Premier12 ae Anil|/Kumar SharmaFirst Published-2006 ISBN 81-8356-094-6 © Author Published by DISCOVERY PUBLISHING HOUSE 4831/24, Ansari Road, Prahlad Street, Darya Ganj, New Delhi-110002 (India) Phone: 23279245 © Fax: 91-11-23253475 E-mail:dphtemp@indiatimes.com Printed at Arora Offset Press Laxmi Nagar, Delhi-92Contents Preface Differentiation and Integration of Vectors Differentiation of a Vector with Respect to Time, Differentiation of Sums and Products, Scalar and Vector Fields, Integration of Vectors, Line Integral of a Vector Field Around an Infinitesimal Rectangle, The Laplacian Operator (Transform), The Flux Through a Surface for Surface Integral, The Classification of Vector Fields, Reciprocal Vectors. Multiple Vectors Triple Vector Products, Evaluation of the Vector Triple Products A x (B x C), Scalar Triple Preduct, Scalar Product, Important Points About Scalar Product, Some Illustrative Applications of Scalar Product, Vector Derivatives-Velocity —Acceleration, Radial and Transverse Components of Velocity, Radial and Transverse Velocity and Acceleration of a Particle Moving in Plane—case of Moving Axes, Differential Coefficients of Sums of Vectors, Differential Coefficients of Products of Vectors, Circular Motion, Angular Velocity Vector, Scalar and Vector Fields, Partial Derivatives—Gradient, The Operator ¥, Magnitude and Direction of Vo, Reciprocal System of Vectors, Scalar and Vector Quantities, Vector Notation, Unit and Zero Vectors, Graphical Representation of a Vector, Multiplication and Division of Vectors by Scalars, Equality of Vectors, Collinear Vectors, Addition and Subtraction of two Vectors, Addition of More than two Vectors—(Composition of Vectors), Vectors in a Coordinate System, Rectangular Component of Vector. Position Vector, Product _of two Vectors, Vector Product Pages 513. Important Points About Vector Product, Some lilustrative Applications of Vector Product, Some Important Formulae. Gradient, Divergence and Curl Partial Derivatives of Vectors, The Vector Differential Operator Del (V), Gradient of a Scalar Field, Formulas Involving Gradient, Equipotential Surfaces or Level Surfaces, Directional Derivative of a Scalar Point Function, Tangent Plane and Normal to a Level Surface, Divergence and Curl, Applications of Divergence and Curl, Some Useful Results, Some Important Formulae. Green’s, Gauss’s and Stoke’s Theorem Some Preliminary Concepts, The Divergence Theorem of Gauss, Some Deductions From Divergence Theorem, Stokes’ Theorem, Applications of Gauss’s and Stockes’ Theorems, Some Useful Results From Gauss’s and Stoke’s Theorem, Green’s Theorem in the Plane, Green’s Theorem in the Plane in Vector Notation, Line Integrals, Volume Integrals, Important Definitions and Formulae. 131 211® DIFFERENTIATION AND INTEGRATION OF VECTORS The vector analysis is a very powerful tool visualising the physical meaning of the equations distinetly and cxactly. Particularly, in electromag- netic theory change in field and potential can be understood clearly in terms of vector differentiation and integration which is discussed below. DIFFERENTIATION OF A VECTOR WITH RESPECT TO TIME If a vector changes in magnitude as well as direction continuously with respect to come scalar variable. then such a vector is a function of this scalar variable. So that it can be differentiated with respect to that scalar variable and a new vector is obtained. And if the scalar variable is time, the result of differentiation of the vector with time is called time derivative of the vector. Velocity and Acceleration Let the position of a particle at any time t be specified by the vector >, => ws ae >. . r ée, OP which is position vector and vector r is a function of variable t. As the time increases, the particle moves and the position vector changes in direction and magnitude, when time changes from t to t + 8t,F becomes, 7+ 8 fat Q. The average rate of change of the position vector with time is given be, r+or—F or t+ét-t at This rate of change of f¢ with time in the limit when dt -> 0 is called as first time derivative, or the differential coefficient and is represented by dr/dt. Therefore, Of tim 6f Bt to S The velocity of a particle is the rate of change of position w.r t. time, thus,bw Text Book of Vector Calculus v= AL) However, if r is represented in cartesian components, as, i =xi+yj+zk . dr dx: dy: dz; Then, Va —s —i+—j+—k ren aod dt at or b= vitvyj+vk wf2) Similarly, the second time derivative of the position vector gives the acceleration a of the particle. Thus, we get. . dr dy Acceleration =a = =— 3 ° dt? dt ©) ._d’x: dy: d?z- or j =< 474525. dim dt dt" « dv. a or gO Sj Me dt dt dt or a= ayita,j+a,k (4) >. . ce Force F acting on the particle of mass m is given by Newton’s second law of motion, ar dt? DIFFERENTIATION OF SUMS AND PRODUCTS (a) Differentiation of sum of the vectors ; The differential coefficient of F=ma=m 5) sun A+B both of which are the function of t is equal to the sum of their individual coefficients. Let R =A+B then for a change of time form t to t + dt, we have, R+6R =(A+6A)+(B+8B) Hence, 8R =6A+5B (Since R = A+B) dividing this by 5t and putting the limit, we get, | lim 5R _ lim 5A lim 8B G90 B80 gy St0 Er| | Differentiation and Integration of Vectors 3 (b) (d) dR dA dB ; Or a 4 li) di dt dt so that such differentiation is distributive and holds goods for any given number ie. d- = = dA dB dC . A (A+B+6+..)= +4 5. Li) dt dt odt = dt Similarly we can show that for difference of vectors, Sox pith 4B dt dts dt Differentiation of scalar product of Ave vectors. A.B Let R =A.B, the increase &t in 1 given, R+5R =(A+5A).(B+8B) or R+5R =A.B+A.8B+B.6A +5A.5B Now, on neglecting the §4_§R Which is small, we get, 8R =A.8B+B.5A, (Since R = A.B) Dividing by dt and proceeding the limit, we get, == “A. B) =A, a +B, oA (iii) so that, the operation is commutative. Differentiation of vector product A (x, y. z) are single valued or uniform at every point. (c) A Vector Field ; A vector field is represented at every point by a continuous vector function F (x, y. z). At any given point of field, the function F (x, y. Z) is specified by a vector of definite magnitude and direction, both of which change continuously from point to point throughout the field region. Examples of vector fields : the distribution of velocity in a fluid (liquid or gas), the distribution of electric or magnetic field intensity etc. Starting from any arbitrary point in the field, proceed an infinitesimal distance in the direction of the vector at that point so as to reach at a closely- neighbouring point. Proceeding in a similar way, we obtain in general, aDifferentiation and Integration of Vectors 5 curved line, called the vector fine, line of flow or flux line. The tangent at any point ofthis curved line gives the direction of the vector at that point. For the representation of the magnitude of the vector at any point on a flux line, draw a very small surface perpendicular there to and choose a number of points per unit area upon this surface, which are numerically equal to the magnitude of the vector. Through each of these points flux lines can be drawn. Thus, the field is mapped out by flux lines. The direction of flux lines is that of vector function, their density i.2., the number of lines crossing per unit area perpendicular to their direction, is the magnitude of the vector. INTEGRATION OF VECTORS Line Integral Let d/ be an element of length at a point on a smooth curve AB drawn in a vector field and F, a continuous vector point function, or vector, inclined at an angle 6 to d/. Such that it continuously varies in magnitude as well as direction as we proceed along the curve. Then, the integral B B J, Fal = J, Feosédl is referred to as the line integral of vector F along the curve AB. In terms of the components of F along the three Cartesian coordinates, we have fo Fdl= J? (F,dx+Fdy+F,dz) Thus, if F represents the force acting on a particle moving along the curve from A to B, the line integral F.dl represents the total work done by the force during the motion of the particle over its entire path from A to B. If the value of the line integral depends only upon the location of the fwo points in the vector field and not upon the actual path taken between them, the vector field is referred to as a conservative field. Familiar examples of such fields are the electrostatic, magnetic and gravitational fields. If, therefore, F represents the value of the electric (or magnetic) field intensity at the point P, the line integral JR F.'dl represents the work done on unit charge (or unit pole) during its motion from A to B (i.e., the potential difference between A and B) irrespective of the path taken, In Hydrodynamies, the line integral of a continuous vector point function or vector (F) along a closed curve is called the circulation of F along the curve. And, if the circulation of a vector point function along every closed curve in a region be zero, it is said to be irrotational in that region.6 Text Book of Vector Calculus Relationship Between Line Integral and Curl There is a definite relationship between the curl of a vector field F at a point and its line integral along the boundary C of an infinitesimal plane area around and including that point. To clearly bring this out, Jet us, for convenience, calculate the line integral of F around an infinitesimal plane rectangular area ABCD, of sides AB = 6x and BC = dy in the x = y plane surrounding and including a point P. Let the components of F along the axes of x and y be F, and F, respectively. Then, since the sides of the rectangle are small, the average values of these components along them may respectively be taken to be the same as those at their mid-points. So that, we have oF, 8x average value of x-component along the path AB = F,+— xD and average value of x-component alongahe path CD al AF, =F, + OF. Sx, Fs by. ey Remembering that the path CD is oppositely directed to the x-axis, we have fine integral of F along AB + line integral of F along BC given by [ir ale Prai=(K, + 22x Jou p, + ox BK, Oe ay |g A ec &x ox 2. oy = Fs oxsy i) oy Exactly, in the same manner and remembering that DA is oppositely directed to the y-axis, we have line integral of F aleng BC + line integral of F along DA given by (rats fat = 2 ax bx ay «ii) B D ey ” Thus, adding relation (i) and (ii), we have line integral over the entire boundary