importance in differentiation and integration and also in obtaining power series expansions of rational functions,
as we shall see later in this chapter.
Two questions arisecan the resolution always be effected, and, if it can,
are the partial fractions obtained unique? Detailed analysis of these
questions lies outside the scope of this book.t
Ex. 14. Express
in the form
73
a b c
Ex. 15. Express 105in the form 1,+ 3 + a, b, c integers.
Suppose we are given a rational function of the form
P(x)
Q(x)
where P(x), Q(x) are polynomials in x. As a first step, if the degree of P(x)
t See, for example, Ferrar: Higher Algebra. We shall convince ourselves, in specific
examples, that the answer to both questions is a qualified 'yes'.
409
[18
is greater than, or the same as, the degree of Q(x), we may divide out until
this is no longer the case. For example, we should express
x4 2)0 3x2 + x+ 4
x2 1
x 2
x2 -2x 2
x2 1
as
We now suppose that this has been done; that is, that we have a rational
function of the form
(1)
(2)
3+18
(-1)+18
B=
(2 x 3 +1)'
3]
PARTIAL FRACTIONS
x+ 18
(x-3) (2x+1)
and then putting x = 3 in what was left. Similarly, B was found by
covering up the term (2x+ 1) and putting x = 1 in what was left. This
useful technique for obtaining a partial fraction expansion is usually
called the cover-up rule.
Example 4. Express in partial fractions
4x2 19x + 7.. x3-Fx
CO (x-1) (x-2) (x +3) ; (11) x 2 -4 .
(i) By the cover-up rule
4x2 19x + 7
1 0-19+7\ ,_ 1 (16-38+7\
(x 1) (x 2) (x +3) (x-1) k (- 1)(4) ) m (x 2) \ (1) (5) )
1(36+57+7\
+ (x+3) k( 4) ( 5))
2
3
5
=
+
x-1 x-2 x+3.
(Note the check by putting x = 0:
i =-2+1+1.)
(ii) Since x3+x is a cubic polynomial and x2 -4 is only a quadratic, we
must first divide out
x3-Fx x3-4x+5x
5x
X+
x2 -4
x2-4
x2 4*
5x _
5x
x2-4 (x-2) (x+2)
Now,
= 1 110\ + 1 ( 10\
x-2 ( 4) x+2 k 4 )'
by the cover-up rule. Thus we have
5
x3+x = x + 5
+
x2-4
2(x 2) 2(x+ 2)*
Ex. 17. Express in partial fractions
x+11
x+ 6
(i) (x
(x 1) (x + 2) '
x2 9 '
2a
(iii) x2 _ a2 (a * 0);
(iv)
2x
2
a
X2
(a * 0).
411
[18
*Ex. 18. A common application of partial fraction expansions is to the evaluation of certain integrals. Evaluate, by first expressing the integral in partial
fractions:
3 dx
dx
(i)
(ii)
fo(x-2) (x 3)
12 x2-1;
J2
*Ex. 19. Partial fraction expansions can also frequently be used to simplify the
work in differentiating. Differentiate
x2
2x
(i)
(ii)
x2-5x+6'
x2 5x 6.
It is worthwhile considering the 'cover-up rule' from a rather different
standpoint. Let us suppose that we have to express
f(x)
5x + 5
(x-3) (2x 1)
in partial fractions.
We proceed by considering approximations to this rational function.
It has singularities at x = and x = 3; that is, f(x) is very large when x
is near zor 3 (but is not defined at x = or x = 3). Near x = 3, the
dominant term in f(x) is 1/(x 3): this term is multiplied by a factor with
numerical value almost exactly equal to
5x3+5
2x31
= 4
(the 'cover-up rule' again). We may thus say that f(x) is approximately
equal to
4
x-3
near x = 3.
The approximate shape of the graph of f(x) is shown in Figure 18.1
while the approximate shape of the graph of y = 4/(x 3) is shown in
Figure 18.2.
Near the common asymptote x = 3 the two curves are seen to be very
similar in shape and position.
Now consider the deviation of f(x) from the approximation:
f(x)
4
4
5x+ 5
=
x 3 (2x 1) (x 3) x 3
5x+5-8x+4
= (2x-1)(x-3)
3(x 3)
(2x-1)(x-3)
3
2x-1'
412
PARTIAL FRACTIONS
3]
4
3
x-3 2x 1
YA
Fig. 18.2
Fig. 18.1
*Ex. 20. The fact that (x 3) cancelled at the final stage in the example above was
no coincidence. Suppose that f(x), F(x) are polynomials and that F(x) has a
linear factor x a, that is,
F(x) E (x a) g(x), g(a) = 0.
Show that, near x = a, the rational function f(x)/F(x) is approximately
f(a) 1
g(a) x a'
with deviation
f(x)g(a) g(x)f(a)
(x a) g(x) g(a)
Prove that the numerator of this fraction is a polynomial with a factor (x a) and
deduce that cancelling is always possible.
Example 5. Express
f(x) =
[18
4x2 3x+ 5
(x-1)2 (x+2)
in partial fractions.
f(x) has singularities at x = 1 and x = 2. The results proved in Ex. 20
suggest that we consider the singularity x = 2. Near x = 2, f(x) is
approximately
4( 2)2 -3( 2)+ 5\ 1 \ = 3
(-2-1y
kx+21 x+2.
The deviation is
)
f(x) =
3 + x+1
x+ 2
3
1
2
+
+
x+ 2 x 1 (x 1)2 '
Example 6. Express
f(x)
x2 + 12
(x-2) (x2 +4)
in partial fractions.
f(x) has just one singularity, at x = 2. Near x = 2, f(x) approximates
to
1 \_ 2
(22 +12\
22+4 ) kx-2) x-2*
The deviation is
2 _ x2 + 12-2(x2 + 4)
x2 +12
(x-2) (x2 +4)
(x-2) (x2 +4) x-2
(x-2) (x + 2)
(x 2) (x2 + 4)
x+2
x2 +4'
and thus we have
414
f(x) =
2x+2
x-2 x2 +4.
3]
PARTIAL FRACTIONS
Ex. 23. By writing x2 +4 E (x + 2j) (x 2j), use the 'cover-up' rule to find the
partial fraction expansion for
x2 +12
(x-2) (x2 +4)
Ex. 24. Express
x2 x-1
Exercise 18(b)
1. Express in partial fractions
11-7x
4x
(ii)
(0
3 7x+ 2x2'
x2 +2x'
(iii)
9x 22
2x2 +5x-3'
(iv)
2x-1.
1x2 '
2x2 +3
x2+x
(vi)
13x-19
(x 1) (x +2) (x-3)'
(vii)
x2 -8x+1 .
20x3
x x3 f(viii) x2 -4
(ix)
x4
x2 5x + 6'
1 + 3x .
x2 + 2x3'
(xi)
1 + 6x2
(2 + x) (1 2x)2 '
(xii)
x-2
(2+x2) (1+x)'
2x
1 + 8x3;
(xiv)
(x-1)2
(x-3)2(x 2)'
(xv)
x3-Fx2 +x
(x+ 1) (x2 +2)'
(x)
(xvi)
(v)
2x2+ 3x + 2
x4(x 2)
[18
1
x+1)(x+2)
in partial fractions.
Hence evaluate
(r +1) (r+2).
r=1
(r+1) (r + 4)
Evaluate similarly
5. Express
r=1
1
1+x3
4. POLYNOMIAL APPROXIMATIONS:
THE BINOMIAL SERIES
We saw, in Chapter 8, that, for any number x and any positive integer n
(1 + x)1
1 + 10x + 45x2,
Ex. 25. Use the quadratic approximation to (1+x)1 obtained above to find
(0.998)10 correct to 4 decimal places.
By using Taylor's series expansiont
f ' (1) = k, f " (1) = k(k 1), f"'(1) = k(k 1) (k 2), ...,
f See, for example, Siddons, Snell and Morgan: Calculus III.
416
4)
POLYNOMIAL APPROXIMATIONS
1.3
(-1-x)2
(v) (1+ X)-1I 2= 1 (-IX) +
2!
1.3.5
1.3.5.7
(x)3+
(x)4
3!
4!
Ex. 27. Suppose, when x is very small, that (1+ x)I can be approximated by
1 + ax + bx2. Then 1+ x and (1 +ax+ bx2)2are nearly equal. Deduce that, for a
`best fit', 2a = 1 and a2 + 2b = 0, giving the first three terms of expansion (iii) of
Ex. 26.
Deduce similarly a quadratic approximation to (1 + x)- if x is very small.
Example 7. If xis sufficiently small for x4and higher powers to be neglected,
find cubic polynomial approximations for
1
(i) (1-2x) (2-x);
1
(ii)(1-x) ,,,/(1+x)
= 3 (1 - 2x)-i - (1 - xj)
j(1 + 2x + 4.x2 + 8x3) -
1 ti+x+ x2 n
6 k 2 4
lim
N>co r=1
r!
xr = (1+x)'-1
for any real n, provided lx1 < 1. The result is also true for x = 1, provided n > 1 and
for x = 1 provided n > 0. It is not true for any Ix! > 1, unless n is a positive integer
or zero.
417
[18
(ii)
1
= (1 x)--1(1 +x)-1
(1 x) V(1 + x)
(1 + x + x2 + x3) (1 ix+ ix2 --hx3)
1 + x(1 --1-)+ x2(1 -1+ + x3(1 -1+ 8-16)
1 +-ix+8x2+126x3.
a-1 = 2, b a = 8, cb =
giving
or
a-2, b =
c= -6
as before.
= 1 ( -110 +
1.3.5.7
1 3. 5 .7.9
(
( 1104+ . 5 !
1 5
1+0.1+0.015+0.0025+0.00044+0.00008.
Thus 21/5 1.11802 and V5 2.23604.
To estimate the accuracy of our answer we have to obtain an upper limit
for the sum of the remaining terms in the series. Now the coefficient, u
of (A)' in the expansion above is given by
=
and we have
Thus
418
ur
ur_1
1.3.5
. (2r 1)
r!
2r-1
1
2 - < 2.
< 2u,_
4]
POLYNOMIAL APPROXIMATIONS
and the sum of the remaining terms in the binomial series above is certainly
less than
1.3.5.7.9.11
6!
= 1.3.5.7.9.11
(m)
6!
1
Lr11
- (sum of infinite geometric series)
1.805 x 10-5.
Since 4.4 x 10-4and 8 x 10-5are overestimates of the fifth and sixth terms
of the series above we may safely conclude that the error in taking 1.11802
as 10 is less than F805 x 10-5and so our answer of 2.23604 for has an
error of less than 3.61 x 10-5.
Ex. 29. In fact, V5 = 2.236068 (6 d.p.), and our limit for the error in Example 8
appears to have been rather crude. Explain why this is so. How could a more
accurate estimate of the error be obtained?
Ex. 30. To 4 d.p., J5 = 2.2361, while in Example 8 above, we obtain V5 = 2.2360
(to 4 d.p.) although we subsequently show our error to be less than 5 x 10-5.
Explain.
The binomial series gives a polynomial approximation to (1 +x)n valid
in the neighbourhood of x = 0. If we require a polynomial approximation valid in some other neighbourhood, it is necessary to shift the origin,
as shown in our next example.
Example 9. Obtain a quadratic approximation to (1+2x)-1in the neighbourhood of x = 3.
(1 +2x)_1= [7+ 2(x 3)]-1
=1
7
+ _221 -1
where y= x 3
-
7 j '
,z 1
7 2y+ 44y92)
(1
= 7 491x 3) + 3 : 3 (X
3)2*
-33485X 3 : X
3 2.
[18
Exercise 18(c)
1. Obtain cubic polynomial approximations for the following expressions in the
neighbourhood of x = 0:
1
1
1
1
(iii)
(i) 1
(ii)
(iv) (1 _ .02; (v) x)3.
(1 2x)2;
3 x'
2. Obtain cubic polynomial approximations for the following expressions in the
neighbourhood of x = 0.
1
1
(i)
; (ii) V(1 4x); (iii) V(4 x); (iv)
(v) V(21
V(1-2x)
(4 x)'
x)
3. Obtain cubic polynomial approximations for the following expressions, in
the neighbourhood of x = 0:
(i) (1 + x)*; (ii) (1 +2x)-4; (iii) (1 x)-1; (iv) (2 x)-5; (v) (8 x)}.
V(1 5x + 6x2)'
(1+ x) (1 + x)'
(1 + x2) V(1 2x)'
1(1 x) '
1
(v)
1+x
(1 + x)2V (1 + 2x)
. vr
V (1 + x2) + 1
and deduce that, if x is very small,
1
V(1 X2) 1
Al(1+x2)-1
x2
1X2.
8. Find, correct to 5 significant figures, the values of (i) (0.998)1/3; (ii) (1.02)112 ;
(iii) (4.01)1/2; (iv) (0799)0.
420
4]
POLYNOMIAL APPROXIMATIONS
E=
x2
2x-24(1 x)'
function
A/(4+x)
1 2x+ (1 + 3x)2/3
(0 & C)
E=
x+ 3
(2x + 1) (1 + x2)
in partial fractions.
Hence prove that, if x is so large that x-4can be neglected, then
5 + 2x
E=
4x3
(0 &
14. Use the binomial expansion to calculate the value of (16.32)04correct to six
places of decimals.
(O & C)
Miscellaneous Exercise 18
1. The polynomial x6 + Ax6+Ex4 Axs + Ax2+ Bx+ C is exactly :divisible by
xs +1; find A, B, C.
2. If (1 + x+ x2)n
a2n-r.
2n
(0 .& C)
421
4. Prove that
[18
x2+2bx+1 (xa)(x+2b+a)+a2+2ab+1.
1
(x-2) (x2 + 2bx + 1)
Put
into partial fractions
(i) when b =
(ii) when b = 1.
(0 & C)
A(x+1)+B
x+1
Ax+B
(2x 1) (2x + 1) (2x + 3) (2x-1) (2x + 1) (2x + 1) (2x+ 3).
Find the sum to n terms of the series whose rth term is
r +1
(0 & C)
(2r 1) (2r +1) (2r+3)'
6. Prove that, if 1 < x
1 x +
Deduce that
1.3
1.2
x2
1.3.5.7
.3.5
x4 +
x3 +
1.2.3
1.2.3.4
1
1.3.5.7
1 1.3 1.3.5
+
1+ + +
+
4 4.8 4.8.12 4.8.12.16
(1 + 2x)-112.
V2.
10. Find the sixth term and the rth term of the series whose first five terms are
4, 1, 0. 13, 76
on the assumption that the rth term is a polynomial in r of as low a degree
as possible.
422
19.
1. INTEGRAL POWERS OF
COMPLEX NUMBERS
In Chapter 17 we saw that the multiplication of complex numbers was best
expressed in terms of their moduli and arguments: if z = r (cos 0 +j sin 0)
and w = s (cos +j sin g5) then zw = r s [cos (0+ 95) +j sin (0+0]. In
particular, if z = cos 0 + j sin 0 then z2= cos 20+j sin 20, from which it
follows that z3= cos 30+j sin 30 and so on; the general result,
Theorem 19.1. (De Moivre's theorem for positive integral exponent.) For any
positive integer n
(cos 0+j sin 0)" = cos nO +j sin nO.
Proof.
(cos 0 + j sin 0)n-1 = cos (n 1) + j sin (n 1) 0
(cos +j sin OP = [cos (n 1) + j sin (n 1) 0] (cos 0+j sin 0)
(cos d+j sin OP = cos nO +j sin no
But
Theorem 19.2. (DiMoivre's theorem for negative integral exponents.) For any
negative integer n,
(cos 0+j sin 0)" = cos nO +j sin no.
423
[19
1
cos me +j sin m0
64 cos6 0 = (z + z--')6
= (z6 + z-6)+ 6(z4+ z-4)+15(z2+ z-2) + 20.
424
I]
INTEGRAL POWERS
But
z6+z-6 = (cos 60+j sin 60) + (cos 60j sin 60), by de Moivre's theorem
= 2 cos 60,
and similar results hold for z4 + Z-4and z2+ Z-2. Thus
32 cos6 0 = cos 60+6 cos 40+15 cos 20+10.
425
[19
Exercise 19(a)
1. Simplify
(ii) (cos +j sin 170-3;
(i) (cos -17
. T+ j sin 1704;
. - j sin 1706 ;
(iv) (sin 3
6 77+j cos *706;
(iii) (cos 17
(v) (cos + j sin *703(cos 47+ j sin 47)4 ;
(vii)
j Cot *70-4;
(vi) (1 +j tan *704;
(viii) (1 + cos 20+j sin 20)-4.
2. Express in standard form
(i) (cos +j sin 17012 ; (ii) (1 + j)6 ; (iii) (.s/3 -D4(1 +jV3)6;
(iv) (cos 0+j sin 0)n/(cos -j sin O)m.
3. Express in terms of sin 0: (i) cos 40; (ii) sin 50.
4. Express in terms of cos 0: (i) cos 40; (ii) cos 50;
(iii) sin 60
sin 0
(i) cos x+ cos 2x+ + cos nx; (ii) sin x+ sin 2x + + sin nx.
12. Sum to n terms the series
1]
INTEGRAL POWERS
r=1
16. By considering cos (01+ 02 +03 +04)+j sin (01+ 02 +03+04), express
tan (01+82+03+04) in terms of tan 01i tan 02, tan 03, tan 04.
n
2. RATIONAL POWERS OF
COMPLEX NUMBERS
In this section we shall denote a general rational number by p/q, where p, q
are integers and q> 0.
Given a real number r > 0, there is just one positive qth root of r9, that
is, there is just one a > 0 such that rP = a3. We write
a = r2vq or a =
*Ex. 12. Prove that, if p, q are integral and r > 0, there is only one positive
real number a such that ry = a3. (Show that, for b > 0, ry = b4 = b = a.)
*Ex. 13. Prove that, if q is odd there is just one real number a such that, for real
r, r5= ag and that, if q is even, there are either two or no such numbers.
Now let us consider the problem of finding a complex number w such
that zr' = w3, where z is the complex number r(cos 0+j sin 0), r > 0.
Suppose w = s(cos c6+ j sin 0); then
rv(cos p0 + j sin p0) = sq(cos qcb +j sin qq5).
(p, q being integers, we may apply de Moivre's theorem to both sides.)
Now two non-zero complex numbers can be equal only if they have the
same moduli, and arguments differing by an integral multiple of 2rr. Thus
ry
sq,
p0+2krr = q95.
427
[19
Whether q is even or odd, we may take s = rIvg (see Ex. 13) and
p+q2k7r,
090 + 21ar\ ).
k q /
In this expression, k can take any integral value, positive or negative. Since
values of k differing by q or any multiple of q give rise to the same w, there
are precisely q different values of w given, for example, by taking
giving
w = rr1g (cos
(90+21
+j sin
k = 0, 1, 2, ..., (q 1);
in other words, a complex number has exactly q qth roots. Since the real
numbers form a subset of the complex numbers, every real number has
q qth roots; by Ex. 13 at least (q- 2) of these will be complex.
Ex. 14. What are the four fourth roots of: (i) 1; (ii) 4; (iii) 1?
eq +j
rIva (cos
It is important to realise that zvia is only one of the qth roots of zr'. We
shall sometimes use the notation VZ2) for zwq; in particular, Vz = z.
*Ex. 15. Under what circumstances do
complex number ?
(zP)liq
and
zvig
Ex. 16. Verify that the definition given above for z 2)/q yields the correct value for
where r > 0 is a real number.
rvig,
Example 4. Find (-1 + j)1and the other fifth roots of the complex number
(-1+j).
Writing
z = 1+ j
= V2(cos
and
w5 = z,
we have
w=
+j sin in)
21ar
{cos in +
5
+j sin
in+ 21aT1
5
I
j sin E-g),
j sin in).
2]
RATIONAL POWERS
0.955+0.487j,
and similar approximations may be found for each of the other fifth roots
of (-1+j).
Ex. 17. Plot the positions, in the Argand diagram, of the affixes of the complex
1
j
number V and of its five fifth roots.
-V2 + 2
Ex. 18. Find the three cube roots of j, and verify that their sum is zero. Plot their
positions in the Argand diagram.
z = cos
21ar
+j sin
21ar
(k = 0, 1, 2, ... (n 1)).
con-1.
*Ex. 19. Show that the nth roots of unity are represented by the vertices of a
regular n-sided polygon inscribed in the unit circle izi = 1.
Since con 1 = 0 and (1) + 1, we have, by summing the geometric series
in the usual way, the following important result:
1+w1+0+o)3 +...+6,2-1 = 0;
that is, the sum of the n nth roots of unity is zero.
*Ex. 20. If p is a prime number, and if 6 is any pth root of unity other than 1,
show that the complete set of pth roots of unity may be written as 1, 6, 62, ..., 6P-1.
Discuss possible generalizations of this result for the case where p is not prime.
(If you have difficulty in proving the general result, consider the particular cases
p = 3,p = 4.)
429
[19
Exercise 19(b)
1. Find in standard form the three cube roots of:
(i) 8; (ii) - 1; (iii) -j; (iv) (1 +j)3.
2. Express in the form a+ bj, giving a, b to 2 significant figures in (ii)-(iv)
V(1 +2j); (iii) AA -3-0; (iv) A/(1-3.0.
(i) AA3 -4.0;
3. If co is a complex cube root of unity, show that the cube roots of z3 are
z, zo), zo)2.
Find the three cube roots of - 2 +2j and deduce surd expressions for
cos (77112) and sin (n/12).
4. Find, correct to 2 significant figures, the real and imaginary parts of (2-j)1/6
5. Simplify:
(i) V(cos 0-j sin Or V(cos 0+j sin 0);
(ii) (sin 0-j cos 0)113;
cos 0- j sin B\
(iii) ik(cos 30+j sin 301'
(iv) (1 +j cot 0)114 ;
(v) {(cos 0+j sin 0) (sin 0-j cos 0)}114.
6. Plot in an Argand diagram the four fourth roots of 16 and, on a separate
diagram the six sixth roots of 64.
430
3]
12. If 1,
14. 1, 6, 62,r63, 64 are the five fifth roots of unity and a, b two given complex
numbers, and if A1, A2, A3, A4, A5are the affixes of the complex numbers
a+ b, a+ bE, a+ bg2, a+ bp, a+ b64show that Ai A2 A3A4 213 is a regular pentagon.
ab
c a b
ca
a wb w2c
(02c a wb
to2c a
4. COMPLEX POWERS OF
COMPLEX NUMBERS
[19
But w = cos y+j sin y also satisfies this differential equation (by direct
verification). Also, when y = 0, z = 1 = w and thus z = w for all real y:
eiv = cos y +j sin y.
Since
it follows that
= ex . Or,
(1)
*Ex. 21. Show that e-iv = cos y j sin y and deduce that cos y =
+e-iv),
1 .
sin y = 2j (ew e-iv). Deduce from these expressions and the infinite series for
*Ex. 24. Discuss de Moivre's theorem in the light of the expression of a complex
number in the form re.
Now consider the equation
z = ew.
Given any non-zero z we can certainly find a w which satisfies this equation.
etc = einizi+Jargz
= eln Izle; arg z
= I ZI (cos arg z+ j sin arg z)
z.
By Ex. 23, any other solution of the equation may be written in the form
w = In jzi +j(arg z+21ar). Such an expression is called a logarithm of z;
the particular expression with k = 0 is called the principal logarithm of z
and is written In z:
In z = lnizi
arg z.
With this definition of the logarithm of a complex number we are in a
position to define a complex power of a complex number:
zw = ewinz
For example,
ji = &In
= e-ig
0.208,
432
3]
while
COMPLEX POWERS
n+i)
(1 + j)i-i =
e(1-i) an A/ 2+1771}
= can
2-1-170+j(i7-1n A/ 2)
= A./2 eig(COS
(47T
2.8 +1.3j.
Ex. 25. Find expressions for:
(i) In (-1); (ii) In (-j), (iii) (-1)1 ; (iv) 1(1 +Pill.
Ex. 26. Verify that the definition given in Section 2 for zylg (pl q rational) is in
accordance with the definition given here for a complex power of a complex
number.
Exercise 19(c)
1. If a, b, r, s are real numbers and
u = reie, v = seie,
find:
(i) 1 au+ bv1;
(ii) an argument of the complex number au+ by.
2. Express in the form a + bj:
(
13 -
4. If z moves once anticlockwise around the unit circle in the Argand diagram,
starting at the point -1, describe the motion of the point representing
5. If z is a complex number and sin z, cos z are defined by
1
prove that:
(i) sin2 z+cos2 z = 1; (ii) sin 2z = 2 sin z cos z;
(iii) cos ( w- z) = sin z; (iv) cos (z1+ z2) = cos z1cos z2-sin z1sin z2.
6. Show that:
(i) cos (x+yj) = cos x cosh y- j sin x sinh y;
(ii) sin (x+yj) = sin x cosh y + j cos x sinh y.
7. Show that:
tan 1(u+ jv) =
[19
8. Give a sketch of the representation in the Argand diagram of the two sets:
A = {z e C:
= 1, 4ir < Im z < irr};
B= {wEC: z e A, ezwez+w+1 = 0}.
Miscellaneous Exercise 19
1. Solve the equation z8 z4 + 1 = 0 and mark the positions of the roots in the
Argand diagram.
2. Prove that, if n is a positive integer,
(cos 0+j sin 0)" = cos n0+ j sin nO.
By putting n equal to 5 in this formula, or otherwise, prove that
A15-1
sin =
10
4
3. Prove that cos 70 = cos' 0(1 21 tang 0+35 tan40 7 tang 0).
Find the real part of
(1 + cos 0+j sin 0)n
(1 + cos 0 j sin O)n
(0 & C)
(London)
,,2
1
1
cot 1
1 1
1 co
D=
0)2
(0 & C)
n-1
r=0
10. If z = cos 0+j sin 0, show that z+ 1/z = 2 cos 0 and find the corresponding
result for z 11z.
Prove that
cos" 0 = 118[cos 88+8 cos 60+28 cos 40+56 cos 20+35].
to
Evaluate
434
fin
(London)
3]
MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE
1+a)
1+
a; (iii) Re (1+2a)) = 0.
(London)
[19
-Z2 23 Z3 - Z2 = 0.
436
3]
MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE
(0 & C)
nkn. )
(x- 1) (x + 1) H (x2 - 2x cos - +1
n
k=1
n-1
(iv) cosec2 nO = - k E
-o cosec2 0+- , 0 * -.
n
n
26. Prove that x2 + y2+ z2 -yz- zx- xy has a linear factor x + coy + 0)2z, where
a is a complex cube root of unity. Deduce that, if x * 3, x2+y2 + z2- yz - zx - xy
is a factor of (y- z)n + (z- x)"+ (x- y)n.
3 PPMII
437
20.
z = Ab, A real.
A straight line not containing 0 is uniquely defined by the foot, A, of the
perpendicular from 0 to the line (see Figure 20.1). Suppose A is the affix of
the complex number a and that P(z) is any point on the given line.
z = a+jAa, A real.
(1)
z* = a* jAa*
Eliminating A this gives
a* z + az* = c,
(2)
438
0
Fig. 20.2
(3)
Ex. 5. Show conversely, that for real a = 0 and real c, the equation
azz* +b*z+bz* + c = 0
represents a circle, provided ac < 1612.
Ex. 6. What is the equation of the circle, centre 1 2j and radius 3 in the form
(3)?
Ex. 7. Show that 2zz* + (3 j) z+ (3+j) z* +1 = 0 is the equation of a circle,
centre +j) and radius V2. Find the centre and radius of the circle with
equation:
(i) zz* z(1 3j) z*(1 + 3j) + 6 = 0;
(ii) 4zz* z(2+ 4j) z*(2 4j)+ 1 = 0.
3-2
439
[20
We now consider the images of straight lines and circles under three
simple functions f, g, h from the set C into the set C given by
Fig. 20.3
a*z + az* = c
(II) w = az.
As shown in Chapter 17 this maps P -- Q where OQ = lalOP and
LPOQ = arg a; that is, it represents an extension by the factor I al
followed by an anticlockwise rotation of magnitude arg a (Figure 20.4).
Fig. 20.4
The effect of this mapping upon straight lines and circles may be deduced
analytically as follows:
a*z + az* = c
a* (-1+a (-1 =c
a
a
(aa)* w + (aa) w* = clal 2
and
1Z -b1 = r
w -b = r
a
lw-bal = dal.
Thus straight lines are mapped into straight lines and circles are mapped
into circles under the transformation w = az.
*Ex. 9 Show that the centre of the z circle maps into the centre of the w circle
under this transformation and that the ratio of the two radii is loc1: 1.
Ex. 10. Illustrate geometrically the effect of the transformation w = (1 + j) z
upon the circle lz- 11 = 1.
(III) w = z-1.
We must restrict the domain of this function to the whole of C with the
[20
circle, centre 0 and radius r, the inverse of the point P is the point P'
on OP such that OP .0P' = r 2.
*Ex. 11. Show that the transformation w = z-1maps the point P into the reflection in the real axis of the inverse of P with respect to the unit circle Izi = 1
(see Figure 20.5).
Fig. 20.5
a* (1\ 4. a(1_\* =
kw
cww* a*w* aw = 0.
zz* b* z bz* + d = 0.
442
w,
that is, by
(1)* Fd=o,
Example 1. If the point z lies on the circle Izi = 1, find the locus of the
point w where w = j/(z+j).
Method (i)
Consider the sequence of transformations:
fi: z ---> u = z+j,
1,
f2: u -> v = u
f2:
w = jv,
upon the circle Izi = 1. Their effects are shown in the following sequence
of diagrams (Figure 20.6). (For A, recall the result of Ex. 14.)
The locus is seen to be the line w = + Aj or w + w* = 1.
443
[20
.f;
fa
Fig. 20.6
Method (ii)
w(z+j) = j
_ j(1 w)
z
w
Thus
Iz I = 1
I wl = Li(1 -w)I
iwi =
ww* = (1 w) (1 w*)
w+ w* = 1, with the same conclusion as before.
2z 3 +j
jz 2
maps the unit circle Izi = 1 into a circle with centre on the real axis and radius
V2.
444
TRANSFORMATIONS
Method (i)
Write
2z 3 + j 2(z + 2j) 3 3j
3 3j
=-2J z + 2j '
j(z+ 2j)
w = jz-2
f4: v-->w= v 2j
-
upon the circle Izi = 1. (Recall the result of Ex. 15 for deducing the effect
fl
f3
Fig. 20.7
445
[20
of f2. Notice that, by Ex. 17, the line joining the successive images of j
remains a diameter of the corresponding circle.)
Thus, the image is a circle, centre -H(1 j)+ (3 +j)] = 2 and radius
11(3+1) (1-1)1 = 412 + 211 = V2.
Method (ii)
2z 3 +j
w=.
jz 2 '
(jz 2) w = 2z 3 + j
z=
2w-3+j
.
jw 2
1z1 = 1
Thus
= 12w-3
(jw 2) ( jw* 2) = (2w 3 + j) (2w* 3 j)
ww* 2j(w w*)+ 4 = 4ww* 6(w+ w*) 2j(w w*)+ 10
ww* 2(w+ w*)+ 2 = 0.
This equation certainly represents a circle. Furthermore, since the
interchange of w and w* does not affect the equation, it is symmetrical
about the real axis and thus its centre lies on the real axis. It cuts the real
axis at points given by w = w*,
i.e.
x2 4x +2 = 0,
x = 2 + ,4,
i.e.
446
TRANSFORMATIONS
Fig. 20.8
Ex. 20. Prove the first part of Example 3 geometrically by constructing the unit
circle and the affixes of numbers z 1, (z 1)2.
Exercise 20
1. The function f has domain {z E C: jzi = 1}. Find the range off in each of the
following cases:
(i) f(z) = z+ 3; (ii) f(z) = z+j; (iii) f(z) = 2z; (iv) f(z) = jz;
(v) f(z) (1+j) z.
2. In Question 1, if the point z is regarded as moving anticlockwise around the
circle Izi = 1, starting at z = 1, describe the motion of the image point w = f(z)
6. Show that the affixes of the complex numbers 1, 1 + V3j), -1-( 1 V3j)
form the vertices of an equilateral triangle. Describe the effect of the transforma447
[20
tion w = jz +1+ j upon this triangle, illustrating your result by a sketch of the
Argand diagram.
7. Answer the same question as in Question 6 for the transformation
w = (1+j) z+ 1 +j.
8. Show that, under the mapping defined by w = j/(z 1), the interior of the
circle lz n = 1 is mapped into the exterior of the circlelw I = 1. Show that two
points remain invariant under this transformation and locate their approximate
positions on an Argand diagram.
9. Show that, under the mapping defined by w = (j jz)/(1 + z), the interior of
the circle 1z1 = 1 is mapped into the half-plane Im (w) > 0.
10. Show that, under the mapping defined by w = (j + 2jz)/(1 z), the image of
the set {z e C: Izl < 1) is the set {w e C: Im(w) >
11. Find the equation, in the form a* z + az* = b, of the line joining the points
z= 1 and z = j.
Find the image, under the mappings defined by w = z/(z + 1), of the set of
points represented by the interior of the triangle with vertices z = 0, z = 1, z = j.
In nos. 12-17 find the image of the circle Iz1 = 1 under the given transformation. If the image is a circle, find its centre and radius.
12. w = .
j 2z
15.(1+j) z 1
w=
(1j) z+j
17. w =
2 +z
.
.
j z
13. w
16. w=
14. w =
1+
1 jz
jz +1 j
.
(1+j) z 1
2z j
1+z .
18. Prove that, if (z 8j)/(z+ 6) is purely imaginary, the locus of z in the Argand
diagram is a circle with centre at the point 4j 3 and radius 5.
(0 & C)
19. Show that the set of points {z} satisfying
arg
b) = 0,
a
where 0 is a real number in the interval 77. < 0 < IT and a, b are complex numbers, is represented by the arc of a circle through the affixes A, B of a, b.