C the rectangle ABCD given by OF, F.dl = $F.dl = fate fran (S- oF, ay Janay iii) Now, the z-component of curl F at the point being the above line integral per unit area, we have (- |. [(curlF).k] =(curl F), So that, if the small area éxéy be regarded as the vector area 5, .k (where k is the unit vector along the axis of z), we haveDifferentiation and Integration of Vectors 7 fF.dl = $F.dl = (curl F) .8.,k. ABCD Cc It follows, therefore, that if we have an infinitesimal plane area at the point in question given by as = 6, i + 8.) + 6,,k. with a boundary C and ted in any direction, we have fF-.di = curl F.6s, c We thus see that the magnitude of curl F at a point is the maximum value of the line integral of F per unit area along the boundary C of an infinitesimal plane area (6s) at that point. And the direction of the curl is perpendicular to the plane of the infinitesimal area (when the value of the line integral is the line integral is the maximum) in accordance with the right-handed screw rule. the maximum of f Fl being jeurl F] 3s. It has been mentioned earlier that the curl of a conservative vector field is zero at all points in space. This may easily be seen from the following: The line integral between any two points P and Q in the case of a conservative vector field is, as we know, a constant property of those points, irrespective of the path taken between them. It follows, therefore that if we choose two different paths | and I] between the two points, as indicated in Fig. 1.32, we shall have Q Q , J, Fal = J) Feat Path | Path I If Q be brought nearer and nearer to P, path | becomes shorter and in the limit when Q is made to coincide with P, path | is reduced to zero and hence the integral along this, or any other path too, is reduced to zero, Thus the line integral of F along any closed path (also called circulation of field F araund the closed path), beginning and ending at the same point, is zero in the case of a conservative field, ie., fF.di=0. Closed path Since this relation holds good for all conservative fields irrespective of the closed path chosen these field must have zero curl at all points in space. That is why they are referred to as curl-free or non-curl fields. Surface Integral Imagine a smooth surface S drawn in a vector field and a continuously varying vector point function or vector F at a point P in a small element dS8 Text Book of Vector Caiculus of the surface, at an angle 6 with the normal to the surface, at the point (drawn outwards if the surface be closed and always towards the same side other- wise). Then, the integral ff_F-sas = iG cos@dS over the entire surface is called the normal surface integral, or generally, simply the surface integral of vector F over the surface. In terms of the Cartesian components of F. we have [[.F-ds = f[(FdS, + FdS, +F,dS,) The surface integral of the normal component of a continuous vector point function F over a closed surface S is called the flux of F across the surface. As we have seen before (ii), if the flux of a vector point function across every closed surface in a region be zero, it is said to be solenoidal in that region. Example: (i) if F represents the electric or magnetic induction at the point P the surface integral [fF dS represents the total normal induction over the surface. (ii) If the surface S be drawn over a region af a maving or a flawing uid such that its velocity v varies from point the surface integral of v. viz., ffv-ds gives the volumes rate of the fluid crass the surface. (iii) Volume integral. Suppose we have a surface enclosing a region of volume V and that F is a vector point function at a point in a small element dV of the region. Then, the imegral {fF dV, covering the entire region, is called the volume integral of vector F aver the surface. In terms of the Cartesian components, we have volume integral sf, FdV= ifff Vv Fy dxdydz +ifff Vv Fdxdydz +k [JV F,dxdydz.. LINE INTEGRAL OF A VECTOR FIELD AROUND AN INFINITESIMAL RECTANGLE The curl of a vector field F at a point is related to the line integral of F along the boundary C of an infinitesimal plane area around that point which encloses it. To establish the relation between these two quantities (i.e., curl and line integral), let us evaluate the line integral of the vector field F aroundDifferentiation and Integration af Vectors 9 an infinitesimal rectangle of sides PQ = 5x and QR = éy in the X -- Y plane. Let the x and y-components of F at the point P be F, and F, respectively. Since, we are dealing with an infinitesimal rectangle it means the sides are very small, so that, the component of the vector at the middle point of any side may be taken as the average value for all points on it. Thus we have 6F, The average value of x-component along the path PQ =F, + x 8x ond 9 along the path BF, Ox | OF bx 2 by Since the direction of the path RS is towards the negative direction of RS = F. + x, therefore, the line integral of F along PQ plus line integral of F along RS is given by Q = oF, =| OF, 5x oF, Edi + {Fai = +S fos fr SBS 5 J ji ( 2 [n- ‘6x2 ey os Joy _ aF, =~ By 5x by Again remembering that SP is towards the negative direction of y and proceeding in the same way, we get, [fal + [Pai =F oxy We get the line integral. SF, frai -(= _ oF Jy PORS by oF, _ oF, That [= x y | is the z-component of curl F or @ * F. If the small area 6xSy may be regarded as the magnitude of the vector area 6S, ¢ thus, pF.dI = (curl F),dS, = (curl F),.6S,k PORS This relation is valid for any infinitesimal area at P, if 8S = 88, 1+ 88, J+ 88, K with boundary C than we have fF.di = curl F.68 c10 Text Book of Vector Calculus The maximum value of bral = {curl Fi 58 fi. 'PPdl {curt El = Le tax es ! ' 6S Thus, the magnitude of curl F ut a poim is the maxinnun value of the line integral of F per unil area along the boundary C of an infinitesimal plane area at that point. And the direction of the curl is perpendicular to the plane to the infinitesimal area, corresponding to the maximum value of integral, there will be an orientation of the area for which the line integral is maximum i.e, the value of line integral depends upon the orientation of the given small vector area at the point. THE LAPLACIAN OPERATOR (TRANSFORM) The div grad « gives a new operator as given below : vi Whav- ver ov b= 0% It is read as del squared (or nabla squared) 6. It appears often in physics, it has been given a special name - the Laplacian operator =V.V 2 8 8 yt as tiy 6x° By" G27 Laplacian =~ = As it is the dot or scalar product of two vectors (y . y), it is a scalar operator Curl of the Curl Let us evaluate yy = V7 * F ie. the curl of the curl, which can be written by the use of vector equality, Ax(BxC) = B(A.C)—(A.B)C here xy P= O00. P- WWE or VX = F)= 9 WP) WF Finally ¢ (vy. F). It is a vector field. So we can write as our conclusion,Differentiation and Integration of Vectors Il (a) V.(V.$) = ¥2o =a scalar field (b) Vx(Vo) = 0 (c) ¥(V.F) =a vector field (d) V.(V x F) = 0 (e) Vx(VxFy=¥(V.F)- VF (1) (V.V) F = V7F =a vector field THE FLUX THROUGH A SURFACE OR SURFACE INTEGRAL Let us imagine a smooth surface in the vector field then, consider a continuously varying F at a point P inside a small surface element of area dS. Draw the positive normal of unit length n on the element and let 6 be the angle between fi and F. The component of F perpendicular to dS is F Cos @ = F.n. Let us consider the flow of fluid, then the net amount of fluid going out through the surface is the ‘ ‘flux of velocity’ through surface. For any arbitrary closed surface, the net outward flow or flux is he average outward normal com- ponent of the velocity times the area or the surface, So that, we can write, Flux = (average normal component) (Surface area) Here, the flux of F through the element dS is F. fi dS = F Cos 6 dS The integral of this taken over the entire surface is called the sora! flux or surface integral of F through the whole surface S te, Jf Fads = [[F Coso ds 8 § = Total fluid flowing outward through S In terms of Cartesian components, we have, ff Fea ds = Mer, dS, +F, dy + F,dz) 5 [(as fidS = dS = idS, + jdS, +kds,)| In the case where the vector does not represent the flow of anything, for example, the electric field E, the integral of the normal component of electric field over an area is still representing the flux. In other words, it is nol necessary that the vector should represent the flow of something we write,12 Text Book of Vector Calculus ff Eads Flux of E through the surface = ; or Flux of Ethrough the surface = {Je.aas (the sign Sf is simply taken to distinguish from the line integral j . 9 we shall. represent flux by J ). So that, we generalize the word ‘‘flux’’ to mean the “‘surface integral of the normal component’’ of a vector. Volume Integral — Let us consider a surface enclosing volume v in a vector field F is a vector point function at a point in a small volume element dv. Then the SJ Pedy is known as the volume integral of the vector field F for entire ‘ volume v over the surface. In cartesian components, Sf F.dv = fffiad i+F,j+E, k) dx dy dz where dv = dx dy dz. NYZ THE CLASSIFICATION OF VECTOR FIELDS So far, we have discussed only two kinds of vector fields, viz. (1) Lamellar or Scalar Potential Field : It is characterised by zero cur) and can be expressed as the gradient of a scalar potential and it is, therefore, called a lamellar or scalar potential field. (2) Solenoidal Field ; It is characterised by zero divergence which means there are no sources of vector flux in the field. The flux lines are closed curves and the field is called solenoidal. Since the div, curl of a vector {V. (Vv xF) = 0} is zero, therefore, a solenoidal vector can always be expressed as the curl of another vector as given below. On the basis of different dissoctations of curl and divergence the vector fields are of four kinds given below : (a) The Laplace Equation Curl F = 0 and div F = 0. According to first condition curl F = 0 the field is lamellar or irrotational. The second condition makes the field solenoidal or incompressible.Differentiation and Integration of Vectors 13 So from first condition F = grad $ and from second condition div grad o-0or v.y o= y29=0 which is Laplace equation, The examples of this type of field are electric intensity in free space due to static charges on boundary of conductors. or the irrotational motion of an incompressible