What is the condition for a point z to lie on the other arc of this circle?
20. Show that, if k is a real number not equal to 1, the set of points {z} satisfying
z a
=k
z b
is a circle, with its centre the point C on AB such that CA/CB = k2, and that A
and B are inverses with respect to this circle.
What can you say about this circle (i) if k = 0; (ii) if k is very large?
448
EXERCISE 20
Draw on the same diagram the system of circles obtained for various values of
k by taking a = 1, b = 1.
What happens if k = 1?
21. Show that the transformation defined by w = 1/(3 + j z) maps the circle
lz 2 j1 = 1 into the straight line Re (w) = 4. What transformation maps the
line Re (z) = 4 into the circle lw-2j1 = 1?
22. Show that the transformation defined by w = 1+ z2maps the unit circle
I z1 = 1 into the unit circle 1w 11 = 1. Draw a sketch of the Argand diagram,
construct the point 1+z2and deduce the above result geometrically.
23. Show that the transformation defined by w = 1/(1 z)2maps the unit circle
Iz1 = 1 into the curve with polar equation 2r(1 + cos 0) = 1. Draw a sketch of
this curve, indicating on it the images of the points 1, j, 1, j.
24. Prove that if
1
x+jy = A+114,
then the points on the Argand diagram defined by making A constant lie on a
circle, and the points defined by making p constant lie on a circle.
Prove also that, whatever be the values of the constants, the centres of the two
systems of circles obtained lie on two fixed perpendicular lines.
25. In the transformation defined by w = 1/(zj), describe the motion of the
image point w if z moves anticlockwise around the rectangle with vertices 0, b,
b+aj, aj, starting at the origin (where a, b are positive real numbers).
26. The points P and Q represent, in the Argand diagram, the complex numbers
z and 1/(z2+ 2). The point P describes a quadrant of a circle, from the origin
along the real axis to the point z = a, round the arc of the circle Iz1 = a to the
point z = ja, and back along the imaginary axis to the origin. Describe the path
traced out by Q (i) when a = 1, (ii) when a = V2.
27. Find the transformation of the form
az +b
w=
cz+d'
which maps 0 into j, j into 0 and 1 into 1.
Show, that, if this particular transformation maps the complex number g.into
the complex number n, then it also maps 7 into g.
Can you generalize these results in any way?
28. Show that, if the image of the complex number z under the transformation
w = z+z-1is real, then Izl = 1.
Deduce a geometrical construction for determining the roots of the quadratic
equation z2 +az+1 = 0 where a is a real number in the interval 2 < a < 2.
Extend your results to deal with the quadratic equation z2 + az + b = 0, where
a, b are real numbers such that a2 < 4b, by considering the transformation
w = z+ bz-1.
449
21.
(1)
has roots +vp and Vp, and the real and imaginary parts of these
two numbers may be calculated to any required degree of accuracy.
The more general quadratic equation
(2)
w = z+
2a'
a process usually known as 'completing the square':
az2+bz+c = 0
Z
+ -Z
a
(a + 0)
b)2 =
b
2 4ac
(z+
2a
4a2
z
b V(b2 4ac).
2a
If b2 = 4ac, only one root is obtained, otherwise equation (2) has two
distinct roots. For uniformity it is useful, in the case b2 = 4ac, to say that
(2) has two coincident roots, or a repeated root; with this convention, every
I]
QUADRATIC EQUATION
If the two roots of equation (2) are denoted by a and ,3 then az2+bz+c
has linear factors (z a) and (z,8) and we may write
or
a+,3 =
Thus
bla
(3)
of = c/a.
and
(4)
Relations (3) and (4) frequently enable us to avoid the explicit solution
of a quadratic equation, especially in those cases where we are concerned
with symmetrical relations between the roots. (Particularly important
cases of this arise in analytical geometry. See Chapter 22.)
a+ ft =
2j
. = 1+j,
1+.1
1j
aft = 1_F
(i)
1
a
.
J.
1 a+11 1+
= .i = 1+j.
+ =
fl
aft
J
[21
(iv) Since
we have
similarly,
(1 +j) A3 2132 + (1 j) = 0
whence, by addition,
Thus
cc4
= 14-14j
= 14.
giving
[Alternatively,
(co +,62) 0,3 + A3) = cc5 n5 + ct2162(ot o
p) etc.]
(vi)
Form
Example 2. The roots of the equation 2z2-3z+5 = 0 are a and
the equations: (i) with roots ce+,u, fi+,u; (ii) with roots Ala, Aft; (iii) with
roots a2,
452
QUADRATIC EQUATION
1]
i.e.
w2+Aw+B = 0,
where
Thus
+ /12,
w2+ Cw+ D = 0,
where
C=
D = A20,ft = P2 etc.
A(a + fl) =
Thus we have
2z2 3z + 5 = 0
-44> 2z2 +5 = 3z
either 2w + 5 = 30 or 2w+5 = 30
<=> {2w+ 5 30} {2w+ 5 +30} = 0
<=> 4w2 llw +25 = 0,
on multiplying out and rearranging terms; and this last equation has roots
co,fl2.
Alternatively, the required equation is
where
giving
E=
w2 Ew+F = 0,
fl2 = (ce, + fly _ 2c96% F
E = (2)2
-5 ,
F=
ar,
0,2,2 = @fly,
etc.
453
[21
Ex. 3. If a, ,8 are the roots of the equation 3z2 5z+ 3 = 0 form the equation
(i) with roots 2a, 2fi; (ii) with roots a 1, fl 1; (iii) with roots co, IA
2. QUADRATIC EQUATIONS WITH
REAL COEFFICIENTS
If in the equation
az2+bz+c = 0,
a, b, c are all real (and a is non-zero) all the previous results naturally still
hold but the additional restriction placed upon the coefficients enables us
to deduce further results. In this section it will be assumed, unless explicitly
stated otherwise, that a, b, c are real numbers and a + 0.
*Ex. 4. If f(x) E ax2+bx+c and if f(a) > 0, f(fl) < 0 (a, ft real) prove that
the equation ax2+ bx+c = 0 has a root lying between a and ft. Why is there no
corresponding theorem if a, b, c are complex?
Theorem 21.1. If the equation
az2+bz+c = 0 (a, b, c e R, a + 0)
has a complex root a, Im (a) + 0, then its other root is the complex conjugate a*.
Since aa2 +ba+c = 0, we have by taking the complex conjugate of both
sides,
a*(a*)2+ b*a* + c* = 0*.
But a* = a, b* = b, c* = c, 0* = 0 and thus
a(a*)2 +ba* + c = 0
and the result follows.
*Ex. 5. Explain why the proof of Theorem 21.1 breaks down if a, b, c are not
restricted to the set R. Explain also why the condition Im (a) = 0 was added in
the enunciation of the theorem.
*Ex. 6. Prove that a quadratic equation with real coefficients either has no nonreal root or two distinct non-real roots.
Ex. 7. If a, ft are two non-real numbers with the property that
Im (a + fi) = Im (afi) = 0,
prove that a, ,8 are complex conjugates.
There is an analogous result to Theorem 21.1 for irrational roots of a
quadratic equation with rational coefficients.
454
REAL COEFFICIENTS
2]
P = 0
and it follows that pqVr is a root of the given equation.
Ex. 8. Explain why the proof of Theorem 21.2 breaks down if a, b, c are not
restricted to the set Q. Explain also why the condition q 0 was added in the
enunciation of the theorem, and where the fact that Jr is irrational is used.
Exercise 21(a)
1. Write down the sum and product of the roots for each of the following
equations:
(i) z2 3z 7 = 0;
(iii) (1 + j) z2 z + (1 j) = 0;
(ii) 2z2 4z + 11 = 0;
(iv) (z + j)2= (4 j) z; (v) (z 1 + j)2+ za = (2jz 1)2.
2. Write down the equations with roots:
(i) 2, 3; (ii)
(iii) 3 V5, 3 + V5; (iv)2 V2,3 + 2V2; (v)3 4j, 3 + 4j;
(vi) y1 0), 1(1 +jV3); (vii) 1 +2j, 1 j; (viii) V2 j, 1 V2j.
3. Solve the following equations, giving the real and imaginary parts of the roots
correct to 2 significant figures. Check your solutions by calculating the approximate product of the roots (using a slide rule):
(i) 2z2 3z 7 = 0; (ii) 2z2 3z + 7 = 0; (iii) z2 + (1 + j) z+ (1 2j) = 0.
5. oc, ,8 are the roots of the equation 2z2 9z 4 = 0. Find the values of
6. cc, /3 are the roots of the equation 3z2 2z 7 = 0. Find the values of :
455
x2
62
[21
a2y2 = a 2b22
y = mx+ c
z2+az+b = 0,
z2+Az+B = 0
have a common root. Prove that
b(a A)2 a(a A) (b B)+ (b B)2 = 0.
19. If one root of the equation az2+ bz+ c = 0 is the square of the other, find a
relation connecting a, b, c.
20. If one root of the equation az2+ bz + c = 0 is j times the other, find a relation
connecting a, b, c.
21. Prove that, if one of the roots of the equation z2 + za + 1 = 0 has unit modulus then a is real.
456
3]
QUADRATIC FUNCTION
3. THE QUADRATIC FUNCTION
A function f:
R defined by
f(x) = ax2+bx + c (a, b, c c R)
y = ax2+bx+c.
y = atx2+b x+
b2 +- b2 1
a
4a2
a 4a2f
\ 2 + 4 a c b21
=
x+
b
a{( 2af 4a2 f .
Then
( 1)
(i) If a > 0 and b2 < 4ac, then y > 0 from (1), since
(x+ b )2 0 for all x.
(ii) If ax2+bx+ c > 0 for all x, then certainly a > 0, for we may choose
x such that
(
b)2 4ac b2
x
> 0.
+2a
4a2
But, if b2 > 4ac, the equation ax2+bx+ c = 0 has real roots, a, ft say, and
ax2+ bx + c < 0 for all real x<#.- a < 0 and b2 4ac < 0.
The quantity A = b2 4ac occupies a position of central importance
when considering the quadratic expression ax2+ bx + c or the quadratic
457
[21
*Ex. 11. If the roots of the quadratic equation ax2+bx+c = 0 are a, A prove
that a2(af)2= A. If the coefficients are real, what does this tell us about the
reality of the roots of the quadratic equation?
Example 3. Determine the range of the function f: R ---> R defined by
foo =
1
x+a
x
2 + x+1
Or
(a2 4) y2 + 2ay + 1 0.
To determine what values of y satisfy this inequality we have, by Theorem 21.3, to consider the discriminant of E and the sign of the coefficient
of y2. The discriminant of E is
A = 4a2 -4(a2 4) = 16
and thus, since A > 0, the equation E = 0 has real roots a,
in fact, a = (a +2)--i and /3 = (a 2)-4). Thus we have
ft (where,
E = (a2-4) (y a) (y fl),
provided I al + 2.
The coefficient of y2 in E shows us that the critical values of a are 2.
(i) lal < 2:
For E to be greater than or equal to zero, y must lie between a and fl;
the range is thus
{y e R: a y < fl}.
(ii) I al >
By a similar argument, the range is
{ye R:y<a or y
fib
3]
QUADRATIC FUNCTION
(iii) a = 2:
E = 4y +1 and thus the condition E
{y E R: y
(iv) a = 2:
By a similar argument, the range is
{y
R: y <
Ex. 12. Illustrate the solution of Example 3, by drawing rough sketches of the
curve y = (x + a)/(x2+ ax+ 1) in the separate cases a = 4, a = 2, a = 0, a = 2,
a = 4. [Express y--1in the form z = y-1 = x+ (x + a)-1and deduce that the graph
of z has turning points at x + a = 1; hence sketch the y curve.]
Miscellaneous Exercises 21
1. If a, /3are the roots of the equation z2 5z-11 = 0 form the equation
(i) with roots cc + (/3/cc), + (al13); (ii) with roots (a +16', ja +,3).
2. Ha, ft are the roots of the equation az2+ bz+ c = 0, find the roots of the equation
a2z2+(2ca b2) z+ c2 = 0 in terms of cc, /3.
3. If a, b, c, d are real numbers, prove that the roots of the equation
az b
c d z
=0
< 3x2+x+3
x2+x+1 --
5.
ac(x2+1) (1)22ac) x = 0
then
(0 &C)
459
[21
px + qy = 1, ax2+ by2 = 1
are all real, prove that ab < ag2+ bp2.
12. If a, b, h, A are all real, discuss the reality of the solution of the simultaneous
equations
ax2+2hxy+ by' = A,
x2+ y2 = 1.
by putting x = cos 0, y = sin 0 and considering a quadratic equation in tan 0.
13. Show that, if
y(x 2) (x 3) = x-1,
then xis not real when y has any value between 3 2V2 and 3 + 2V2. (0 & C)
14. Show that, if p, q, r are not all equal and if
xp
Y = (x q) (xr)'
then x is real for every real value of y provided that
(p q) (p r) < 0.
15. If a, fi are the roots of
and y, a are the roots of
prove that
(0 &C)
x2-2ax+ab+c = 0
x2 2bx+ ab c = 0,
Hence, or otherwise, prove that, if the quadratic equations have a common root,
it is a repeated root of one of them.
(0 & C)
460
22.
for
x +1
= y 2 = t,
2
x 2y+ 5 = 0
(Notice that, to show that the parametric equations
x = 2t 1, y
represent the line
t+ 2
x 2y + 5 = 0,
it is insufficient merely to verify that the point (2t 1, t + 2) lies on the line:
it is necessary also to show that any point of the line has coordinates of this
form. See Ex. 29 below.)
Ex. 1. Show that, if both x and y are given as linear expressions in a parameter t,
then the equation connecting x and y is linear and thus represents a straight line.
Ex. 2. Find the Cartesian equation of the line given by the parametric form
x = 3t-2, y = 2t+3;
and find a parametric form for the line with Cartesian equation
3x-5y-7 = 0.
If the expressions for x and y involve non-linear expressions in a parameter t, the set of points so defined generally constitute a curve. For
example,
= {(x, y): x = t, y = t 2; t real}
represents a curve, since the expression for y in terms of x is not linear.
461
[22
Ex. 3. Show that the Cartesian equations of the curve P defined above is
y = x2.
Distinguish between the curve P and the curve I' defined by
= y): x = t2, y = t4; t
Sketch r and r for 3 < x < 3.
constitute a line segment. (Only in such artificial cases does a non-linear parametric expression yield a straight line.)
The expressions for x and y need not be algebraic: the circle with centre
(0, 0) and radius 2 may be expressed in the parametric form
x = 2 cos 0, y = 2 sin 0.
Ex. 5. Find the equation of the curve with parametric representation x = a sec 0,
y = b tan 0.
The use of a parametric representation greatly facilitates the study of the
geometry of curves with known equations. This is because the position of a
point on the curve may be specified by one variable (the parameter) rather
than two variables (x and y) connected by an equation (the equation of the
curve).
s = O'P = r a = (x h) i + (y k) j
is the position vector of P with respect to O'. Put another way, if 0' is
taken as the origin, with axes 0' x' , 0' y' in directions defined by i, j then
462
2]
COORDINATE AXES
the coordinates (x', y') of P with respect to the new axes and origin 0'
are given by
x' = xh, y' = yk.
Ex. 6 The coordinates of A, B, C, D referred to perpendicular axes through 0
are respectively (1, 2), (-2, 3), (0, 4) and ( 1, 5). What are their coordinates
referred to a pair of parallel axes through 0' (2, 1)?
Fig. 22.1
x = x'+2, y = y'-3,
and the given equation becomes
(x'+2)2 +(x'+2) (y'-3)-2(y' 3)2 (x'+ 2)-14(y' 3) 20 = 0,
which simplifies to
[22
or
at
ate
,y=
1 + t3
1+
6. x = t + 1/t, y = 1 + t2.
7. Show that the parametric form
x=
represents the curve
less the point (-1, 0).
1 - t2
2t
y=
1+t2 '
1 + t2
x2 + y2 = 1,
8. If the axes are translated to (1, -4) as new origin, find the new coordinates of
the points:
(i) (0, 0); (ii) (3, -4); (iii) (3, 4); (iv) (5, -5).
9. By translating the axes to pass through (1, 1) as new origin prove that the
equation
x2 - 4y2 - 2x+ 8y- 3 = 0
represents a pair of straight lines, and find their gradients.
10. Prove that the equation
2x2 +3xy- 2y2 - 17x + 6y+ 8 = 0
represents a pair of straight lines intersecting in the point (2, 3).
11. Show, by a translation of axes to pass through (p, q) as new origin, that the
equation
ax2+2hxy+ by2+2gx+2fy+ c = 0
is transformed into the equation
ap+hq+g = 0,
hp+ bq+f = 0.
464
2]
COORDINATE AXES
Deduce that the equation
ax2+2hxy+by2+2gx+2fy+ c = 0
represents a pair of straight lines only if det A = 0 where
a hg
A= (h b f).
g f c
12. Use the results of Question 11 to show that the equation
6x2 + 5xy+ y2 x 1 = 0
3. THE PARABOLA
A parabola is defined as the set of points in a plane whose distances from
a fixed point, S, are equal to their distances from a fixed line 1 not containing S: see Figure 22.2. For the two typical points P, and P2,
SP, = P1 MI, SP2 = P2 M2.
Fig. 22.2
[22
Fig. 22.3
3]
PARABOLA
Thus, referred to its axis as the x axis, its vertex as the origin and S as the
point (a, 0), the equation of a parabola is
y2= 4ax.
(1)
*Ex. 10. Show that the length of the latus rectum is 2SX.
*Ex. 11. What is the length of the latus rectum of the parabola y2 = 4ax?
Answer the same question for the parabolas y2= ax and x2 = 3ay.
Ex. 12. Using the same axes, plot, on graph paper, the parabola y2 = 4ax, for
a = 2, 1, I, -116, 1, 2.
*Ex. 13. By writing the equation
y2 4ax-2ay 3a2 = 0
in the form
(y a)2 = 4a(x+ a)
and translating the axes to the new origin ( a, a), show that it represents a
parabola of latus rectum 4a. Show also that, with the original coordinate system,
the vertex is the point ( a, a), the focus (0, a) and the directrix x +2a = 0.
The chord joining the points Nat?, 2at1), P2(ad, 2at2) of the parabola
is easily obtained. Its gradient, m, is given by
m
2at2-2ati
all at?
2
tl + t2'
y-2at1
which reduces to
att.)
t2
2x (t1+12) y + 2at1 t2 = 0.
(2)
467
[22
=A
meets the parabola y2= 4ax at points with parameters A1, A2 which are roots of
the quadratic equation
in2A2 +
my _
4a1) A+
4ax1) = 0.
Deduce that, if (x1, yi) lies on the parabola and the given line is a tangent, then
2my1 4a1 = 0.
Hence show that the tangent at (x1, yi) has equation
(x x1)/y1 = (y yi)/2a.
The equation of the normal to the parabola y2 = 4ax at the point
P(at 2, 2at) (that is, the line through P perpendicular to the tangent) is now
easily found. For, since the gradient of the tangent is l/t, the gradient of the
normal must be t and thus its equation is
y 2at = t(x at2),
which reduces to
+ y = 2at +
(4)
Ex. 20. Show that, if the normal to the parabola y2 = 4ax at the point
P(ap2, Zap)
cuts the parabola again at the point Q(aq2, 2aq), then q is a root of the quadratic
equation in A
pA2 +2A 2p p3 = 0.
What is the other root of this equation? Find q in terms of p.
468
3]
PARABOLA
(ii) _UT is any point on the parabola, focus S, and M is the foot of the perpendicular from P on to the directrix, then the angle SPM is bisected by the
tangent at P.
The reader who has successfully completed Ex. 8 will have already proved
this property by pure geometry.
In Figure 22.4 we have
tan a = gradient of tangent at P (ate, 2at)
= lit, from equation (2),
tan /3 = gradient of SP
2at
ate a
_ 2t
- t 21
2(14)
- 1 (1102'
4 PPmiT
469
Thus
tan fi =
[22
2 tan a
1 tang a
= tan 2a
and the result follows.
Property (ii) is usually known as the parabolic reflection property since
it shows that a ray of light emanating from the focus will be reflected by a
parabolic mirror along a line parallel to the axis.
Fig. 22.4
Ex. 21. Explain the use of parabolic reflection in car headlights and reflecting
telescopes. Explain, with the aid of diagrams, the ' headlights on' and 'headlights
dipped' positions.
Parabolas frequently occur both in nature and in design. For example,
a first approximation to the path of a projectile moving under gravity is a
parabola. Again, in architecture, it is becoming quite common to find roofs
of buildings designed so that certain cross-sections are parabolic. The
curves of suspension bridges are also approximately arcs of a parabola.
We conclude this section with an example illustrating the method of
determining a locus associated with a parabola.
Example 2. PQ is a focal chord of a parabola, focus S. Show that the locus
of the mid-point of PQ is another parabola and locate its focus and directrix.
Set up coordinate axes with the vertex, 0, as origin, the axis of the parabola as x axis, the tangent at the vertex as y axis and call the length of
OS, a. The equation of the parabola is then
y2 = 4ax.
470
PARABOLA
3]
Any line through the focus, S(a, 0), other than x a = 0, has the form
y = m(xa).
(Notice that m is a parameter: different values of m give different lines
through the focus and all such lines, with the single exception mentioned
above, may be put in this form.)
The line y --- m(x a) cuts the parabola y2 = 4ax in points with y coordinates y, and y2given by the roots of the equation
y2 = 4a(7 11- + a),
that is, by
Notes on Example 2.
(i) The use of symmetric functions of the roots of a quadratic equation
is frequently applicable to problems involving the parabola and has the
advantage of retaining symmetry in the calculation.
4-2
471
[22
Ex. 22. Show that if the tangent at the point P(at 2, 2at) passes through the point
R(h, k) then t is a root of the quadratic equation
aA2 kl+h = 0.
Deduce that the coordinates of the meet of tangents at Pi(att, 2at1) and P2(at2, 2at2)
is R(at1 t2, a(ti + t2)).
Exercise 22(b)
1. Find the latus rectum, vertex, focus, and directrix of each of the following
parabolas:
(i) (y-2)2 = 4(x 3);
(iii) (y+ 1)2 = (x-1);
(v) (y +3)2 = 4(x-5);
(vii) (y-4)2 + 2x = 0.
2. Find the equations of the parabolas having the given points as foci and the
given lines as directrices:
(i) (2, 1), x = 0;
(ii) (-3, 2), y = 3.
3. Find the equations of the parabolas: (i) with focus (4, 3) and vertex (1, 3);
form
r = (t 1) i+ t 2j,
where t is a scalar parameter. Show that S defines a parabola and determine the
position vectors of its vertex and focus.
472
3]
PARABOLA
8. A ball is thrown obliquely into the air in such a way that its position vector
at time t is given by
r = lOti+ (10t 16t2) k,
where i is a horizontal unit vector and k is a unit vector pointing vertically
upwards. Show that the path of the ball is a parabola, and determine the distance
of its directrix from the origin.
9. Any element P of the set S of points in a plane has a position vector of the
form
r = cos 20.i (1 + sin 0).j,
where 0 is a scalar parameter. Show that S forms part of a parabola with its axis
parallel to i and sketch the set of points S.
Questions 10-15 refer to Figure 22.6. 0 is the vertex, S the focus of the parabola,
AM is the directrix, ANPM is a rectangle. The tangent at P cuts the axis at T
and the normal at P cuts it at G. PT and SM intersect at Z. You may use any
method which you regard as suitable.
Fig. 22.6
10. Prove that SZ and PT are perpendicular and that Z lies on the tangent at
the vertex. Suggest how, with the aid of a set square, this property may be used
to draw a parabola.
11. Prove that ST = SP and deduce that SPMT is a rhombus. (Notice that this
gives the parabolic reflector property.)
12. Prove that ST = GS and deduce that NG is of fixed length.
13. Prove that NT is bisected at 0.
14. Prove that SZ2 = SO . SP.
15. Prove that TZ = ZN and that GP = 2SZ.
473
[22
3]
PARABOLA
27. Prove that the equation of the normal at the point P(at 2at) to the parabola
y2 = 4ax is
tx+ y = at 3+2at,
and that it meets the parabola again at Q(aT2, 2aT) where T = t 2/t.
The tangents at P and Q meet again at R; prove that, if P is a variable point
on the parabola, the locus of R is
y2(x+2a)+4a2 = 0.
(0 &C)
28. The tangents at two points P and Q on the parabola y2 = 4ax meet at R.
Find the equation of the locus of R in each of the following two distinct cases:
(i) when the sum of the ordinates of P and Q is 4a;
(ii) when the sum of the squares of the ordinates of P and Q is 4a2. (0 & C)
(The ordinate of a point is the y coordinate.)
29. The chord PQ of the parabola y2 = 4ax subtends a right angle at the vertex,
P and Q being the points (at 2, 2at) and (aT2, 2aT). Prove that tT+ 4 = 0 and that
the locus of the point of intersection of the normals at P and Q is
y2 = 16a(x 6a).
(0 & C)
d2y/dx2 = a,
where a is a constant, defines a family of parabolas (that is, any solution of the
given equation represents a parabola). If a = 6, find the equation of the parabola
of the family which has its vertex at the point (1, 1).
31. Prove that, in general, a unique parabola with its axis parallel to a given
direction may be drawn through three given points. What exceptional cases
may arise?
Find the equation of the parabola with axis parallel to the y axis and passing
through the points ( 1, 5), (0, 2), (1, 3).
32. A man rows a boat across a river flowing at a constant speed v. If his speed
in still water is also v and he always aims at a point on the further bank exactly
opposite his starting point, show that his path is a parabola.
[22
*Ex. 23. Show that x = ct, y = c/t is a suitable parametric representation of the
rectangular hyperbola.
Y
>
Fig. 22.7
Ex. 24. Show that, if any line through 0 cuts the rectangular hyperbola at P
and Q, then 0 is the mid-point of PQ. (This corresponds to a property of the
centre of a circle.)
Ex. 25. Trace the position of the point P(ct, c/t) as t varies from co to +co.
The chord joining the points P1(ct1, OD and P2(ct2, OD on the rectangular hyperbola has equation
c
c(t2 t1)
Y t, = cti t2(t t2) (x cti)
1
476
4]
RECTANGULAR HYPERBOLA
which reduces to
(1)
2h
4+12
c (1
+1\ = c(t, + 4)
ti t, '
t1
12
1112 =
c(t,+ t2) h
2k
[22
iocfl
(2)
which represents the required locus (or, more accurately,,contains the locus :
see Ex. 29).
By translating the coordinate axes to pass through the new origin
-Ifl), this is seen to represent a rectangular hyperbola, centre (+a, 113),
with axes parallel to the axes of coordinates. Thus, M lies on a rectangular
hyperbola, centre the mid-point of OA and with asymptotes parallel to
those of the given hyperbola.
The reader should compare the choice of parameters in Example 3
with that in the similar problem of Example 2.
Ex. 29. The locus sought in Example 3 may be definitely only part of the curve
(x -fa) (y 3-16) = +aft. Show this by taking A as the origin.
Exercise 22(c)
1. The tangent to a rectangular hyperbola at the point P meets the asymptotes
at Q and R. Prove that P is the mid-point of QR.
2. An axis of symmetry cuts a rectangular hyperbola at A, A'. P is any point of
the hyperbola and N is the foot of the perpendicular from P to AA'. Prove that
PN 2 = AN .NA'
3. With the notation of Question 2, if 0 is the centre of the hyperbola and G is
the point of intersection of the normal at P with the line AA', prove that
ON = NG.
4. With the notation of Questions 2 and 3, if Z is the foot of perpendicular from
O to the tangent at P, prove that OZ .0P = 0A2.
5. With the notation of Questions 2 and 3, if the tangent at P meets AA' at T,
prove that ON .0T = 0A2.
6. Show that the equation
(x a) (y b) = c2
4]
RECTANGULAR HYPERBOLA
9. P is a variable point on a rectangular hyperbola and Q is the foot of the perpendicular from P on to one of the asymptotes. If R divides PQ in a fixed ratio
show that R lies on a rectangular hyperbola with the same asymptotes as the
original hyperbola.
10. Find the equations of the normals to the hyperbola xy = c2which are
parallel to the line x 4y = 0.
11. The tangents at P, Q to a rectangular hyperbola meet at R. If 0 is the centre
of the hyperbola, show that OR bisects PQ.
P19 P2, 133, 134 are four points on a rectangular hyperbola. Prove that, if P1P2
is perpendicular to P3P4, then each of the four points is the orthocentre of the
triangle formed by the other three.
12.
13. The normal to the rectangular hyperbola xy = c2at the point P1(ct1, c/t,)
meets the curve again at P2(ct2, c/t2). Prove that q. t2 = -1 and deduce that the
locus of the mid-point M of P1P2has equation
4x3y3 + c2(x2 y2)2 = 0.
Miscellaneous Exercise 22
1. Prove that the line px + qy = 1 is a tangent to the parabola
y2 = 4a(a x) if a(p2+q2) = p.
A line 1 and a point 0 not on / are given; P is a variable point on 1 and Q
divides OP in a fixed ratio. Prove that the line through Q perpendicular to OP
touches a fixed parabola with focus at 0 and directrix parallel to 1.
(0 & C)
2. The coordinates of the mid-point of the line joining the points (au2, 2au),
(av2, 2av) are (X, 1'). Express u+ v and uv in terms of X and Y.
A variable chord of the parabola y2 = 4ax passes through the fixed point
(b, 0). Prove that the locus of the mid-point of the chord is a parabola, and
find the coordinates of its vertex and focus. (0 & C)
3. The normal at a point P meets the parabola again at Q. Find the length of
PQ in terms of the acute angle 0 between the normal and the axis of the parabola.
4. Two parabolas, y2 = 4a(x+ b) and x2 = 4a(y+ b), where a > 0, are given.
Prove that each point of intersection lies either on the line y = x or on the line
y+x+4a = 0.
Hence, or otherwise, prove that, if the parabolas have four real points of
intersection, then b > 3a.
(0 & C)
5. Lines are drawn through a variable point P of the parabola y2 = 4ax, making
angles a and 7r a with the axis of the parabola. The lines meet the parabola
again at Q and R. Prove that:
(i) the point of intersection of the tangents at Q and R lies on the parabola
y2= 4a(x + 4a cot2 a);
(ii) the line QR touches the parabola y2= 4a(x 4a cot2 a).
(0 & C)
479
[22
6. Prove that the line y = mx + aim touches the parabola y2= 4ax for all values
of m. Deduce that, if two tangents to a parabola are perpendicular, then their
intersection lies on the directrix.
7. Two directed lines meet at A, and points P and 13' are taken on the two lines
so that AP+ AP' is constant, sense being taken into account. It is required to
prove that PP' touches a fixed parabola. Prove this by first showing that the
equations of the lines may be taken in the form
y = (x + c) tan a and y = (x+ c) tan a,
where 2a is the angle between the lines and
AP+ AP' = 2c sec a,
and that the coordinates of P and 13' may be taken in the form
(t cos a, t sin a + c tan a) and ( t cos a, t sin a c tan a).
Deduce that PP' touches the parabola y2 = 4cx tang a.
(0 & C)
480
MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE
14. Three points P(ap2, 2ap), Q(aq2, 2aq), R(ar 2, 2ar) taken on the parabola
y2 = 4ax are such that PQ subtends a right angle at R. Show that
(p+r)(q+r) +4 = 0.
Show that every chord of the parabola which subtends a right angle at R intersects the normal at R at the same point F. Show also that, as R varies, F describes
(London)
another parabola.
15. The chord AB joining points A(cti, OD and B(ct2, 02) on the rectangular
hyperbola xy = c2is of constant length 1. Show that, as the position of the chord
varies, the centroid G of the triangle AOB, where 0 is the origin, moves on the
curve
(9xy _4c2) (x2 y2)
pxy.
Find the area of the triangle AOB when the coordinates of G are (c, 2c).
(London)
16. Prove that the equation of the tangent PT at the point P(ct, c/t) on the
rectangular hyperbola xy = c2 is
x+ t2y = 2ct.
The perpendicular to PT from the origin 0 meets PT at Q and the normal at
P meets the hyperbola again at R.
Prove that:
(0 & C)
17. Prove that the equation of the chord joining the points P(ct, c/t) and
481
[22
19. Prove that the normal to the rectangular hyperbola xy = c2 at the point
P(ct, t) meets the curve again at Q( eIt3, ct 3).
The circle on PQ as diameter meets the hyperbola at R; prove that PR passes
through the origin.
(0 &
20. Given a point P on a rectangular hyperbola, prove that one and only one
real chord PQ can be drawn which is normal to the hyperbola at Q. Deduce that
there is only one (real) chord AB of the hyperbola which is normal at both A and
B and locate the two points A, B.
21. Points P, Q, R, S are taken on the rectangular hyperbola xy = c2. Prove
that PQRS is a rectangle if and only if the parameters of the four points are of the
form t,
t, t-2. Deduce that it is impossible to inscribe a square in a rectangular hyperbola.
22. The tangent to a rectangular hyperbola F at the point P meets the asymptotes
at Q and R. 0 is the centre of the hyperbola and 0 QSR is a rectangle. If SQ, SR
cut P at Q', R' prove that Q'R' touches a second rectangular hyperbola whose
asymptotes coincide with those of P.
23. Prove that all chords of a parabola which subtend a right angle at a point
P on the parabola pass through a fixed point Q.
Q is called the Fregier point of P. If a given chord subtends right angles at
two points, P and 13' of the parabola, prove that the join of the two Fregier
points, Q and Q', is parallel to the given chord.
24. Find the equation of the tangent to the parabola SI: y2 = 4ax at the point
P(at 2, 2at).
If this tangent cuts the rectangular hyperbola S2: xy = k2at real points Q, R
and M is the mid-point of QR show that M lies on part of the parabola E:
2y2 + ax = 0.
Sketch in the same diagram the curves Si and S2 and the set of all such points
M in the case a > 0. Mark in your diagram the line other than x = 0 which
is a tangent to both S1and S2.
482
[23
POLYNOMIAL EQUATIONS
ao(zt)n + ai(4)n-1+
= 0,
on taking the complex conjugate of each side, and noting that aP = a2, since
the a,:are real. The result follows immediately.
Ex. 6. Given that -1 +j is a root of the equation
z4 +3z3 +5z2 +4z+2 = 0,
solve the equation completely.
*Ex. 7. Prove that a polynomial equation of odd degree has at least one real
root.
484
1]
PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS
But
[z(ocr+16A
and thus
[z - (ar
= - arr + fig-
- 2)2 +
and every square bracket is positive for all real z. The sign of P(z) is thus
determined by the sign of a,.
*Ex. 8. Prove that, if a(' and anhave opposite signs, the equation P(z) = 0 has
a real root.
Thus (x1-oci) (x2-cci) is negative in an odd number of cases and the result
follows.
Ex. 9. Prove that x3 -x+ 3 = 0 has a root between x = -2 and x = -1.
We conclude this Section with two worked examples. The first shows
how one equation may be transformed into another in such a way that
485
[23
POLYNOMIAL EQUATIONS
the roots of the two equations bear a given relationship to one another.
The second example indicates how calculus methods may be used to
solve problems on polynomial equations.
in the form
aw3+bw2+cw+d = 0.
By Homer's Method (Chapter 18, Section 1) we have
3
5
6
2
2
2(2
8
1
6
4
14
10 (2
7
6
18
(2
13
I]
PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS
wi(3w + 2) = 5w-2
or
<r>
on multiplying out and rearranging terms, and this equation has roots a2,
,82,
72.
(2, -32)
Fig. 23.1
Write
P(x) = 3x4-4x3-12x2;
then
P'(x)
12x3-12x2 24x
and thus
P'(x) = 0 when x = 1, 0, or 2.
Since P(x) > 0 for sufficiently large x, the values 1, 0, 2 for x yield
respectively a minimum, maximum and minimum of P(x). The graph of
y = P(x) thus assumes roughly the shape shown in Figure 23.1.
487
[23
POLYNOMIAL EQUATIONS
P(x) =
and the number of real roots of the equation may be deduced immediately
by considering the intersections of the curve y = P(x) and the straight
line y = k:
k < 0: the equation has two unequal real roots and two complex conjugate roots.
k = 0: the equation has three unequal real roots, one of multiplicity 2.
0 < k < 5: the equation has four unequal real roots.
k = 5: the equation has three unequal real roots, one of multiplicity 2.
5 < k < 32: the equation has two unequal real roots and two conjugate
complex roots.
k = 32: the equation has a real root of multiplicity 2 and two conjugate
(complex) roots.
k > 32: the equation has two pairs of conjugate complex roots.
Ex. 10. What are the roots of the equation in Example 2 in the cases
(ii) k = 5;
(iii) k = 32?
(i) k = 0;
Exercise 23(a)
1. Form the equation with roots 1, 2, 3 0, 3+0.
2. Form the equation with roots 1+2j, 1 2j, 2, 3.
3. Form the equation with a root 1 of multiplicity 3 together with a pair of
roots +j, j.
4. Solve the equation
(i)
488
111
(11)
a+1/1+1y +1
, fi , 7
1]
PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS
z3 3z2 3z 4 = 0,
form the equation with roots:
(ii) ,x2,/32,y2.
(i) 2a, 2fl, 2y;
9. If a, fi, y are the roots of the equation
z3 +jz+1 +j = 0,
form the equation with roots:
(ii) (1 +Da, (1+Dig, (1+.D7.
(i) lot, ifl, 17;
10. If a, fl, y are the roots of the equation
2z3 z2 + 4z+ 7 = 0,
form the equation with roots
(i) a+2,/3+2, y+2;
(ii) a 3, ft 3, 7 3.
11. If a, /3, y, 8 are the roots of the equation
z4 z 5 = 0,
form the equation:
(i) with roots a, /3, y, 8;
(ii) with roots a + 2, t+2, y+2, 8 + 2;
(iii) with roots co, 32, y2, 82.
12. If a, /3, y are the roots of the equation
3z3 20z2 + 39z 18 = 0,
form the equation with roots a-3, /3-3, y-3. Hence find a, /3, y.
13. Solve the equation
z3+3jz2 5z 3j = 0
by first increasing the roots by j.
15. Show that the cubic equation
z3 + 4z2 3z+ 25 = 0
has three real roots, one of which is positive and the other two negative.
16. Show that the cubic equation
z33z+ k = 0
has three distinct real roots if and only if k is real and 2 < k < 2.
17. Discuss the nature of the roots of the equation
2z3 15z2 + 24z+ k = 0
for different real values of k.
18. Discuss the nature of the roots of the equation
z4 4z2 2z2 + 12z+ k = 0
for different real values of k.
489
[23
POLYNOMIAL EQUATIONS
19. Discuss the nature of the roots of the equation
3z4-4z3-24z2 +48z+k = 0
for different real values of k.
20. Find a necessary and sufficient condition that the three roots of the cubic
equation
z3+3Hz+G = 0
should be real and unequal.
afly =
Similarly, for the quartic equation
ao z4+a1 z3+a2z2+a3z+a4 = 0,
with roots a,
A y, S we have
2]
In words, the sum of the roots one at a time is a,lao, two at a time is
+adao, three at a time is adao, and four at a time is adao. For brevity,
we denote a
+ y + 8 by Ea, afl + ay + a8+ fly ,88y8 by Zaft, etc.;
no ambiguity arises provided we know the degree of the equation under
consideration (in this case four).
Ex. 11. The roots of the equation
2z3 3z2 5z -13 = 0
ex,
ft,
the
numerical
values of /a, Zafi, afiy.
y. Write down
are
+ an = 0
2zn-2
ao zn aizn-1 a
has roots al, a2, ..., an. Then it may be shown by induction that the results
proved previously in the particular cases n = 2, 3, 4 hold generally.
Zai = di /a
Za ja; = +a,lao
Eat c6i ak = as/a,
an_, be
aozn-1+bizn-2b2zn-3+ +bn-i = 0
2,
4.
afly8 = 24,
491
POLYNOMIAL EQUATIONS
[23
Ea3 = 18.
Thus
Ea4 = 32,
ah = 11..
2]
a = Ex = 2,
b = Exy = 4-{(Ex)2 Ex2} -= 1-{4 30} 13.
w = (/-y)2
w = Eo2
o2
POLYNOMIAL EQUATIONS
[23
Exercise 23(b)
1. If a,
find:
(i) Ea2;
(v) Ea2/32;
(viii) Eafi(a2 +,82);
2. If a,
(ii) Eat;
(iii) Ea4;
(vi) (a + 2) (fl + 2) (y + 2);
(ix) El/ale;
(iv) Ea2fl;
(vii) El/a;
(x) E(cc + 08)2.
find:
(i) Ea2;
(v) Ea3fi;
(ii) Ea2fl;
(vi) I(a+fi+y)2;
(iii) El/a;
(vii) E(a+ 1) (13+ 1).
(iv) Ea3;
z3+pz+q = 0,
find:
(i) Ea4;
4. Solve the equation
(ii) El/a4;
32z3 + 48z2 + 6z 5 = 0,
2z3 11z2-5z+ 50 = 0,
x+y+z = 4,
yz+zx+xy = 1,
xyz = 6.
494
2]
x+y+z = 1,
x2+ y2+ z2 = 29,
x3 +y3+ z3 =29.
x+y+ z = 4,
x2+y2+z2 = 14,
x3 +y3 +z3 = 34.
ax3+3bx2+3cx+d = 0
are in arithmetic progression. Express c in terms of a, b and d.
(0 & C)
ax3+bx2+cx+d = 0
has a pair of reciprocal roots (that is, a and 1/a), then
a2 d2 = acbd.
Verify that this condition is satisfied for the equation
6x3 +11x2 24x 9 = 0
and hence, or otherwise, solve the equation.
(0 & C)
z3-Fpz+q = 0,
form the equations with roots:
(0 az,ig2; y2;
(0 & C)
POLYNOMIAL EQUATIONS
find the equations whose roots are:
a2
R7, R2 vcc, ccfl;
What can be said about a, A y if
(i) q3 = p3r;
[23
(ii)
(ii) 2p3-9pq+27r = 0?
(0 & C)
18. By considering the product (/1+ y) (y+a) (a +/3), find a necessary and sufficient condition that two of the roots of the equation
z3+pz2+qz+r = 0 (r * 0)
should be equal in magnitude but of opposite signs.
aoz3+3a1 z2+3a2z+a3 = 0.
(1)
If we apply the transformation z - (wa1)1a, we have
aoz3+3a1z2+3a2z+a3 = 0
agz3+3a,c4z2+3a2a,a0 z+a3ag= 0
(wa1)3 3ai(wai)2+3a2a0(wa,)+a,4 = 0
ws + 3w(a2a, -4)+(2a? -3a,a,a,+a,4) = 0
w3+3Hw+G = 0, where H = a2a0
G = 2(43 3a0a,a2+a3ag.
496
CUBIC EQUATION
w3+3Hw+G = 0
and we shall, from now on, regard this as the general cubic equation which
it is our intention to solve.
Ex. 15. Show how to reduce the equations:
(i) x3 9x2 + 22x 3 = 0,
(ii) 2x3 + 6x2 +10x 1 = 0,
to the standard form x3 + 3Hx + G = 0.
If the roots of (1) are z1, z2, z3and the roots of (2) are w1, w2, w3, then the
geometrical interpretation of the transformation z --> (w al)la0 is that it
transforms the triangle z1z2z3into the similar triangle w1w2 w3which has its
centroid at the origin (w1+w2+w3 = 0). (See Figure 23.2.)
W2
Fig. 23.2
pq = H, (p3+q3) = G;
coq.
(3)
(4)
497
[23
POLYNOMIAL EQUATIONS
if we can find values p, q satisfying (4) then we shall have a complete solution of the cubic equation.
From (4), p3and q3are the roots of the quadratic equation
Z2 + GZ H3= O.
(5)
14+0 = a+161= G,
Pi qi = aft = H3.
If H = 0, the original cubic is immediately soluble; if H
0, then
(ART = 1,
Hl
Pigs
giving
'
where e = 1, a) or (o2, andpi and qile are suitable values to take for p and q.
In summary, to solve the equation
w3+3Hw+ G = 0 (H
0),
z2+ Gz H3 = 0,
and let p = z1, q = 0e where e = ca01( H). Then
p
wp (.02q, (02p +
pq = H, p3+q3= G.
Example 8. Solve the equation z3 6z + 6 = 0.
We seek p, q such that
p3+q3 = 6,
pq = 2.
Thus, p3and q3are the roots of the quadratic
Z2 +6Z+8 = 0,
498
(6)
3]
CUBIC EQUATION
z3-6z+6 = 0
z3 + (2*)3 (21)3- 3Z(2i) (21) =
(Z
Z6 + GZ3 H3 = 0
the roots of which are p, (op,
q, cog, co2q.
*Ex. 18. With the notation of Ex. 17, show that, to each w correspond two
values of Z and that to the triangle w1wiw3formed by the roots of (2) correspond
two equilateral triangles.
Fig. 23.3
w1 = p+q,
(See Figure 23.3.)
w2 =
(02q, w3
Ex. 19. Show that w2, w, may be found by constructing equilateral triangles on
p, q as base.
499
POLYNOMIAL EQUATIONS
[23
From now on we shall suppose that the coefficients of (2) are real: then
either one root is real and the other two are conjugate (complex) numbers,
or all three roots are real. From (5), since G, H are real, either p3or q3 are
both real or else p3and q3are complex conjugates, in which case we must
have IpI = lql.
Case (i). p3and q3both real (and unequal)in which case we may take
p and q as both real and the geometrical construction (Figure 23.4) shows
that, of the solutions of (2), one is real and two are complex conjugates.
Case (ii). p3and q3are complex conjugates (and thus p, q may be taken
as complex conjugates). In this case, we must have 11,1 = lqi and the geometrical construction (Figure 23.5) shows that all three roots of (2) are
real.
F'g. 23.4
Since this exhausts all the possibilities, we have arrived at the famous
paradox that, if only one root of (2) is real, then p and q are both real, but,
if all three roots of (2) are real, then they arise from complex values of p
and q (the irreducible case). Put another way, if all three roots of a cubic
equation are real then the working of Cardan's solution necessarily involves complex numbers p and q at the intermediate stages.
Ex. 20. Explain geometrically how (i) a root of multiplicity two, (ii) a root of
multiplicity three, arise.
The expression
500
w2)12
3]
CUBIC EQUATION
w3+3Hw+G = 0.
From Example 7,
A = 27(G2 + 4H3).
Consider now the various cases that may arise (remember that we are
considering cubic equations with real coefficients).
(i) One real root a, two conjugate complex roots )6' + jy.
A = P./Yr (cx ViY)2 (3
ec)2
<0.
A=0
The case A > 0 leads to three real solutions via complex values of p
and q: the consequent working in Cardan's solution is frequently rather
5
PPMII
501
POLYNOMIAL EQUATIONS
[23
+PT.
*Ex. 22. Show that if A > 0, the substitution z = 2( H)i cos 0 will always
yield the solution of the cubic equation z3 + 3Hz+ G = 0.
Exercise 23(c)
Solve the cubic equations in Questions 1-5, using a trigonometric substitution
if possible and otherwise employing Cardan's solution.
1. z 3 2z + 4 = 0.
2. 4z3 5z + 6 = 0.
3. z3 3z 1 = 0.
4. 12z3 9z-- 2 = 0.
5. z3 9z + 12 = 0.
6. Reduce the equation
z3 6z2 + 1 8z 22 = 0
0,
to the form z3 + 3Hz+ G = and hence solve it completely.
az3+3bz2+3cz+ d = 0
p(w q)3= q(w p)3
z3 15z2+ 57z 5 = 0.
502
(0 & C)
3]
CUBIC EQUATION
w4+aw2+bw+c = 0.
By identifying this equation with the equation
fl(w+
(w2 + a)2
Miscellaneous Exercise 23
1. Prove, by graphical methods or otherwise, that a cubic equation (with real
coefficients) of the form
ax3+bx2+cx+d = 0
has at least one real root.
Prove that, if A is real, the equation
x3-3x2 +3x+A = 0
is satisfied for one and only one real value of x.
(0 & C)
2. By considering two alternative expansions of the expression
In {(1+ax) (1 + fix) (1 + yx)}
(a, y all real), prove that
+fl4 + 74 = p4 A -2q
+4pr + 2q2,
where a, y are the roots of the equation
x3+px2+qx+r = 0.
3. In the equation
x4+ ax3 20x2+ bx 576 = 0,
5-2
503
POLYNOMIAL EQUATIONS
[23
a and b are to be chosen so that two of the roots are equal and the sum of the
other two roots is zero.
Find all possible values of a and b, supposing them chosen so that the roots
(0 & C)
of the given equation are all real.
4. Find the value or values of a for which the roots of the equation
2x3 +6x2 +5x+a = 0
are in arithmetical progression.
(0 & C)
(0 & C)
8. When f(x) and g(x) are given polynomials having no common factor, prove
that the values of the constant k for which the equation
f(x) kg(x) = 0
has a repeated root are given by f(a)/g(a) where a is a root of the equation
f(x) g'(x) f /(x) g(x) = 0.
Hence, or otherwise, find the values of k for which the equation
x3 3x2 + 3kx 1 = 0
has a repeated root, and find also all the roots of the equation for each case.
(0 & C)
9. Discuss the reality of the solution of the equation
2x3 +3x2 -36x+k = 0
for different real values of k.
504
MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE 23
10. If f(x) is a polynomial in x which has a factor (x- CO2, prove that (x- a) is a
factor of f'(x). Prove conversely that, if f(x) and f'(x) have a common factor
x- a, then (x- a)2is a factor of f(x).
Solve the equation 4x
4 + 4x3-31x2-66x - 36 = 0
given that it has a repeated root.
(0 & C)
(0 & C)
12. The sum of the kth powers of the roots of the equation
x4+px2+qx+r = 0
is denoted by sk. Prove that
s2 = -2p, ss = -3q.
sn+4 +PSn+2
and deduce that
qSni
rs = 0 (II
0),
Given that the roots a, b, c, d of the equation are all real and that 5, = 0,
prove that q = 0 and deduce that
(a+ b) (a + c) (a + d) = 0.
(0 & C)
13. Show that, if z = 2(- H)i cos 8, where z is a root of the cubic equation
z3 + 3Hz + G = 0, then
cos 30 = ,s/(-G2/4H3).
Deduce that, if H < 0 and G3+ 4H3< 0 the cubic equation has three real
roots.
By using the expression cos 30 = -1-(e
310 + e-30),
solve the equation when
treating separately the cases
505
Ab
*Ex. 4. Show that, if a A b = 0, then either a and b are parallel or one or other
or both of a, b is zero.
*Ex. 5. Show that the vector product is anti commutative; that is, that
-
anb =b A a.
*Ex. 6. Verify that i A i = j A j = kA k= 0 and that
506
1]
VECTOR PRODUCT
So far, apart from the result of Ex. 2, the vector product appears
remarkably dissimilar to the product of ordinary numbers. However, there
is one rule which vector products obey and which, in a sense, justifies the
use of the word 'product': it is distributive over vector addition; that is
a A (b + c) = (a A b) + (a A c).
We shall deduce this very important result in a manner reminiscent of
that used to prove the analogous result for scalar products:
a . (b + c) = (a . b) + (a . c).
In Chapter 11, we saw that the scalar product of a = OA with a unit
vector could be interpreted geometrically as the (scalar) projection of a
Fig. 24.2
in the direction fi and it was this fact that enabled us to deduce the distributive law for scalar products. Consider the plane, II, perpendicular to fi
and through 0; let the foot of the perpendicular from A to II be D; then
the vector OD is called the (vector) projection of a on the plane H (see
Figure 24.2).
It follows from the definition of the vector product that
OD = la A fil,
but
OD a A fi,
VECTOR PRODUCTS
[24
Now consider 9 A (a1+ 22): from what has just been demonstrated,
lit A (al + a01 = 101 A aj-F(fi A a2)!.
But 9 A (a1+82) is perpendicular to the plane OBC and thus to OC, 9 A a1
is perpendicular to OD1, 19 A a2 is perpendicular to OD2 and thus, by
rotating the parallelogram 0 D1CD2through a right angle in the plane H,
it follows that
A (al + a2) = fi A al -Ffi A a2.
B
Fig. 24.3
With the distributive rules behind us, it is an easy matter to express the
vector product a A b in terms of components in three mutually perpendicular directions i, j, k. If a = chi+ a2 j+a3k and b = b1i+b2j+b3k, then
a A b = (aii+ a2 j + a3k) A (bl i+b,j+ b,k)
= (a2 b3 a, b) i + (a3bi b3) j + (a, b2 a2bi) k,
on repeated application of the distributive rule and using the results proved
in Ex. 6. The result is best remembered written formally as a determinant:
aAb =
a1 a
2
b/ b2 b,
1]
VECTOR PRODUCT
Fig. 24.4
Fig. 24.5
p = 1-(a+ c),
q = -1-(Aa+,uc),
and the vector area of OPQ
= 1-1) A q
= 8(a+ c) A (Aa+uc)
= t,(t A) (a A C)
on using the distributive and anti-commutative rules. But since ABCD
is a plane quadrilateral, its area is the magnitude of the sum of the vector
509
VECTOR PRODUCTS
[24
areas of LADB and ABDC (notice that we letter the triangles in the same
sense). Thus
ABCD = -(d A b+b A a+a A d)+-1-(d n c+c Ab+b Ad)
A (db)c A (d b)]
= -1-(ac) A (d b)
A (UC Ala)
=
= 1(ic A) (a A c), and the result follows.
Ex. 11. The position vectors, relative to some origin 0, of the vertices of a
convex polygon PiP2P3...Pnare denoted by Pi P2 n , Pn Extend the definition
of the vector area of a triangle to the vector area of a convex polygon and show
that the vector area of P1P2P3...Pn is
,
OPQ.
i
bAC =
b1 b2 b3
C1
we have
j
C2
C3
a1 a2 a3
a.(b A C) = b1 b2 b3
c1
C2
C3
*Ex. 12. Prove that a. (b A c) = b.(c A a) = c.(a n b) (that is, the scalar triple
product is unaffected by cyclic interchange of the letters) and that
a. (b A = (a A b).c
(the . and A may be interchanged).
510
2]
Fig. 24.6
Ex. 13. Show that a .(b A = 0 p 0, A, B, C, lie in a plane.
Ex. 14. Prove that x.(y A z) = (x A y).z without using components (and thus
without assuming the distributive law a A (b+ c) = a A b+ a A c).
Ex. 15. The fact that x.(y A z) = (x A y).z may be used to verify the distributive
law: define d = a A (b+ c) a A b a A c and form the product fi.d, where fi
is an arbitrary unit vector. Show that u.d = 0. Why does this imply that d = 0?
*Ex. 16. Show that the volume of the tetrahedron OABC is -1-a . (b A c).
*Ex. 17. Prove that, if any one of the vectors a, b, c is a scalar multiple of one
of the other two, then a .(b A = 0.
(a . c)
(a. b)
(since a. b
0),
511
[24
VECTOR PRODUCTS
and thus
a A (b A = v[(a c) b (a . b) c].
an(bAc)*(aAb)Ac.
A (C A a)+c A (a A
= 0.
Exercise 24(a)
1. Prove that (a b) A (a + b) = 2a
terms of areas.
512
2]
10. If a =
a3
bl b
2 b
3 cubic units.
a1 a2
6
C1
C2 C3
b),
g+g-pg = 4+14+4= I
prove that
and 4rn1+12m2+13m3 = 0
such that
BL _ a CM _
AN
MA = 11' NB = v.
LC
,
Prove that ALMN = (1 + Apr) AABC and deduce the theorem of Menelaus, that,
if LMN is a straight line, kuv = 1.
513
VECTOR PRODUCTS
[24
19. The sides (and sides produced) of the parallelogram ABCD separate the plane
into nine regions (see Figure 24.7). Prove that, if a point 0 is taken within
region I, II, VI or IX the area of OAC is the sum of the areas of OAB and
OAD but that, if 0 is taken within any other region, the area of OAC is the
difference of the areas of OAB and OAD.
(The reader who has studied mechanics may be able to interpret this result in
terms of moments.)
Fig. 24.7
20. ABCD is a tetrahedron. The lengths of AB and CD are a and b and the angle
between AB and CD is 0. A plane is drawn parallel to AB and CD and meets the
edges CA, CB, BD, DA at P, Q, R, S. Prove that PQRS is a parallelogram and
that its area is
ab
x(h x) sin 0,
h2
where x is the distance of the plane from AB and h is the distance between AB
and CD.
Hence, or otherwise, prove that the volume of the tetrahedron is
labh sin O.
3. APPLICATIONS TO COORDINATE
GEOMETRY
Throughout this section we shall assume that an origin 0 and a righthanded set of coordinate axes Ox, Oy, Oz specified by the unit vectors
j, k are given. The position vector of the point A... with respect to 0 will,
as usual, be denoted by a ....
Consider first the line through A in the direction of the unit vector 1
If R is any point on this line, then AR = Ail and thus
AR A = 0,
giving the equation of the line in the form
(r a) A 01 = 0.
514
3]
(ra) A =0
ai)i+ (y a2) j+(z ajk] A (a rnj + nk) = 0
x a,= y a,_za3
Fig. 24.8
The distance from the point B to the line, the length BN (see Figure
24.8), is
Kb a) A 0I.
If B is the point (b1, b2, b3) this gives
BN = I[(b2 a2) n (b3 a3)
Ex. 20. Show that the perpendicular distance from the point (3, 3, 2) to the line
x- 1
1
y-2
2
83
141.
The vector product is particularly useful in giving us the vector perpendicular to two given vectors. For example, consider the plane through the
(non-collinear) points A, B, C. The vector
d = AB A AC
is perpendicular to this plane. Thus
d = (b a) A (c a)
= b A c+c A a+a Ab
and the equation of the plane is now found easily.
515
[24
VECTOR PRODUCTS
Example 2. Find the equation of the plane through the points A(1, 1,
B(2, 1, 10), C(-1, 1, 1).
AB = 2j+ 13k,
3),
AC = 2i 2j+ 4k,
AB A AC = 18i-30j 6k,
and thus the vector 3i 5j k is perpendicular to ABC. Since A lies in the
plane the equation of ABC is therefore
3(x-1) 5(y-1) (z+ 3) = 0
which gives, on simplification,
3x 5yz = 1.
*Ex. 21. If r = xi+ yj+ zk is the position vector of the point P show that the
volume of the tetrahedron PABC is
(ra).[(b a) n (c a)].
(See Ex. 15.)
Hence obtain the equation of the plane ABC of Example 2 in determinant
form, and verify that the expansion of this determinant gives the same equation
as that obtained above.
Example 3. Find the equation of the plane through the point (2,
perpendicular to the line of intersection of the planes
5,
1)
x+7y+z = 0, x-5y-2z = 0.
The line of intersection is perpendicular to both of the vectors
i+ 7j +k and i 5j-2k
and thus its direction is given by
(i + 7j+k) A(i -5j-2k) = 9i+ 3j 12k.
Thus 3i j+4k is normal to the required plane, whose equation must be
3(x 2) (y + 5) + 4(z + 1) = 0
or
3xy+4z = 7.
Example 4. Find the length of the common perpendicular to the two skew lines
x _ y+1 _ z+2 x-2 _ y-6 _ z-3
1
2 4' 1 4 2
3]
= (b a) . 0
3x+5y+8z = 1
Pt,
2x+3y+4z = 3
P2,
4x+2y+5z = 2
P3.
These three equations represent three planes, PI, P2, P3; their solution consists in finding the point Q common to each plane (assuming such a point
exists).
From equations P1and P2we obtain (3/31+P2), the equation of the plane
through the line of intersection of P1, P2 containing the origin. Thus
11x+18y+28z = 0
P4
P5
[24
VECTOR PRODUCTS
Ex. 22. Use the method outlined above to find a necessary and sufficient condition for the existence of a non-trivial solution to the set of three homogeneous
linear equations:
aix+biy+ciz = 0,
a2 x+b2y+c2z = 0,
a3 x+b3y+c3 z = 0.
Exercise 24(b)
1. Find the equations of the planes through the following sets of points:
(i) (1, -1, 1), (2, 1, 2), (3, 1, -1);
(ii) (1, 1, 1), (0, -3, -2), (-1, 3, - 1);
(iii) (1, 1, 5), (1, -1, -3), (2, 1, 1);
(i)
-3
2
2 '
2
-5
6 '
x-4=y-7 _ z- 3
3
5
2 '
(ii) x - 6 = y - 3 = z-1,
(iii) x- 8 = y-7 = -
2'
x+1 _ y+1_-z-2
2 - -1
2
x-4 =y = z + 3
1
-2
and
EXERCISE 24
8. Given the plane P: 2x+ 3y z = 1 and the line L: ix = y = (z 5),
find:
(i) the coordinates of the point of intersection of P and L;
(ii) a vector parallel to P and perpendicular to L;
(iii) a vector in the direction of the projection of L in P;
(iv) the equation of the projection of L in P.
9. Show that the equation of the plane containing the points A, B, C has
equation
(r a). (b a) A (c a) = 0.
Write down, in determinant form, the equation of the plane through the points
A(ai, a2, a3),B(bi, b2, b,), C(ci, c2, c3).
10. Find a vector perpendicular to both ai+ bj + ck and li+mj+nk. Hence
write down the equation of the plane through the origin containing the line
xa =yb = zc
1
m
n
Use this result to find the line through the origin which intersects each of the
lines
-1(x+ 1) = y-2 = i(z+2),
3(x+ 1) = i(y 4) = (z 3),
giving your answer in standard form.
11. Find the vector equation of the line through the point C (position vector c)
which intersects both of the lines
519
2 5.
1. DENSITY FUNCTIONS
In Chapters 7, 10 and 16 we discussed probability distributions in discrete
outcome spaces, that is, in spaces whose elementary events we could count
by putting them into one-to-one correspondence with the set N of natural
numbers. Associated with each elementary event siof the outcome space
S was a number xi, usually an integerthe value of our associated random
variable X.
Random experiments occur, however, in which it is mathematically
more convenient to take as outcome space a set which cannot be counted
and as random variable a subset X of the set R of real numbers. For
example, suppose we take a point P at random on a line AB of length 1 m.
Since we can only measure lengths to within some given limits of accuracy,
say 0.5 mm, we could take as values of a (discrete) random variable the
number of intervals of length 0.5 mm P is from A, giving 201 possible values
in all (0-200). Mathematically the situation may be simpler to analyse if
we take as values of our (continuous) random variable the supposed `exact'
length of AP, measured as a real number of mm; that is
X= fx e R: 0 x 5 100}.
If we are dealing with a subset of R, calculus methods are available and it is,
for example, easier in general to integrate a function than it is to sum a
series.
Given a continuous random variable X, it will generally be impossible
to assign a probability to a specific value of X; rather we assign a probability to each interval
E = {x e X; x, < x < x2}
as follows. Let f be an integrable function such that
(i) f(x)
0, for all x e X;
(ii) f f(x) dx = 1;
where the notation f denotes that the integration is to be performed over
the set X. Then we define
Pr (E) =
520
x2
x,
f(x) dx.
1]
DENSITY FUNCTIONS
= f(x).
Consider again the random experiment of marking a point on the line
AB. To analyse the situation we must first set up a mathematical model;
in other words, we seek to make the vague statement `we mark a point P
at random on AB' mathematically precise by stating explicitly what we
feel 'at random' could mean.
B
100
50
Fig. 25.1
f(x) =
if x < 0
kx
if 0 < x < 50
k(100 x)
if x?..- 100,
[25
f(x)dx = 1
50
100
50
I kx dx +
k(100 x) dx = 1
1
2500'
too
30
60
100
Fig. 25.2
Now suppose we wish to find the probability that P lies between 30 and
60 mm from A. We define the event E by
Pr (E) =
50
30
i To- xdx+ f
60
50
1(100 x) dx
1]
DENSITY FUNCTIONS
k[50x2 -3x3]000
k=
3
500000'
Fig. 25.3
so
130 500000
x(100 x) dx
6 x 10-6[50x2 3x928
P2A- = 0.432.
Ex. 1. Why would you expect the second answer for Pr (E) to be less than the
first?
Ex. 2. Write down the value of Pr (E) on the assumption that all points of the
interval are equally likely. What form does f(x) take in this case?
[25
Lcc,
fQ
f(x) dx = 1,
j _. f(x) dx =
2. DISTRIBUTION FUNCTIONS
The density function, f, of a continuous probability distribution bears the
same relation to probability as mass density does to mass:mass density
is the mass per unit volume, probability density is the probability per unit
interval. It must be remembered that f(x) itself is not a probability, but
8p = f(x) Sx is.
We now introduce a function, closely related to the density function,
whose values do represent probabilities. Suppose the domain of our random variable is R and that we are given a density function f: R > R. Then
we know
(i) f(x) > 0,
+00
(ii) L oo f(x) dx = 1.
Let E be the set of real numbers less than, or equal to x, that is, the set of
real numbers to the left of x on the real axis:
E = fy R: y
Then
Pr (E) =
rx
f(x)dx
-depends upon x and we may define a function F: R > R where
F(x) = f x f(x) dx = Pr (E).
F is called the distribution function for the probability distribution;
F(x) is the probability that, given a probability distribution with density
f(x), a point chosen at random will be less than x.
From the original definition we have (provided f is continuous)
dF
dx
Since f(x)
524
21
DISTRIBUTION FUNCTIONS
x,
= F(x2) F(xi).
Since the sets E and {x e R: x < x1} are mutually exclusive, this illustrates
the result that the probability of the union of mutually exclusive events is
the sum of the probabilities of the separate events.
*Ex. 5. If E1 E2 E,, are mutually exclusive events in a continuous outcome
space, prove that
Pr (ED + Pr (E2) + + Pr (E.) = Pr (Ei U Ea U . u
Example 1. The density function, f, is defined by
if x < 0
f(x) = {0
kx(1 x) if 0 s x < 1
0
if x > 1.
Find
(i) the value of k;
(ii) the distribution function F;
(iii) the density and distribution functions, g and G, of the random variable W where
2
W x
Sketch the graphs off and F.
(i) Since f + f(x) dx = 1,
we have
f:kx(1
x) dx = 1
k = 6.
[25
G(w) = Pr {z e R: 0
z < w}
Also,
giving
0
if w < 0
g(w) = 3(1 A/w) if 0 < w < 1
0
if w > 1.
The graphs of f, F are shown in Figures 25.4(i) and (ii).
F(x)
(i)
Fig. 25.4
2]
DISTRIBUTION FUNCTIONS
of F, which usually has a shape very similar to that shown in Figure 25.4,
is called a cumulative probability curve (or, occasionally, an ogive curve).
Ex. 6. Explain how the cumulative probability curve may be used to find the
median and upper and lower quartiles.
In the case of discrete distributions, if we had a random variable X
which could take all integral values r in the range 1 r < n, where
Pr (X = r) = p
we defined the expectation of X by
g(X) =
rp
r=1
_8_
15
g(x) = (x - ,u)2.
527
[25
+co
03
Since
+0
(x -11)2 f(x) dx =
+co
+ CO
OP
= co x2f(x)
=
we have
+co
x2f(x) dx - 2,a .
a2 +112 =
+op
+ OP
f(x) dx
A2.1,
x2f(x) dx,
Exercise 25(a)
1. f(x) = kx-2 if x
Pr (x < 2).