fluid. (b) The Poisson’s Equation Curl F = 0 but div F # 0. Here the field is irrotational but not solenoidal. From first condition, we have, F = grad Applying second condition, we have, div grad ¢ # 0 or v2 o70 which is Poisson’s equation. The field must contain a spatial distri- bution of sources of flux. The examples are the electric field of a volume distribution of charge, e.g. electrons in a thermionic tube, or the gravitational force inside mass, or the irrotational motion of com- pressible fluid. (c) The Idea of Vector Potential Curl F ¢ 0 but div F = 0. The field is rotational and cannot have a scalar potential, but it is solenoidal. Let A be a vector such that F = curl A then div F =div curl A =0, as required by second condition and curl F = curl A = grad div A — v2 A. The nature of the vector A is a matter of choice, let A to be solenoidal, then div A = 0 so that curl F=-y2 A This relation is identical to Poisson's equation but contains a vector instead of a scalar operand. That is why, A is called the vector potential of F. (d) The Electro-magnetic Field Curl F + 0 and div F = 0. This is the most general type of vector field as rotational motion of compressible fluid and in electromagnetic theory. Here the field can be expressed as the sum of two fields. The first is a lamellar vector, which has no curl but can have divergence,14 Text Book of Vector Caiculus and the second is a solenoidal vector, which has no divergence but can have curl. Lamellar vector can be taken as grad @ and solenoidal vector as cur! A. Since the curl of a gradient of scalar function is zero and diver- gence of a curl of a vector is also zero, hence the required condition is satisfied. So, F = grad + curl A Hence div F = div grad @ + div curl A or div F = v-Vv o>. since div curl A=0 = vy? 9 = 0 This is Poisson’s equation and solution of it gives $, and curl F = curl grad 6 + curl curl A or curl F = curl curl A. (Since curl grad f = 0) Since, curl curl A = grad div A - g2 A, But for solenoidal field A = curl A, so first term on right hand side is zero, hence. curl F = - ve A The solution of this equation gives A. Thus, the general vector field maybe decomposed into two fields, one being lamellar, with scalar ‘potential @ and the other solenoidal, with vector potential A. This ' decomposition is known as Helmholtz's Theorem. RECIPROCAL VECTORS If 4, b and € are the three orthogonal unit vectors along the three axes, then the Reciprocal Vectors 4 =, b x and © ~ are defined as, x__bxe ys Gea ax a abe) OBE*B) CEA) the vectors 4, b and ¢ are assumed to be non-coplanar so that product a.(bxé) is not zero. The vectors 4%, 5 ‘and ¢* are perpendicular to the planes of bd, é1 é+ a and q, 5 respectively. As the dot product which can be easily seen that, a.a* = bb*xée* = 1Differentiation and Integration of Vectors 15 Hence they are called reciprocal vectors and the dot product ofany othe pair, one from each system, is zero. Thus, a.(é*a) a.(bxé) a.b® =0,because a.b* = Here the numerator being the triple product containing two equal vectors ie, (a and 4) is equal to zero. Similarly, Further, it is true that, ~_ bXxeS NaS aS x a= be ooo Se? a*.(bxc*) b* x(é*«a*) c*.(axb*) Hence the two sets of vectors 4, b,¢ and g*, 5 *.é* are said to be reciprocal to each other. SOLVED EXAMPLES 1. If F = (x2 + 6y) i— F4yzj = 20 x2"k, evaluate {F . dr from (0, 0, 0) to (1, 1, 1) along the arc of the curve given byx = y=e,2 26. Solution : We haver=xit+yj+zk=sti+e)+ tk or iis 2rj + 3t"k dt Also from the equation of the curve viz. x =1, y=, z= 0, we find that the point (0, 0, 0) and (1, 1, 1) correspond to t = 0 and t = 1. dr i, F. dr, F.= dt = |, (Bx? + Gy) i = 14yzj + 20x2z7k]. G+ 2tj + 37k) dt, from (i) = fi) (x? + 6y) -28yzt + 60xz7t7] dt = fig (Gt? + 6t?) -28t° + 6017] dt, putting x =t, y= tRz=r = fi (oe? - 281° + 601? Jat = Gr? - 407 + 60° =3-4+6=5 Ans. 2. Evaluate fF . dr, where F = (2x + y)it+ (3y—x)j + yz hk andC is the curve x = 2°, y = tz = 6, fromi =0, tot = 1.16 Text Book af Vector Calculus Solution : For the curve C. we have r=xityj+zk=2Pi+tj+ek (Note) ot satis j4 37k dt - : dr _F.dr={. F.—dt te rhe dt = [, (2x + y) i+ By - x) f+ yzk]. (4ti+j3v’ k) dt, from (i) = [, [4x + y)t + Gy — x) + Byzt?]dt [- ii =i. i= 0 ete] = fl pf44e + t+ Gt 207) 4 ar. . 2] dt, [e x=2Piy=t z=P] =f (16 +407 3t— 2t? + 30°) dt, 3 23 3) =f Gt8+160+20 way =(2 +40 +27 +3e) 7 3 2 J, 3.4.2, 3_ 18+ 168 +28 +63 277 7 32 a2 “yz Ans. 3. Find the Laplace operator (transform) of the waveform (saw-tooth wave) f(t) = $t, Ost s 3. Solution : Here f(t) is a periodic function with period 3 2 L [RO] =f eo (tat 4 2 fe" 3! dt = = l-e* ? = 1 [2 Be r -€ s 0 =? + = (3s +1)+ | s° $Differentiation and Integration of Vectors 17 _ 2 (i-e* }- 3se | “3 st | 1 ze] 4. Find the Laplace transform of the function f(t) of periad 2x which on the internal [0, 2x] is given by sint, O2 in terms of the unit step function and hence obtain its Laplace transform. 0,t<2 Solution : *(t)= {? Fo 9 7 SUlt-2) 6 es L[f(Q)] = 6L[UCt - 2)] = ©] J]. -LQst16 by expressing it in terms of Heaviside unit step functions. Solution : f(t) = ¢ U(t) + (41-0?) Ut 1) ..C) ; . 22 L[PU@] = Lit) = > Ss 4t-P =-(t - 4t) =—[(t-1P - 2t- 1] =-{@-1P-20-)-3) =3+2(-1)-@-1P = f(t- 1) F(it}=3 + 2t-t? o(s) = L“TFO] . 33. 5 5 L[(4t — 2) V (t — 1] = e* (s) [where a = 1] = (2 + 2 - 3] ee s ss 2 3 2 2) 5 Hence from (i) L{r(t}|= = + (2 +7 3) e wn s 9, Find the Laplace transform of cos Bek 3 3 0 »t<— Si = 2n 27 Solution : f(t) = v( 28) cos (' - =) By second shifting theorem, we have20 il. Text Book of Vector Calculus 1 L[fit)] = uv (-2) cost -#} JM, =e 3 Lfcos t] w2m, 5 s?+1. Evaluate f F. dr, where F = yz i + zx j + xy k and C is the portion of the curve r = (a cos Ui + (b sin j + (cp k, frm i= = 7/2. Solution : The curve is r=(acos t)i+(bsint)j+(ct)k 2. @ '. Its parametric equations are x =acost, y =bsint, z= ct ... (i) From (i) we get dr/dt = (~a sin t) i + (b cos t) j + (c) kj dr F. () = (yzi + zxj + xyk) . [(-a sin t) i + (b cos t) j + ck] = -ayz sint+ bzxcost+exy, [. i.i= li.j=0 eteJ = —abe t sin*t + abe t cos*t + abe sin t cos t, from (ii) = ~abe [(cos*t = sin’t) t + 1/2 (2 sin t cos t)] or F. dr = abe [t cos 2t + 1/2 sin 2t] dt 2 1. Ic F. dr = abe [% 5 cos2t + > sin 2| dt abe | (7? tcos2t dt + = 6° sin 21 a| * {3 t sin a) - fF 1 [ sin 2t at] 41 ip? sin 2t at {3 2 2° lyl. = abe a: (Zesin \. Ans. Evaluate f F. dr, where F = xy i+ (2 + y°) j and C is the rectangle in the xy-plane bounded by the lines y = 2, x = 4, y = 10 andx = 1. Solution : AB is the first part C, of the curve C and for AB we have y =2 and .. dy = 0. iDifferentiation and Integration of Vectors 21 Similarly, for the second part C, (4e BD) of the curve we have x = 4, dx = 0, for the third third part C, (.e. DE) of the curve C we have y = 10, dy = 0 and for the last part C, (ie. EA) of the curve we have x = 1, dx = 0, Also F . dr [xvi + (x? + 9?) j) . [idx + jdy] = xy dx + (x? + y) dy Now [oF .dr=[., F.dr+ fy F.de+ i. PF odr+ i, PF. dr = fo, xy dx +f, G2 + 9’) dy + I. ay dx # IL, G2 + y?) dy. [ dx = 0 for C, and C,: dy = 0 for C, and C,] flay 2x dx + =f, (16+ y") dy +f, 10x dx + [ig(l + y?) dy, ye Since for C,, y = 2 and x varies from | to 4; for C,, x = 4 and varies from 2 to 10; for C,, y = 10 and x varies form 4 to | and for C,, x = 1 and x varies from 10 to 2. io ie F. dr =(x?} +{t6y + wy) (5x? “ly “ty \ 2 10 = 15 + 128 + 1/3 (992) — 75 ~ 8 - 1/3 (992) = 60 Ans, if in the above C is around the triangle from O to D, D to B and B to O, evaluate [ A. dr. Solution : Here let C, denote the line from B to O whose equation is y = 1/2x. Then fo, A. dr = [.,[(@2 +y")dx + (Gy —4x) dy], “. Required value =f. A.dr=[.,A.dr+{.,A.dr+{., A.dr 5 13 5 a re Joy A.dr + Joy A.dr=- 522 Text Book af Vector Caiculus Find the total work done in moving a particle in a force field given by F = 2x y i- 3 xj = Sz k along the curve C given by x = 1, yO 4s hz 2 fromt=0twr= Solution : Total work done = |. F. dr = fe (2xyi — 3xj- Szk). (idx + jdy + kdz) = J. = Qxy dx = 3x dy - 5z dz) c = k (2c + Yd) - 3d (C+ 1)-5 2) d(2P)] = fig [(2t? + 2t) dt - 3t (2t dt) -10t? (4tdt)] = ff (-38t° - 6t? + 21) dt “yl -[-Bet-2e ee ~-(B)-261 AL 2 0 2 = -21/2 Ans, Find the circulation of F round the curve C. where F = (x - y) i+ (x + y) f and C is the curve as given. Solution : Here F . dr = [(x~y) i (x + y) j] . [i dx + j dy) = (x — y) dx + (x + y) dy “. The required circulation as in above =|. F.dr=(.,F.dr +i. F.dr Here |. F. dr = an [Cx - y) dx + (x + y) dy], for the curve y = x? = Pg (x = x?) dx fig (x +x?) 2x dx, putting y = x2 (5*'-3")) +e +) —x° -=x +/ =X +—X 2 » G2 J, + we | rol— -4 ; + wa] to hol Lap And [.. F. drDifferentiation and Integration of Vectors 23 = Pa [(x-y) dx +(x + ¥) dy}. for the curve y7 = x = fay My? -y) 2y dy + G7 = y) dy]. putting y? = x 0 =f ay? -yZeyya(tyt— lye ly) Jp Gy" -y> + y) 2) 37 727), wl— taf bl il I ta | .. From (i), the required circulation = 4. = -= Ans. 3 15. If F =3xyi-)? j, evaluate f F . dr, where C is the curve in the xy-plane, y = 2x°, from (0, 0) to (1, 2). Solution : In the xy-plane, r= xi + yj Also for the given curve x = t, y = 20 and t varies from t = 0 tot = 1 for the given points (0, 0) to (1, 2) oJ. F dr =|, (3x y iy? i). (idx + j + dy) = f. (3x y dx — y? dy) = fi, 3 (2t?) dt) — fi, (207) d @t?) since x = t, y = 20? =6f, 8 dt-16f) 0 dt 1 | -6(t0'] -16(2 +") 6 _ 16 4 hy 6 4 4 6 3. 8 9-16 16. Evaluated ff F. ndS, where F = 182i = 12) + 3y k and S is the surface of the plane 2x + 3y + 6z = 12 in the first octant. Solution : The equation of the plane is = 2x + 3y + 6z= 12 =0. .op . &o od 4. 4: — =i + jm +k — = 21 + 35 + 6k . grad > ox lay Ra Tt *. = unit vector in the direction of grad24 17, Text Book of Vector Caicuius cis 5 OK | oi 4 3+ 6k) Pa3ae} 7 * F.n = (18 zi — 12) + 3yk). 1/7 (21 + 3j + 6k) = 5 (362-36 + 1By) = + (y +22 ~2) ..