528
2]
DISTRIBUTION FUNCTIONS
Find the mean, median, mode and variance for the distribution with the density
function defined as in Questions 5-8.
5.
O
f(x) =
O
if x < 0
x) if 0 < x < 2
if x > 2.
6.
if x < 0
(6x +1)/4 if 0 < x < 1
f(x) = {0
if x > 1.
0
7.
O
f(x) = {-fir cos rrx
0
8.
f(x) =
if x < 4
if i ---5 x ---S. 4
if x > 4.
(0
if x < 0
Ae-Ax if x 0.
if x < 0
if 0 < x < 1
f(x) =
if x < 0
if 0
x <.. 1
2 x if 1 < x < 2
0
if x > 2.
[25
(x < 0),
(x
2),
(M.E.I.)
f(x) = 0 otherwise.
(0 & C adapted)
DISTRIBUTIONS
(i) The uniform (or rectangular) distribution
If a continuous random variable can assume all real values between x = a
and x = b and if the density function, f, is independent of position within
this interval, then the random variable is said to possess a uniform dis530
3]
CONTINUOUS DISTRIBUTIONS
tribution. f and F are thus given, for the uniform distribution over the
interval a < x ' b, by
1
)
if x < a
1
f(x) =
if a.....x:c.b
b a
0
if x > b;
if x < a
x a
F(x) = CO
b_ a if a < x < b
if x > b.
[25
from 0 in the given direction, and if x is uniformly distributed in the interval a < x < a, the chord will exceed a \)3 in length (e.g. PQ, in Figure
25.6) if a
x +a giving a probability of -I-.
Ex. 11. If, in Example 3, the mid-point of the chord is taken to have a uniform
distribution over the interior of the circle, prove that the probability that the
chord will exceed the length of the side of the inscribed equilateral triangle is 1
4.
Fig. 25.6
Fig. 25.5
3]
CONTINUOUS DISTRIBUTIONS
if
x > 2a
But, since
y = 2ax x2,
we have
x = a Al(a2 y)
giving
G(y) = Pr (z e R: z < y)
(x < a),
a V(a2 y)
a
Thus we have
if y < 0
G(y) = (1 41 (1 ;) if 0 < y . -. . a2
1
if y > a2.
PPMU
533
[25
N
P
>x
Fig. 25.9
for given z all possible points R lie on the line segment PQ, where P is the
point (z, 0). For 0 S z 1, PQ cc z; for 1 < z 2, PQ cc (2 z) and
thus the density function, f, of Z, whose value for given z is proportional
to z, is triangular. In fact
0
if z < 0
z
if 0 z
1
f(x)
(2 z) if 1 < z S 2
0
if z > 2.
534
3]
CONTINUOUS DISTRIBUTIONS
Ex. 12. Find the distribution function, F, for the random variable Z of Example 5
and sketch its graph.
Ex. 13. If, with the notation of Example 5, the random variable W is defined by
w = xy, describe the distribution of W.
Fig. 25.10
numerical value of x; that is, the probability is of the form cb(x2) Sx. On the
assumption of the symmetry of the errors made above, the probability of
the 'y error' is 0(y2) Sy and the probability of lying in a small area
SA = Sx Sy
around P is 0(x2) 0(y2) SA, on assuming that the errors occur independently.
But on these assumptions the probability may also be written
95(x' 2) 0(Y/2) 8A,
(approx.)
where new axes Ox', Oy' are taken with Ox' passing through P, as shown
in Figure 25.10. Thus, since x'2 = x2 +y2 and y' = 0 at the point P,
535
[25
A solution of this equation is 0(x2) = ke--"2where A is taken as a positive constant, since it is reasonable to assume that the probability decreases
the further we move from 0.
The argument above (due to Thompson and Tait) suggests that the function f(x) = ke-Ax2could form a suitable model for the probability density
of errors occurring in observations. This indeed turns out to be the case
and we shall therefore make the following definition.
The random variable X is said to have a normal distribution if its density
function, 0(x), is of the form
1
ec(x)
V(277)
The letter 0 is customarily used in place off to denote the density function
of the normal distribution; the corresponding distribution function is
rx
e-ix2 dx.
I(x) - v(21T) j _
The factor (277)-i appearing in the forms for 0 and' ensures that the
requirement
r+.
J (x) dx = 1
-.
is metthat is, that 0(x) is a genuine density function. This follows from
the well-known integral
+
e- x2 dx = V(277),
e(X) = 0.
Furthermore, the variance of a normally distributed random variable
X is 1, for
1 f+
,
'r(X) = .2 =
x2 e-ix dx
V(2n)
1+cO
v(27) , xd(e-iz2)
-
V(27r) j
CONTINUOUS DISTRIBUTIONS
3]
(270
e-ix'
about the line x = 0, values of t(x) for x < 0 may be deduced immediately.
Fig. 25.11
x ft
o-
Fig. 25.14
Fig. 25.15
[25
3]
CONTINUOUS DISTRIBUTIONS
y-2
0.75
x 122
Y = 5-2
so that y has the standard normal distribution (# = 0, Cr = 1) and using
statistical tables, we find 1(y) for the upper limit of each class-interval.
Finally, the probability associated with each class interval may be
calculated
P = 00'0 OW.
539
[25
>135
130-135
125-130
120-125
115-120
110-115
105-110
< 105
135.5
130.5
125.5
120.5
115.5
110.5
105.5
(y)
2.60
1.64
0.68
-0.29
-F26
-2.22
-318
1.0000
0.9953
0.9495
0.7517
0.3859
0.1038
0.0132
0.0007
p
0.0047
0.0458
0.1978
0.3658
0.2821
0.0906
0.0125
0.0007
1.0000
10
Fig. 25.16
540
15
20
3]
CONTINUOUS DISTRIBUTIONS
binomial distribution B(20, 3-) are proportional to the lengths of the corresponding vertical lines. The outline shape is strongly reminiscent of the
normal curve. Even in a skew case, where p + 1, the outline is still approximately normal : see Figure 25.17, in which the length of the vertical lines are
proportional to the probabilities of obtaining the scores 0, 1, 2, ..., 20 in
the binomial distribution B(20, 1).
10
15
Fig. 25.17
541
[25
a- = 7.906.
2 Pr (x > 139),
We seek
/138.5-125\1
7.906
2[1 0(1.71)]
0.087.
There is thus insufficient evidence of bias at the 5 % level.
542
3]
CONTINUOUS DISTRIBUTIONS
0.05
and thus a normal variable greater than 1.96 indicates significance at the
5% level. In Figure 25.18 the two shaded areas each contain 2.5 % of the
total area under the curve.
Fig. 25.18
{0
if x < 0,
Ae-Ax if x 0,
"r(x) = 1/A2.
[25
Consider the calls received at a telephone exchange, the rth call occurring
at time t,., where the time, t, is measured from t = 0. We shall assume that
the number of calls constitutes a purely random process; that is, the number
of calls received in any interval (t, t') is independent of anything that has
occurred previously. Furthermore, we shall assume that the purely random
process is a stationary process: that is, the number of calls received in the
interval (t, t') depends only upon its length, not on its position.
Ex. 15. Discuss the validity of the assumptions made above in the light of what
you imagine would be a typical exchange.
Put t = at = 0:
Po(0) = [Po(0)]2
P
= Pat )
at
Let 8t 0:
- o(0)
at
Po(t) = Po(t)-PO(0)
Pa(t) = 4e-At,
(1)
where is a constant ( -pa0)) which must be positive since pat) < 1 and
A = 1 since MO) = 1.
Result (1) now enables us to prove that if X is the random variable whose
value is the length of the time interval up to the first call, then X has an
exponential distribution. If F is the distribution for X then, for x 0,
F(x) = Pr (length of the time interval up to the first call x)
= Pr (at least one call has been made by the time x has elapsed)
= 1 -e-ax
and thus
3]
CONTINUOUS DISTRIBUTIONS
Ex. 16. If p(t) is the probability that there are n telephone calls in the time interval (0, t) and if St is sufficiently small for there to be a negligible probability
of more than one call in the interval (t, t +St) show that
dp.
--d7 =
Pa)
Ex. 17. Prove by induction that the probability, 1,40, defined in Ex. 16, is
given by
P.(t)=
e-Al(At)n
n!
Ex. 18. Show that the distribution of the number, n, of calls received during a
fixed time interval is Poisson and account for this in terms of the Poisson distribution being a limiting form of the binomial distribution.
Exercise 25(b)
1. The random variable, X, has uniform distribution in the interval 0 x <10.
Find Pr (X = x, where x2 5x + 4 > 0).
2. The line AB has length 10 cm. A point P is taken at random on AB, all points
being equally likely; what is the probability that the area of the circle of radius
AP will exceed 10 cm2 ?
3. The line AB has length 10 cm. An interval of length 2 cm is marked at random on the line, the positions of the interval being uniformly distributed. What
is the probability that it will contain the mid-point of AB?
4. A circular disc of radius 10 cm is placed on a table. Another disc, of radius
3 cm, is now placed on the table so that it is at least partially in contact with the
first disc. On the assumption that the permissible positions of the smaller disc
are uniformly distributed, what is the probability that it covers the centre of the
larger disc?
5. A point P is taken at random on the side AB (and between A and B) of the
square ABCD, the positions of P being uniformly distributed. If PC cuts BD at
X, find the probability (i) that BX < -113D; (ii) that BX < 1BD.
6. Figure 25.19 shows a square wooden frame
B
A
ABCD with a square hole A'B'C' D' cut symmetrically in it. AB = 50 cm, A'B' = 30 cm.
A'
A ball of diameter 5 cm is dropped on to the
frame. Assuming that its centre falls within
the square ABCD and that it is equally likely
to meet the plane of the frame at any point
within ABCD, what is the probability that the
ball will pass straight through the hole without
D
touching the frame?
7. A point A is marked on the circumference of
a circle of radius r and a chord AP is drawn at
Fig. 25.19
random, the positions of the point P on the
circumference being uniformly distributed. Find the expected length of the chord.
B'
'
C'
545
[25
=f
EXERCISE 25
If a dose of 17.5 units is administered to each of 100 insects, how many will
be expected to die? What is the probability that just two insects will survive?
(M.E.I.)
18. Packets are advertised as containing 500 g of sugar. Tests carried out show
that 6.7 % of such packets contain a mass greater than 508 g, while 0.6 % have
a mass less than 492 g. Estimate the average mass of the contents of a packet
on the assumption that a normal distribution constitutes an acceptable mathematical model.
19. A firm advertises that their runner bean seeds give a 95 % germination rate.
Of 200 such seeds, 14 fail to germinate. Have you cause for complaint?
20. A man claims that he can forecast rainy or dry weather 48 hours ahead.
Careful records are kept over 80 days and his forecast is found to be correct
47 times. Is his claim justified, or is he merely lucky?
21. A 'chance of failure' distribution is given for time t by the probability density function
p(t) = (1/a) e-tea (0 < t < co).
Show that a is the mean time of failure and that the variance is a2.
Two components in a machine have failure time distributions corresponding to
means a and 2a respectively. The machine will stop if either component fails and
the failures of the two components are independent. Show that the chance of the
machine continuing to operate for a time a from the start is e-312.
(0 & C)
Miscellaneous Exercise 25
1. AB is a rod of length 2a. A point P is taken on AB, the points being uniformly
distributed, and the stick is broken at P. Find the expected value of AP2+PB2.
The two parts of the rod are placed on a table in such a way that A and B
are aV3 apart. What is the probability that the triangle APB will be obtuse?
2. The mean deviation about p for a distribution with density function f is
defined by the equation
+co
lx-F1 f(x) dx.
=
Prove that the mean deviation of a random variable distributed normally about
with standard deviation a is approximately fisr.
Rods are manufactured with a mean length of 18.4 cm and standard deviation
025 cm. If only those rods with a length greater than 18.4 cm are retained, what
is their average length on the assumption that the rods were originally normally
distributed about 18.4 cm with standard deviation 0.25 cm?
3. If X, Y are independently and uniformly distributed between 0 and 2, find
Pr (xy < 1).
4. The side of a square is uniformly distributed between 0 and 1. Find the density and distribution functions for the area of the square and sketch their graphs.
Determine the expected value of the area and its variance.
547
[25
5. The probability density function for the life x of a motor car tyre is given by
f(x) = Ae-As
for x 0, where A = 0.04 and x is measured in units of 1500 km. What is the
probability that a single tyre will last more than 30 units?
A car has four tyres in use and they are all of the same age. What is the prob(M.E.I.)
ability that all of them will need replacing before 30 000 km?
6. A random variable X has the probability density function
exp -gx1(cr,13)}
6,0{1+ exp [ - gx/(cN/3)]}2
for all real x. Show that the distribution is symmetrical about x = 0. Determine
the cumulative distribution F(x) = Pr {X < x}.
You are given that the variance of X is 0-2. Compare the value of F(o), F(2cr),
F(3c) with the corresponding values for the normal distribution with zero mean
(M.E.I.)
and variance Gr2.
f(x) -
10. A grocer sells bread and can buy batches of 120 loaves. The number of daily
customers for bread is distributed normally with mean 100 and variance 100.
The net profit on the sale of a loaf is 2.5p and the net loss on an unsold loaf is
3.5p. What is the average daily net profit to the grocer?
(M.E.I.)
11. The random variable X has normal distribution. If a new random variable
Y is defined by
y = x2
show that the distribution function, F, for Y is given by
F(Y) = () f
o
548
e-x'/2clx.
MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE 25
Deduce that Y has a X2distribution with one degree of freedom, defined by the
density function f, where
(y < 0)
0
f(y)
v 112 p-v/2
,1(27r)'
.-
0).
12. Two chords are drawn independently at random in a circle. What is the
probability that they intersect?
13. Two men, A and B, are allowed a lunch-break of an hour. A is at liberty
to leave the office at any time between 12.00 and 12.45, while B may leave the
office between 12.45 and 2.00. What is the probability that they will both be out
together, on the assumption that the permissible starting times for both A and
B are uniformly distributed?
14. A needle is pivoted at the point (0, a) and is rotated. When it comes to rest,
the point P at which its axis (produced if necessary) cuts the x axis is marked.
The random variable X is defined to have as its value the x coordinate of P.
On the assumption that the angle that the needle makes with the y axis is
distributed uniformly between -17r, prove that X has a Cauchy distribution,
defined by the density function
f(x)
a
71(22 +X2)
[25
By considering the forms that these equations take under the steady-state
condition pk(t) = pk(t at), where k is zero or any positive integer, or by any other
means, obtain and the mean queue size (in terms if A and p) in the steady
state.
(C.S.)
-
19. X is a continuous random variable with mean p and variance o2. A is a posi-
0)12rt
mobiles chosen at random on the road. Each man is required to test 20 cars.
Calculate the distribution of the number of cars with defective brakes in sets of
20 cars if the probability that a single car has defective brakes is 10 %.
Show the distribution graphically together with a plot of the normal distribution with the same mean and variance. Comment on the relation between the
two distributions. (M.E.I.)
23. A population contains two strata I and II in proportions 3, 3respectively.
Both strata are exponentially distributed the first with mean 1 and probability
density function
f(xi) = Al e-A. . (x1 0);
MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE 25
Find the mean and standard deviation of the population and the probability
that a randomly chosen member of the population is greater than 2. (M.E.I.)
24. Initially a machine is in good running order but is subsequently liable to
breakdown. As soon as a breakdown occurs repairs begin. If the machine is in
good order at time t then the probability that a breakdown occurs in a small
interval (t, t+ d t) is a dt, and if it is under repair at time t the probability that the
repair is completed in time (t, t+ d t) is fldt. Let p(t) be the probability that the
machine is under repair at time t.
Write down an equation relating p(t + dt) to p(t) and hence show that p(t) is
a {1 exp [ (oc + /3) t]}.
a + fl
(C.S.)
551
1. ACCURACY
When equations arise in practical problems, their solutions are generally
required only to some given order of accuracy. General algebraic methods
of solution (for example, for the cubic equation), even if they are available,
are often less suitable than approximate methods for deriving numerical
solutions. Thus, to find the real root of the equation
x3 2.7x 5.3 = 0
by Cardan's method would require burdensome calculations and no such
method exists to solve, for example, the equation
x5 2.7x 5.3 = 0.
Because of its great practical importance, the estimation of roots of
numerical equations has been extensively studied; in this chapter we shall
confine ourselves to some of the most elementary methods available: the
reader who wishes to study the subject further should consult one of the
standard texts on numerical methods (for example, Henrici, Elements of
Numerical Analysis). It may be mentioned in passing that this subject allows
more scope than most others in elementary mathematics for students to
devise their own methods; although these may often prove less efficient
than the standard techniques, much profit will be gained by developing
them as far as possibleapart from the obvious enjoyment of producing
something original.
Before considering the solution of equations it is worth pausing to consider some problems connected with the accuracy of calculations. In
numerical calculations, errors occur through rounding-off to a given number
of significant figures. If a number is to be rounded-off to N digits and the
discarded digits form exactly half a unit, round-off to the nearest even digit.
For example, to 3 significant figures,
3.864
0.03765
3.86;
21990
3.76 x 10-2;
220 x 104;
21.55
216 x 10.
*Ex. 1. Suggest any advantage you see in adopting the convention above. Can
you suggest any reason why even rather than odd digits have been selected?
552
1]
ACCURACY
(I ei +1621)/0).+ YD.
Ex. 3. Show that the maximum absolute and relative errors in writing y1-y2 for
x1- x2are respectively I 611 + 1 621 and (I elI + 1 621)01-Y2).
*Ex. 4. Neglecting terms such as 161 621, show that the maximum absolute and
relative errors in writing y1y2 for x1x2are respectively
IY1 621 + IY2 611 and I ei/Y11 + 162/Y2
Show also that, writing yily, for x1/x2they are respectively
I ei/Y2 I +
553
[26
260
16+2
. 16 V260
and
2
1
16-06
0.0627.
554
ACCURACY
1]
example, if the correct answer is 0.649 999 9 and our numerical answer is
0-650 000 1 then, to 1 significant figure our answer is 0.7 but the correct
answer is 0.6 although our calculation was only 0.000 000 2 in error.
V31/30=1/(5568+5477)
=0.090539 (from 5 figure reciprocal tables)
x5 x 1 = 0
has just one real root and that this root lies between x = 1 and x = 2.
Ex. 9. Show graphically that it is possible for roots of the polynomial equation
f(x) = 0 to occur between x = a and x = b without f(a), f(b) being of different
signs.
555
[26
When a root has been located between x = xo and x = x1, an approximate value for the root may be obtained by linear interpolation; that is,
by approximating to the graph of y = f(x) between x = x, and x = x1
by a straight line (see Figure 26.1, in which OA = x0, OB = x1; we take
OC as our approximate root, the exact root being OD). Since the equation
of the line PQ, in the notation of Chapter 18 with xl x, = h, is
h(yf0) = 40(x x0)
hf,
x = xo
Afo
as an approximation to the required root.
we have, putting y = 0,
Fig. 26.1
*Ex. 10. Show from graphical considerations how the computation of 412 /0
enables one to tell whether the approximation by linear interpolation is likely to
be too big or too small.
LOCATING ROOTS
2]
By direct computation, f(1) = 1, f(2) = 8 and the real root lies between x = 1 and x = 2, probably nearer to x = 1.
By linear interpolation, a second approximation is given by
x =1
Since f'(x) > 0, .f"(x) > 0 between x = 1 and x = 2 (see Figure 26.2)
the root x = 19 will be an underestimate.
Fig. 26.2
By direct computation again we have
557
[26
if
Ex. 14. Prove graphically that, if P'(0) > 0, no roots of the equation P(x) = 0
lie between x = 0 and the least positive root of P'(x) = 0 and that if P'(0) < 0,
at most one such root of P(x) = 0 exists.
Ex. 15. What happens in Exs. 13, 14 if
= 0?
Ex. 16. Complete the proof of Descartes's Rule of Signs using mathematical
induction.
558
2]
LOCATING ROOTS
Exercise 26(a)
1. If x is rounded-off to 3 significant figures to give the numerical value 48.7,
give the value and range of acceptance for (i) sin x; (ii) tan x, using 4-figure tables.
2. If x, y are rounded-off to 3 significant figures, their values are x = 17.2,
y = 5.16; give the range of acceptance for (i) x+y; (ii) xy; (iii)
3. Compare the relative accuracy obtained from your square root tables for
x = V3 - V2 with that obtained for x = (V3 + V2)-1.
If V2 = 1.41421... and J3 = F73205... find as accurately as you can a value for
V3 - V2.
4. Given that V130 = 11.4018 and V132 = 11.4891 find as accurately as you
can a value for V132 - V130.
5. The triangle ABC is right angled at B. AC, AB are measured to the nearest
millimetre, their lengths being found to be 7.4 and 4.4 cm respectively. Use the
theorem of Pythagoras to calculate the length of BC, stating what confidence
you have in the reliability of your answer.
6. If x = y+ e, use the Taylor expansion to find the absolute and relative error
in taking tan x to be equal to tan y.
7. With the notation of Question 6, find the absolute and relative error in
taking (1 +x2)-1/2 to be (1 +y2)-112.
8. If x = 4-6 0.05 and f(x) = x3- 2x +1, and if x is taken to be 4.6, find the
relative errors in (i) x; (ii) f(x). Comment upon your result.
9. Find graphically, using the method of enlarging scales, the least positive root
of the equation
cot 7-1 = 1 + x
(2
correct to 2 decimal places.
10. Solve graphically the equation 2x = 1 + In x.
11. Solve graphically x3 = 10.
12. Find 21/6, correct to 2 decimal places, by a graphical method.
13. Locate the three roots of the equation
2x3 - 6x- 3 = 0
and find their approximate values, using linear interpolation.
14. Locate the two real roots of the equation
x4 +x2 + 10x- 24 = 0
and find their approximate values, using linear interpolation.
15. Use Descartes's Rule of Signs to prove that the equations
(i) x6 - 2x3 - 3 = 0; (ii) x4 -x3 + 5x2+2 = 0; (iii) x6 + x4 - 4x3 + 5x + 2 = 0
each have at least two complex roots.
559
[26
numerical solutions of equations; that is, methods which develop successive approximations to a root of a given equation by a simple repetitive
process depending upon a recurrence relation.
As a first example, consider the equation
x2 5x 5 = 0.
(A quadratic equation is chosen for simplicity, but the method to be outlined below is applicable to any polynomial equation.)
The given equation has roots lying between 1 and 0 and between 5 and
6. We shall denote successive approximations to one of the roots by
xo, Xi, X2, . . ..
We first seek the negative root: take x, = 1. Since the equation may
be rewritten
x = -}x2-1
3]
ITERATIVE PROCESSES
gives
. 14
which reduces to
=
on neglecting 4. and recalling that a = ia2 1. Thus I e11 < I 6,1 only if
lal < 2.5; in other words, the absolute errors diminish in this iterative
process only if the root to which we are approximating is less than 2.5
in magnitude.
Graphically, the solution of
1 2 1
X = TX
means finding the x coordinate of the intersection of the straight line
y=x
with the parabola
y = 5x2 -1.
Fig. 26.3
[26
x2
in the form
5x-- 5 = 0
x = 5+51x
*Ex. 18. Illustrate graphically the iterative process of Ex. 17 by sketching the
graphs
y= x and y= 5+51x.
Ex. 19. Explain geometrically why convergence is more rapid for finding the
positive root from xr.+.1 = 5+ 51x, than for finding the negative root from
x+1 = ix,21.
Ex. 20. Explain why, in both the iterative processes considered so far, the successive approximations oscillate from side to side of the exact root.
x = f(x).
(We have already seen that there are various ways of doing this: our
object now is to choose the best one for a given root.)
Suppose we take
Xr+1 = f(xr),
where xr, xriare successive approximations to the exact root a, with
errors er, er+i:
= Xr
er, CC = Xr+1+ er+
But
giving
xr+1 = f(x,),
cc er+1 = f(c6 er)
er-F1 erAcc).
Successive applications of this result give
67+1
"
err(Ix) er-i{ '(42 "'
< I eol
GUM
r+1;
ITERATIVE PROCESSES
3]
=
by drawing four graphs with:
(0 no) < 1, f"(a) < 0;
(iii) f'(a) > 1, f"(a) < 0;
f(x,)
As we have already seen, the iterative procedure outlined above converges to the required root rather slowly. A more powerful iterative procedure is provided by the Newton Raphson process. Consider the equation
f(x) = 0
and suppose, as before, that a is an exact root, with x0the first approximation and error eo; that is
cc = xo + 60.
f(a) = 0,
We then have
f(x0+ co) = 0,
and thus, on using a Taylor expansion and regarding e0as being sufficiently
small for us to be able to ignore e2, and higher powers,
0.
f(x0)+ eo f'(x0)
This yields an expression for the error term
f(X0)
ovided
f'(x0)
,
(p
r
f (x0 ``"
0),
Xr+1
-
Writing
f(x) x 3 - 5x-8,
we have
f(x) = 3x2 5,
[26
and the curve y = .f(x) is seen to have two stationary points, a maximum
at x
A/1.7, and a minimum at x
+V1.7. But A/1.7 1.3 and
f( 1.3) < 0 therefore the curve cuts the x axis just once and the equation
thus has only one real root (which is clearly positive). (See Figure 26.4.)
Fg. 26.4
The next step in the solution is to locate the root: to do this we substitute
integral values for x until we discover a sign change. In order to write
down the differences Of, A2f, ... we tabulate our working, writing the values
off in a vertical line:
x
12
of
6,2f
oaf
4
6
2
2
10
6
12
14
The root we seek lies between 2 and 3; using linear interpolation we
take as our first approximation
xo = 2+14 x 1 ^ 2-7.
Since 4/(2) > 0, the curve y = f(x) is increasing between x = 2 and
x = 3 and since i2f(2) > 0, it is increasing at an increasing rate: we
564
3]
ITERATIVE PROCESSES
deduce that 2.7 is an underestimate of the exact root (see Figure 26.5,
which has not been drawn to scale).
Since f'(x) = 3x2 5,
f(2.7)
xi = 2 7
f (27)
+1.817
1
16.87
2.808.
= 27
Fig. 26.5
The process is now repeated, taking, x1= 2.808 as our second approximation. (The process is much facilitated by the use of a hand-calculating
machine: if one is available, recall the method of nested-multiplication for
the evaluation of polynomialssee Chapter 18.)
x, = 2'808
= 2.808
f(2.808)
0.1
18.65
= 2.802.
Since we may regard this as a more accurate approximation to the required root than 2.808, we take
x = 2.80
as the root to 2 decimal places.
Ex. 23. Use a calculating machine to obtain the root of the equation
x3 5x 8 = 0
correct to 4 decimal places.
PPMII
565
[26
fury
Xr-14 Xr
a er-F1 = a
we thus have
giving
f(CC
er)
er f'(ce err
er+1 = er
fex er) .
er)
Now write
f (x)
g(x) = f, , for f'(x)
then
g(a) = 0, provided.r(a) 0
0;
we have
and
Thus
er-F1 =
Cr
er)
2f '(a) r
The analysis above shows us that each error is proportional to the square
of the error in the preceding term: we deduce that convergence is more
rapid in the NewtonRaphson process than in the first iterative method
discussed in this Section. (The NewtonRaphson method is a second-order
process.)
Geometrically, the NewtonRaphson process is equivalent to drawing
a sequence of tangents to the curve y = f(x).
Let yo = f(xo); then the tangent at the point (x0, yo) on the curve
y = f(x) has equation
Y Yo = f'(-x0 (x x0)
566
3]
ITERATIVE PROCESSES
Fig. 26.6
Ex. 24. Show by graphical considerations, that, once the process starts to converge to a root, it always does so from one side. Try to produce an analytical
argument to support this assertion.
Ex. 25. Explain by a graphical argument how inaccuracies may arise in the
neighbourhood of two nearly equal roots.
The Newton-Raphson process involves division by the awkward number f (x7). A simplification is effected by using the von Mises iteration:
xr+i
.,.r
f(xr)
f'(x0)'
Ex. 27. Interpret the von Mises process graphically. Explain why a very efficient
procedure is to use the Newton method strictly for a suitable number of stages
and then stick with a constant value off', e.g. f'(x,) after two stages.
We conclude this chapter with an example of how an iterative process
of a required order may be developedin this case determining the reciprocal of a number.
7-2
567
[26
= aet.
Find also the connection between Cr, er+1 if 1Ia is calculated from the recurrence relation
xr-o.= 3xr 3a4a24
and suggest a fourth-order iterative process for finding 1Ia.
If
xr+i = 2x, a4
1
xr+ 6, = a
1
ETr = - xr
a
er2 = 1 _ 2xr xr2
a2 a
1
aer2 = - (2x1 a4)
a
we have
2
Xr-Fi + aer = 1
a
er+1 =
Similarly, if xr+i =
(167,.
3a4+a24,
1
xr +er =a
,
3xr 34 3
a xr
xr+ er = a
et. =
(x Cr.
ITERATIVE PROCESSES
3]
Thus, if we set
it follows that
er = a3e4,
Exercise 26(b)
Find the real roots of the equations 1 8, using any suitable iterative process. Use
linear interpolation to find the first approximation and give your final answer to 3
significant figures.
-
1. x3-3 = 0.
2. x3 100 ----- O.
3. x6 -5 = 0.
4. x2 3x 11 = 0.
7. x4-7x-12 = 0 (2 roots).
8. x3 + 3x2
9x 16 = 0(3 roots).
sin T = 3x-1.
14. Show that the equation
(2k+ 1) x3 k(x +1) = 0,
where k is large and positive, has a root near to 1.
Find the equation of the tangent to the curve
y = (2k + 1) x3 k(x +1)
at the point x = 1. From the equation of this tangent find a better approximation to the indicated root of the original equation.
(0 & C)
15. Find the root of the equation
sin x = x2
other than x = 0, to 3 decimal places.
569
[26
x+1
In x
has a stationary value.
(L.)
Miscellaneous Exercise 26
1. Find the greatest root of the equation
x3 3x + 1 = 0,
correct to 3 decimal places.
2. The roots of the quadratic equation ax2+ bx 1 = 0 are calculated from the
recurrence relation
xr+1
ax,.+ b
(0 & C)
570
MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE 26
Use the values obtained to draw a separate graph of y = -Pr sin x/x between
(0 & C)
x = -1-Th and x = 77.
,
er2
va = li+x,.)-2kx,.
and deduce the recurrence relation
Xr+i =
( XT)
2
Xr+1
Show that
= 424(a+ .4)
er+1
4x7(a+ x,.2)
xi-02
Xr
[26
and that
1
2K2
Find an approximation to the root correct to the term of order K-4. (0 & C)
14. The equation x2 -ax + b = 0 has roots a, /3. Form the equation with roots
fi2 and, if the equation with roots ae, /62' is x2 -ax+b = 0, write down
the equation with roots a2"-", 162'
1.
If a = A.16 where IA I < 1, show how the formation of a sequence of such
equations may be used to give successive approximations to ,6 and hence a.
Under what circumstances does this method provide a very satisfactory
method for solving quadratic equations? Discuss the magnitude of the errors
involved and consider the cases of (i) equal, (ii) complex, roots.
Discuss the application of this method of solution to equations of degree
higher than the second.
15. Prove that the equation ex = Ax has a real solution if and only if A e,
but that x ex = # has a real solution for all real values of it.
Solve the equation xex = 1 to 5 decimal places.
16. xr,
xr-F2 are successive approximations to a root of the equation f(x) = 0
obtained by the Newton-Raphson process. Writing Cr for the correction
-f(x0if '(x,), so that Cr+1-f(xr+ Cr)If'(xr+ Cr) show that
1 f" (x,)
Ci
2 f'(x,)
by using Taylor's result,
f(x+ h) f(x)+ hf'(x)+ +h2f"(x),
where h is small.
Deduce that
x7,2- xri.
[f(x012f"(x0
(xr)]3
17. It is required to find the nth root of the number a by the Newton-Raphson
process. Show that this can be done by solving the equation xn+k- axk = 0.
Using the analysis of Question 16, show that most rapid convergence is
obtained by choosing k = -1(1- n). Use this method to obtain a value for .;/2,
carrying out two iterations.
572
Fig. 27.1
Fig. 27.2
the value of e. The reader will no doubt already have noticed that, with
e = 1, the conic defined is a parabola. More generally, we define the following types of conic:
(i) if 0 < e < 1, the conic is called an ellipse;
(ii) if e = 1, the conic is called a parabola;
(iii) if e > 1 the conic is called a hyperbola.
The shape of the three types of conic are shown in Figures 27.2 (ellipse),
27.3 (parabola) and 27.4 (hyperbola). (The dotted lines in Figure 27.4 are
573
[27
not part of the hyperbola: they are, in fact, asymptotes and are included
as an aid towards drawing the curve.)
Fig. 27.4
Fig. 27.3
2. THE ELLIPSE
The ellipse has been defined in Section 1 as a conic with eccentricity e < 1.
Before attempting to obtain the Cartesian equation of an ellipse, it is
worthwhile to consider a little of the geometry of the curve, in order that
we may be able to choose the most suitable coordinate axes. Suppose that
S is the given focus and 1 the corresponding directrix and let K be the foot
of the perpendicular from S on to 1.
If e is the given eccentricity, then there are two points A, A' on the line
SK which belong to the ellipsenamely the points dividing SK internally
and externally in the ratio e: 1 (see Figure 27.5 and notice that A' lies on
KS produced, since e < 1). Let 0 be the mid-point of AA' and set OS = s,
OK = k. Then, if AA' = 2a,
SA = a s, A'S = a+ s,
AK = ka, A'K = k+a,
and thus, by the definition of A, A' as points of the ellipse,
a s = e(k a)
a+s = e(k+a).