- (i) Io 6° and nike > Git+3jt 6k). k= > . (ii) Also we now that dx dy J,F.ndS=[.,F.n Tk? x-y-plane, i.e. R, is the region bounded by x-axis, y-axis and the straight fine 2x + 3y = 12 or (x/60 + (y/4) = 1. where R, is the projection of S on the ff, Fonds = ip, * (y + 22-2) z dx dy, from (i) and (ii) = ff, Gy + 62 - 6) dx dy = fig [3y + (12 — 2x — 3y) — 6] dx dy, from 2x + 3y + 6z = 12 = Rig RG") (6 - 2x) dx dy = fo, (6 - 2x) =(12 - 2) dx = 26 6-6 -x) dx =1¢ (18 - 9x + x?) dx steel [los ~ 162 +72] = > [is] = 24 Ans. eo wie | wie fF = yi + (xv — 2xz) j-— xy k, evaluate ff (Vx F). n dS where S is the surface of the sphere x? + 37 + 2° = @ above the xj~-plane. Solution : The equation of the sphere is = x? + y? = 27 — a? =0Differentiation and Integration of Vectors 25 .. grad oni ey jug C9 25 2x + jy) + k 22) Ox oy Cz n= unit vector in the direction of grad o _ (2x)i+ @y)j+@zk | xityj+ zk View + (2y)? + eg YO? + y7 +27) = (xi + yi + zk)/a, since x? 4 y7 + x z= a, |i j k 2 a 4 Now Vx Psi _ o Cx ay Gz ly x-2xz —Xy =i xy) — 2 lx — axa gj] Day Ze -i[2¢ xy) ay k 2sa)|+j| 209 2 cm) +k é {x = 2xz)- oo | Ox ey =i [x} + Jj [y] + k [-22] “CV * FY). n= (xi + yj — 2zk). (ai + yj + zkya = (x? + y? - 22a Also a. k [(xi + yj + zk)/a. k = 2a dx dy “ Iv x F)on dS = {,,( »F)on Tk where R, is the projection of 5 on x y-plane _ (x? + y7 —2z7) dx dy : ; Jr 2 (az) where 2° = a2 - y = ft, hee (ox? + 3y? - 2a? Jdx dy ROTH genta? 84) fa? -x? -y? (here R, is the projection of the sphere on the xy-plane. a pat a2) 3x? + By? - 2a? =4 fn Aa , FSS dy la? — x? - y = (0 Ans.Text Book of Vector Calculus Evaluate £ Fond aver the surface of the evlinder x, y= 9 included in the first octant between = = 0 and z = 4; where F = ci +xj-ovrk Solution : In such cases of the surface of a cylinder if cylindrical coordinates r, >, z are taken instead of cartesian coordinates x, y, z, the solution becomes easier. -, We take x =rcos ¢, y =r sin } and on the surface of the given cylinder r = 3, $ varies form 0 to 1/2 7 and z varies from 0 to 4. Also here @ = x7 + y7=9=0 =2x,—=2 ~—=0 ’ @x oy 0: j 2b, 5b, Oe ints 6 ey Gz 1 or n=— (xi + yj) J Fn = (2i + xj = yzk) . 1/3 (xi + yj) = 1/3 (xz + yx) Also dS = elementary area on the cylindrical surface = 3d $ dz [Fon dS =f, 173 (xz + yx) 3 do dz =|, x (y + z) df dz, where x = 3 cos o, y = 3 sino 0 fo 3 cos 6 (3 sin } + z) do dz =f. =9ft, i his 5 sin } cos $ dodz + 3 ft. 5 Zcos b db dz a/2 =9 I (3 sin- *4] dz +3 io (sin oy” z dz a 9 15] =—fzh +3/—2?| =18+24=42 ans. 2 2° Jo Find L{r' U(t - 2)]. Solution : #(t)=t'=(t-2 + 2}Differentiation and Integration of Vectors 27 = (a + 3)' (where a = t — 2) = al + da}.2 + 627.4 + 4a.8 + 16 (By Binomial Theorem) = (t—2)' + 8 (t— 2p + 24(t — 2)? + 32 (t- 2) + 16 = 16+ 32t+ 24r + 8b +t 34 4 1 1 2' « Lif(t)| = 16.— + 32. + 24. +8. - Uri) a e 3 t8s 5° = + = 3 s sf §? 16 32 48 48 | 24 5 s? . Lt’ v(t - 2] = (‘s _32 48 48 3) ~s 10 24 a Ft s s gs si 8? es . 7} ——— 20, Find L sa ese 25 |" -3s 71 € | =f-a ue. a) Si 1 i . ut — olution : s’+8s +25 = f(t — 3) U(t ~3) 1 f(t) = L"'|] ——_—__ where ft) owes ul 1 | (sap +9 | eetty L ° 5749 =e" i sin 3t 3 1 f(t — 3) = 3 e*t!-3) sin 3 (t - 3) } =z e?-4 sin (3t — 9) 3 i! es _ I s485+25| 3 e!? + sin (3t — 9) V(t - 3).28 21. Text Book of Vector Caicutus d*y dy Solve by Laplace transformation method. a + -2y = 3 cos 34-7] sin 31 given that yO) = 6, vi) = 6. dy dy . Solution : y(t) + y(t) = 3 cos 3t — 11 sin 3t Taking Laplace transform of both the sides, Liy"(o] + Lfy'()) - 2L[y(0] = 3Lfcos 3t] — HL [sin 3t] {s*L [y(t)] — s yO) — y'(O)} + Fs [yy] - y(O)] — 2L [yey] 3s 3 =F -iM-y s +9 s-+9 => s° L[y()] - s (0) -— 6 + sL fy(t)] - 0 — 2L[y(0] _ 3s __33 “s49 849 ; 38-33 = (+ s-2)L (yo) = SI +8 > = (sf +52) L [yo] = S22 ; s-+9 = LIy(t)] = 3 25” sett iS" +9}\s"+s-2 32s? +547 = Lb(l= s* +9) (s +2) (s-1) As+B c D Let 3Qs7 +547) = wag ged SL] => 3(2s? + s + 7) = (As + B) (s + 2) (s - 1) + C(s? + 9) (s- 1) + Dis? + 9) (s + 2) Puts = 1 30 + D (10) (3) => D=I Puts =-2 > 39 = C (13) (- 3)Differentiation and Integration of Vectors 29 Equating the coefficients of s* on both the sides, we get A+C+D=90 > A=-C-D => A=1-1=0 Equating the constant terms on both the sides, we get - 2B -9C + I8D = 21 => ~2B+9+ 18 = 21 => -~2B=~—6 => B=3 ae L 1 I s+2 s-l Taking inverse of both the sides, we get y(t)= ul #s)- ofs}el4) = sin 3t ~ e* + el. 22. Solving using, Laplace transformation method. the following differ- ential equation : dy | ; . dy ae ave =sint 5 =—=0 w = de 2 3y= , given that ¥ lt , when t = 0. d* . Solution : “Y +2 2 -3y =sint dt- dt Taking taplace Transform of both the sides, we get d’y | - ua +8 | -3L{y(t)] = Lfsin ¢] = [s°L [yO] ~ s ¥(0) ~ y'(O}] + 2 [sb [y(] ~ y(O)] — 31. Lyin} ] s74] l => (8 + 2s — 3) L fy] = ST [+ 0) = yO) = 0} 1 = Lit Gaile s3s23)30 23. Text Book of Vector Calculus 1 ~ (s-1)(6+3) s+] ] A B_ | Cs+D Let G-)G+3)@ 41) sl 3 al => 1=A(s + 3)(s? + 1) + Bs — 1s? + 1) + (Cs + Ds — 1)(5+3) 1 Putting s = 1, we get A= 3 . I Putting s = — 3, we get B=-— 40 Putting s = 0, we get 3A - B-3D = 1 | => D= “3 Equating the coefficients of s> an both the sides, we get A+B+C=0 ~ | =>. Ccf- To y(t)= 21 a Jo pneltpte S }|2 8 s-l] 40 st+3} 10 s +1] 5 s- +1 y(t)= te! td gs —t cost sin t, 8 40 10 5 Use Laplace transformation to solve the equation : oy ot +4 & Solution : Given that : y(t) + 4 y(t) + 4 y(t) = sin 2t Taking Laplace Transform of both the sides, we get; Lly"()] + 4L [yO] + 4b [y@] = L {sin 2t) SL [y(t] — s y(0) ~ y'(O)] + 4 Esk Ly(] — y(0)] + 4b [yD] 5 = s +4 +4y =sin 2t, given that (0) = y'(0) = 0.Differentiation and Integration of Vectors 31 > (s+ 4s + 4) L [y(t] = D4 => Lye] = area) 4 1 = y{t)= 21 lia (° a ! __A B Cs+D Let (+2) 4 “S42 GIP stad => 1=A(s+2)(s8 +4) +B (Ss + 4) (Cs + D) (s + 2P Putting s = — 2, we get; 1 = B (8) l => B= a Equating the coefficients of s*, on both sides, we get; A+C=0 i) Equating the coefficients of s*, we get: 2A+B+4C+D=0 Ail) Equating the coefficients of s, we get; 4A + 4D + 4C = 0...(iii) Equating the constants terms on both the sides, we get; 8A + 4B + 4D = 1...(iv) Solving (i) and (iii), we get; D = 0 ] Substituting the values of B and D we get from (iv), A = — 16 Putting the value of A in (i), we get, c=-1 16 i, ly 18 (s+2) 8°44 = weet ele aetza 1 ot 1 titi! y(t) = 2 L' | 16's4+232 Text Book of Vector Calculus 2 Io t at > v(t)= 56" +g ~ 5 608 24 which is the required general solution. 24. Solve using Laplace transformation method, the following differen- tial equation ; ay dt? Solution : The given D.E. is : y"(t) + 2 y(t) + 2 y(t) = et sin 2t Taking Laplace Transform of both the sides, we get Lfy"(t)] + 2L[y()] + 2L fy(Q] = L [es sin 2t] a s'L [y()] — 0 - 1+ 2s L [y(0] + 2L [y()] = gs 43545 2 = (8 +2s+2)L bWOIl= 35,57! 2 ] Liytt)]= t5 3 > TF = Lb (42842) +2545) s+2s42 3 I 2 7 +> (s? 42s + 2)|s? + 28 +5) s' +2542 i eee 1 3 ta | to 242s + 2}\s" +2545 s°+2s+2 _2 1 21 1 3s@42st2 3842845 s'h2st2 ee 3s74+25+2 3 (s+1f +2? _ $e] 2c] |Differentiation and Integration of Vectors 33 “tat Io. => v(t)= 36° sin te sin 2 = v(o)=(5 sin t= sin 2) e! is the required general solution. l+s 25. Find the inverse Laplace transform of log (+) I+s\ Solution : Let F(s) = log a) = log (1 + 8) — log s ars)__1 1} ds l+s 5 +f) -of 4] of = | FE) a l+s hs _,| dF But | 89) =(- tL" [F()] e'-1=( Ith [F(s)] -t “1 l-e ah tL" [F(s}] = ; = L e( ) = re 26. Find L! tol 4 +} | Solution ; (i) Let F(s) = log (1+ 3] s+] log 2 = log (s? + 1) - log # ii} = log (s° + 1) - 2 log s34 But (ii) Here, F(s) = 2 d’y 27, Solve : ve dt Text Book of Vector Caiculus 2s -224 s -1) s+] $ s +l 5s ue |. 21 5 S - a(t] s a4] Ls dF(s ds L Le Fo) =| 1)" [Fo] dF ds Lo 2) - 2cost—2 2 (cos t- 1) =(— 1) t L! [F(s)] ut [F(s)] = =( —cos t) af I 2 L te(1+-5)]- 7 (1 —cos t) L* [F]=L" T + Dy = cos 2t, WO) = 1, y (3) =-1.Differentiation and Integration of Vectors 35 dy Solution : —> + 9y =cos 2t dt° y'l(t) > 9y (0 = cos 2 Taking Laplace Transform of both the sides. we get Lly"(t)] = 9f [y()] = L [cos 2t] => s? L[yid] - s y(0) + SL[ y(n] = a4 s => s L[y(o}-s- A+ OL [y(t] = a4 where y'(0) = A (say) 5 => (s? + 9) L[y(t)] — s - A = a4 st+A 5 => L{y(p] = (isa is? +9 * s°+9 8s sta LYO)= Sera) sso)” se +9 Taking the inverse Laplace transform, we get; ; [os s + s_, A y= 3{s? = 4) 5s? +9) s+ 87+9 aly 8 lily = 5 |s'+4] 5 5° +9] “| S Jrac] ! s +9 s +9 l | A. => y(t) = 3 608 21 ~ 3 008 3t + cos 3t + 5 in 3t 1 4 A. t}= — cos 2t + — cos 3t + — sin 3t = v(t) 5 5 3 {x But s(Z}=-1 (given) tat cos nt cost 4A sin 3% 5 5 2 3 2 => -t2-1ao-4 5 336 28. Text Book of Vector Calculus 12 => Az | 4 4, A =-— pL 3 - — => y(t) 5 cos 2 5 H+ 5 sin 3t | > v(t)= = (cos 2t + 4 cos 3t + 4 sin 3t) dy dy dy e: +2— + 2p =S5 singh y= m= =@ Solve : ae it 2y = 5 sint y at Oari=0 dy Solution : ae + 2& +2y =Ssint y"(t) + 2y'(t) + 2y(t) = 5 sin t Taking the Laplace Transform of both the sides, we get Liy"(t)] + 2L [y@)] + 2b [y(t] = SL [sin 1 => s°L [y()] ~ s y(0) ~ y'(0) + 2 [sL[y(O] - yO] + 2L [ytt)] 5 s+] => sL[y(t}] - s (0) — (0) + 2sL [y(t)} — 2(0) + 2L [y(t] - 3 s+] 5 a (8 42+ DL YOl= Fy 3 = Ely) = (241 (se? +2542) Taking inverse of both the sides : 5 t)eL! v(t) eee 5 = S8+BL Cs+D Let (5? +i) ls? +25+2) s?+1 s7+28+2 => 5 =(s? + 2s + 2) (As + B) + (s? + 1) (Cs + D) Equating the coefficients of like powers of s and constant terms on both the sides, we get A+C=0 2A+Bt+D=0,2A+B+C=0,2B+D=5 =-A=-2,B=1,C=2,D=3Differentiation and Integration of Vectors 37 5 _ 728+ 25 +3 z z =< +>! ~ (24 t)le24 2s +2) s +l s'+2s42 ops. al et] 2eeD=1] s+] s+ 1s +2542) =—2 cost+sint+L'! > (s+1) +1 , s+l wL I =? i —i > — 2 cost +sint+L (s+1P 41 (=I) 41] y(t) = —2 cost + sint + 2e' cos t+ e" sin t. 5 9 L! . 29. L (2 -1f Solution : | ee aloo to fet} . leon lle a “(5 =~ fet- 1°] =-fet- t]. ] 36. Find the inverse Laplace transform of ss + I): ; I 1 _ ve Solution : (+i) >38 Text Book af Vector Calculus eteetttetete Z| i 31. Find the inverse Laplace transform of = (s + 1) - | . Solution ; L | z |=sint sy +1 t ul u | =fsin ea sis“ +1 0 = [-cos t} =1 = cos t ] t L! = [(l—cos t) dt E s? +1 i¢ ) = [t—sin t]} =t-sint } 32. Find the inverse Laplace transform of —3(3 . s (s +4) l 1 ion: Ut] = 2 sin 2t Solution : is +4 3 _ ui anal 5 Isin 2t dt _ 1 | =cos 2t mo. ~eos2t t “2, 2 |, 2, 2 2 1 t ul —[(l—cos 2t) dt 3 S44)]- all )Differentiation and Integration of Vectors 39 —Vcos2t 1 8 16 16 _ sin 2t 33. Find the Laplace transform of Solution : L [sin 2t] = a4 in 2 1 2 L sin 2t =| - ds t | = 24) an! = tan! » —ta “as 2 24s 2 ae tS keg! -5 tan 5 cot 3 r t l-e 34, Find L | t | Solution : L[] — e'] = L(1) — Lee) fh ft = flog s- log (s- 1) - t =| log) S|} =| !°8) 7 foe) =f ta $s40 Text Book of Vector Culculus l-cos t 35. Find L TS Solution : L{1 — cos t) = L(1) - L(cos 1) s 1 s s+] uf! ~e2s) i(t-s Sas =| toes 5 tol a) = Sos s? ~log(s? el I sv ful lo | = —/ log — = 2 3 Fa] at 1s 5- =! log |-log s’ I el am 7 =-—I0 . 