Solving these two equations we have
s = ae, k = ale.
574
2]
ELLIPSE
Let us now take 0 as the origin, OK as the x axis and the perpendicular
to this line through 0 as the y axis. Then, by what we have just shown, S
is the point (ae, 0) and 1 is the line x ale = 0. Let P(x, y) be any point of
the ellipse; by the definition of the ellipse
sp2
= e2pm25
'
S A
Fig. 27.5
Fig. 27.6
If we write
b2 = a2(1 e2),
575
[27
x2 y2
+ = 1
-a-2
'
AA', BB' are respectively the major and minor axes of the ellipse; a is
the length of the major semi-axis, b is the length of the minor semi-axis
(b < a, hence the word ' minor '). From the original definition of b, we have
the important equation connecting a and b:
b2 =a2(1 e2) .
Ex. 5. If a circle is regarded as a special case of an ellipse with equal major and
minor axes, show that it corresponds to a conic with zero eccentricity.
Ex. 6. A chord drawn through a focus perpendicular to the major axis of an
ellipse is called a latus rectum of the ellipse. Show that the length of the latus
rectum is 2b2/a.
Ex. 7. Show that the eccentricity of the ellipse
x2 y
2
fs 6 = 1
is sand deduce the coordinates of its foci.
Ex. 8. Show, by translating the coordinate axes, that the equation
(x 1)2 (y + 2)2
=1
3
2
represents an ellipse with centre (1, 2). Find the coordinate of its foci and show
the eccentricity to be I.A/3.
The ellipse arises in nature as the typical orbit of objects moving under
the action of an attractive force varying inversely as the square of their
distance from a fixed point. For example, planets describe ellipses (with
slight variations and discrepancies due to the attractions exerted on each
other) with the sun at one focushence the use of the letter S for the focus.
Similarly, for the motion of satellites around the Earth, the centre of the
Earth being situated at a focus (again with a slight discrepancy, this time
576
ELLIPSE
2]
because the Earth is neither exactly spherical, nor uniform). The aesthetically pleasing shape of the ellipse has long been admired: it can be seen, for
example, in the elliptic arches of some bridges which with their reflection
in still water yield complete ellipses.
Ex. 9. The eccentricity of the Earth's orbit is approximately -617, while that of the
planet Pluto is 1. Compare the shapes of their orbits.
Ex. 10. An astronomical unit (a.u.) is the mean distance of the Earth from the
Sun. (It is approximately 500 light-seconds.) At its nearest approach to the Sun,
the planet Mercury is distant about 0.308 a.u. from the Sun, while its maximum
distance is about 0.466 a.u. Calculate the approximate eccentricity of the orbit.
*Ex. 11. Show that x = a cos 0, y = b sin 0 gives a parametric representation for
points of the ellipse b2x2 a2y2 = a 2b2.
A rod has three points P, Q, R marked on it, where PQ = a, QR = b. If
P, Q are constrained to move along two fixed perpendicular lines, show that R
moves along the arc of an ellipse. (This is the engineer's paper trammel method
for drawing ellipses.)
*Ex. 12. Draw in the same diagram the ellipse
b2x2 + a2y2 = a2b2
and the circle
x2 + y2 = a2
(the auxiliary circle of the ellipse). Given a point P of the ellipse, let the perpendicular through P to the major axis of the ellipse cut the auxiliary circle at Q.
If OQ makes an angle 0 with the major axis, show that Q is the point (a cos 0,
a sin 0) and that P is the point (a cos 0, b sin 0). 0 is called the eccentric angle of
PQ.
577
[27
{(x y b2.0
a2/2 = a2b2}.
It follows from the preceding remarks and the result of Ex. 14 that
properties of parallel chords of circles, mid-points of chords of circles, etc.
are preserved by T and thus correspond to identical properties of the
ellipse. For example, since the mid-points of parallel chords of a circle lie
on a straight line through the centre, the same is true for an ellipse. The
Fig. 27.8
line obtained is called a diameter of the ellipse. Furthermore, the two lines
parallel to the given chords passing through the intersections P, Q of the
corresponding diameter with the circle are tangents: the same is true of the
ellipse (see Figure 27.7).
Again, in the circle, the centres of chords parallel to PQ define another
diameter, RS, such that all chords parallel to RS are bisected by PQ. The
same property is thus true of the ellipse: P'Q' and R'S' are called conjugate diameters; they have the property that each bisects all chords parallel
to the other (see Figure 27.8).
The geometrical interpretation of T is as follows. Given a point P, draw
578
2]
ELLIPSE
Fig. 27.9
*Ex. 15. Show that T is a non-singular linear transformation, that is, that T-1
exists.
Example 1. LP is the tangent at P to an ellipse, centre 0, and PR is the chord
parallel to LO. Show that, if RQ is a diameter of the ellipse, then LO is a
tangent.
Suppose that the ellipse is taken in standard form and let us denote image
elements under T-1(see Ex. 15) by dashes. The corresponding property
of the circle (see Figure 27.10) is immediately obvious, either by an appeal
to symmetry, or, equivalently, by proving the triangles L'P'O, L'Q'0
congruent. Thus, since the properties with which we are concerned remain
invariant under the linear transformation T (under which the image of P'
is P, etc.) the result is also true for the ellipse (see Figure 27.11).
Notice that no appeal can be made to symmetry in the figure for the
ellipse, but since the final result is couched in terms of tangents, diameters,
and parallel lines only, the results for ellipse and circle correspond completely.
In solving problems on the ellipse it is sometimes necessary to obtain the
equations of particular lines, notably the tangent and normal. The quickest
579
[27
Fig. 27.11
Fig. 27.10
*Ex. 16. Show that, if
then
dy_
_ _ b2x (y * 0).
dx
a2y
Deduce that the equation of the tangent at the point (x1, yi) on the ellipse is
x x1 = y y, = a
a2y,
b2x1
580
xx1 _ yyi _ a
r m '
b2x2+a2y2 = a2b2
2]
ELLIPSE
Deduce that the point nxi, Y1) is the mid-point of the chord L if
lx
i
+ = ,
2
and that this gives the equation of the chord with mid-point P1as
x xi= yy, = p
a2y1
b2x,
Show how to deduce from this the equation of the tangent at the point
of the ellipse.
P2(x2, Y2)
The ellipse, like the parabola, has a rich geometry. We shall now prove
two of its most famous properties. (Since both are focal properties, neither
is derivable from the circle.)
For any point P on the ellipse with foci S, S' and major axis 2a,
SP+S'P = 2a.
Take the ellipse in the standard form
b2x2 +a2y2 = a2b2
and let M, M' be the feet of the perpendiculars from P on to the two
directrices (see Figure 27.12).
Fig. 27.12
[27
*Ex. 19. Prove that SQ+S'Q < 2a for all points Q within the ellipse and that
SR+ S'R > 2a for all points R outside the ellipse.
*Ex. 20. Prove a converse of the above result, namely that if S, S' are fixed
points and P is any point such that SP+ S'P is constant and greater than SS',
then the locus of P is an ellipse with S, S' as foci. (If the constant distance is
taken as 2a, show that a unique ellipse exists with S, S' as foci and major axis
of length 2a; then use Ex. 19.)
*Ex. 21. If a, b are complex numbers such that la bl < c, where c is a real
positive constant, describe the set of points
{z C: lz al + lz 1)1
c}
The tangent and normal at any point P of an ellipse bisect the angle SPS'.
Take the ellipse in standard form and let P be the point
(a cos 0, b sin 0).
With the notation of Figure 27.13, the equation of the normal, PG, is
(see Ex. 17)
ax sin 0 by cos 0 = (a2 b
2) cos 0 sin 0,
Fig. 27.13
2]
ELLIPSE
Thus
and
and so, by the angle bisector theorem for a triangle, PG bisects LSPS' internally. Since Z. GPT is a right angle, it follows immediately that PT bisects
LSPS' externally.
Ex. 23. ABC is any triangle and P is any point on the external bisector of the
angle BAC. Prove that
ky ,
a2 _i__ I .
b2
xxi yyl i
a2 b2 ="
Now suppose that P1(x1, y,), P2(x2, y2) are the points of contact of tangents
from C(h, k) to the ellipse. Then the coordinates (h, k) satisfy the equations
xx2 yy2
a2+ b2 i
hx2 ky, ,
hxi_L kyi ,
and
a2 + b2 =1.
a2-T- b2 = '
xxi yy, .,
, 2 = ' and
a2 b2
and we have
hx ky
+ = l
a2 b2
'
which must represent the required chord of contact.
If Ace, fi) lies on this chord of contact,
ha kfi
al+ V2 = 1
583
[27
for all positions of the point (h, k). Thus (h, k) lies on the line
a2
fiy ,
=
b2
Fig. 27.14
2) cos 0 sin 0
Then the normal at P has equation ax sin 0 by cos 0 = (a2 b
(see Ex. 17). Thus we may write down the coordinates of the points
H (y = 0) and K (x = 0) and hence of Q (see Figure 27.14):
b2
(a2
H:
cos 0, 0) ,
a2 b2
sin 0),
b
K: (0
'
/a2 b2
a
584
cos 0
'
a22 b2
sin 0).
2]
ELLIPSE
ax
cos 0 = a2 b2
sin 0 =
a2
by b2
X2
A.2- B2 = 1'
is seen to be an ellipse, E', with
A=
a2 b2
a2 b2
;B=
a
b
The centre of E' is the origin and A: B = b: a; the ellipses E and E' are
thus concentric and similar. Furthermore, if a > b, then A < B and
the minor axis of E' lies along the x axis, that is, the major axis of E.
(Strictly speaking, the first part of our solution is incomplete until we
have verified that every point of E' is a point of the locus. The reader may
care to supply the details.)
Exercise 27(a)
1. Find the eccentricities of the following ellipses:
x2
v2
8 6
= 1
1;
X2
(ii) +y2 =
4
y2
+9 = 1.
Find its eccentricity, the coordinates of its foci and the equations of the corresponding directrices.
3. Show that the equation
3(x 2)2 + 4(y + 1)2 = 36
represents an ellipse and find its eccentricity and the coordinates of its foci.
4. Show that the equation
x2 +2y2 +6x-4y+9 = 0
represents an ellipse and find its eccentricity and the coordinates of its foci.
585
[27
6. The arch of an elliptic bridge is in the form of half of an ellipse. The span is
12.5 m and the maximum height of the arch is F75 m. Find the eccentricity of the
ellipse.
7. Find the equation of the tangent to the ellipse
x2
y2
y+ = 1
1
at the point (3, 2).
8. Find the equation of the tangent to the ellipse
x2 y
2
+ = 1
3 6
at the point (1, 2).
Prove that the line xy = 3 also touches the ellipse.
9. Prove that the line
x 3y + 7 = 0
3xy+7 = 0
10. An ellipse has foci S, S', minor axis BB' and major axis of length 2a. Prove
that BSB'S' is a rhombus of side a.
11. P is a point on the ellipse
b2x2 +a2y2 = a2b2
and N is the foot of the perpendicular from P to AA', where A is the point
(a, 0) and A' the point (a, 0). Prove that
PN2
b2
A'N.NA a2.
If the tangent at P meets the directrix corresponding to the focus S at T, prove
that LPST is a right angle.
12. The feet of the perpendiculars from the foci S, S' of the ellipse
b2 x2 +a2y2 = a2b2
to the tangent at the point P are Y, Y'. Prove that Y, Y' lie on the auxiliary
circle of the ellipse and that
S Y. ,S' Y' = b2.
13. P is a variable point of an ellipse, focus S. Prove that the locus of the midpoint of PS is an ellipse and locate its centre.
586
ELLIPSE
14. The tangents at the points P, Q of an ellipse, centre 0, meet at the point
T. Prove that OT bisects PQ.
15. The parallel chords P1 Q1, P2 Q2of an ellipse are bisected by the diameter UV.
Prove that P1Q2 and P2 Q1 meet on UV, as also do P1P2and Q1 Q2.
16. UV is a diameter of an ellipse and P is any point on the ellipse. Prove that
the diameters parallel to PU, PV are conjugate.
17. With the notation of Question 16, the tangent at U meets PV at T and the
tangent at P meets TU at M. Prove that M is the mid-point of TU.
18. The diameter UV of an ellipse bisects the chord PQ. UP and VQ meet at
X, UQ and VP meet at Y; prove that XY and PQ are parallel.
19. What is the locus of the mid-points of chords of an ellipse which pass through
a common point?
20. UV is a diameter of an ellipse and the tangents at U, V are u, v respectively;
the tangent at any point P meets u, v at X and Y. Prove that X and Y lie on conjugate diameters of the ellipse.
21. Prove that tangents at the extremities of a focal chord of an ellipse meet on
the corresponding directrix.
22. The tangent to the ellipse
x2 y
2
+ -= 1
a2 b 2
at the point P meets the axes at Q and R. Find the locus of the mid-point of QR.
23. The perpendicular from the centre of an ellipse with focus S to the tangent
at a point P meets SP produced at Q. Prove that the locus of Q is a circle, and
find its centre and radius.
24. Define geometrically the eccentric angle 0 of a point P on the ellipse
x2 y2
a2 b2 = 1
(a > b)
by
sin 0
= a2 b2.
0 is the centre of the ellipse and QP is the ordinate of P, the normal at P cuts
the x axis at N. Show that
ba
NQ = cos cb.
a
If the normal at P bisects the angle OPQ prove that the eccentricity e satisfies
the equation
e2(1+ sin2 0) = 1,
that OP = ae, and that
h/2 < e < 1.
(0 & C)
587
[27
a2+ b
and P(a cos 0, b sin 95) is a point on the curve. Calculate the lengths PS, PS' in
terms of a, e and 95, where e is the eccentricity of the ellipse and verify that
PS +PS' is constant.
The tangents to the ellipse at P cuts the x axis at T, and the normal at P cuts
the x axis at N. Prove that
(i) OT. ON = a2e2;
(ii) PT/PN = tan 0/(1 e2)
where 0 is the centre of the ellipse.
(0 & C)
x2 y
2
=1
a2+ 62
23+
3 = 1'
28. If Z is the foot of the perpendicular from the centre of the ellipse
b2x2 +a2y2 = a2b2
to the tangent at a variable point P, prove that the locus of Z is the curve
(x2 +y2)2 = b2y2 +a2x2.
3. THE HYPERBOLA
A hyperbola is a conic with eccentricity e > 1. The analysis of the hyperbola follows closely that for the ellipse and there are many striking
similarities between the geometry of the two curves. To obtain the standard
form of the equation of the hyperbola we first derive certain geometrical
588
3]
HYPERBOLA
results, just as we did for the ellipse in Section 2. Suppose that S is the
given focus and 1 the corresponding directrix and let K be the foot of the
perpendicular from S on to 1. There are two points, A, A', on the line
SK which belong to the hyperbolanamely, the points dividing SK
internally and externally in the ratio e: 1. Since, for the hyperbola, e > 1,
1 will lie between A and A' (see Figure 27.15, and compare with Figure
27.5). Again we take 0 as the mid-point of AA' and set OS = s, OK = k.
Then, if AA' = 2a,
SA = s a, A'S = s+ a,
A'
Fig. 27.15
s a = e(a k),
s+ a = e(a+k).
Solving these two equations we have
s = ae, k = ale.
(Compare these results with the corresponding results obtained for the
ellipse in Section 2.)
Following closely the corresponding analysis for the ellipse, we take 0
as the origin, OK as the x axis, and the perpendicular to this line through 0
as the y axis. Then, exactly as for the ellipse, S is the point (ae, 0) and 1 is
the line x ale = 0. If P(x, y) is any point of the hyperbola, by the focusdirectrix definition we have
p2 = 6,2pm2,
589
[27
y2
a2 a2(e2-1)
= 1.
Fig. 27.16
(Notice that this is the first slight point of departure from the corresponding analysis for the ellipse. Notice also that, for a hyperbola, b can be greater
than a.) With this notation the equation may be written as
x2 y2
a2 b
2
'
590
3]
HYPERBOLA
and thus no part of the curve lies within the interval -a < x < a. It
follows that the points B (0 , b) and B'(0, - b) do not lie on the curve in
contrast to the corresponding points of the ellipse. A (a, 0) and A' ( - a, 0)
are called the vertices of the hyperbola; AA' is the transverse axis of the
hyperbola, while BB' is the conjugate axis (see Ex. 26).
Fig. 27.17
ry) (x +1 =
1,
a b a b
x -y = 1
a b x y.
+ab
that is
x y
As x, y both tend to co, ( - --) tends to zero and the equation of the curve
ab
approximates to
x y
- - = 0.
a b
-+- = O.
a b
*Ex. 26. Show that the equations of the asymptotes may be written in the form
x2 y
2
- - a2 b2 = 0
and prove that the acute angle between them is 2 arctan (61a).
591
[27
= 1
and mark in the points A(a, 0), A' ( a, 0), B(0, b), B'(0, b). Two hyperbolas of
this form are said to be conjugate; show that conjugate hyperbolas have the same
asymptotes.
xy = c2.
To justify the use of the word hyperbola in this definition, that is, to
show that such a curve has the required focusdirectrix property, consider
the linear transformation, T, of the plane into itself defined by the equations
1
x' = (x+y),
A/2
1
y' = (x+y).
y
It is not difficult to see that T preserves distance; for, if the matrix of
T is A, then
A=
1
1
V2 V2
1
x =- (x' y'),
2
Y=
1
+Y
3]
HYPERBOLA
xy = c2
y2 = a2
(a(lIt+t)12, all/t t)/2). Examine how this point moves along the curve as t
varies between co and +oo; in particular, explain what happens as t approaches
the value zero from below and from above.
is
x2+ y2 = a2
593
[27
Ex. 33. Show that the equation of the tangent to the hyperbola
x2 y
2
a2 b2 =
,
I
Fig. 27.18
594
3]
HYPERBOLA
*Ex. 35. Interpret the conditions ISP S'Pl < 2a and ISP S'Pl > 2a geometrically.
Ex. 36. Devise a mechanical construction for a branch of a hyperbola with given
foci and length of transverse axis, based upon the relation SP S'P = 2a.
*Ex. 37. By adapting the method used for the ellipse, prove that the tangent
and normal at the point P of a hyperbola with foci S, S' bisect the angle SPS'.
if and only if
= (ct
+ ftm2)/(cO
[27
The given line and conic meet in points with x coordinates given by
that is, by
a fle2 = flm2
.4=>.
k = mh+ c
and thus, using the condition proved above for the line to be a tangent,
596
3]
HYPERBOLA
Exercise 27 (b)
1. Find the eccentricities of the following hyperbolas:
(i) 4x2 -1y2 = 1; (ii) 2x2y2 = 1; (iii) (x-1)2 2(y-2)2 = 1.
2. Sketch roughly the hyperbola
+y2
and find its eccentricity, the coordinates of its foci and the equations of the
corresponding directrices.
3. Sketch roughly the hyperbola
,16(x 1)2 i(y + 1)2 = 1,
find its eccentricity, the coordinates of its foci and the equations of the corresponding directrices.
4. Show that the equation
x2 -4y2 +6x+8y+1 = 0
represents a hyperbola, and find its eccentricity, the coordinates of its foci and
the equations of the corresponding directrices.
5. Find the equations of the asymptotes of the hyperbolas
(i) 9x2 _ 4y2 = 12;
(ii) 3x2y2 = 1.
6. Find the equations of the asymptotes of the hyperbolas
(ii) 2x2 -4y2 8y 5 = 0.
(i) x2 4y2+ 2x+ 8y 5 = 0;
7. Find the equation of the hyperbola with asymptotes
2x y = 0, 2x+y = 0,
which passes through the point (2, 3).
8. Find the equation of the hyperbola with asymptotes
3x-2y-9 = 0, 3x + 2y + 3 = 0,
which passes through the point (2, 4).
9. Find the equation of the tangent to the hyperbola 2x2 3y2 = 6 at the point
(3, 2) and prove that the line x+y + 1 = 0 also touches the curve.
10. Find the equation of the normal to the hyperbola 3x2y2 = 2 at the point
(1, 1) and find the x coordinate of the point where it meets the curve again.
11. Find the equation of the tangent to the rectangular hyperbola
x2 y2 = 3
which passes through the point (3, 3).
12. Prove that a hyperbola intersects a line parallel to one of its asymptotes at
just one point.
13. Find the equation of the rectangular hyperbola which has the points (4, 0),
( 4, 0) as foci.
14. If the eccentricity of a hyperbola is e, prove that the eccentricity of the conjugate hyperbola is a/,,/(e2 -1).
8
PPMII
597
[27
show that the result above is true also for the hyperbola
b2x2_ a2y2 = a2b2.
598
31
HYPERBOLA
Repeat the above process to prove the following more general result: if a chord
PQ of a hyperbola meets the asymptotes at P', Q', then PP' = QQ' .
Suggest a further generalization of this result by considering a second rectangular hyperbola xy = d2in place of the asymptotes.
P
Fig. 27.19
Fig. 27.20
r > 0,
- 77
< 0 *4 77 .
{(r, 0): r = a}
8-2
599
[27
x = r cos 0, y= r sin 0
r = ePM.
PM = LNr cos 0
= ller cos 0,
giving us r(1 + e cos 0) = 1.
600
4]
This equation is the standard form for the equation of a conic in polar
coordinates with the origin at a focus and the initial line along the major
axis.
Fig. 27.21
The polar form for a conic is of great value in dealing with properties
of focal chords. We conclude this section with an example illustrating its
use in this context.
Example 5. PQ, UV are perpendicular focal chords of a rectangular hyperbola, focus S. Prove that:
(ii) PQ = UV.
(i) IPS.SQI = 1US.SVI,
Taking S as origin and the major axis SX as initial line, the polar
equation of the rectangular hyperbola is
r(1 + ,/2 cos 0)= l.
Let P, Q, U, V have polar coordinates
[27
(i)
Fig. 27.22
(ii)
PQ = PS+ SQ
1
1
1+ V2 cos 0+ 1 V2 cos 0
21
1-2 cost 0'
1PQ1 = 12/ sec 201,
and similarly
Ex. 43. PQ is a focal chord through the focus S of a conic of semi-latus rectum
1. Prove that
1
PS+SQ =i
602
4]
Ex. 44. PP', QQ' are perpendicular focal chords of a conic; prove that
1
,+
,
PP QQ
is constant.
Ex. 45. Show that the polar equation of the directrix corresponding to the focus
0 is
er cos 0 = 1.
Show also that a polar equation of the form
1/r = a cos 0 + b sin 0
represents a straight line.
Deduce (with the help of Exercise 27(a), question 11 (second part)), that
the equation
1
- = cos (B cc)+ e cos 0
r
is the equation of the tangent to the standard conic at the point with vectorial
angle a.
Prove that the tangents at the ends of a focal chord of a conic meet on the
corresponding directrix.
5. SECTIONS OF A CONE
This section is included for the attention of readers interested in the
historical development of the geometry of the conics.
The conics, or conic sections, were first studied, as their name suggests,
as sections of a right circular cone. Their history extends back to the time
of Ancient Greece: they were first extensively studied by Apollonius
of Perga (247-205 B.c.) who wrote a treatise on their properties. The focusdirectrix property, which we have made the basis of our definition, was
not discovered until later.
The various types of conic arise as sections of a cone made by planes
making various angles with the axis of the cone. For the purposes of the
following definitions, the cone is taken to extend infinitely in both directions from the vertex. (See Figure 27.23.)
First observe that any plane perpendicular to the axis of the cone (and
not through the vertex) cuts the cone in a circle, which may therefore be
regarded as a particular type of conic.
If the plane is oblique, not parallel to one of the generating lines of the
cone and cuts only one half of the cone, the resulting section is an ellipse
(Figure 27.24).
If the plane is parallel to one of the generating lines of the cone, the
resulting section is a parabola (Figure 27.25).
If the plane is oblique and cuts both halves of the cone, but does not
603
[27
pass through the vertex of the cone, the section is a hyperbola (Figure
27.26).
Ex. 46. Show how a pair of straight lines arises as a conic section.
Fig. 27.23
Fig. 27.24
Fig. 27.25
Fig. 27.26
5]
SECTIONS OF A CONE
V is the vertex of a right circular cone with its axis vertical and we consider the section of the cone by the plane H. A sphere may be drawn to
touch the plane H at S and also to touch the cone in a circle lying in a
horizontal plane H'. The vertical plane containing V and S cuts H and
the cone at A and A' and H' and the cone at C and C'. 1 is the line of intersection of H and H' and A' A meets 1 at K. P is any point on the cone lying
in the plane H and VP touches the sphere at P'. M is the point of 1 such that
PM and AK are parallel, NPQ is a horizontal section, N lying on AA' and
Q lying on VA.
Fig. 27.27
Miscellaneous Exercise 27
1. Show that the equation
x2 +2y2 -2x+12y+8 = 0
represents an ellipse, and find its eccentricity and the coordinates of its centre.
Prove that
3x-2y+2 = 0
is a tangent to the ellipse and find the point of contact.
605
[27
2. The tangents drawn from a point P(xi, y1) to the circle x2 + y2 = r2 touch the
circle at L, M. Show that the equation of LM is xx,+ yy, = r2.
If P moves on a hyperbola of eccentricity e with its centre at the origin, show
that LM touches a hyperbola of eccentricity e', where
11 1
= 1.
e2 e'2
Draw a figure for the case when e < Al2 and the circle touches the given hyperbola.
(London)
3. Show that the equation of the tangent at P(a cos a, b sin a) to the ellipse
b2x2 + a2y2 a2b2
is bx cos a+ ay sin oc = ab.
The tangent at P cuts the x and y axes at A and B respectively and the normal
at P cuts the x and y axes at C and D respectively. Find the ratio PC: PD.
If AD and BC meet at E, prove that BE is perpendicular to AD and hence, or
otherwise, find the equation of the circle through A, B, E.
(London)
4. Prove that the conics
x2 y2
X2
y2
= 1 and
+
=1
a2+b2
a2 + A b2 + A
have the same foci, whatever value A takes (provided A a2or b2).
Find the equation of the rectangular hyperbola whose foci coincide with those
of the ellipse b2x2 + a2y2 = a2b2.
Show further that two ellipses which have the same foci cannot intersect in
real points but that if an ellipse and a hyperbola have the same foci, they intersect orthogonally at four real points.
5. P is any point on a rectangular hyperbola, centre 0 and foci S, S'. Prove that
OP2 = SP. SI'.
6. P is the point (a cos 0, b sin 0) of the ellipse
b2x2 + a2y2 =
bX 2
a 2b2
ay2 = ab(a+ b)
at the points P, Q. Prove that the tangents to the second ellipse at P and Q
meet on its director circle.
606
MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE 27
9. Two hyperbolas, S and S', have the equations
x2
y2
=
x2 y2
T
12 ba
A,
where A. < 1. Prove that the tangent to S at any point P meets S' in two points
Q and R which are equidistant from P.
If A = 1, prove that the tangents to S' at Q and R meet on S at P', the
reflection of P in the origin.
(0 & C)
10. The asymptotes of the hyperbola
x2
ya
a2 b2 = 1
are 1 and l', and P is a point on the hyperbola. The perpendicular from P to 1
meets / and l' at X and Y, and the perpendicular from P to l' meets 1' and 1 at
X' and Y'. By expressing the coordinates of P in parametric form, or otherwise,
prove that, for all positions of P,
a2b2
(i) PX.PX' =
a2+b2 '
(ii) PX.PY =
(iii) PY.PY' =
a2b2
a2 b2;
a2b2(a2+b2)
(a2 b2)2
(0 &
11. Show that, if the point (x1-1-r cos 0, yi+ r sin 0) lies on the central conic
[27
15. Find the equation of the perpendicular bisector of the line joining the points
yi), (x2, Y2).
A fixed circle has centre C and radius 2a. A is a fixed point inside the circle and
P is a variable point on the circumference. Prove that the perpendicular bisector
of AP touches the ellipse whose foci are at C and A, and whose major axis is of
length 2a. (C.S.)
16. A point P is taken at random inside an ellipse of eccentricity e. Calculate
the probability (in terms of e) that the sum of the focal distances of P should be
not greater than the distance from a focus to the opposite end of the major axis.
(C.S.)
(Note: the area of an ellipse with major and minor semi-axes of lengths a and b
respectively is rraba result easily deduced by the usual calculus methods, or
alternatively by considering the effect on areas of the linear transformation T of
Section 2 of this Chapter.)
17. E, is a circle, centre 0, radius b, E2 is a circle, centre A radius a (a < b) which
touches /1internally. Describe the locus of the centre, P, of a variable circle, Z,
which touches Elinternally and E2 externally.
If E, is a straight line, E2 is a circle, centre A and radius a which touches Ei
and P the centre of a variable circle E which has Elas a tangent and touches E2
externally, describe the locus of P.
18. Prove that at most four normals may be drawn from a point A to a central
conic with centre 0.
Prove further that, if the normals at the points -P1, -P2, -P3, -P4 on a central conic
intersect at A, then -P1-P2-P3-P4 lie on a rectangular hyperbola which passes through
0 and A and has its asymptotes parallel to the axes of the given conic. (The
rectangular hyperbola of this question is known as the hyperbola of Apollonius.)
19. Prove that the vector equation (referred to the vertex as origin) of the tangent
to the parabola y2 = 4ax at the point p = at2i+2atj is r = p+Au where u is
the unit vector (ti+ j)/(1 + t2)i.
Prove that the locus of the meets of tangents to the parabola y2 = 4ax which
cut at a fixed angle a is a hyperbola of eccentricity sec a.
20. Prove that, if the chord PQ of any conic with focus S, when produced, cuts
the corresponding directrix at R, then SR is a bisector of the angle PSQ. Deduce
that, if the tangent at P cuts the directrix at T, then the angle PST is a right angle.
21. If X is any point on the tangent at the point P of any conic with focus S,
and if H, K are respectively the feet of the perpendiculars from X to SP and the
directrix corresponding to S, prove that SH = eXK, where e is the eccentricity.
608
Throughout this chapter it is to be assumed, unless explicitly stated otherwise, that the matrix A of a linear transformation T is referred to the base
vectors i, j (or i j, k in three dimensions).
,
We may now investigate the answer to the question: Even if T does not
map any point other than the origin into itself, is there a line 1 through the
origin such that every point of l is mapped into a point of 1? If such a line
exists, we say that 1 is an invariant line and that 1 maps into itself under T.
Ex. 3. If S is a point such that T(S) e OS, prove that every point of the line OS
is mapped into a point of OS.
Suppose that S is a point other than the origin, with the property that
T(S) E OS; write OS = s. Then As = As and thus
(A AI) s = 0.
Since s 0, we must have det (A AI) = 0 (see p. 294). This is a quadratic
equation in A, the characteristic equation of the matrix A, with, in general,
609
FURTHER MATRICES
[28
two distinct roots, Al and A2, called the eigenvalues of the matrix A. Any
non-zero solution, s1, of the homogeneous equation
(A s =
A = (4
6 2
5)
and determine their corresponding unit eigenvectors.
.4.>
2)
=
5A
A, 9A + 8 = 0
<.> A = 1 or A = 8.
Consider first the eigenvalue A = 1: if s1is any corresponding eigenvector then, writing
(y)
(A I) s1 = 0,
we have
that is
(6
4) (y1 (0
0)
2[03 \
3/03)
r = ke
3x + 2y = 0,
map into points of the same line (in fact, in this case, into themselves
since A = 1): 3x + 2y = 0 is an invariant line under the transformation.
Now consider the eigenvalue A = 8 : if s2is any corresponding eigenvector we have
(A 81) s, = 0,
610
2 x 2 MATRICES
I]
6
4
that is,
giving
x)
_ 32) (y
(0
0) ,
v\
s2
= (2v)
2x y = 0,
map into points of the same line (but, apart from 0, not this time into
themselves): 2x y = 0 is a second invariant line under the transformation.
We shall now analyse the linear transformation represented by the
matrix A of Example 1 in greater detail. The matrix
32 2)
P
2
2)
3) and s2 = (1
(these eigenvectors being chosen for their simplicity, although any nonzero multiples of s, and s2would do just as well) has an important property.
Since As, = s, and As2 = 8s2
it follows that the product AP is a 2 x 2 matrix with s, as its first column
and 8s2as its second column. Thus
1 0
AP = P(
0 8)
But, since det P = 7, P is non-singular and we may multiply both sides
of the above equation on the left by P 1to obtain
1 0
P-1AP = (
0 8)
The matrix A has been reduced to diagonal-form. Notice that the elements of the diagonal are precisely the eigenvalues of A.
611
FURTHER MATRICES
[28
11
\ '.
09 8
0)
for
1 1 0\ 1oc\ 1 a\
V) 8) k,e) 8,e)
as required.
Thus, when considering the transformation T, it is simpler to express
vectors in terms of the eigenvectors s1, s2rather than in terms of the more
usual base vectors i, j. For example, the point Q, where
q = 2s1 + is2,
maps into the point Q', where
q' = 251+452.
Figure 28.1 shows the effect of the transformation T upon Q:
Fig. 28.1
612
1]
2x2 MATRICES
3) .
-2
1
Hence describe geometrically the linear transformation T which has matrix B
relative to the base vectors i, j.
Reverting to Example 1, the reduction to diagonal form enables us to
calculate powers of A. For example,
83)
( 1
Ex. 5. Verify by direct calculation the form given for A" above and also prove
the result by mathematical induction.
*Ex. 6. If si and s2are eigenvectors corresponding to the distinct real eigenvalues A1, A2 of a matrix A and if P is the matrix with first column s1and second
column s2, and assuming that P is non-singular, show that
p iAp (A 0 )
0 A2
-
A=
-
1)
613
[28
FURTHER MATRICES
-;*
r'(A'A) r = r'r
r'(A'A) r = rIr
<r> r'(A'A I) r = 0.
t We use the notation Pr rather than P' here to avoid possible confusion with the
notation for the transposed matrix.