2 x 2 ea eal -e tt 36. Find L ||. Solution : Le — ey = en ~ Lfe*y sta fess ay, isos) =|Differentiation and Integration of Vectors 41 37. = [log (s + a)- log (s + bo) ai fr, sta |. ‘, eel =} log} ——— =| tog} : ofS) HP | - . Loos / Ss = log 1-log S72 pith e s+b sta” Using Laplace transform method of solve the differntial equation dy | dy —y +4— = sins, ne a 7 given that y(0) = y'(0) = 0. ?y | ddy dy . H > —+— =sint Solution a dt => y(t) + dy(t) = sint Taking Laplace transform of both sides ! = L{y"()] ~ sy(0) ~ vO) + A[sL(v] ~ yO)] = ==> > s+] => sL[y(t)) -— s(0) - (0) + 4[sLfy(n} = Sal 1 = (s' + 4s) Ly) = 77 I = Lily] = s(s+4)(s° + 1) Taking the inverse transform, we get 1 Let y( = Lt |eateal I A B , Cs+D 7 =a +—— +5 s(s+4) [52 +1 Ss st4 s"4l => 1+ As + 4) (s* + 1) + Bs(s? + 1) + (Cs + D) s(s + 4) Equating the coefficients of s and constant terms on both the sides we get A+B+C=0 (1)42 38. Text Book of Vector Calculus 4A +4C0+D=0 wA2) A+B+4D=0 (3) and 4A =) wf) 1 Az— ~ 4 Putting the value of A and solving for (1), (2) and (3) we get 4 65 41 D= 3 B=-—,C=— oe 68 34 17 if [ ef] Sef) tole jee fab] 4 | 68 st4| 34 s' +1 7 Ls’ 41) , . dx =x dy 9 Using Laplace transform, solve a 2x -3y, dt =Yy-<£X given that x(Q) = 8, ¥f0) = 3. Solution : L{x] = x and Lfy] = ¥ *. Taking L.T. of both the equation, we get -8 + 5k = 2X -3Y and -34+syY=Y-2x and 2k +(s-l)¥ =3 Solving for ¥ and ¥. we obtain 85-17 3 5 s°-35-4 5-5 s+l 35~22 -2 5 ae + “3? 35- 4 s-4 s+l Taking inverse, we get vibe | - 2 - Lu +L" and y= ls A “l “ < — “Tl andDifferentiation and Integration of Vectors 43 39, Solve 40. OX ex 43 fly dt = cos t+ 3 sint 288 34Y sty 0 dt dt given x(0) = — 3 and y(0) = 2. Solution : Let L[x] = x and L[y] = ¥ Taking Laplace Transform of the given equations, we get I 5 3 +5X)4+%43.-y = —— + = G+ Sk) + R435 S41 Sal and 2(3 + 5x) 4 3(-2 + Sy) + 67 =0 3+3 +54 2y= -3 > (8 +1) ¥ Bal _ 8- 35° 8 +1 and 25x + (354+ 6)¥ = Solving for % and ¥, we get ~._(5+2)Gs-1). 1, 1-25 X=- =-- tS (s43)[s? 41 S430 s°+ p-2_SG5-1) 2 2 02 and . 3(s+3) (<1 s+33's'41 Taking inverse, wer get x= -e°%+ sin tt - 2-cos t Ww y= 2e"— = sint . 3 The currents x and y in two coupled circuits are given by LX Let RG& WHE hn x An en d Ls + Ry — Rix —y) = where L, R, E are constants. Find x and y interms of t,44 41. Text Book of Vector Caiculus ifx= Oy =Oatr=0. Solution : Let L{x] = x. Lly] = ¥ Taking Laplace Transform of both the sides of the given equa- tions, and applying the given initial conditions, we have L(-0 + 5x) +2Re-Ry = s and L(-0 +s) + 2R¥ -RxX=0 => (ls + 2R)x - Ry ee s and ~RS=(Ls + 2R)y =0 Solving for X, ¥, we have = Ls+2 xX = E.————_——___—__—_ s(Ls + R)(Ls + 3R) 2 ee BR's 2R 2RLs+R 6R Ls+3R| ®Y PF) Taking inverse, we have E -RVL __,-3RUL =—|4-3e -e E fset om] and y-= bg RL 4g gcRML 6R 8,t<2 Express the function f(t) = te tz2 im ferms of the unit step function and thus obtain the Laplace transform.Differentiation and Integration af Vectors 45 &t<2 fot<2 Solution : f(t)= {¢ t22 8s 1-2, t22 0O.t<2 “8-2 i, 122 =8-2U @-2) L[f{()] = L[8] - 2L [Vat ~ 2)] e 42. Find L[fft)] where fit) = ‘ Solution : f(t) = V(t -— a) e'-* L[f(O] = L[V¢t — a) e') = e® L{e'] (by second shifting theorem) - | -e(). 55 1. 43, Find L[t U(t - 3)]. Solution : L[t V(t — 3)] = L(t -3 +3) V(t - 3)] = L[(t = 3) V (t - 3)] + 3L[V (t - 3)] 3e** = e% L[t] + -35 as 1 + 3e” Ss s =e 3s = £5 (1+ 38). s sint, t<7 44. Express fit) = ( ten if terms of the unit step function and hence find its Laplace operator.46 Text Book of Vector Caicuius sin t.t<7 Solution ; (t) It, ten . t<7 =sint + . tsnt,t2a = sin t + (t = sin t) UG — 2) =sint+t U(t—- a) —sint V (t -— 2) =sint +a Vit— x) + (t— 2) V (t— 2m) + sin (t— 7m) V (t— my “. LEf(@)] = Lfsin t] + a L[V(t - 2] + L[(t - 2) V (t-)] + L[sin (t - m) V (t - 1] 1 e* ms —73 + = >— +i—+e L({t)+e L(sin t) s s +l 1 mo em e™ aa tre +S ts s+] 8 s s +1 = : sem [Ea at] s' +l s ss +ih)° 45. Find sin 2a{t-3)- C at-3)]. Solution : Let f(t) = sin 2t and a= ob “ 216 ( - “ =Lf(t}o(t-A) = fla) es = (2) ety | a 2 2M ye rays = sin =e (ee gon Again L [t’ 5 (t — 4)] = f (4) e“* where f(t) = ? amd a = 4 = (4p ee = 16 e* 1 hin 28 (s - *) =e 4 _ 16e"#Differentiation and Integration of Vectors 47 46, Find L[t Ut ~ 4) - 0 &ft - 2). Solution : Lett =(t-4)+4=fF(t-4) = ft)=t+4 giving # (s)= J + 4 leta =4 s 3 - L ft U (t—4)] = e* $(s) -(5+S)e so5 L ft} & (t — 2)} = f(2) es = Be where f(t) = tC, a= 2. 47. Find the Laplace transform of each of the following : (i) ° Ult — 3) (id e! Ut 1). Solution : Let t? = A(t - 3P + B(Qt-3)+C P= A(? -— 6t + 9) + Bit-3)+C Equating the coefficients of ?, t and constant terms, we get A=1,-6A+B=0 and 9A -3B+C=0 => A=1,B=6andC=9 “ P=(t-3P + 6-3) +9 > CV(t ~ 3) = (t — 3P Ut — 3) + 6(t - 3) Vid — 3)+9U(t-3) Lie va — 3)] = L(t 3 Vat - 3)] + OL[(t = 3) Vt - 39] = e3 Lt] + 6e* L[t] + 9e-% -3f2'). 6e** 9e** =e |= J+— + s s" $ _ es (os? +68 + 2) 3 Ww Let e'V(t — 1) = e&! U(t - Ihe Lfet Vat — 1] = Lfet! (@— De] =e Lfet! V(t -— 1)] = ee Lfe'] = (4) = oy48 Text Book of Vector Caiculus 48. If (x.y, 2) = xa"s and f = xz i xy j + 927k, show that — Boa al (2, — 4 Tp is Fi + 2). Solution: We have of = xy?z (xz i -— xy j + y2k) = Vyty i xyz p+ xyz k. — (Of) = 2xy’2z? i ~ 2xyez j + yz k. 5, 69 y yzjry “on =2f2 on] = 2 poy?Ai-anyajey?e KI axe ex Lex ex = 2y7z i - 2y'2j + Ok = yz? i 2yez j a3 al az Cc € € id ——(f) = — fF and 0a) oe ¢ ) ~ Leyti-2y-j) = ay’z i - 29° j ay # i-2y yz i - 28 je at the point (2. — 1, ” (of) ~ ” Ox? dz =4.(-1P.1i-2.(¢-1fj=4i+2j. Hence Proved. EXERCISES Loire x’si -2y3s? j+xy’sk; calculate div R (or V R) at the point (i, =f, 1) 2. If 7 is the position vector, show that jf-ads = 3v,where v is the volume enclosed by the surface S. 3. Which of the following is a scalar field ? (a) The distribution of velocity in liquid (b) The distribution of velocity in gas (c) The distribution of temperature (d) The distribution of magnetic or electrostatics field intensity.Differentiation and Integration of Vectors 49 ! +, In any scalar field, we can draw surfaces corresponding to equal values of the scalar. They are known as (a) isothermal, equidensity or equipotential surfaces (b) vector line, line of flow or flux Tine + The gradient of scalar field grad f or Vf is (a) a vector (b) a scalar if . x x = 0, there is a f such that > @R=-V Ef A aE > 3S IfvV .D=0 there is a @ such that +> > @DdD-9. 2 (b) D = Evaluate JF S where > * 4* * F = 4xzi, ~yi, +y2i; § is the surface bounded by x = 0.x = y= 1,2=0,z=1, and ipsizs is are unit vectors along x, ¥, 2 anes. (Hint: IJF- dS = IJaiv Pdv = { i faiv F dx dy dz] xeNysi7=0 What do you understand by the field of any physical quantity? Given examples of scalar and vector fields. What do you understand by gradient of a scalar field ? If T be the position vector of any particle find the value of grad (1/r). where fi is unit vector pointing outward at right angle to the surface. What are line and surface integrals ? Clearly explain what they rep- resent by giving examples. , _ > . . If potential function y = — a xy, obtain the value of electric field, where a is constant. What a field is called as conservative field ? Give examples of such field.50 17. 18. Text Book of Vector Calculus Why the vector fields are classified on the basis of different association of curl and divergence ? What are these combinations ? Illustrate by giving example. If F = yi + (x ~ 2xz)j — x y k. evaluate j i, (V * F).n dS where S is the surface of the sphere x? + y° + z* = a? above the xy-plane. Show that curl of a gradient of scalar is zero and also that the div of a curl of vector is zero ie. curl grad f = 0. where f is scalar 7 > >. div curl F =0 where Fis vector What you conclude from these relations? How the idea of vector potential is introduced ? Obtain the expressions for Laplace and Poisson's equations. Explain clearly what do you understand by divergence and curl of a vector field FE obtain expressions in general orthogonal coordinates for (a) div F and (b) curl F. What do you mean by the flux of a vector field? Show that flux of a vector F through the surface is given by JJ,Fads or [.F.ads,, IfF=3xyi-y*j, evaluate [. F . dr, where C is the curve in the xy-plane, y = 2x7, from (0, 0) to (1, 2). Which of the following is a vector field? (a) distribution of temperature (b) magnetic and electrostatics potentials (c) density of any non-directed quantity in a given region of space (d) the distribution of electric of magnetic field intensity@ MULTIPLE VECTORS TRIPLE VECTOR PRODUCTS The cross product of two vectors, ane of which is itself the cross product of two vectors, is called a triple vector product (for the simple reason that it is a vector). Thus, if A, B and C be three vectors, we have A = (B = C), B * (C * A) and C x (A * B) as examples of vector products. The triple vector product A * (B * C) is a vector lying in a plane perpendicular to that A and (B = C). But, as we know, vector (B * C) lies in the plane normal to that of B and C. It follows, therefore, that vector A « (B * C) lies in the plane of vectors B and C and is perpendicular. Similarly, vector B = (A = C) lies in the plane of A and C and is perpendicular of B. And vector C = (A * B) lies in the plane of A and B and is perpendicular to C. So that, in general, Ax (Bx C)=(A«B)*«C | | ! fi! ( Al52 Text Book of Vector Calculus EVALUATION OF THE VECTOR TRIPLE PRODUCT Ax (Bx) Let, i, j, k be the right handed orthogonal tracts of unit vectors with unit vectors i along B, j perpendicular to it in the plane of B and C, and k perpendicular to i and j. Then, we have B, = 0, B, = 0 and C, = 0. So that. A=A.i+A J+ Ak, B=B,i+0+0-=B_ i, and C=C itC jr O=Cire, j. Hence BxC=Bix(C.it+C,j)=B,C,k (- ix it Oandixj=k. Ax (Bx C)=A, B,C i-A, B,C j. [- ixk=-j.jxk=iandk xk =0. Adding and subtracting A, B, C,i to the right-hand side, we have Ax (B» C)=A, BL Ci+tA,B. Ci- A,B Ci- A, B.Cj =(A.C.+ A, C) Bi- A,B (Ci + Cj) Now, A.C. +A, C= AC, A. B= AB, [. id = jj = land ij =j-k = 0. Bi= Band Ci+cCj=C. we, therefore, have A = (B x C) =(A.C) B- (A. B)C. Or, to put in the determinant form, we have Ax(BxC) -|,'5 Ac And, proceeding in the same manner, we have Bx (Cx A)=(B.A})C-(B.C)A and Cx (A B)=(C.B)A-(C.A)B As a mnemonic or aid to memory, we might call the three vectors, the Jirst, the second and the third, taken in order. Then, the vector triple product = first x (second * third) = (first.third second — (first.second) third. SCALAR TRIPLE PRODUCT Let the three vectors A, B and C form a parallelopiped, as shown in Fig. 2.2. Then, if B and C be the magnitudes of vectors B and C, we have area of the base of the parallelopiped = BC sing = B x C.Muttiple Vectors 53 Thus, the magnitude of the vector product B * C is the area of the base of the parallelopiped, and its direction perpendicular to this area, as shown. Bxc he taces®) Fig. 2.2 If © be the angle that the direction of the vector (B * C) makes with vector A (forming one of the edges of the paralletopiped), we have altitude of the parallelopiped, h = A cos 8, where A is the magnitude of vector A. And, therefore, A. (B * C) = A cos 8 (B * C) = vertical height of parallelopiped * area of its base = volume of the parallelopiped, V, the sign of V being positive if © be an acute angle, ie., if A, B and C form a right- handed system of vectors. Thus, we see that the scalar triple product A(B * C) represents the volume of a parallelopiped, with the three vectors forming its three edges. Obviously, since any one of the faces of the parallelopiped may be taken to be its base, its volume V is also given by B (C » A) and C. (A * B), with the cyclic order of A, B and C maintained. In case this cyclic order be altered, the sign of the product is changed since, as we know, B x» C =-—C ~« B. Further, since the order of the terms in a scalar product is quite imma- terial, we have V = A(B * C) = (B x C).A = — ACC x B) =—(C x B)A = BAC « A) = (C x A).B =~ B(A « C) =- (A x C).B = CA * B) = (A « B).C = — C(B * A) = — (B x A).C. It will thus be seen that the value of a scalar triple product is depends on the cyclic order of the vectors and is quite independent of the positions of the dots and the crosses, which may be interchanged as desired. It is, therefore, usual to denote a scalar triple product of vectors A, B and C by54 Text Book of Vector Calcuius [A, B. C], or [A, B, C] putting the three vectors in their cyclic order but without any dots or crosses. Further Points to be Noted About a Scalar Triple Product @) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) In case the three vectors be coplanar, their scalar triple product is zero, because the vector (B * C) being then perpendicular to vector A, their scalar product is zero, Thus, the condition for coplanarity of three vectors is that their scalar triple product [ABC] should vanish. This condition ts satisfied when two of the vectors are parallel. if two of the vectors be equat, the scalar triple product is zero. For, if the three vectors be A, A and B, we have [AAB] = (A * A)B. And, since A « A =(Q) [the vector product of a vector with itself being zero, We have [AAB] = 0. If two of the vectors be parallel, the scalar triple product is zero. For, of the three vectors A, B and C, if A and B be parallel,, B= kA, where k is some scalar, We therefore, have {[ABC] = (A * B).C = (A * kKA).C =k (A * A)C = k [AAC] = 0. In terms of the Cartesian components of the three vectors, we have Bx C= (B.C, -B,C))i + (B,C. - B, C)j + (B.C, ~ BY Ck. 2. ACB * C) = [ABC] = (B,C, - B, C))i + (B,C, -B, C)j + (B, c, ~ B, C kj. (Ai + AJ + AK) = A, (B,C, ~ B, Cy) + Ay (B,C, - BL C,) + AB, CB, C)). A, Ay A, or. [ABC]=|B, B, B, Cc, c, C, which is the familiar expression for the volume of a parallelopiped with one of its corners at the origin (Fig. 1.23) The scalar triple product of the orthegonal vector triad is unity. For, fij kK) = * jk =kk = 1. Since the distributive law holds good for both scalar and vector products, it also holds good for scalar triple products. Thus, for instance, [A, B + D, C + E] = [ABC] + [ABE] +[ADC] + [ADE], the cyclic order of the vectors being maintained in each term.Multiple Vectors 55 SCALAR PRODUCT The scalar product of two vectors A and B is denoted by A.B and is read as A dot B. It is also, therefore, known as the dot Product of the two vectors (also sometimes referred to as the direct product). ft is defined as the product of the magnitudes B of the twa vectors A and B and the cosine of their included angle 0 (Pig. 2.3), irrespective of the coordinate system used. Thus, A.B = AB cos 6 or AB cos (A, B). 0 Since cos (A, B) is equal to cos (B, A), the scalars product is clearly commutative and Fig. 2.3 A.B = BLA The order of the factors may thus be reversed without in any way affecting the value of the product. Further, since B cos 6 is the projection (or the resolute) of B in the direction of A and A cos 0, the projection (or the resolute) of A in the direction of B, as shown in (Figs. 2.4) respectively, we have 8 a we Bcos6 &- Fig. 2.4 A.B = A.B cos 6 = B.A cos 6, ie, the scalar product of nvo vectors (A and B) is the product of the magnitude of either vector and the projection (or the resolute) of the other in its direction. It also follows from the above that the angle between the two vectors, ie. 6, is given by the relation cos @ = A.B/AB. IMPORTANT POINTS ABOUT SCALAR PRODUCT The following points in regard to scalar product of two vectors may usefully be remembered : (i) if the two vectors (A and B) be perpendicular to each other, ie., 6 = n/2 and, therefore, cos @ = cos (A, B) = 0, i.e¢., the scalar product(ii) (iii) (iv) (vy) (vi) (vii) (viii) Text Book of Vector Calculus A.B = AB cos 6 = AB cos (A, B) = 0. This is, therefore, the condition for two vectors to be perpendicular for orthogonal) to each other. if the two vectors have the same direction, clearly 0 = 0 and cos 8 = cos (A, B) = 1. So that, the scalar product A.B = AB cos 8 = AB cos (A. B) = AB cos 0° = AB, ie., the.scalar product is equal to the product of the magnitudes of the two vectors. And, if A = B, ie. ifthe pve vectors be equal, we have AA = A.A = A. Or, AP = AX Le., the square of a vector is equal te the square of its magnitude (or modulus). ff the bwo vectors have opposite direction, 0 = x and; cos 8 = cos a =— 1, So that, A. B = — AB, ie., the scalar product is equal to the negative product of their magnitudes, ft follows from (ii) above that square of any unit vector, like i, j or k is unity. Thus, ? = f° = k? = (1) (1) cos O° = 1. or, Li=j.j=kk=1. Since i, j and k are orthogonal for perpendicular to each other), we have, from fi) above, i. j=j.k =k. i= (1)(1) cos 90° = 0. Uf either vector (A or B) is multiplied by a scalar or a number m, the scalar product too is multiplied by that number. Thus, (mA) .B = A. (mB) = m (A.B) = mAB cos 6 = mAB cos (A. B). If A. B = 0, ft means that either A or B = 0 or A and B are perpendicular to each other. The scalar product obeys the distributive law. This may be seen from the following: The scalar product of vector A and the resultant (B + C) of B and C is given by A. (B + C) = A. (projection or resolute of (B + C) in the direction of A), i.e., A.(B + C) =A x ON = A(OM + MN) = A.OM + A.MN. Since OM is the projection (or resolute) of B in the direction of A and MN, the projection (or resolute) of C in the direction of A, we have A.OM = A. BMultiple Vectors 57 (ix) (x) (xi) and A.MN = A.C. Substituting these values in relation (i) above we have A(B+C)=A.B+A.C, Clearly showing that the distributive law holds good. It thus follows that (A + B). (C + D) = ACC + D) + Buc + D) = A.C +AD=BC+B.D Repeated application of the result obtained in (viii) above shows that the scalar product of fvo sums of vectors may be expanded as it ordinary algebra, Thus. (A + BY = A? + 2AB + B? and (A + B) (A - B) = A? - B? etc. The distributive law also enables us to obtain an expression for the sealar product of two vectars in term of their rectangular components. For, if A= Aji + Aj + Ak and B = Bi + Bj + Bk, we have, remembering that i, j and k are mutually perpendicular. A. B= A,B. + AB. + AB. ie, the scalar product of nwo vectors is equal to the sum of the products of their corresponding rectangular components. And, since A. B = AB cos 6, we have angle 6 between the two vectors . given by the relation cos A,B, +A,B, + A,B, o= (a +AR+ AZ Bi +B; +B) Further if A = B, we have = Al=Al= =A2 2 2 AA=AT=AP=AA+AA + AA,=AZ+ A? + AZ, Le, the square of a vector is equal to the sum of the squares of its rectangular components. The magnitudes of the components of vector A along the three co- ordinate axes may be written as AL = A.i, A, = Aj, A, = Ak, for, as we know, Ai = (Aji + AJ + Aki = AGI + Ajj + A,ik. =A, +0+0=A, Similarly, A, = Aj and A, = Ak. And, if U/ be the unit vector along a line L, the component of vector A along this line can be shown to be A.U,.58 Text Book of Vector Calculus (xii) A scalar product, being a number, can accur as a numerical coeffi- cient of a vector. Thus, for example. (i) (A. B) C is a vector of magnitude (A. B) C in the direction of C. (ii) (A. B)(C. D) is a number obtained by the multiplication of two numbers (A.B and (C. D). SOME ILLUSTRATIVE APPLICATIONS OF SCALAR PRODUCT @ (ii) Deduction of the Cosine law: Let two vectors A and B be represented by the two sides of a triangle. Then, the third side represents a vector C=-B+A=A-B. Taking the scalar product of each side with itself, we have C.cC = (A — B). (A — B). . Or, Cc? = A? + B? — 2AB, because A.B = B.A. Or, C? = A? + B? — 2AB cos (AB) = A? + B? — 2AB cos 6. This is the well known trigonometric relation called the cosine law. Obtaining the equation of a plane: Let ABCD be the plane (Fig. 2.5) whose equation is required to be obtained. Drop a normal N on to the plane from an origin O, lying quite outside the plane and let r be the position vector (with respect to O) of any point P in the plane. Then, since the projection of r on normal N must be equal to the magnitude N or N, we have N = r cos 6 and, N? = Nr cos 6 = Nr, which is the required equation of the plano. Fig. 2.5Multiple Vectors 59 (iii) Or, if we write N and r in terms of their rectangular components N,, NN, and x, y, z respectively, along the three Cartesian coordinate axes, With j i, j. k as the orthogonal triad of unit vectors along these, we have N=Ni¢ NJ + NK and r= xi + yj + zk. ie, N= (Ni + NJ + NUK) (xi + yj * zk), = XN. + yN) + ZN. which is the usual form of the equation met with in Analytical Ge- ometry. Deduction of expressions for work and power: As we know, work is said to be done by a force acting on a particle when the particle is displaced in a direction other than the one normal to the force. /r is a scalar quantity proportional to the force and the resolved part of displacement in the direction of the force or to the displacement and resolved part of the force in the direction of displacement. If, therefore, vectors F and d represent force and displacement respectively, inclined to each other at an angle 6 we have work done, W = (F cos 6) d =F, d, its value being zero only when F and d are at right angles to each other, Further, if there be more than one force acting on the particle, say, F,, F,, F, ete., then, work done by them for a displacement d of the particle i is respectively F, d, F,. d. F,. d. We, therefore, have total work done, n We ¥ Fd =d.)