614
2 x 2 MATRICES
I]
(0 1)
(1
1)
bb2
(bb: 4) (0)
(bb13
b42)
0;
(00)
(1) = (0)
b4
b,+b2+b3+b4 = 0.
B = (_
b o
) and A'A =
1 b
b 1)
that
IPxPyI =
cos 0 sin 0\
ksin 6'
cos 0/
sin 0\
sin 0 cos Of
P (COS 0
[28
FURTHER MATRICES
The reduction of a matrix A to diagonal form P-'AP is of particular importance if A is a symmetric matrix (A' = A). We shall show (Theorem
28.5) that, in this case, the reducing matrix P may be taken to be orthogonal.
Before proving this, it is necessary to obtain some simple preliminary
results. In the following four theorems, A is a 2 x 2 matrix with eigenvalues
Al, A2 and corresponding eigenvectors sl, s2and P is the matrix with first
column s1and second column s2.
Theorem 28.2. If the eigenvalues of the 2 x 2 matrix A are distinct then the
matrix P is non-singular.
Proof
det P = 0
s1= ks where k is a non-zero number,
on multiplying by A,
As, kAs2 = 0,
A,s, Aks, = 0
(Ai A2) sl = 0,
since ks2 =
Al = A2,
Thus, since det P = 0 Al =
since s1+ 0.
A2,
we have Al +
A2
det P + 0.
Theorem 28.3. If siand s2are unit eigenvectors of A then s1and s, are perpendicular if and only if P is orthogonal.
Proof
_ (x) s2 _ (x2)
Write
Y2
xi x2
then
P
= ( I. Y2
x+
x1X2 Y1Y2)
pip = (xi Yi\
i yi2
and
2
X2
xl
x2+
y22
kx2 Y2/ \Yi x2' =
Y1Y2
(i) Suppose P is orthogonal then
( 4-FA
x1 x2+yi y2 \ = (1 \
ko 1/
4+y2
giving 4.+A = 4+3,2 = 1, x1x2+Y1Y2 = 0 and thus s1and s2 are perpendicular unit vectors.
(ii) If s1and s2are perpendicular unit vectors then
\ Xi X2 Y1Y2
pip =
+34
kx1 X2 Y1372
= (01 0
1)
and P is orthogonal.
616
x1x2+ yiy2)
x22 +y22
1]
2 x 2 MATRICES
Theorem 28.4. If A is a 2 x 2 real symmetric matrix + kI then its eigenvalues are real and unequal.
Proof. Write
A=(
ab bc)
Then
det (A Al) = 0,
(a A) (c A) b2 = 0
A2 (a + c) A + (ac b2)
= 0.
-4-> (Ai
2)
617
[28
FURTHER MATRICES
Exercise 28(a)
1. Find the eigenvalues of the matrix
(5 2
98
A=
and the corresponding unit eigenvectors. What lines in the plane map into
themselves under the linear transformation T with matrix A?
2. Find the eigenvalues of the matrix
2 3\
= (8 0/
and the corresponding unit eigenvectors. What lines in the plane map into themselves under the linear transformation T with matrix A?
3. Find the eigenvalues of the symmetric matrix
A=
(23 36\
36 2/
5/
618
1]
2x2 MATRICES
a+b = c+d = 1.
Prove that the eigenvalues of the matrix
(ac
are 1 and A, where 0 < IAI < 1.
Find A for the matrix
A=
1\
and describe geometrically the linear transformation with matrix A" where n
is a large positive integer.
12. Find the eigenvalues of the matrix
A
and deduce that
If
23 33\
= (14 20/
An = 11.2"}1-21 33.2"+33
7.2"}1-14 21.2"+22
B = An+An-1-1-An-2 + +A+I
[28
FURTHER MATRICES
A2, A3 of
the character-
Al 0 0
AP=P 0 A2 0
0 0 A3
Al 0 0 )
P-1AP = 0 A2 0 , since P is non-singular.
0 0 A3
If such a diagonalizing procedure exists, A is said to be reducible
to a diagonal matrix. Not all 3 x 3 matrices are reducible to a diagonal
matrix; the discussion of necessary conditions upon A for it to be so and
the possibility of reducing a matrix A which does not satisfy these conditions to a form (the Jordan canonical form) which approximates to a
diagonal matrix is beyond the scope of this book: the interested reader
should consult one of the more advanced algebra texts mentioned in the
bibliography in Volume 1. (See, however, Exercise 28 (b), Question 25.)
2]
3x3 MATRICES
Prove that:
(i) A is similar to A;
(ii) if B is similar to A, then A is similar to B;
(iii) if B is similar to A and C is similar to B, then C is similar to A.
= 0;
(1 A) (A2 A 6) = 0,
10x 8y + 10z = 0,
7x 5y +7z = 0,
= 0,
3x
10x 5y +10z = 0,
7x -5y + 10z = 0,
621
[28
FURTHER MATRICES
o= = 2
z
1
map into points of the same line (but not, apart from the origin, into themselves).
(iii) A = 3
The equations
2x
= 0,
10x-10y +10z = 0,
7x
5y+ 5z = 0,
6= = I
map into points of the same line.
The matrix
1
P= ( 0
1
has the required property, that
1
P-1AP = (0
0
i
0 0
2 1
1 1
0
0)
2 0 .
0
3
2]
3x 3 MATRICES
*Ex. 19. Follow through the steps of the proof of Theorem 28.1 to show that a
3 x 3 matrix is distance preserving if and only if it is orthogonal.
Theorem 28.6. If P is a 3 x 3 orthogonal matrix with det P = + 1, then 1 is
an eigenvalue of P.
Proof.
Since
we have
det (P - I) = - det (P - I)
det (P -I) = 0
1 is an eigenvalue of P.
FURTHER MATRICES
[28
Ex. 23. Show that the columns of a 3 x 3 orthogonal matrix P represent three
mutually perpendicular unit vectors and interpret this result geometrically.
In summary, if P is a 3 x 3 orthogonal matrix representing the linear
transformation T, then the columns of P are the components of three
mutually perpendicular unit vectors and T represents either a pure rotation, or a rotation followed by a reflection in the origin.
Ex. 24. If
1
P=
-2 - 2
-2
1 -2 ,
-2 -2
1
prove that P is orthogonal and interpret P as the matrix of a linear transformation.
*Ex. 25. If u is a unit vector, show that it is possible to construct an orthogonal
matrix with u as its first column.
*Ex. 26. If P, Q are two 3 x 3 orthogonal matrices, prove that:
(i) P--1is orthogonal;
(ii) PQ is orthogonal.
Interpret both these results geometrically.
Ex. 27. Find a result corresponding to Theorem 28.6 for 4 x 4 orthogonal
matrices. (Be careful when you take determinants !)
We saw earlier (Theorems 28.4 and 28.5) that the eigenvalues of a 2 x 2
symmetric matrix A + kI were always real and distinct and this enabled us
to construct an orthogonal matrix P such that P-1AP was diagonal. 3 x 3
symmetric matrices are not quite so amenable: although it can be shown
that their eigenvalues are always real, they are not necessarily distinct.
Nevertheless, the diagonalization process is still always possible as we shall
now show.
2]
3 x 3 MATRICES
where P is an orthogonal matrix with sias its first column and a, ... 72 are
constants (see Ex. 25). Premultiplying by P-1we then have
Ai oci. oc2
P-1AP = (0 fli 1
32 .
0 7, 7
But (P-1AP)' = P'A'(P-1)' = P'A(P')' = P-1AP (see Ex. 8), since
A' = A and P' = P-1. It follows that P-1AP is a symmetric matrix:
A1 0 0
P-1AP = (0 A 13)
0 fi2 72
Now, by Theorem 28.5, there exists an orthogonal matrix
(qi 4721
\r, r2/
which reduces the symmetric matrix
1612 fi2)
72
(8
to diagonal form. Thus the matrix
(1 0
Q = 0 q1
0 r,
reduces P-1AP to diagonal form:
Ai
Q-1P-1APQ = (0
0
q2
r2
0 0
it2 0).
0 0 it3
[28
FURTHER MATRICES
AC() = a0I,
(1)
(2)
AC2-C1 = a2I,
(3)
(4)
-Co = -I.
Multiplying (2) by A, (3) by A2, and (4) by A3and adding this gives
0 = a0I+a1A+a2A2-A3
and the proof is complete.
1 0 -4
A= (-1 2
1),
0 0 -3
626
3]
CAYLEY-HAMILTON THEOREM
Example 3. If
A=
find A8.
11 1
k2
3)'
But
8.27-56.25+56.23-8.2
f16[16-112+70-7]+1
116[64 112 + 28 1]
=a
= 2cc+fi
=a
f cc = 336
tiG = 145.
Thus
and
336\ + (145
0\
1008) k o 145/
336\
863)
[28
FURTHER MATRICES
Exercise 28 (b)
1. Find the eigenvalues of the matrix
3 4 1
A= (2 5 1
2 3 3
and determine corresponding unit eigenvectors.
2. Find the eigenvalues of the matrix
(1 -2
1
A = 3 -4
1 .
3 -7
4
What does the fact that zero is one of the eigenvalues tell us about A?
Find a matrix P such that P-1AP = D, where D is a diagonal matrix.
3. Find the eigenvalues of the matrix
3
1 -2
0 -2
4 -1 -1
(
and hence write down the value of det A.
Find A-1and determine the eigenvalues of A-1.
Suggest and prove a general result about the eigenvalues of an inverse matrix.
A= 4
628
EXERCISE 28
6. Find the equations of the planes through the origin, which map into themselves under the linear transformation T with matrix
(1 3 2
A=312.
3 4 5
7. P is a 2 x 2 orthogonal matrix with det P = 1. Show that the eigenvalues of
P are ej0 and e-i, and interpret O.
Show that, although the geometrical property of a 2 x 2 orthogonal matrix P
is characterized by its eigenvalues if det P = + 1, this is no longer true if
det P = 1.
tr A = k+A2 +4.
Prove also that tr (A + B) = tr A + tr B and that tr (,itA) = u tr (A).
9. A and B are both 2 x 2 matrices. Prove that A and B have the same eigenvalues
if and only if both det A = det B and tr A = tr B. (See Question 8 for definition
of trace.)
10. Prove that, if A is a non-singular 3 x 3 matrix, then
det (A AI) = det A A det A tr (A-1)+M tr A A3.
11. If A, B have a common eigenvector s, with corresponding eigenvalues A, it,
prove that s is an eigenvector of (i) A + B; (ii) AB. What are the corresponding
eigenvalues?
12. A is a 3 x 3 skew-symmetric matrix (A = A'). Prove that
det (A AI) = det (A + AI)
and deduce that if A possesses a non-zero eigenvalue a, then a is also an eigenvalue.
If f(A) = det (A2 AI), prove that f(A)/A is the square of a linear polynomial in A.
13. If B = P-1AP and s is an eigenvector of A prove that P-ls is an eigenvector
of B.
14. If A is an eigenvalue of the 3 x 3 matrix A prove that Ar" is an eigenvalue of
An. Deduce that, if
A* = a2A2 + alA + a,I,
then
Ar = a2 A2+ai A+a0.
15. A matrix A is said to be nilpotent if there exists a positive integer n such that
An = 0. Prove that, if A is nilpotent, then all the eigenvalues are zero.
16. Find A4 + A2 + I if
A=( 3
1
9
PPMII
5\ .
2)
629
FURTHER MATRICES
17. If
[28
A (12
5 "52)
3 1),
1'
A3-11A2 +15A-1 = 0.
1 1 2)
(0 2 1 ,
1 0 2
1 2 3
A= 3 1 2 .
2 3 1
(
Show that
A" =
nil"-1A (n 1) An1.
EXERCISE 28
24. If S is a 3 x 3 skew-symmetric matrix, prove that its eigenvalues are 0 and
+ ja, a real.
If P is a 3 x 3 orthogonal matrix and P +I is non-singular, prove that
S = (P I) (P +
is skew-symmetric, and that, if A is an eigenvalue of S, then
A = PIA(P+I)
is singular.
The eigenvalues of P are 1, 00, e-Je; what are the corresponding eigenvalues
of S?
25. The 3 x 3 matrix A has characteristic equation
(A A,)2(A A,) = 0,
where A1, A2 are real and Al= A2.
Show geometrically that, if the equations
Ax Aix
have a plane of solutions, then it is possible to form a matrix P such that
0 0
Al
P-1AP = 0 Al 0 .
0 0 A2
631
FURTHER MATRICES
[28
then
na = I
then
NT
El = 13-1(0
Nr+1
0
0 P,
(dr+2
A= -1 5 2
1
(
leaves just two lines through the origin invariant and find their equations.
Explain geometrically why it is impossible to find a matrix P such that the
matrix
P-1AP
is diagonal.
632
is
[29
Prove that a straight line not parallel to the y axis cuts the curve in either
one or three real points and that, if a straight line not through the origin cuts
the curve at P, Q, R and the tangents to the curve at these three points cut the
curve again at P', Q', R', then P' Q' R' is a straight line.
Any line not parallel to the y axis has an equation of the form
y = mx + c.
This cuts the curve in points with parameters given by the roots of the equation
at3= mat2+ c,
that is, by
at3mat2 c = 0.
Since this is a cubic equation in t, it has either one or three real roots,
due regard being paid to their multiplicity. This proves the first result.
Now suppose that the parameters of the points P, Q, R are respectively
p, q, r. Then, if the equation of the line PQR is y = mx+ c we see that the
roots of the cubic equation
at 3 mat 2c = 0
are p, q, r; thus qr+rp+pq = 0.
But the line does not contain the origin; thus p, q, r
0 and we have
It follows that p', q', r' are the roots of a cubic equation of the form
ats m' at2 c = 0
(where m' = p' +q' +r' and c' la = p'q'r') and thus the points P', Q', R'
lie on the line
y = m'x+ c'.
The shape of the semi-cubical parabola is shown in Figure 29.1. 0 is
called the pole and Ox is the axis of the curve. The Cartesian equation is
x3= aye. A connection between the parabola and the semi-cubical parabola is obtained in Example 2.
Example 2. Given a parabola and a point C, prove that, in general, either one
or three normals may be drawn to the parabola to pass through C but that,
if just two such normals may be drawn, then C lies on a certain semi-cubical
parabola.
634
PARAMETRIC FORMS
y
Fig. 29.1
at3+(2ah) tk = 0.
This is a cubic equation in t, with, in general, either one or three real roots,
and the first part of the question is proved.
If just two normals pass through C, then the cubic equation above has
a repeated root and the condition for this (see Chapter 23) is
4 2
/h\ 3 k2 =
27 k
a2
at3+(2ah) tk = 0
and thus p+q+r = 0.
635
[29
This cuts the parabola at points with parameters given by the quartic
equation
(at 2 -a)2 + (2at
fi)2 ==
72.
But the coefficient of t3in this equation is zero and thus the sum of the
roots is zero. Since three of the roots are, by definition p, q and r, and since
p+q 1 r = 0, the fourth root must be zero and we have proved the final
result.
--
Ex. 2. Prove that the normals to the parabola y2= 4ax touch the semi-cubical
parabola of Example 2. Draw in the same sketch the parabola y2 = 4ax and the
semi-cubical parabola 4(x- 2a)3= 27ay2. (It is worth drawing the parabola
accurately and then constructing a large number of normalswhich may be
done very rapidly using the geometrical property that, in the notation of Exercise
22(b), NG = 2a.)
Ex. 3. Draw the parabola y2 = 4ax and shade in the set of all points from
which three real normals may be drawn to the parabola.
Ex. 4. The Folium of Descartes has Cartesian equation
x3 +y3 = 3axy.
By considering the intersection of the line y = tx with the folium, show that the
curve may be represented parametrically by
x=
3at
1+ t 3
3at 2
1+ t 3
Taking t = 0 it is seen that the origin lies on the curve and that the x axis is a
tangent there; by writing u = t-1, show that the y axis is also a tangent at the
origin (which is thus a double point of the curve, that is, a point through which
pass two separate branches of the curve).
Show that the line x- y = 0 is an axis of symmetry and that the line x+y = a
is an asymptote. Sketch the curve.
Ex. 5. Using the method of EX. 4, find a parametric form for the curve
y2 = x2(1 +
and deduce that no point of the curve has an x coordinate less than -1. Prove
also that the x axis is an axis of symmetry for the curve.
Show that the origin lies on the curve and that this point arises from two distinct values of the parameter. Deduce that the origin is a double point of the
curve and determine the equations of the two tangents there.
636
PARAMETRIC FORMS
1]
Exercise 29(a)
at 2
at 3 .
1+
J.
1+0 1+0
Find the Cartesian equation of the cissoid and give a rough sketch of the curve.
Prove that, if the chord PQ subtends a right angle at 0, then the mid-point
M of PQ lies on a fixed straight line.
3. A curve F is given parametrically by
r =
t3+ 1 . 2 1
1+
t
(t
Prove that, if the points with parameters t1, t2, t3are collinear, then
1+t1+t2 +t3 +t1 t2 t3 = 0,
and conversely.
Show that, given a point P lying on 1', two lines may be drawn through P to
touch the curve at Q and R. If QR cuts r again at S find the parameter of the
point S in terms of the parameter of P.
Show that the roots of the equation t 2+ t 1 = 0 give the double point of the
curve.
4. A curve P is given parametrically by
r = (t2 +14)1+02 -1/0j.
Obtain a necessary and sufficient condition for the three points P, Q, R of the
curve to be collinear.
The tangent at P1meets P again at /32, the tangent at P2 meets I' again at P3
and the tangent at P3 meets r again at P4. PI P, meets the curve at Q while P2P4
meets the curve at R. Prove that QR is a tangent to r at Q.
5. A curve is given parametrically by the equations
x = a(1 t2), y = a(t t 3).
Prove:
(i) that an arbitrary line lx+ my + na = 0 meets the curve in three points;
(ii) that if three points t = t1, t = t2, t = t3are collinear then
t2t3+ t3 ti + r2 1;
(over)
637
29
(iii) that if t2 and t3satisfy the above equation then the points
t = tl, t = t2 t = t3
are collinear.
A chord through the point (a, 0) meets the curve again at the points P and Q.
Prove that the locus of the middle point of PQ is a curve with parametric equations
x = laT2, y = 1-T(T 2+2). (0 & C)
,
6. Prove that, in general, three tangents may be drawn from a point C to the
cubic curve x3 = a2y and that, if these tangents cut the curve again at P, Q, R
then the tangents at P, Q, R are concurrent.
7. A rectangular hyperbola is given parametrically by the equations
x = ct, y = c/t.
If the four points of the curve with parameters tb t2, t3, t4lie on a circle, show
that ht2t3t4, = 1. Show conversely that, ifif _1
t tt
t2 t 3 t4 = 1, then the four points lie
on a circle.
A variable circle passes through the fixed points A, B of a rectangular hyperbola, and meets the hyperbola again at P, Q. Show that the direction of PQ is
fixed.
8. P, Q are variable points on the parabola y2 = 4ax such that PQ is parallel to
the fixed line x+ ky = 0. The normals to the parabola at P and Q meet at R.
Prove that the locus of R is the normal to the parabola at a fixed point on the
parabola, and find the coordinates of this point.
(0 & C)
1]
PARAMETRIC FORMS
= 0.
Hence show that, if the tangent at the point with parameter t1meets the curve
again at the point with parameter t4, then t1+ 2t4 = 0.
Perpendicular lines through 0 meet the curve at P, Q; PQ meets the curve
again at Rand S is the point of the curve such that the tangent at S passes through
R. Prove that OP, OQ are the bisectors of the angles between OS and Ox.
(0 & C)
15. The rectangular hyperbola xy = k2is met by a circle, passing through its
centre 0, in four points A1, A2, B1, B2. The lengths of the perpendiculars from
0 to A1 42 and B1B2 are a and b. Prove that ab = k 2.
(C. S.)
16. Show that there are three values of t, not necessarily real, for which the point
(t2, t3) lies on a given straight line.
P, Q and R are distinct points (p2, p3),(q2, q3) and (r2, r3) on the curve y2 = x3.
Show that:
(i) if these points are collinear then Epq = 0;
(ii) if the tangents at these points are concurrent, then Ep = 0;
(iii) there are no real points on the curve for which these two conditions
co-exist.
The tangent at the point P on this curve meets the curve again at P'. Find
the ratio in which PP' is divided by the x axis.
(London)
[29
x21-Y
- 2 +Z2 +2UX+2VY+2WZ+d = 0
may be rewritten as
(x+u)2+(y+v)2+(z+w)2 = u2 v2 4.14,2d,
and thus represents a sphere, centre ( u, v, w), provided
u2 v2+ w2 > d.
Ex. 8. Show that the equation
x2 +y2 +z2 -2x-4y+2zl0 = 0
represents a sphere, and find its centre and radius.
*Ex. 9. Show that four points in space in general define a unique sphere. What
exceptional cases may arise?
= e2
2]
z=0
r = a + An.
To find the value of A which gives the centre of the circle determined by
the sphere and the plane we solve
giving
xy-3z = 3.
(r a) . (r a) = c2, (r b) . (r b) = d2.
r . r 2r . a = c2 a . a and r . r 2r . b = d2 b b
2r.(b a) = c2 d2 a.a+b.b.
641
[29
The line
r = a+An (InI = 1)
(r b). (r b) = c2
1(x 1)
that is
1(y 3) + 1(z 0) = 0,
x y+ z +2 = O.
(ii) The radius of the sphere is V27; but the perpendicular distance from
(4, 0, 3) to the plane x 5y + z +20 = 0 is
4+3+20
V(12 +52 +12)
V27.
2]
radius to the point of contact has coordinates (4+A, 5A, 3 +A). This lies
on the given plane if
(4+A) 5( 5A)+ (3 +A)+ 20 = 0,
that is, if A = 1. This gives the coordinates of the point of contact as
(3, 5, 2).
The vector equation of the tangent plane at a point T of the sphere,
centre A and radius c, is easily derived by the same method as that used
in the last example. For a unit vector in the direction AT is (ta)/c and
thus the equation of the tangent plane is
(r a) . (t a) = c2.
Notice that the equation of the tangent plane is obtained from the equation of the sphere by writing t for r in one of the brackets; this simple rule
enables us to write down the equation of the tangent plane at any point of
the sphere. For example, the equation of the tangent to the sphere
x2 +y2 +z2-2x+4y+12z+4 = 0
at the point (1, 3, 0) is
x.l+y.(-3)+z.0(x+1)+2(y-3)+6(z+0)+4 = 0
y-6z+3 = 0.
or
= 0, x+y+z = 2,
x-3 _ y +1 _ z
1 2 1
and any point on this line has coordinates (3+A, 1 2A , A). Thus 1
meets the given sphere through S1at points given by
(3 + A)2 + ( 1 2A)2 + A2 18(3 + A) + 6(1 + 2A) 4A + 14 = 0,
or
giving A = +2 or 2.
6A2 24 = 0,
643
S2
[29
at points given by
Fig. 29.2
Notice once again that we have two parameters, 0 and A for this surface.
x2 y
2
a2
b2
=1
2]
2lTz
. Show also
The right-circular cone is the surface traced out by a variable line through
a fixed point 0 (the vertex of the cone) and making a constant angle with
a fixed line though 0 (the axis of the cone). If we take 0 as the origin and
the unit vector u = /i+ +nk as defining the direction of the axis we have,
for any point P of the cone,
r.0 = Irl cos a,
where r = OP and a is the angle of the cone (Figure 29.3). In Cartesian
form, this gives
(lx + my + nz)2= (x2+ y2+ z2) cos' a
Fig. 29.3
and we see that the equation of a cone with its vertex at the origin is
homogeneous in x, y, z. We saw in Chapter 26 that the section of a plane
with a cone is a conic.
Example 5. Obtain the equation of the cone with vertex V (2, 1, 2)
which touches the sphere x2 y2 z2 = 1 at the points of a circle on the surface of the sphere.
Since the centre of the sphere is the origin, 0, and the cone touches the
sphere, VO is the axis of the cone. Let VT be a line on the surface of the
645
[29
cone (a generator of the cone) (see Figure 29.4). Then, if LOVT = a, since
OV = 3 and the radius of the sphere is 1,
cos a = 232
Now consider any point P(x, y, z) on the cone. A unit vector along
OV is u =
and thus, since
VP.0 = IVPI cos a
we obtain
[1(x 2) A-(y + 1) 1(z + 2)]2 = Ex 2)2 + (y +
+ (z. + 2)9,
Fig. 29.4
3]
Fig. 29.5
x = r cos a, y = r sin a
x' = r cos (a + 0), y' = r sin (a + 0).
Thus,
ix:\
/cos
ksin 0
0\ tx\
cos el k J?)
P = (COS 0
\ sin 0
sin 0)
cos 0
may be regarded either (i) as mapping each point A into another point A',
where OA = OA' and AOA' = +0 or (ii) leaving each point in its original
647
[29
then
or
where
kyl
'
u'Au = 1,
u = (x) and A = (ha h
h).
(x, y) (0
A, aoj
648
(yx:)
3]
or
A1x'2 +A2y'2 = 1.
But A is a symmetric matrix and, by Theorems 28.3 and 28.4, we can find
an orthogonal matrix P such that PAP' = D where
Al
= (0 A2P
u'Au = 1
(P'v)' A(P'v) = 1
or, since (P')' = P, and using the results of Ex. 8, Chapter 28,
v'PAP'v = 1.
But PAP' = D, a diagonal matrix and the equation has been transformed
into
A02) (y
x,')
(x' Y) (O1
A1x,2 + 42, = 1.
or
Thus we have
[29
tr A = Ai + A
det A = A1A2;
but
tr D = Ai + A
det D = A1k2,
and thus both the trace and the determinant of the matrix defining the
conic remain invariant under the given linear transformation.
*Ex. 15. Show how the invariance of the trace and determinant enables us to
deduce immediately the nature (ellipse, hyperbola) of a central conic
ax2+2hxy+ by2= 1.
Ex. 16. Prove that, if Q is any non-singular 2 x 2 matrix, then
tr (Q-1-AQ) = tr A and det (Q-1AQ) = det A.
Can these results be generalized for higher-order matrices (the trace still being
defined as the sum of the elements in the leading diagonal)?
(5 4\
4 11/
= 3, A2 = 13.
3]
Thus
and
13 '
2
1)
=
=
/2
The transformation
1\
v = Pu
(Figure 29.6).
Fig. 29.6
In other words, in terms of the original coordinate system, the major and
minor axes of the conic lie respectively along
x + 2y = 0 and 2x y = O.
*Ex. 17. Show that the equation
ax2+2hxy+by2 = 1
(i) represents an ellipse if h2 ab < 0, and a > 0;
(ii) represents a hyperbola if h2 ab > 0;
(iii) represents a rectangular hyperbola of a+ b = 0;
(iv) represents a pair of parallel straight lines if h2 = ab (h * 0).
Ex. 18. Let us write the conic of Ex. 17 in the form
x'Ax = 1,
where
A=
(a
x = (x )
h'
Y);
u is a unit direction vector and P is a point with position vector p. The point
with position vector p+ Au lies on the conic if
(p+Au)' A(p+Au) = 1;
651
[29
(i) through the points (4, 4, 4), (5, 6, 1), (0, -4, 2), (7, 3, 2);
(ii) through the points (2, 4, 4), (5, 1, 4), (3, 4, 3), (- 3, -1, 0);
(iii) through the points (0, 0, 0), (a, 0, 0), (0, b, 0), (0, 0, c).
4. Find the centre and radius of the circle:
in space in such a way that PA2+PB2+PC2 = d2, where C is a point with position vector c, is a sphere and find its centre.
Can you generalize this result in any way?
7. Show that the line r = Au, where u is a unit vector, cuts the sphere
(r -3i- 2j - 2k). (r -3i - 2j - 2k) = 6
at two points with parameters given by the quadratic equation
A2-2Au . (3i + 2j + 2k) + 11 = 0.
652
EXERCISE 29
Deduce that the line through the origin in the direction of the vector i+j+ 3k
touches the given sphere.
Prove more generally that the line through the origin in the direction of the
vector /i+ mj+nk is tangential to the sphere if and only if
(31+2m+2n)2 = 1412+m2+n2),
and hence show that the equation of the cone with vertex the origin which circumscribes the sphere is
(3x+ 2y + 2z)2 = 11(x2"2+z2).
8. Find the equation of the cone obtained by rotating the line
xlp = ylq = zlr
about the line
9. A right-circular cone of semi-angle a has its vertex at the origin and contains
lines in the directions i, i+j and i +j+k. Show that
sect a = 9 242-246.
10. Show that the equation
yx+ zx+xy = 0
represents a cone, vertex the origin and semi-angle arctan 42. What is the
curve of intersection of this cone:
(i) with the plane x+y+ z = 1;
(ii) with the plane x 2y+ z = 0;
(iii) with the plane x 2y + z = 1?
11. A circle, S, is defined by the vector equation
(r a) . (r a) c2 = 0, r . n = p.
Show that any sphere passing through the circle S has vector equation
(r a) . (r a) c2 +A [r n p] = 0
[(b a) . (b a)
(r . n p) = 0.
Find the centre and radius of the sphere which passes through the point
(1, 1, 1) and contains the circle.
x2 +y2 +z2 = 4, x+2y+ z = 1.
12. A is the fixed point with position vector ak, and L, M are variable points
with position vectors Ai, A respectively, where A, # are scalar parameters. If
P is a point such that the angles LPM, MPA, APL are all right angles show that,
whatever the values of A and ,a, P lies on a sphere, centre A and radius a.
13. Find the equation of the tangent to the sphere
x2 +y2 +z2 -10x-2y-12z+35 = 0
at the point (4, 2, 1).
Prove that the plane x+y+ z = 3 is also a tangent to the sphere and find the
point of contact.
653
[29
Show also that the helix cuts the plane x+ z = 0 at an infinite number of
points, and explain this geometrically.
18. Prove that the mid-points P, Q, R, S, T, U of the edges BC, CA, AB, AD,
BD, CD of a tetrahedron ABCD, in which the opposite edges (BC, AD),
(CA, BD), (AB, CD) are perpendicular pairs, lie on a sphere. Is the converse
result, that if the points P, Q, R, S, T, U lie on a sphere then the opposite pairs
of edges are perpendicular, true or false?
If the sphere cuts BC again at P', prove that BC is perpendicular to the plane
P AD.
19. Two spheres, centres Aland A2 and radii c1and c2intersect in a circle of
radius d. If AlA2 = 1, where 12 = c,2+ cL prove that d = c1c211 and find the ratio
in which the centre of the circle divides the line A1./12.
20. Prove that there is one and only one sphere which contains a given circle
and passes through a given point not in the plane of the circle. Two circles, not
in the same plane, meet at points A and B. A plane meets one of these circles
at C and D and the other circle at E and F. Prove that:
(i) the points C, D, E, F lie on a circle;
(ii) the lines AB, CD, EF are either concurrent or parallel.
(0 & C)
654
EXERCISE 29
21. Show that, if the ellipse (x2/a2) + (y2/b2) = 1 lying on the plane z = 0 is
rotated through four right angles about the x axis, the equation of the surface
obtained is
x2 y
2 z
2 1
ai+ b2 b2 = '.
The surface thus obtained is called an oblate spheroid if a < b and a prolate
spheroid if a > b. Both surfaces are particular cases of the ellipsoid.
x2 y
2 z
2
-+
= 1.
a2 -b2 +c2
By considering sections of this ellipsoid with planes x = p, y = q, z = r, describe the shape of the general ellipsoid and in particular, show that it is a closed
surface.
22. Describe the nature of the hyperboloid of one sheet
x2
y2 z2
a2+b2
c2 = 1
Prove also that any pair of A generators and any pair of it generators are
necessarily skew lines but that each A generator meets every ,u generator at a
point with coordinates of the form
[29
656
Revision exercise C
1. The polynomials g(x), h(x) both leave the same remainder on division by
(x a). Prove that the polynomial
xg(x) ah(x)
is divisible by (x a).
The polynomial f(x) (degree 4) leaves a remainder of rx+ s on division by
(x b)3. Prove that f"(x) is divisible by (x b).
2. If z * 1 and
1 +z
w= 1 z
show that IzI = 1 if and only if Re (w) = 0.
3. If a < b = an < Irn for all a, b e R where n e Z, what further conditions does n
satisfy? Are these further conditions still necessary if a, b are restricted to positive
real numbers?
(S. M.P.)
4. The function f: R R is defined by
f(x) = x2 21x1.
Sketch the graph off and find what values of x are invariant under!.
5. Solve the equation
a(1 r")
1 r '
where r * 1.
Prove that in general
(1+x+x2+...+x2n)(1x+x2... 4.x21 = 1x2+x4+...-1-x4".
State any values of x for which your proof does not apply and obtain the
appropriate results in each of these cases.
(0 & C)
8. Prove that, if the points 0, A, C are non-collinear, then the position vector
with respect to 0 of any point in the plane 0 AC may be expressed uniquely in
terms of a = OA and c = OC.
(over)
657
REVISION EXERCISE C
OABC is a parallelogram, L is the mid-point of AB and T is the point which
divides OB in the ratio 3:2. CT meets OA at X and LT meets OC at Y. XY
meets OB at Z. Find the ratio OZ:ZB in which Z divides OB.
9. If
A = 15 1\
k3 3P
prove by induction that
10. If
An = 4(6" 2) (A 21) +
= (2 3
,
ki 1/\
_ _ (4
N _
5
1
\ ' Q= (21 24)
form the products MQ and NQ. What law, which is true for products in the
algebra of real numbers but which is not true for products of matrices, is ex(S.M.P.)
emplified by this?
11. Express
P
5+j
_ 242
and
2 + 3j
... 3x2 7x +3
(1 x)2(1 2x) .
13. Two concentric circles have radii 10 and 15 cm. If a point is taken at random
in the annulus formed by them (all points of the annulus being equally likely) find
the expected distance of the point from the centre of the circles. Explain why
you would expect your answer to be greater than 12.5 cm.
14. P is the point (at 2, 2at) on the parabola y2 = 4ax and 0 Q is the chord passing
through the origin 0 and parallel to the tangent at P. Find the coordinates of
the point of intersection, R, of the tangents at P and Q. Give a reason to show
that the locus of R is another parabola.
If 5' is the mid-point of 0 Q, prove that PSR is a right-angled triangle, and that
(0 & C)
the area of triangle PQR is la2t 3.
15. The sets A, B, C, D are defined as follows:
A = {x R: 2 < x 1}, B= {x e R: 1 x < 2},
C = {x E R: x 1},
D = {xe R:x . 2}.
Express in the form {:}, the sets:
(i) A n B; (ii) A' n C; (iii) A n C; (iv) B' n C' n D';
(v) (A n B) U (B n C').
Express the sets
658
REVISION EXERCISE C
16. OAB is a triangle, right-angled at 0; OA = a, OB = b. Points X, Y are
taken on OA, OB (or on these lines produced) in such a way that
0X+0Y = a+b.
A Y and BX meet at P. Find the locus of P.
17. Assuming a population in which equal numbers of births occur in each of
the twelve months of the year calculate the probabilities that, of four persons
taken at random:
(i) no two will be found to have birthdays in the same month;
(ii) exactly two will have birthdays in the same month and the others in
(M.E.I.)
different months.
18. The polynomial ax2+bx+c can be represented by the vector
a)
.
bc
Find a 3 x 3 matrix M which premultiplies this vector to give the vector representing the derivative of the polynomial. Check that M3 = 0 and comment on
the significance of this result.
(S.M.P).
19. Prove that
14_24+34_44+
lyz-1 n4 =
20. Find all angles in the interval 0 < 0 < 27T satisfying the equation
= 0.
23. Express
(x 1) (x+ 1)
< 1.
(x- 7) (x + 3)
4x 1
Y = (2x-1)(3x-1)
in partial fractions and deduce a quadratic approximation for y in the neighbourhood of the point (0, 1).
Deduce that the line
x+y = 1
is the tangent to the graph of y at the point (0, 1) and that, near this point, the
curve lies in the region
1}.
{(x, y): x +y
24. a, p, q, r are four non-zero complex numbers such that
659
REVISION EXERCISE C
25. Three points P, Q, R vary in position on the surface of a fixed sphere in such
a way that
pA2 +QA2+RA2
is constant, where A is a fixed point. Find the locus of the centroid of the triangle
PQR.
26. If 0 is real and z = cos 0+j sin 0, find
1
zn+ - and
zn
Determine a, b, c, d such that
Z. .
27 cos3 0sin3 0 = a sin 80 +b sin 60+ c sin 40+ d sin 20. (M.E.I.)
27. Show that the cubic equation
2x3 + 3x2 12x+ k = 0 (k real)
has three distinct real roots if and only if
20 < k < 7.
lx+ my = 1
12a2+ m2b2 = 1.
show that
s2 sl = 3n2.
and
s1+s2 = 6n3 n.
(0 & C)
31. Prove that the medians of a triangle ABC are concurrent at a point G.
0 is an arbitrary point in the plane of triangle ABC and L, M, N are the midpoints of BC, CA, AB. Prove that the lines through L, M, N drawn parallel to
OA, OB, OC respectively are concurrent at a point H.
Prove also that the line GH passes through 0 and determine the ratio OG: GH.
660
REVISION EXERCISE C
32. It is observed that
-= 3
1+2
=7+8
4+5+6
= 13+14+15
9+10+11+12
16+17+18+19+20 = 21+22+23+24.
Enunciate a general result of which the above are particular cases and prove
your conjecture.
33. For what values of 0 in the interval 0 < b < 360 is the expression
6 cosy 0 cos
less than one? Give your answers to the nearest tenth of a degree.
Answer the same question for the expression
6 sine 0 sin 0.
34. Express
x-4
(x 3) (x 2)
in partial fractions.
If x is so large that (1/x)3and higher powers of 1/x may be neglected, show that
the given expression is approximately equal to (x2 + x-1)/x 3.
35. Show that there is just one real value of the constant A for which the equations
each of the first three games the probability that A will win is 2/3 and in the
remaining two games the probability is 3/4. Find:
(i) the generating function for the probability that A wins r games;
(ii) the probability that A will win the match;
(0 and C modified)
(iii) the average number of games that A will win.
37. Prove that, if A, B are two 3 x 3 matrices, then
(BA)' = A'B'.
What is the transpose of a 1 x 1 matrix?
Let T, T' be two linear transformations of three-dimensional space into itself,
with matrices A, A', where A' is the transpose of A. Prove that, if
T(P) = Q and T'(P) = R,
then OP is perpendicular to QR.
38. Show that the points 0(0, 0, 0), A(0, 2, 2), B(2, 0, 2), C(2, 2, 0) are the
(over)
661
REVISION EXERCISE C
L, M are the mid-points of the edges OA, OB respectively. The tetrahedron
OABC is now cut through by a plane CML. Find the cosines of the acute angles
between the plane CML and
(ii) the plane OCM.
(i) the plane OML;
39. Prove that, for any complex number z, zz* = 1z12.
The reflection of the point z1in the line 0 = a through the origin in the Argand diagram is z2and the reflection of z2in the line 0 = ig through the origin is
z3. Prove that
z2 = z1(cos 2a+ j sin 2a)
and that
(M.E.I.)
r=1
REVISION EXERCISE C
47. Show that there are two complex numbers z such that
2 ji = 1
and
and find their moduli.
arg z = 1.7r
9x
27+ 9x+ x2.
Hence show that the error in taking (1 + x)1as 1 + x/3 is less than
9x2 + x3
81 +27x+3x2.
(M.E.I.)
arg (z w) <
663
REVISION EXERCISE C
u
1\ mu
( xn )
prove that, for large n, xn YnV3
52. If A = (1 3)
1 1 '
kl/'
vn
and interpret your result geometrically.
53. Prove that, for any positive integer r,
E 2?-1tan (2r-10).
Hence evaluate
r=0
54. Two players stake 1 each in a game in which eight counters are tossed on
the ground. The counters are painted black on one side and white on the other.
If the number of blacks showing is odd the thrower wins the other stake, if all
counters are of the same colour he wins a double stake, and otherwise he loses
his stake. Calculate the expected gain of the thrower and state what assumptions
(M.E.I.)
you make.
55. Prove that
r=1 r
n 1
, 0 , (2, 0).
n
1+
Show further that as n increases this sum increases but remains less than
56. Show that, if the roots a and fi of the quadratic
ax2+(b+c)x+d= 0
are unequal, the equation
un+1 a
fi
us ft
Uss-a
A-1(a Q)
bc
a
57. If alb 1 is a small positive quantity not greater than 10-N, show that
a\-k 3a+ b
1)1 a + 3b
REVISION EXERCISE C
58. The linear transformation, T, has matrix (relative to i, j, k)
1
A= ( 2
3
4
1
1).
1
-7-
(0 & C)
x3+ax2+bx+c = 0
has the property that one root is equal to the product of the other two, prove
that
(b c)2+ c(a 1)2 = 0.
If a = z and b = Z find the two values of c which satisfy this condition, and
solve the resulting cubic equations.
(0 & C)
,
x2 y2
-= 1
a2+ b2
xy = c2
665
REVISION EXERCISE C
64. A probability density p(x) is given by
p(x) =
where C is a positive constant. Find the value of C and sketch the distribution.
Explain why the standard deviation of this distribution is the same as the
standard deviation of the distribution with probability density
p(x) =
For the first distribution, calculate the mean, the standard deviation and the
mode. Calculate also the probability that a value of the variable x taken at random will lie further than one standard deviation away from the mean. (M.E.I.)
65. If a circle passes through the origin, show that its equation, written in
complex form, is zz* + g*z+gz* = 0, where z = x+jy, z* = x jy, and g is a
complex constant.
If a variable point Z on the circle is transformed into a point W by means of
the equation w = a2/z, where a is a real constant, find the equation satisfied by w.
What geometrical locus does this equation represent?
(0 & C)
66. By solving the set of equations
xl
= a,
xi+ X2
= b,
3x1+2x2+ x3 = c
or otherwise, find the inverse of the matrix
1 0 0
A= 1 1 0 .
(3 2 1
1
4 2
1
3) ,
B = (0
Given
0
0
1
find B-1and also, by any other method, the inverse of AB. State a set of equations which this inverse (AB)--1would help you to solve.
(M.E.I.)
67. An unbiased six-sided die is thrown. If a six is thrown the die is thrown a
second time and the scores for the two throws are added; find
(i) the chance of a score of more than eight;
(ii) the average score.
If the die is thrown again whenever a six has been thrown, find the average
number of throws and the average total score.
(0 & C)
68. The position vectors relative to the origin 0 of the points A, B, P are respectively a, b, p. X is the point of trisection of AP nearer A, and Y is the mid-point
of BP. Z is a vertex of the parallelogram PXZY. Write down, in terms of a,
b, p, the position vectors of X, Y, Z.
666
REVISION EXERCISE C
If A, B are fixed points on a unit sphere, centre 0, and P is a variable point
on the sphere, deduce that the locus of Z is a sphere and find its radius and the
position vector of its centre.
69. Prove that the lines
1-(x 3) = y+4 = z-3,
x+2 = 1(y-3) = z+3,
-1(x+ 2) = sy =
are skew and find the equations of the line through the origin which intersects
all three lines.
70. UV is a diameter of an ellipse and P, Q are points on the ellipse. PU, QV
meet at X and PV, QU meet at Y; prove that the chord defined by XY is
bisected by UV.
71. Prove that, if 6 is any root of the equation
z" = (z 2j)",
then Im (4) = 1.
Draw a sketch to show the position of the roots in the case n = 3 and show
how they are related to the equations
(i) z3 = (z+2j)3;
(ii) z3 = (z+2)3.
72. Express the vector i 4j 5k as
(i) the sum of three vectors in the directions i, i+j, i+j + k;
(ii) the sum of two vectors, one in the plane 2x + 4y +3z = 1 and one perpendicular to this plane.
73. A single die is thrown six times. Find the probability that:
(i) exactly one six is thrown;
(ii) at least two sixes are thrown;
(iii) each face of the die turns up once.
Find the probability that, when a die is thrown repeatedly, a six appears for
the first time at the rth throw. Find the least value of r such that there is more
than a 50 per cent chance of obtaining a six on the rth throw or earlier.
Write down expressions, in terms of p = and q = 1, for the expectations
g(r), S(r2) and calculate the numerical values of these expressions.
(M.E.I.)
74. A transformation is defined by
(
2
1
x,
4
x
y') = ( 1
0 2
y) .
z'
3
4 6
z
Show that the set of planes perpendicular to the y axis maps into a set of parallel
lines. What is the direction of these lines? Which of these planes is mapped onto
a line through the origin?
(S.M.P.)
75. In the binomial expansion of (1 x)i, where x is positive and less than 1,
show that the ratio of the term in x"-E1to that in x" is
3n 1
--- x. (over)
3n+3
667
REVISION EXERCISE C
By comparing the sum of all the terms after the first three with a suitable infinite geometric series, prove that the magnitude of the error involved in neglecting these terms is less than (5x3/81) (1 x)-1
Show that, if x 0.1, this error is, in magnitude, less than 0.00007 and hence,
using the binomial expansion, evaluate (0.9)i correct to three decimal places.
.
76. Prove that the points with coordinates (0, 2, +), (1, 1, 1) (5, 3, 4) and
(8, 2, 54) are the vertices of a trapezium in which the non-parallel sides are equal
in length.
(S. M.P.)
77. The fixed point C and a variable point P have position vectors c, r respectively in three-dimensional Euclidean space. Describe in geometrical terms the
locus I' defined by
r.c = Irk I cl cos a,
where a is a given acute angle. If C is the point (a, b, c) and P the point (x, y, z)
express the equation of r in cartesian form and show that, for all real numbers A,
(x, y, z) e I' (Ax, Ay, Az) a F.
Taking the special case with C the point (4, 0, 3), cos a = 4/5, show that F
meets the plane z = 6 in a parabola and that the sphere Ir cl = 3 touches the
plane at the focus of this parabola. (M.E.I.)
78. Obtain a quadratic approximation for the expression
V(1+ x)/(1 2x)
in the neighbourhood of x = 0.
Write down the equation of the tangent to the curve
y = 1/(1 + x)/(1 2x)
at the point (0, 1) and draw a sketch showing the relative position of the curve
and the tangent at this point.
79. ABCDA'B'C'D' is a parallelepiped, with faces ABCD, A'B'C' D' and parallel edges AA', BB', CC', DD', etc. The mid points of CC', AB', B'C' , C'D' are
respectively W, X, Y, Z. Prove that the plane XYZ cuts AW externally in the
ratio 1:3.
-
/4 6 \
k2 31
k2
(5
prove that
for any positive integer n.
668
Bn =
6)
1) A +I
REVISION EXERCISE C
82. Prove that
(n n n r)
(1
prove that
r=0
n).
(0
(_ 0,1 7/7\12 = O\
Lk,- _I
n
83. A boy and girl play a game of ' spotting approaching red cars when travelling
along a road on which 25% of the cars are red. If a car is red the first one to
`claim' it gains one point (a claim is always made by either the boy or girl for a
red car, but never by both simultaneously). If a car is not red it is found that on
half the occasions either the boy or the girl (but not both) makes a claim, for which
there is a penalty of two points. The first to be five or more points ahead is the
winner.
The events 'a claim by the boy' and 'the car is red' are independent and the
probability that he makes a claim on a car is 2/5.
(i) Draw a tree diagram in which the first two branches lead to the events
`red' and 'not red', and mark on the secondary branches the probabilities of
claims by the children.
(ii) If it is known that a claim has been made for a car which is not red, what
is the probability it was made by the girl ?
(iii) If the score is 8-5 in favour of the girl, show that the probability that she
(S. M.P.)
will have won by the time two more cars have passed is 0-48.
84. Find the solution set of the equations
(1
2
3
1
5
2)
4
=
z
1
1
1
in the following cases:
(iii) a = 8, b = 2-1.
(ii) a = 8, b = 1;
(i) a = 9, b = 1;
For what value of a does the equation
a 5
2
x
4)
(i) (3 1
1
y = 7 not have a unique solution;
1
2
1
z
8
a 10
4
x
4
(ii) (3
1
1
y = 7 not have a unique solution?
(S.M.P.)
1
2
1
z
9
85. Use de Moivres's Theorem to prove that
cos no = E( 1)7 (2) COS'-2t 6 in2r 0,
and deduce that cos no may be expressed as a polynomial in cos O.
Write
REVISION EXERCISE C
86. Find and illustrate graphically the set of points (x, y) that satisfy simultaneously the inequalities
(x-1)3 ix-1,
y2 <
87.
M=
(M.E.I.)
(1 a b
2)
1 02 b
(i) iz-1I
(iii) lz-11+ lz+ji = 2;
89. The points P(ca, c/a) and Q (cfl, c//f) lie on the rectangular hyperbola
xy = c2, and (X, Y) is the mid-point of PQ. Find X and Y in terms of c, a and
ft. Write down a quadratic equation in t whose coefficients involve only c, X
and Y and whose roots are a and Q.
Determine what points (X, Y) can arise as mid-points of real chords of the
(0 & C)
hyperbola. On a rough sketch shade in the regions they occupy.
90. Show how the matrix
A=
(cos 20
sin 20\
sin 20 cos 28
units, OC = 1 unit, 00' = 1 unit. Taking 0 as origin and axes Ox, Oy, Oz along
OA, OC, 00', find the equations of the planes OA'C', ACM, where M is the
mid-point of B'C'. Hence show that
(i) the line of intersection of these planes is parallel to the face OABC;
(ii) the cosine of the acute angle between planes is 7V6/18.
92. A, B are two fixed points with position vectors a, b relative to some origin 0.
REVISION EXERCISE C
the most general solution, in terms of a, b and a scalar parameter, of the vector
equations
x+y a, x A y = b.
93. Prove that the matrix
(cos e - sin 0 0
P = sin 0 cos 0 0
0
0
1
is orthogonal and interpret P as the matrix of a linear transformation. Show that,
if x is very small, the matrix
1 -x 0
Q= x 1 0
0 0 1
represents a small rotation, if we ignore powers of x higher than the first. If SS
is a matrix all of whose elements are very small, and if
I+ SS
is orthogonal, prove that the matrix SS is skew-symmetric.
94. Two men, A and B, play a match consisting of separate games, the probability
of A's winning a game being p and the probability of B's winning being q.
(p+q is not necessarily equal to one.) They start the match with n counters each
and the winner of each game receives a counter from the loser; the first player to
win all 2n counters wins the match. If the probability that, when A has k counters
he will eventually win the match, is denoted by 11k, prove that
(p+q) uk = Puk+i+
What is the initial probability that A will win the match?
95. Prove that, if n is a positive integer, then
0 < (2 - V2)n < 1.
Use the Binomial Theorem to deduce the existence of an integer m such that
(2m -1) (2 -V2) < 2 < 2m(2 - V2).
96. In the complex equation
zn.
+a,z+ 1 = 0
la-21
1, ...,
1.
Show that any root of the equation in the complex plane must lie in the annular
region
(C.S.)
< izi < 2.
97. The expressions E1, E2, E3are defined as follows:
E1 x+ y -2z -3,
E2 E 2x -3y -4z + 4,
E3 a 3x+ 5y + 3z- 5.
(over)
671
REVISION EXERCISE C
If ,k, it are two numbers, explain the geometrical significance of the equation
3x2 3x + 1 = 0
has real roots between 0 and 1 and between 2 and 3. Find the larger of these roots
correct to three significant figures and check that three figure accuracy has been
achieved.
(0 & C)
99. The plane H is said to be invariant under the linear transformation T of threedimensional space into itself if every point of H maps into another (possibly the
same) point of II.
Find the equations of the planes through the origin which are invariant under
the linear transformation T with matrix A (relative to the usual base vectors) given
by
4 5 2
4
2) .
5
1
7
(
A= 5
100. The complex numbers z, z' are represented in the complex plane by the
points P(x, y) and P'(x' , y'). State in geometrical terms the transformation of the
plane P P' given by z' = z(cos 0+j sin 0). Verify your statement by deriving
from z' = z(cos 0+j sin 0) the matrix form
672
REVISION EXERCISE C
102. If a is one of the complex fifth roots of unity, and x = a a4, show that
x4 + 5x2+ 5 = 0.
Express the other roots of this equation in terms of a.
(0 &
103. The tangent to the cubic curve y = ax3 at Pi(xi, yi) meets the curve again
at P2(x2, y2). (P1is not at the origin.) The tangent at P2 meets the curve again at
P3(x3, y3) and so on. Show that x1, x2, x3, ... are in geometric progression.
The tangent at P1meets the perpendicular from P3 to the x axis at P. Show that
P1is the mid-point of P2P and that the locus of P is another cubic curve. (M.E.I.)
104. S stands for three-dimensional space in which points are specified in the
usual way by coordinates (x, y, z), and P stands for the plane z = 0 in which
points are specified by just two coordinates (x, y). A transformation
1 "
23) (yx
(xj) . (0
1 0
z)
.
maps points of S onto points of P; and a transformation
T2
(;)f
22 1 (;)
1 1
maps points of P onto points of S. Show that for T1any given image point in
P is associated with a set of points of S, and describe this set; and that for Tx
the range is a proper subset of S1, to be specified.
Show that for both transformations the line joining a point and its image is in
a fixed direction. Hence describe in geometrical terms the transformations
(S.M.P.)
71T2 and T2 T1.
105. Show that the number of solutions of the equation
x+2y +3z = n,
where x, y, z, n are positive integers, is equal to the coefficient of tn in
1/{(1 t) (1 t2) (1 t3)}.
106. Show that the roots of the equation
A B C
+
+
= 0,
xa xb xc
where A, B, C are positive real numbers and a > b > c lie one between a and b
and one between b and c.
If A is small compared with B and C show that one of the roots is approximately
A (b a) (c a)
a+
B(c a) + C(b a)
673
REVISION EXERCISE C
107. Under what circumstances is it true that a .b = 0?
Prove that, for any angle 0 and any positive integer n,
n-1
2rn
E cos (u+ = 0.
n
r=0
n-1
rn) n
E cos' (0+- = n
2
r=0
n-1
and find
rIT
sine (0+ I .
r=0
108. A square matrix is called 'magic' if there exists a number k such that the
sum of the elements of each row is k and the sum of the elements of each column
is k. Prove that, if A is a non-singular magic matrix, so also is adj A.
109. X, Y and (n-2) other players play a game in which each player has an
equal chance of winning each round. The game is won by winning 8 consecutive
rounds of the game. Let
qk = Pr (X wins)Y has won the last k times),
rk = Pr (X winsIX has won the last k times)
for k = 1, 2, ..., 7.
Show that
(n-l)qk +rk = 1,
1
rk =- k-Fi+ (1--) qi, for k = 1, 2, ..., 6,
n
and find the corresponding result for k = 7.
Hence show that the chance that X will win the game is (n7 -1)/(n8 - 1)
if Y has just won one round but did not win the round before that.
(M.E.I.)
110. The remainder when a polynomial P in x is divided by (x - a)2is the linear
polynomial rx+ s. Prove that
r = P'(a) and s = P(a) - otP' (a).
The expression - sir is of significance in the solution of the equation P(x) = 0
by a certain approximate method. Explain this, and show how the division process for polynomials could be used to approximate to the roots of this equation.
Illustrate your answer by finding in this way closer approximation than -1,
3, 5, to the roots of
x3-7x2 + 7x+ 14 = 0.
Find the sum and product of your three approximations and explain how these
(S.M.P.)
serve to check the answers.
111. Let H be the set of matrices of the form
X=
674
(a+bj -c+dj
c+dj
REVISION EXERCISE C
where j = ,s/( 1) and a, b, c, d are real numbers not all 0. Show that H contains a subset representing the complex numbers and prove that each element of
H has an inverse in H.
The matrix X is expressed in the form
X = al+ cJ + bK+ dL,
where
1=11 0
ko
j_ (0 1)
1) '
ki
K = tj
0\ , L = (0. j\
ko ,)
kio;
(M.E.I.)
112. X and Y are independent Poisson variates from distributions with parameters it and A respectively. Find
Pr (X = riX+ Y = n)
for r = 0,1, ...,n.
The telephone exchange in a large firm handles both internal and external
calls. It is desired to investigate the distribution of internal calls and equipment
is available for recording the number of internal calls in each set of 10 calls. Calculate the probabilities of 0, 1, 2 and 3 internal calls in sets of 10 if the average
number of calls per set is 7. What is the most likely number of internal calls?
(M.E.I.)
113. Show that if tabular values are given for x = 0, 1, 2, 3 of the function
f(x)
then the values of b, c, d can be obtained from the differences derived from the
table, e.g. b from f(1)f(0).
Given the following table for a cubic polynomial g(x), find and check the
values of a, b, c, d required to express it in the form given above; and hence or
otherwise evaluate g(5), g(6), g(7) and g(8),
x
g(x)
0
87.25
1
89.37
2
91.49
3
96.85
4
108.69
(M.E.I.)
114. Three bags each contain N tickets numbered 1 to N. Three tickets are
drawn, one from each bag; find the probability that the sum of the numbers
obtained is 2N.
115. Two circles, centres A and B and radii one unit, are drawn respectively in the
planes r .n = p nu, = p2. Prove that they lie on the surface of a sphere if and
only if
(a b) .(nl A n2) = 0 and (pi ni.b)2= (p2n2.a)2.
675
REVISION EXERCISE C
116. ABCDEF is a hexagon inscribed in a circle centre 0. If
LAOB = LCOD = LEOF = 7r/3,
prove that the mid-points of BC, DE, FA are the vertices of an equilateral triangle.
117. The region E0is defined by
ax2+ by2 < 1,
where a > 0 and b > 0. Without assuming any properties of conics, prove that,
if pi, P2 are the position vectors of points of E0, then
Ypi+ P2) e
(i) E E0,
(iii) 2p1 e E, where E is the region ax2+bya 4.
A system of elliptical discs congruent to E0is obtained by translating the centre
0 of E, to all points g whose coordinates are integers. Prove that, if the discs with
centres at g1, g2overlap, then
t E E0 and t g, a E0,
(iv) for a common t,
(vi) gl g, e E.
(v) 2(g1 g2) e Eo,
Deduce that if E contains no point, other than the origin, with integral coefficients, then no members of the system S overlap.
(M.E.I.)
1
x.\/(27ra)
for 0 < x < oo. By using the transformation x = pea and comparing with the
normal distribution show that:
(i) f f(x) dx = 1,
(0 & C)
further circle is drawn on the surface, the number of regions is not increased by
more than 2r.
Prove that n circles on the surface of a sphere divide the surface into at most
n2 n+ 2 regions.
Hence, or otherwise, prove that n spheres divide space into at most
1(n3 3n2 +8n)
regions.
676
(0 & C)
REVISION EXERCISE C
r =1
It is desired to estimate
r(r +1) (r + 2)
1000
1
1
4 2(n + 1) (n+ 2)'
1
(M.E.I.)
122. Six integers ai (i = 1 to 6) are independently and uniformly distributed in
the interval - N < ai < N. Find the probability that the simultaneous equations
x + a2 y = a3,
+ asY = a6
have a unique solution.
Check your answer by enumerating the various possibilities for N = 1.
Show that the probability of obtaining a unique solution tends to 1 as N tends
to co.
123. Show that, if a, b, c, d, p and q are positive integers such that
p c
- -<d,
b<q
p (a+ c) /A and q (b + d)16,,
a
then
where A = bc - ad.
Construct the rational numbers of denominator 20 or less between and f.
(C.S.)
124. If in the expression
g(x) ao xn + alxn-1+ ... +
(aiall real),
a, = (4+1 = 0, for some i in the interval 1 < i < n-2, prove that the equation
g(x) = 0 has at least two complex roots.
The polynomial f(x) is given by
f(x) = bo x"+ bix"-1+ + b. (b, all real).
Show that, by a suitable choice of a, fl, the equation
ax(bsx - ba+i) f(x)+ fi(bs_ix- 68) f(x) = 0 (1 < s < n- 1)
has at least two complex roots.
Deduce that, if LI < b8_,b8+1, then the equation f(x) = 0 has at least two complex roots.
125. If C* are conjugate complex numbers, give a geometric description of
those numbers z for which
lz- < lz- 01.
be n complex numbers, the imaginary parts of which are strictly
Let z1,
positive, and put
n
(C.S.)
677
REVISION EXERCISE C
126. From a population of N butterflies which are restricted to a certain habitat
a sample of n is taken. Each butterfly is marked and released again in the habitat.
A second sample of n is taken on the following day. Show that the probability
P that exactly m butterflies in the second sample will be found to be marked is
of the form AuN, where A is independent of N and
uN = (N n)!I{N! (N 2n+ m)!}.
678
REVISION EXERCISE C
131. It is required to find the matrix A (relative to i, j, k) of the linear transformation representing a positive rotation 0 about the axis
x y z
/ m n
Find the explicit form for A by proving the following results.
(i) If u = /i + mj + nk, v = fi + m'j + n'k, w = 11 + mi + n"k
are three mutually perpendicular unit vectors, then
1 1' 1" \
Q= (m m' m"
n n' n"
is orthogonal.
(ii) If the point P has position vector x referred to i, j, k as base vectors, then
it has position vector
X = Q 'x
referred to u, v, w as base vectors.
(iii) The orthogonal matrix
0
0
R = (1
0 cos 0 sin 0
cos 0
0 sin 0
represents a positive rotation of 0 about the x axis.
(iv) A = QRQ'.
(v) 1'2+l"2 = 1 _12 and m'n" m"n' = 1.
(vi)
12 + (1 /2) cos 0
m1(1cos 0) n sin 0 n1(1 cos 0)+m sin 0
A= (/m(1 cos 0)+ n sin 0
m2 + (1 m2) cos 0
nm(1 cos 0) lsin 0 .
In(' cos 0)m sin 0 mn(1 cos 0)+I sin 0
n2+ (1 n2) cos 0
132. If a, b are real and a > 0, and if the equation
z3 az+b = 0
has a pair of complex roots A jit, prove that the point (A, u) is one of the points
of intersection of the curves
3x2 y2 = a, 2x(y2+ a) = 3b.
Draw rough sketches of these curves and deduce the condition for the given
cubic to have complex roots.
133. The coefficients a, b in the quadratic polynomial
p(z) = z2+ az + b
are complex numbers and a2 t 4b. Prove that the locus of the point z which
varies in the Argand diagram in such a way that p(z) takes real values is a rectangular hyperbola with asymptotes parallel to the real and imaginary axes.
By a change of origin, or otherwise, determine the asymptotes.
Determine also the locus of z if it varies in such a way that p(z) is purely
imaginary. Sketch both loci on the Argand diagram and interpret algebraically
their points of intersection.
Prove that there are two real values of z and two purely imaginary values of z
for all four of which p(z) is purely imaginary if
(0 & C)
{Re(a)}2> 4Re(b) > {Im (a)}2.
r I-2
679
Bibliography
The following books may usefully be added to the more comprehensive bibliography of Volume 1.
Armitage, J. V. and Griffiths, H. B. A Companion to Advanced Mathematics
(Cambridge). Surveys the underlying concepts of modern algebra and analysis:
an exacting book for sixth-formers but could be read with profit by a student
embarking upon a university course. Contains an excellent selection of
questions.
Brand, T. and Sherlock, A. Matrices: Pure and Applied (Arnold). Illustrates
many of the interesting applications of matrix theory.
Budden, F. J. Complex Numbers and their Applications (Longmans). An entertaining book illustrating applications of complex numbers in both pure and
applied mathematics.
Cundy, H. M. and Rollett, A. P. Mathematical Models (Oxford). Gives instructions for making many models. Full of stimulating ideas: very strongly recommended.
Durran, J. H. Statistics and Probability (Cambridge). One of the best introductory texts available; contains an outstanding selection of examples: very
strongly recommended.
Hardy, G. H. A Mathematician's Apology (Cambridge). A leading mathematician
writes about what the subject means to him.
Hardy, G. H. and Wright, E. M. An Introduction to the Theory of Numbers
(Oxford). A famous work on one of the most fascinating of all mathematical
topicsthe properties of the integers and their generalizations. Although the
book goes well beyond school level it is charmingly written and contains much
that will appeal to an intelligent sixth-former.
Henrici, P. Elements of Numerical Analysis (Wiley). A very good book on numerical methods, although rather advanced for sixth-formers.
Hunter, J. Number Theory (Oliver and Boyd). A more modern approach to the
subject than in Hardy and Wright: the text is somewhat exacting as it is
written for university students. Contains some good examples.
Kemeny, J. G. and Snell, J. L. Finite Markov Chains (van Nostrand). Applications of matrix theory to probability. An interesting but not always easy book.
Kline, M. and others. Mathematics in The Modern World (Freeman). Readings
from 'Scientific American'. Contains a series of fascinating essays on a wide
variety of subjects.
Maynard Smith, J. Mathematical Ideas in Biology (Cambridge). Among much
other interesting material there is an account of the applications of probability
to genetics. The same subject is dealt with in greater detail in D. S. Falconer's
Quantitative Genetics (Oliver and Boyd).
Mendelson, B. Introduction to Topology (Blackie). Perhaps the most readable
introduction available to topology, an important branch of modern mathematics.
680
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Midonick, H. The Treasury of Mathematics (Pelican, 2 volumes). Selected
writings of famous mathematiciansall within the understanding of the sixthformer.
Ogilvy, C. S. and Anderson, J. T. Excursions in Number Theory (Oxford). A very
elementary introduction to number theory. Contains an interesting chapter
on Fibonacci numbers.
Ore, 0. Number Theory and its History (McGraw-Hill). Another very good introductory work: more advanced than Ogilvy and Anderson, less so than
Hardy and Wright.
Rahman, N. A. Exercises in Probability and Statistics (Griffin). A formidable
collection of problems, going far beyond school level but containing much
challenging material suitable for a sixth-former. Also A Course in Theoretical
Statistics, which takes the subject well beyond school level.
Ribbans, J. Basic Numerical Analysis (Intertext). A good elementary account of
numerical methods.
Uspensky, J. V. Introduction to Mathematical Probability (McGraw-Hill). A
classic: advanced but not too difficult.
Watson, W. A., Philipson, T. and Oates, P. J. Numerical Analysis (Arnold,
2 volumes). An elementary introduction to numerical methods: contains many
worked examples.
681
Answers
CHAPTER 17
PAGE
381 Ex. 3. (i) -1+2j; (ii) 1 -4j; (iii) 7+ 4j; (iv) -8+6j;
(v) -26-18j.
382 Ex. 5. (i) -5+18j; (ii) -99+20j; (iii) 27+36j.
Ex. 6. (i) (2 - j)/5 ; (ii) (5 + j)/2; (iii) (4 - 3j)/5.
383 Ex. 8. (i) 3, - 2; (ii) 5, -12; (iii)
Ex. 9. b, 0.
Ex. 10. (iv) 8-j; (v) (2-j)/5; (vi) 11-5j; (vii) 8-8j.
Ex. 11. R.
Ex. 12. (i) 5; (ii) 2; (iii) 1/J2; (iv) 1; (v) 2 sin ie.
Exercise 17(a)
1. (i) 7+6j; (ii) 9+17j; (iii) 4+3j; (iv) 11+6j; (v) 11+22j;
(vi) 1 +32j; (vii) 0; (viii) (3 - j)/5; (ix) -72+368j;
(x) - 6 - 12j ; (xi) (7 + j)/50; (xii) - (11 + 29j)/37.