-F =d.R, | ie, the effect off all the forces taken together is the same as that of one single force. R equal to their resultant. Now, power is the rate of doing work, So that, dw ed d p =——~ = — (F.d) = F.—(d). power Page = gy (Fed) = Fad) d Since (d) is the velocity v of the particle, we have P = F.v. VECTOR DERIVATIVES-VELOCITY—ACCELERATION Let r be a single-valued function of a scalar variable t such that for every value of t there exists only one value of r. Then, as t varies continuously, rals © does so. We are particularly interested in the case in which t represents the time variable and r stands for the position vector of a moving particle with respect60 Text Book of Vector Calculus to a fixed origin O (Fig. 2.6). Then, as t varies continuously, the point moves along a continuous curve in space. So that, if r and r + 6r be the position vectors of the point in positions P and P' relative to origin O for the values tand t + &t of the scalar variable. we have change in the value of v = &r, The quotient dr/ét (of vector ér by the scalar or a number dt) is also a vector. As ét + 0, point P' approaches P and the chord PP’ tends to coincide with the langent of the curve at P. The limiting value of 6r/6t as dt tends to zero is dr/dt and is a vector whose direction is that of the tangent at P in the sense in which t increases. It is called the Fig. 2.6 time derivative of v or the differential coefficient of r with respect to t. We thus have doy, 8 “.l dt 7” dt & When this limit exists, the function r is said to be differentiable. The second and third derivatives of r are respectively rid? and drdt’. Clearly, 6r represents the displacement of the particle in time interval 6t and. therefore, 5r/St gives its average velocity during interval 6t. The limiting value of this average velocity, as &t —> 0, is the sastantaneous velocity v of the particle. Thus, we have v = dr/dt along the tangent to the path of the particle. Proceeding in the same manner if, 5v be the increase in the velocity v of the particle during the time-interval 6t, the rate of change of velocity or the average acceleration during the interval = 5v/5t and therefore, instan- taneous acceleration a of the particle is the limiting value dv/dt of dv/St as ét > 0. Thus, _ dv d?r dt dt? Now, since r = xi + yj + zk and since x, y and z are functions of time, we also haveMutltipte Vectors 61 v=— ij —k dt odt dt°™ dt d and as f= dt- RADIAL AND TRANSVERSE COMPONENTS OF VELOCITY As we have just seen above, v = dr/dt, where r =r f. with r standing for the magnitude of r and r for the unit vector along its directian, We, therefore, have dev _dr. di = = —F+tr—. dt dt dt dr .. The vector —T is called the radial component of velocity v of the particle, its magnitude being obviously dr/dt. Vv dr. . And the vector r a8 called the sransverse component of velocity v of the particle, because it is perpendicular ta r, as may be seen from the following: Sincef is a wnit vector, its scalar product with itself is equal to 1, ie.,f F = 1, So that, differentiating with respect to t, we have dr. dt \.dr . dr —r+r — Jr— = 0.0r,r— = 0, dt dt dt dt indicating that @ and di/dt are perpendicular to each other. And, since 7 lies along r. it follows that dt /dt and hence r df/dt is dr! perpendicular to r, its magnitude being obviously ae RADIAL AND TRANSVERSE VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION OF A PARTICLE MOVING IN A PLANE—CASE OF MOVING AXES This is really a case of the axes themselves moving in the plane of motion of the particle, so that we obtain components of velocity and acceleration along these moving axes. Let OX and OY be the reference system of rectangular axes in the plane of motion of the particle and OX" and OY’ another system of rectangular coordinate axes moving relative to the former, with its position at any instant given by that of the moving particle at the time.62 Text Book of Vector Calculus Components of Velocity > Let the position vector r= OP of the particle along OX' make an angle 6 with OX (Fig. 2.7). Then, if i and j be the unit vectors along the axes OX and OY and i’ and j' along the axes OX' and OY" respectively, we have r = xi + yj. Or. r =r cos BF + Fr sin BY. Since r = ri', where r is the magnitude or vector r, we have ri’ =r cos 81 + r sin 8), whence, i' = cos 6i + r sin 6). Ai) Fig. 2.7 > Similarly, since vector n =OQ = nn’, where n is the magnitude of n, we have j' = — cos (z/2 — 9)i + sin (x/2 — 0)j =~ sind i + cosB j --Cii) d d As we know, velocity¥ = =a (r cos Oi + r sin Oj) = or 080 -rsind #\ +( Esino +r cos) dt dt dt dt = S (cos0i +sinj)+ = (- sini + cos6j). oO va nig Bj (iii) rT, dt di I we rr re 4g dF Thus, radial component of v is a having a magnitude7- and trans- do. . . verse component of v is ral having a magnitude r Components of acceleration. As we know, a th ne BeMuttiple Vectors 63 : a= or Oi] acceleration dt dil at dt dr, drdi drdd., dO, dO dj +——+ +r +r “Ge. dtd odtdt) ae? dtd ~A) ; ; . . di. . dO Since from relations (i) and (ii) above, = (sin 8i + cosQj) a . db dj . . a. dO 9 = j—and— =(-cos 6i-sin j) — = j——and “( cos i-sin 6j) mr we have from relation (iv), Ory de dO aes) dt? at dt? dt? dt a= 2 ey 42 ar 48 a 8), Or de dl didt dt? ~W) Thus, the first term on the right hand side gives the radfal acceleration of the particle, with its magnitude equal to er (2) dt? dt} ° And, the second term gives the #ransverse acceleration of the particle, with its magnitude equal to dr da de sod [P | +T—> 5 . dt dt dt? sor dt dt DIFFERENTIAL COEFFICIENTS OF SUMS OF VECTORS The differential coefficient of the sum A + B of two differentiable vectors, both of which are functions of, is equal to the sum of their individual differential coefficients, as show below: If, for an increase St in the value of t, the corresponding increases in the values of A and B be 6A and 8B respectively, we have a(A + B) = (A + 5A + B + 6B) —- (A + B) = 5A + SB 5(A+B) _ 5A | 5B d | the quotient ———— = an Nence qu I a a St Or, taking the limiting values on either side as 61 > 0, we have dA , dB Glas B)= “dt ae64 Text Book of Vector Calculus What applies to the sum of two vectors applies equally well to the sum of any number of them. DIFFERENTIAL COEFFICIENTS OF PRODUCTS OF VECTORS As in the case of an algebraic product, so also here, the differential coefficient of a product of vectors in the sum of the quantities obtained by differentiating one single vector at a time, leaving the other unchanged. (i) (ii) Product of a scalar and a vector: Let us consider the product ur of a vector r with a scalar u, both being differentiable functions of the variable t. If, for the increase in the vaiue of t from t to t + dt, the corresponding increases in the values of u and r be du and dr, we have 6(ur) = (u + Su) (r + Sr) — ur = bur + udr + Subr. Dividing throughout by dt, we have _ d{ur) _ Su or Su r+u— a ot at dt Or. in the limit 4 tur) du yt i) rt, in the limit, — =~ >: wai dt dt dt A From relation (1) coupled with the results obtained earlier, it follows that she components of the differential coefficient (or derivative) of a vector are the derivatives of its components for fixed directions. —— or. Thus, if vector r be expressed in terms of its rectangular component vectors, we have r = xi + yj + zk (where i, j and k are, as we know, constant vectors and x, y, z functions of time), and the differential coefficient or r is given by _ dr _ ox; dy. 4 az, a dt ad at with dx/dt, dy/dt and dz/dt respectively representing the magnitudes of the components of vector v, Aere representing velocity. And, in the same manner, we have . dv dr ax, d*y, dz acceleration a=—e= i+—>j+—>k, dt de® de dt? dt where d°x/dt®, d?y/dt? and d?z/dt? represent respectively the magnitudes of the components of acceleration a. Scalar product of two vectors: Let us now try to obtain the differential coefficient of a scalar product A.B. Proceeding as in case (i), if 6AMultiple Vectors 65 and 6B be the increments in A and B) respectively corresponding to an increase &t in t, we have increase in the scalar product given by 6(A.B) = (A + 5A). (B + 6B) —- A.B = 6A.B + ASB + 6A.5B = 6A.B + 6B.A, neglecting 6A.6B compared with other terms. So that, dividing throughout by dt and proceeding to the limit 6t > 0, we have d dA * dB —(A.B) = —.B+A.—, dt dt dt where the order of the factors in any of t.e terms is quite immaterial. (iti) Vector product of two vectors: Let us now consider the vector product A « B. Proceeding exactly as above, we have 3(A * B) = (A+ 8A) « (B+ 5B)-A*B = 6A *B+ A < 6B + 6A * 8B. =8A «B+ A x 8B, d dA dB whence, as before, a (AB) = a B+Ax orn where the order of the factors in each term must not be changed unless accompanted also by change of sign. (iv) Triple Products: In the case of triple products too, we proceed as before to obtain the differential coefficients. Thus, (a) in the case of a scalar triple product [ABC], we have Sion Soe} el where the eyclic order in each term must be maintained. And (b) in the case of a vector triple product A = (B * C), we have 4 fa x(BxC)] 7 Bx(axcjra{ Bac} (ax), dt d dt where, again, the order of the factors in each term must be maintained. CIRCULAR MOTION Let us try to obtain expressions for the velocity and acceleration of a particle P moving at a constant speed along a angular path in the x.y plane, say, of constant radius r (Fig. 2.8).66 Text Book of Vector Caiculus The position vector r, a function of the scalar variable t, moving with constant angular velocity (or angular frequency) of magnitude w may, at any given instant t, be expressed in terms of its components along the axes of x and y, Thus, if i and j be the wit vectors along the two axes respectively, we have il xi + yj, ie, r=rcos wti + r sin ct] It r (cos wt i+ sin ct j) The velocity v of partiale P is thus given by dr dr .dr v=—=r—+i— dt dt = dt where f is the unit vector along the direction or r. Fig. 2.8 Now, r being constant for the circular path, df/dt = 0. So that, we have dr vores ({< cost i ofl sin oti) dt dt dt Or, v=r(- sin wt i+ @ cos wt j) = wr (— sin wt i + cos wt j). Therefore, with v as the magnitude of the velocity of P, we have V=viv=or(-— sin ot i + cos ot j ). or (— sin wt i + cos ot j), which, from our knowledge of scalar products and the fact that i.j = 0, gives v? = o'r (sin? wt + cos? wt) = wr, whence, v = wr. Now, since acceleration a is the rate of change of velocity, we have a = dv/dt = or (-cos wt i - sin wt j) = -w’r (cos wt i + sin at j) And since r (cos wt i + sin wt j) = r, we have a=-orrn Or, the magnitude of the acceleration of particle P, i.e., a = or, its direction being—r or fewards the centre of the, circle—hence the name centripetal (£.