2. cos (01-02)+j sin (01-02); cos 201+j sin 201;
cos 2(0i + 02)+ j sin 2(01 + 02).
3. (i) 2 j; (ii) (1 j)/2; (iii) (5 jA/3)/2; (iv) 1 - j.
384 4. 3-2j; (i) (1 +.0/V2; (ii) 2
5. 3+2j, 1-j.
6. (i) --f; (ii) 2-j, 2+j.
7.1-cos 0 +j sin 0, (1 +j cot -1-0)/2. 10. z, pure imaginary.
12. (i) x2- 4x + 5 = 0; (ii) x2 - 4x + 13 = 0; (iii) x2 - 4x+ 7 = 0;
(iv) x2 - 3(1 + j)x+ 5j = 0; (v) x2 - (5+ j)x+4(1 + j) = 0.
13. (i) (x-1-D (x - 1 +D; (ii) + 2jy) (x-2jy);
(iii) (x+ j A/3 y) (x - j y); (iv) (jx -1) (x+1 - j) ;
(v) (jx - 2y) (x+ 2jy); (vi) (x + 1) (2x- 1 - ji/3) (2x - 1 + jA/3)/4;
(vii) II(x 1/A/2 j/V2).
14. 2, 3; (i) 2; (ii) x + 1.
15. 1, j, -1, -j; 1, 1+j, j, 0 according as n = 4m, 4m + 1, 4m + 2 or
4m+3.
385 17. -22.
388 Ex. 21. (i) 2, in; (ii)
in; (iii) 1, n; (iv) 1, in; (v) 1, -}n;
(vi) 2, -in; (vii) 2, -*71; (viii) isec al, a;
683
ANSWERS
PAGE
388 (ix) 1sec al, (Or -2a)/2; (x) 2 sin la, (a-77)/21
(in the last three parts the principal argument depends on a).
390 Ex. 25. (/3 - 1) + j(A/3 + 1), cos 75 = (A/3-1)/24, etc.
Exercise 17(b)
396 1. (i) 5, -53; (ii) A/13, 56'; (iii) A/5, -117; (iv) A/5/2, 63; (v) A/29, 112;
(vi)
-153'; (vii) 13, -23; (viii) 41, -103.
2. (i) cos 30 + j sin 30; (ii) cos (0+0)+j sin (0 + cb); (iii) j; (iv) (1 +j) V2;
(v) j; (vi) (1 - j A/3)/2; (vii) j;
(viii) 4 cos 40 sin Isb(sin (0 + cb)/2 - j cos (0 + .75)/2).
3. (i) (7r +295- 28)/2; (ii) (-37+20-20)/2.
7. Circle, centre 2+j, radius 1. 12. -j.
397 13. (i) (1 +j)/2; (ii) (1 j A /3)/2; (iii) j, 1- j; (iv) -1 +
(ii) semicircle, radius 1.
14. 9+6j. 16. (i)
17. (1 -j tan 40)/2, (1 +j cot 40)/2.
18. Square.
Miscellaneous Exercise 17
1. (,13 -j) (1 +j),2,12,
2. 8, 2.
CHAPTER 18
402 Ex. 1. xs- 9x2 - 3x + 4, 2.
Ex. 2. 25086278.
403 Ex. 3. 2600.
Ex. 4. y = 1957x-7373.
Ex. 5. 2412, 1957, 1190.
405 Ex. 7. - 26, -8.
Ex. 9. -0.099, 0.357.
407 Ex. 13. 2x2 - 5x+ 3.
Exercise 18(a)
1. (i) x2-3x - 5; 6; (ii) x3 - 9x +4; 2;
(iii) 3x3 - 5x2-2x-7; -10; (iv) x3 + 4x2 + 16x+ 59; 231;
(v) 7x4 -35x3 +175x2 - 875x +4372; - 21865.
684
ANSWERS
PAGE
Exercise 18(b)
1. (i) 2/(3- x)+ 3/(1 - 2x); (ii) 2/x- 3/(x+ 2);
(iii) 7 1(x+ 3)- 5/(2x- 1); (iv) 1/2(1 - x)- 3/2(1 +x);
(v) 2+3/x- 5I(x +1); (vi) 1/(x-1)- 3/(x + 2) + 2/(x-3);
(vii) 1/x-3/(1-x)- 5/(1 +x); (viii) - x + 3/(x- 2)- 7 1(x + 2);
(ix) x2 + 5x+ 19 + 81/(x-3)-16/(x- 2);
(x) 1/x2+1/x- 2/(1 +2x);
(xi) 1/(1 - 2x)2 - 1/(1 - 2x)+ 1/(2 + x); (xii) x/(2 + x2)- 1/(1 + x);
(xiii) (2x + 1)/3(1 - 2x + 4x2)- 1/3(1 + 2x); (xiv) 4/(x - 3)2 +1/(x- 2);
(xv) 1 - 1/3(x + 1) + (x - 4)/3(x2 + 2);
(xvi) 1/(x - 2) - 1/x4- 243 - 2/x2 - 1/x.
2. A = - 13, B =13, C = -11, D = 27.
3. 2/(x- 1)4 + 6/(x-1)3 +4(x-1)2 +1/(x-1)-1/(x+ 4).
685
ANSWERS
PAGE
Exercise 18(c)
420 1. (i) 1 +3x + 9x2 + 27x3;(ii)
+ 2x2 + 1- .x3;
(iii) 1 + 4x +12x2 + 32x2; (iv) 1 + 2x2;
(v) 8+6x+ 6X2 '+ *X3
2. (i) 1 + x+ lx2 +1x2; (ii) 1 - 2x - 2x2- 4x3; (iii) 2 -4x (iv) 4+16x+ thX2 + 2 04 8 X3 ; (V) 0-+ +*.x2+
512X3;
3. (i) 1 +
tx2 + tfX3 ; (ii) 1 - 8x + 40x2 - 160.0;
+ 35 x3.
(iii) 1+1x+ .x2 +Hx3; (iv) *+*4.-x +
(v) 2 -11-2,x - ThX2 20 3 6X3.
4. (i) 1 + 3x + 7x2+ 15x3; (ii)
+ -276x2 +
- 2x2-16x3, (iv) 3x- 5x2 + 7x3;
(v) 1 +8x+ 26x2 +64x3.
5. (i) 1 -ix+ 1eX2;
(ii) 1 + x + -}X2 ;
1 + +81x2 ;
(v) 1 - 3x +12x2.
6.7C3
1 - + 1 .X2 ;
12. 1+,..x+*8-x2.
14. 2.009926.
Miscellaneous Exercise 18
1. A = A, B = arbitrary, C = -A-1.
3. 1, - (x + 1), 1/(x- 2)- (x + 1)/(x2 + x + 1).
422 4. 1/7(x - 2) - (x + 3)/7(x2 + x + 1); 1/9(x - 2) - 1/9(x + 1) - 1/3(x -F 1)2.
5. j i; A-- (4n + 5)/8(2n+ 1) (2n+ 3).
,
ANSWERS
CHAPTER 19
PAGE
Exercise 19(a)
1. (i) - 1; (ii) -j; (iii) j; (iv) (J3 +j)/2; (v) 1;
(vi) 16( - A/3+ j)/9,s/3; (vii) -(1 + j V3)/32;
(viii) sec40(cos 40-j sin 40)/16.
2. (i) -1; (ii) 16; (iii) - 29(1 + iN,/3);
(iv) cos (n+ m)0 + j sin (n+ m)0.
3. (i) 1-8 sine 0+8 sin4 0;
(ii) 5 sin 0 -20 sine 0+ 16 sin' 0.
4. (i) 1- 8 cos2 0 + 8 cos4 0;
(ii) 16 cos' 0 -20 cos3 0+5 cos 0;
(iii) 6 cos 0- 32 cos3 0+32 cos' 0.
5. 441 - t2) (1 - 6i2 + 0)-1.
6. cos {(2k+1)114}, k = 0 to 6; cos (2kir/7), k = 0 to 6.
7. (i) (cos 50 +5 cos 30+10 cos 0)/16;
(ii) (cos 40-4 cos 20+3)/8;
(iii) (cos 70 +7 cos 50 + 21 cos 30+35 cos 0)/64.
8. (i) (sin 50 -5 sin 30+10 sin 0)/16;
(ii) (35 sin 0 -21 sin 30+7 sin 50 - sin 70)/64;
(iii) (2 sin 20-sin 40)/8.
9. (sin 90-sin 70-4 sin 50+4 sin 30+6 sin 0)/256.
10. (i) 37r/16; (ii) 37r/512.
11. (i) (cos 0+ cos nO-cos (n +1)0 - 1) (2-2 cos 0)-1;
(ii) (sin 0 + sin nO-sin (n+ 1)0) (2-2 cos 0)-1.
12. (cos 0+2m}1cos nO - 2- 2n cos (n +1)0) (5- 4 cos 0)-1.
427 13. 2n cos"' (0/2) cos (n012).
14.4 cosec2(0/2) {sin 0+ (n+ 1) sin (n-1)0 - n sin n0}.
0 sin (rz +1)0+ sinn+2 0 sin nO) (1 + sin2 0-sin 20)-1.
15. (sin2 016. (Et,- Et2 t3 t4) (1 + t, t2 t3
Et, t2)-1
17. (sin 30 sin3 0- sin (2n + 3)0 sin2n+3 0-sin6 0+ sin (2n+ 1)0 sin2"-F6 0)
x (1- 2 sin2 0 cos 20+ sin' 0)-1.
687
ANSWERS
PAGE
427 18. a =
b=
c=
kff
428 Ex. 14. (i) 1, j; (ii) 2, 2j; (iii) (1 j)/A/2.
429 Ex. 18. -j, ( V3 + j)/2.
Exercise 19(b)
430 1. (i) 2, (-1 V3 j); (ii) -1, (1 V3 j)/2; (iii) j, ( V3 - j)/2;
(iv) 1 +j, - (A/3 + 1) + (V3 - I) I}/2, {(A/3 - 1)- (A/3 + 1) j}/2.
2. (i) 2-j, (ii) 1.3 + 0.79j; (iii) -0.28- I.8j; (iv) 1.4-1.0j.
3. 1 + j, - (V3 + 1) + (V3 - 1) j1/2, {(A/3 - 1)- (A/3 + 1) j}/2;
cos 7r/12 = (1 + V3)/2A/2, sin 7r/12 = (V3 - 1)/2A/2.
4.
0.088j.
(i)
cos
3 -j sin 3;
5.
(ii) cos (20-7016+j sin (20-70/6;
(iii) cos 20-j sin 26; (iv) coseci cjs (ir -20)/8;
Exercise 19(c)
2. (i)
1. !ar- bsl, 0.
+j)/A/2; (ii) e-nr.
3. (i) In 2-jar/6; (ii) ein(cos In 2+j sin In 2).
4. Moves along real axis from en to e-". 7. 2c2cosh v (cos u+ cosh v)-1.
Miscellaneous Exercise 19
434 1. cos (2k + 1)7r/12 +j sin (2k +1)7r/12, k = 0, 2, 3, 5, 6, 8, 9, 11.
3. 2-71cos 2n0(1 + cos 0)-n.
4. (i) 2 cjs (g14), 8 cjs (37r/4); (ii) 2 cjs (117r/12), 2 cjs (- 577/12).
5. (-0.61+1.2j), (-0.61- I.2j).
6. Eac- bd+(a2 b2)1 (c2+d91}.
9. (i) cos {a +1(n- i)/7} sin 10 cosec I/5';
(ii) sin {a +
1)fl} sin infl cosec
10. 357r/256.
688
ANSWERS
PAGE
435 11. (i) 2 cos 1-0 cjs -1-e; (ii) 2 sin -1-19 cjs (0-02;
(iii) V(cot 1-6+) cjs
14. tan {4k- 3)74/4n.
13. cb = (2r+ 1)7/15
15. (V3+1)/24, 1/(V6 + V2).
16. - (3*+
- (3*(o+ 3*co2), - (3*(A)2 + Ad).
437 23. 1-11(n + 1); A = -C = all-a)-2, B = (1 -a)-1.
24. (x-1) 11 (x2 -2x cos 21or 1(2n + 1) +1).
k=1
CHAPTER 20
439 Ex. 2. (2 + 3j)z + (2 - 3j)z* = 13.
Ex. 4. (i) 6; (ii) - 3j.
Ex. 6. zz* - (1 +2j)z- (1 -2j)z*- 4 = 0.
Ex. 7. (i) 1+3j, 2; (ii) 1-j, 1.
Exercise 20
447 1. (i) lw - 31 = 1; (ii) 1w- = 1; (iii) 1w1 = 2; (iv) lw1 = 1;
(v)iwi= V2.
4. 1+j; 2+j, -1+j.
3. -1, j.
448 11. z(1 -j)+ z*(1 + j) = 2. Interior of `shark's fin' bounded by real axis,
lz-li = 1. 1z-,1 ajj = V6/4.
14. Line.
12. Circle, 2j/3, 1.
13. Line.
15. Point j.
16. Circle, 2, ,15.
17. Line.
19. arg
(z - b
= - O.
449 21. w = 3+j-1/z. 25. Arcs of three circles through origin, centres
j/2, 1/2b, j/2(a - 1) and imaginary axis.
26. (i) 3ww*- 2(w + w*)+ 1 = 0; (ii) w+ w* =
27. w = (z - j)(jz
CHAPTER 21
450 Ex. 1. 1+ j, (-1+7j)/5.
454 Ex. 2. (i) -1
(iii) V47/2 ; (iv) 4T?;
Ex. 3. (i) 3z2- 10z + 12 = 0; (ii) 3z2 + z+ 1 = 0;
(iii) 9z2- 7z + 9 -= 0.
Exercise 21(a)
455 1. 3, -7; (ii) 2, 51; (iii) (1 - j)/2, -j; (iv) 4-3j, -1;
(v) (2- 6j)/5, - (1 + 2j)/5.
689
ANSWERS
PAGE
Miscellaneous Exercise 21
459 1. (i) 11z2 - 8z- 400 = 0; (ii) z2 - 5(1 + j)z+ 47j = 0.
2. a2, ,92.
7. al/J, ft/a.
CHAPTER 22
461 Ex. 2. 2x - 3y + 13 = 0, (5t-1, 3t-2).
462 Ex. 5. b2x2 -a2y2 = a2b2.
463 Ex. 6. (-1, 3), (-4, 4), (- 2, 5), (-3, -4).
Exercise 22(a)
3. y = x2 -3x+ 3.
2. x3 = y2.
464 1. 4x2 +y2 = 4.
6. x2+ y2 = x2y
4. x2+ y2 = 2. 5. x3+ 313= axy.
8. (i) (-1, 4); (ii) (2, 0); (iii) (2, 8); (iv) (4, -1).
9. 4-.
465 12. (- 2, 5).
.
690
ANSWERS
PAGE
Exercise 22(b)
472 1. (i) 4, (3, 2), (4, 2), x = 2; (ii) 2, (3, 1), (3, i-), 2y = 3;
(iii) 1, (1, 1),
1), 4x = 5;
(iv) 3, (-2, 3), (-2, --I), 4y = 11;
(v) 4, (5, 3), (6, 3), x = 4, (vi) 8, (2, 2), (2, 4), y = 0;
(vii) 2, (0, 4), (-1, 4), 2x = 1.
2. (i) y2 4x 2y+5 = 0; (ii) x2 + 6x+2y+4 = 0.
3. (i) y2 12x 6y+ 21 = 0; (ii) x2 + 2x + 3y +4 = 0.
4. (i) x +4y+ 9 = 0; (ii) x 6y 3 = 0; (iii) 5x 7y + 25 = 0;
(iv) 8x + 3y+ 30 = 0.
7. i i +
5. (4, 2).
6. (-4, 6).
473 8.
474 18. Same axis, focus; directrix is tangent at vertex of original parabola.
22. Parabola, latus rectum a.
19. Parabola.
21. y2= 2ax.
30. y = 3x2 4x.
475 28. y = 2a, y2-2ax = a2.
31. y = 2x2 x+ 2.
Exercise 22(c)
478 6. x = 3, y = 1.
479 10. 2x 8y 15c = 0.
7. (1, 1).
Miscellaneous Exercise 22
2. Y/a, ( Y2 2aX)12a2; (b, 0), (b + a, 0).
481 15. (3 V7)c2.
18. (2a, 2a1/2).
CHAPTER 23
484 Ex. 1. 2 cjs (2k+ 1)/r/10, k = 0 to 4, i.e. IV(10+ 2V5)+ 1(A/5 1)j, etc.
Ex. 2. 1, 2, 2.
Ex. 6. 1 j, w, (02.
J10);
488 Ex. 10. (i) 0, 0, 1(2 200); (ii) 1,
(iii) 2, 2, 4 j2V2).
-
691
ANSWERS
Exercise 23(a)
PAGE
Exercise 23(b)
494 1. (i) 14; (ii) 46; (iii) 162; (iv) 10; (v) 17; (vi) 24; (vii)
(viii) 22; (ix) -2; (x) 30.
2. (i) 16; (ii) -3; (iii) 9; (iv) 67; (v) 32; (vi) 48; (vii) 18.
3. (i) 2p2; (ii) (p4 +4pq2)/q4; (iii) 0.
4. -3, i,4.
7. -2, 2-1, 5.
5.
-1,1.
6. q, , 1.
8. 1, -2, -3.
10. -1, 2, 3.
11. 3abc = a2d + 263.
495 9. 2, 3, -4.
12. -3,
13. (i) z3+ 2pz2+ p2z - q2 = 0; (ii) z3 - pz2- q2 = 0;
(iii) z3+ pz - q = 0; (iv) z3 + 4pz -8q = 0.
14. (i) z3 + 3qz2+ (3q2+ p3)z + q3 = 0;
(ii) z3 2pz2+p2z - q2 = 0.
17. (i) x3 (3q _p2)x2 + (3q2_p2q)x q3 p
3r = 0;
(ii) x3 + (9q- 3p2)x -2p3+ 9pq - 27 r = 0;
-
(i) G.P.;
A.P.
692
ANSWERS
Exercise 23(c)
PAGE
Miscellaneous Exercise 23
3. + 8, T- 288.
4. 1.
6. 84, 708.
(1, 1, 1), (4, -1, -D.
5. -2 j, j/V2.
8. 1,
7.
9. 3 roots if -81 < k . 44.
505 10.
1 J5.
11. q2(y + 1)3 +p3(y + 2) = 0.
-
CHAPTER 24
506 Ex. 7. + 3e.
508 Ex. 9. i+ 4j 3k.
-
Exercise 24(a)
512 4. (i) - 2i -j + 5k; (ii) 8i - 16j+ 8k; (iii) i -j + k;
(iv) - 4j + 4k; (v) - bci+abk.
5. 0; coplanar with 0.
6. -k, j.
8.
1.
7. (6i+ 3j+ 2k)/7,
9.1(i+ 2j + 2k), 9, 9.
513 11. la!-2.
14. a = r.a/{a.(b A c)}.
-
Exercise 24(b)
518 1. (i) 3x -2y+ z = 6; (ii) 7x+ 2y - 5z = 4; (iii) 4x -4y + z = 5;
(iv) x- 5y+ 3z = 7; (v) bcx - 3cay + 2abz = 0.
2. (i) 3x + 4y - 2z = - 7 ; (ii) 2x -3y + 2z = 0; (iii) x+ 3y -4z = -5;
(iv) 2x -7 y + 4z = 1; (v) 2x - 5y - z = - 2.
3. (i) 6; (ii) V14;
(iii) 2V29.
693
ANSWERS
PAGE
CHAPTER 25
523 Ex. 2.
=
Ex. 3. 2 x 10-4,124-.
528 Ex. 8. I.
0 < x <
100.
Exercise 25(a)
1.1,
2. 2, 0417.
34. (i) (x 1)1 x for x
1; (ii) 1 -e-2X for x 0;
(iii) -1(1 cos nx) for 0 . x < 1.
529 5. 1, 1, 1,
6. t, I, 1, -1
3 92
8. 1IA, (In 2)/A, 0, 1/A2.
7. 0, 0, 0, (77.2 8)/477.2.
9. F(x) = 0, x2/4, (2x-1)/4, (6x 2x2 5)/4, 1;
G(y) = 0, ay, 1,-(2,1y
1), etc.; g = dG/dy.
,
10. g(y) = 2y3, 0 < y < 1, 2y(2 y2), 1 < y < A/2;
1, 1; 8(2/2-1)/15.
11. 97 ileu.
530 12. 1, 4, 6.
13. e-kto, e-skto, 6e-3ktou e-ktor.
Exercise 25(b)
545 1. -j-).
2. 1 1/,/(107r).
3. 4.
4.
5. 1,1.
6. 4.
7. 4r/77..
546 8. 2r2-16r2/7r2.
9. /2/4, 14/48.
10. a4{4n. n2 (In 4)2}/477.2.
11. 1, 53, 160.
12. 0149.
13. 2.421, 2.641.
14. 0.004.
15. 0-154.
16. 219, 78%, a = 0156.
17. 10.825, 98, 0.271.
547 18. 502 g.
694
169
ANSWERS
Miscellaneous Exercise 25
PAGE
2. 18.6.
3. (1+1n 4)/4.
4. 1/(2V.0,
1,
548 5. 0.301, 0.092.
7. 0.683.
9. A, A, 2A.
549 12.
13.
17. #(1+y)-1, 2/7r,/(1-z2);
18. A/Ca-A).
550 19. (i) p < 1/22.4; (ii) p = 0.
6. 1 + exp [- gx1(cr,13)].
8. 0.1336, 1.630, 4.98.
10. 183p.
15. 1
2A-2.
2A45; 2/rr, V{(77.2 -8)/2n2}.
20. 1.
Exercise 26(a)
559 1. 0.7513 +0.0006, 1.1383 + 0.0020.
2. (i) 22.36 0.055; (ii) 88-75+0.35; (iii) 3.333 0.014.
5. 5.95+ 0.10.
3. 0.31784.
4. 0.043685(5).
6. lel sect y.
8. (i) 0.011; (ii) 0-034.
+Y2)1.
11. 2.15(4).
9. 0.39.
10. 0-23(1).
12. 1-15.
14. F56, -2.56.
13. 1.94, -0.56, -F38.
17. n even: no real roots; n odd: one real (negative) root.
Exercise 26(b)
2. 4.64.
569 1. F44.
6. 4.13 (5).
5. 4.10.
8. 2.65, -1.42, -4.23.
11. 0-8447.
10. 1.092, 1.931.
14.1- (5k+ 3)-1.
13. 0-60.
17. 3.591.
570 16. 0.838.
3. 1-38.
4. 5.14, - 2.14.
7. 2.30, -1-30.
9. 4.193.
12. 0.7920.
15. 0-877.
Miscellaneous Exercise 26
4. 60-3.
1. 1-532.
5. 0.88, 0.78, 0.69, 0.60, 0-50.
695
ANSWERS
PAGE
571 8. 3.316625.
572 12. 1162(28).
9. 1.81713.
13. K+112K3 1/4K4.
-
10. 2.8.
15. 0.567144.
CHAPTER 27
576 Ex. 7. ( 3, 0).
577 Ex. 10. 0.205.
Exercise 27(a)
585 1. (i)
(ii) A/3/2; (iii) A/2/A/5.
3. (2 /3, 1).
586 5. (2, 1), (2, 3).
8. 4x+y = 6.
13. Mid-point of Os.
587 22. a2y2 +b2x2 = 4x2y2.
2. 3, (0, 2), y = i.
4. 1/A/2, (-2, 1), (-4, 1).
6. it.
7. x 2y = 7.
9. (-1, 2), (-2, 1).
23. S, b.
27. x 3y = 5A/2.
596 Ex. 37. Arc of a circle.
Exercise 27(b)
597 1. (i)
(ii) A/3; (iii) A/(3/2). 2. 20/3, ( 2A/2, 0), A/2x T- 3 = 0.
3. 4i(6, 1), (-4, 1), 5x 21 = 0, 5x + 11 = 0.
4. VI, (-3 A/5, 1), x = 3 4/A/5.
5. (i) 3x 2y = 0; (ii) A/3x y = 0.
6. (i) x 2y = 3, x+ 2y = 1; (ii) x A/2y = A/2.
7. 4x2 y2 = 7.
8. 9x2 4y2 18x 24y 32 = 0.
9. x+y-1 = 0.
10. x+3y = 4, -H.
11. 2x+y+3 = 0. 13. x2 y2 = 8.
598 18. (1, 0), y-2A/2x+2(V2+ 1) = 0.
19. 5x-2y-9 = 0, 2x+ 5y 50 = 0, (20, 125-).
600 Ex. 38. (i) Line parallel to 0 = 0. (ii) Circle. (iii) Line at a to 0 = 0.
(iv) Quadrant of annulus. (v) Interior of circle, centre (a, 0).
Ex. 39. (i) r(sin 0+ cos 0) = 1; (ii) r = 2 sin 0;
(iii) r2 -2r(sin 0+ cos 0)+1 = 0.
Miscellaneous Exercise 27
605 1. 1/A/2, (1, 3), (-2, 2).
606 3. b2/a2, x2+ y2 ax sec cc by cosec a = 0.
608 15. 2x(xi x2)+ 2AYI-3,2) = 4+34
-A.
16. iV(1+ 4e + 3e2).
17. Ellipse, parabola.
696
ANSWERS
CHAPTER 28
PAGE
Exercise 28(a)
1/V10
2IN113
3x+ 2y = 0, 3x -y = 0.
-3/V13/ ' (3/,/10)'
618 1. 2 11
2. -4, 6,
( -2/V5
1/V5) (1)
2x+y = 0, 4x-3y = 0.
4. 1 (
1
V2 1
-1\
1) .
619 9.
oio
10. No.
12.
7. 2n+2 -14n-28
(n + 1) and (2"1- 1).
626 Ex. 30.
(1 0 -28
-7 8
7).
0 0 -27
Exercise 28(b)
-5/V33
( 1/3V3
628 1. 1, 2, 8; ( 2/V33 ,
2/V33
2. -2, 3, 0; A singular,
1/3V3 ,
- 5/3V3
1/V3
1/V3 .
1/V3
(1 1 1
3 1 1 .
3 4 1
697
ANSWERS
PAGE
628
629
630
631
(2 -3 2
3. 1, -1, 2; det A = -2; 2A-1 = 4 -5 2 ;
4 -7 4
-1, 1,1; eigenvalues AT I.
(0
(1/A/2)
,
f), 1/V2 ,
0
4. 1, -1, -2;
1/V2
1/V2
I
(1 1 0)
0 2 1 . x+y-z = 0, y-z = 0.
1 2 1
2
1 -2
5. 1, 2, -3;( 12 -1 -2 .
2
1
2
6. y-z = 0, x-y = 0, 15x + 13y- 8y = 0.
16. i 16 20\
11; A +it, Att.
\4 -4/
i 370 -455
18.
17. A if n odd, I if n even.
k- 260 240/ '
4 -2 -3
10 9 23
0 -1 .
1
20. A3 =( 5 9 14 , A-1 =
2
1
-2
9 5 19
21. (171+ A - A2)/52.
2n+4-4.3n- 12
2n}4-15 - 2n-F3- 4 . 3n +12
10.2"-2.3n-8 .
22. ( 10.2n-10 -5.2"-2.3"+8
5.2n + 3n+1-8 -5.2"44 + 3n+l + 8
- 10.2n + 10
25. x+2y- 6z = 0;
24. 0, j tan V.
cei. ce2 5
CHAPTER 29
633 Ex. 1. (-a, 0).
636 Ex. 5. xy = O.
Exercise 29(a)
637 3. (2- 01(2t + 1).
638 8. (4ak2, 4ak).
698
4. p+q+r = 0.
11. (at/(1 + t2), ate/(1 + t3)).
ANSWERS
PA GE
Exercise 29(b)
652 1. (i) x2+ y2+z2+2y = 0; (ii) x2+y2+z2-4x+6y+2z 11 = 0;
(iii) x2 + y2+ z22ax 2by-2cz = 0.
2. (i) (3, 1, 1), 4;
(ii) (-2, 4, 1), 9;
(iii) (a, b, c), la b + cl.
3. (i) x2+ y2+ z2 4x 2y +2z 32 = 0;
(ii) x2 + y2 + z2 2x 4z 16 = 0;
(iii) x2 + y2+ z2 ax by cz = 0.
4. (i) (4, 1, 3), A/6; (ii) (5, 1, 2), 9.
5. 4-A/{2d2 (a b)2}. AB is diameter.
6. Centroid of /ABC. EPA: = d2; locus a sphere, centre at centroid of
polygon
653 8. (p2+q2+ r2)(ax + by+ cz)2= (ap + bq+ cr)2 (x2+ y2+ z2).
10. (i) Circle; (ii) pair of straight lines; (iii) hyperbola.
11. (1, 1, f), 34/2.
13. xy+ 5z = 7, (2, 2, 3).
654 14. 12, 70.
16. Circle; rectangular hyperbola.
17. (1/V2, 1, 1/A/2).
18. True.
19. 4:4
656 26. Ellipse; 2,/2/3; x 2y = 0, 2x +y = 0.
27. Rectangular hyperbola. ( 5, 1), 5x+y = 0, x 5y = 0.
28. A/(1); x + (3 2.,12)y = 0.
Revision exercise C
657 3. n > 0 and odd; n > 0 only. 4. 1, 0, 3.
5. 8.2, 90.
6.0.067.
7. 1, 1.
8.1:1.
658 10. Cancellation.
11. (1/2, 170, (12, in); --4717..
12. (i) 1/(x-1)-4/(x+2); (ii) (2 +3x)/(1 + x2) 3/x;
(iii) 1/(1 x)+1/(1 x)2 + 1/(1 2x).
13. 12.67.
14. (2at 2, 3at).
15. (i) { 1 x 1); (ii) {x > 1}; (iii) {x = 1};
(iv) { 2 < x < 1}; (v) { 1 < x < 1}; E = B' n C', F = B u C'.
659 16. Line x+y = a+ b.
17. (i) H;
699
ANSWERS
PAGE
0 0 0)
659 18. (2 0 0 .
0 1 0
20. 7g/12, 5g/4, 23g/12.
22. x < -5 or -3 < x < 7.
21. -1+1k, -1/k.
23. 1/(1- 3x)- 2/(1- 2x); -1- x + x2.
24. Pal, 0.
660 25. Plane perpendicular to OA. 26.1, -2, - 2, 6.
28. I, 0-215.
27. -1, (-1 V105)/2.
31. 2:1.
30. 1(6n3- 3n2 -n), -1(6n3 +3n2 -n).
661 33. (i) 60 < 0 < 109.5, 250.5 < 0 < 300;
(ii) 0 < 0 < 30, 150 < 0 < 199.5, 240.5 < 0 < 360.
662
663
664
665
666
67.t-, 11, 1,
68. *; *(4a+3b).
700
ANSWERS
PAGE
aa
701
Index
Abel, 483
absolute error, 553
affix, 385
Apollonius, 603
Argand diagram, 385
argument, 386
auxiliary circle
of ellipse, 577; of hyperbola, 593
Buffon, 549
C, 380
Cardan, 496
cardioid, 447
Cauchy distribution, 549
CayleyHamilton theorem, 626
central limit theorem, 543
characteristic equation, 609
chi-squared distribution, 549
complex numbers, 381
addition of, 381; argument of, 386;
conjugate of, 382; division of, 382;
equality of, 381; imaginary part of, 382;
logarithm of, 432; modulus of, 382;
real part of, 382
complex plane, 385
cone, 645
conic, 573
central, 595; conjugate diameters of,
578; diameter of, 578; directrix of, 573;
eccentricity of, 573; focus of, 573
conjugate complex number, 382
c. roots of real equation, 484
continuous random variable, 520
cover-up rule, 411
cubic equation, 496
discriminant of, 501; irreducible case,
500
cumulative distribution function, 526
cylinder, 644
de Moivre's theorem, 423
density function, 521
Descartes's rule of signs, 558
diagonal form, 617, 620
diameter, 578
diametral plane, 642
differences, 403
director circle, 595
distribution function, 524
double point, 636
eigenvalue, 610
eigenvector, 610
ellipse, 573
construction of, 577, 582
ellipsoid, 655
equations
of curve in Argand diagram, 438;
polynomial, 483; quadratic, 450; sum
and product of roots, 451, 490
equilateral hyperbola, 593
expectation, 527
exponential distribution, 543
field, 379
focal distance property
of ellipse, 581; of hyperbola, 594
folium of Descartes, 636
Fregier point, 482
fundamental theorem of algebra, 380, 483
Galois, 483
generator of cone, 646
GregoryNewton formula, 406
helix, 645
Horner's method of synthetic division,
402
hyperbola, 573
asymptotes, 591; conjugate axis, 591;
of Apollonius, 608; rectangular, 593;
transverse axis, 591
hyperboloid, 655
initial line, 599
invariant line, 609
inversion, 441
iterative methods, 560
linear interpolation, 556
log-normal distribution, 676
major axis, 576
703
INDEX
mean, 527
mean deviation, 528
median, 523
minor axis, 576
mode, 523
modulus, 382
modulusargument form, 387
multiple roots, 484
nested multiplication, 402
Newton
conic theorem, 480, 607; Raphson, 563
nilpotent, 629
normal distribution, 535
oblate spheroid, 655
ogive curve, 527
orthogonal matrix, 614
parabola, 465, 573
axis, 465; directrix, 465; family of, 475;
focal chord, 468; focus, 465; latus
rectum, 467; vertex, 465
paraboloid, 655
parity, 558
partial fractions, 409
polar
coordinates, 599; equations, 447
probability density function, 521
prolate spheroid, 655
pure imaginary, 385
purely random process, 544
quartic, 503
quartiles, 524
real quadratic function, 457