¢., centre-seeking) acceleration given to it. Or, since or = v, we may also put a =r (v/rP = v7/r. Hence the force, called centripetal force, acting on the particle is given by mass * acceleration = mv7/r and is also directed towards the centre of its circular path,Multiple Vectors 67 Further, since the angle swept out by the radius vector in one complete revolution = 2x radians, we have time period of the particle given by T = 2n/w and its frequency by n = 1/T = w/2n, whence, @ = 2nn. ANGULAR VELOCITY VECTOR The angular velocity ofa particle, having magnitude as well as direction, is obviously a vector. To obtain its value. we note that the linear velocity v of the particle is, at any instant, perpendicular to both the angular velocity © and the radius vector r. So that, the vector equation corresponding to the relation v = wr comes out to be v = w * r, showing that the linear velocity of the particle is the cross product of the angular velocity vector and the position vector with respect to a fixed point on the axis of rotation. The cross product of this with r gives re v=r*(o (x, y, z). Such surfaces are referred to as level surfaces, each level surtace having its own constant value of $ (x, y, z) all over. And, as examples of vector fields, we have distribution of magnetic and electric intensity or the distribution of velocity in a moving (continuous) fluid, At any given point, in this case, the single-valued vector function F68 Text Book of Vector Calculus (x, y. 2) is specified by a vector having a definite magnitude and direction, both of which continuously change from point to point throughout the field. Starting from any desired point in the field and proceeding through infinitesimal distances from point to point in the direction of the field, we obtain, in general, a curved line, called the /ine of flow, the flux fine or the vector line, the tangent to which at any point gives the direction of the vector at that point. The measure or magnitude of the vector is given by the number of flux lines passing per unit area of a surface normal to their direction. PARTIAL DERIVATIVES—GRADIENT Partial derivatives. The differentiation of a function such as {X,, X>. X;--.) Of two or more independent variables, x,, x,, x, etc., with respect to one of them, keeping the others constant, is called partial differ- entiation, The derivatives thus obtained are referred to as partial derivatives and are denoted by the symbol@ instead of d. Thus, if we have a continuously differentiable scalar point function > (x, y, z), 4e., a function of the coordinates x, y, z its partial derivatives along the three coordinate axes are a Sb ng & * ax” ay a "oe & Gradient. The vector function! +15, * ke is called the gradient of the scalar point function @ and is denoted by grad ¢. Thus, grado = ij Bok 2 differential do = Saxe Says 3 5, 8 = (idx + jdy + kdz) [2112142] Or, do = dr grad >. It can easily be show that grad at any point is quite independent of the choice of the coordinate axes. It follows, therefore, that the gradient of a scalar point function is a vector point function. If » be a constant, obviously the partial derivatives Ad/ax, Ad/ay and €@/az will all be zero and hence grad @ = 0. And, converse, if grad = 0, the partial derivatives are all zero and hence function ¢ is a constant. Thus, grad > = 0 only if > be constant.Muttiple Vectors 69 THE OPERATOR vy We have in vector algebra a differential operator, denoted byV (i.e, inverted A). It is called ‘del’ or ‘nabla’. /t operates distributively and is formally assumed to have the character of a vector, And since it is assumed to have the character of a vector, fts pruduct ¥ > with a scalar is a vector. If we use Cartesian orthogonal coordinates, we may write é .é é Visit j—tk— ex Ix Oz So that, grad g = 12% 4 5% 4 4% © that, grad ae yt oe = | oj fae é e = Vo.a vector. MAGNITUDE AND DIRECTION OF vo Let us consider two level surface L, and L, through two close points A and C, distance dr apart (Fig. 2.9), with the values of the scalar function and (p + do) respectively. And let AB = dn be the normal to the surface L, at A \ . Stag BK av Fig, 2.9 Since L, is a level surface, the value of the scalar function is the same [viz.. (6 + do)] at B as at C. Obviously, therefore, the rate of change of > along the normal AB is the highest (this being the shortest distance between the two surfaces) and is equal to 6q/An. Now, we may put dn = drcos@ = fdr, whereii is the unit vector normal to the surface L, at A. So that, oan & =—idr. do = oe on As we know, Vo.dr = [+52 +2) (idx + jdy + kdz) ax ay Ge70 Text Book of Vector Calculus = & ay +b ay + oy = do, Ox oy oz Or, db = Vo.dr = © adr, én whence, Vo= (=). én ie, vector Vo or grad ¢ has a magnitude equal to the maximum rate of change of and is directed along this maximum rate of change, i.2., along the normal to the level surface L, (with $ constant). RECIPROCAL SYSTEM OF VECTORS If vectors a’, b' and c' be defined by the equations , bee ., cxa , axb a'= -—, b' = ——~ and c'=>——, [abe] [abe] [abe] they are said to be reciprocal vectors to a, b and c which are assumed to be non-coplanar so that the product [abc] = 0. The planes of a’, b' and c' are respectively perpendicular to those of b, ¢; ¢, a and a, b. Since, obviously, the dot products a.a’ = b.b' = c.c' = 1, the name reciprocal vectors for a’, b' and c' is only natural. The dot product of anv other pair, ane from each system, is zero. Thus, a.b' = 0 because a.b' = aca/abe and the numerator, being a triple product containing two equal or identical vectors (a and a), is equal to zero. Similarly, cb =ba=be =ca'= ae’ = 0. It can be shown that b'xc¢' c'xa' a'xb' aso, b= — and c= -——.. {a'b'c'] {a'b'c'] fa'b'c'] So that, a, b, ¢, and a’, b’, c' are really reciprocal system of vectors to each other. They, therefore, possess the same sign. £e., they are either both right-handed or both lefi-handed. The unit vectors i, j and k along the three coordinate axes are, however, their own reciprocals. SCALAR AND VECTOR QUANTITIES Physical quantities may, in general, be divided into two main classes: (i) Scalar quantities or scalars, and (ii) Vector quantifies or vectors.Multiple Vectors 71 (1) Scalar quantities or scalars are those physical quantities which possess only magnitude and no direction in space as, for example, mass, volume, temperature, time, speed of light etc. A scalar quantity can, therefore, be completely specified simply by its magnitude or numerical value, indicating how many times its unit is con- tained in it. Thus, for example, when we speak of a mass of 50 g, we mean that the unit of mass, the gram (g), is contained 50 times in it. Obviously, having no direction, the magnitude or measure of a scalar quantity is quite independent of any coordinate system, All such quantities are, however, subject to the ordinary algebraical laws of addition and multiplication, viz., the following: () Law of commutation, according to which the result of addition or multiplication of a number of scalars is quite independent of the order in which they may be taken. For example, A+B2B+AandA<~Bz=B*«A, e, (ii) Law of association, according to which the sum or the product of a finite number of scalars is quite independent of the manner in which they may be grouped or associated. Thus, A+B+C=(A+B)+C=A+(B+C)s(A+C)+B. And, similarly, Ax (B * C) = (A * B) x C (A x C)* B, clearly indicating that in the case of continuous sums and products the brackets are really superfluous. (iti) Law of distribution, which state» that in expressions involving both addition and multiplication the result in the same as the sum of the individual term-wise products. For example, Ax(B+C)=2A*BtaAx~c and (A+B)xC=A*C+BxC, (2) Vector quantities or vectors are those physical quantities which possess magnitude as well as, direction and are subject, to the parallelogram law of addition, This latter condition is important because a quantity may have magnitude as well as direction and may still not be a vector quantity. For instance the finite rotation of a rigid body about a given axis has magnitude (viz., the angle of retation), also direction (viz., the direction of the axis) but it is not a vector quantity. This is so for the simple reason that two finite rotations of the body do not add up in accordance with the vector law of addition, ie., the resultant rotation is not the vector sum of two finite rotations. “|wp) Text Book of Vector Calculus However, if the rotation be small or infinitesimal, it may be regarded as a vector quantity; for, then, the arc described by the body in a, small interval of time is more or less a straight line and is thus representable as a vector, and so also the transverse and angular velocities of the body. Thus, whereas smail rotations. angular velocity and angular momentum are vector quantities, large or finite ones are not, It follows, therefore, that to qualify as a vector, a physical quantity must not only possess magnitude and direction but must also satisfy the .parallelo- gram law of vector addition. Vectors associated with a linear or directional effect are called polar vectors or, usually, simply as vectors, and those associated with rotation about an axis are referred to as axial vectors. Thus, force, linear velocity and linear momentum are polar vectors and a couple, angular velocity and angular momentum are axial vectors. VECTOR NOTATION In ordinary writing, whether. on a black board or a paper, a vector quantity A, say, is represented by putting a wavy line underneath the letter A or a small arrowhead above it (indicating its direction), as 4”. In print, however, it is represented by the bold-faced type letter A. The magnitude or modulus of a vector, being a scalar quantity, is denoted by a light-faced italic letter. Thus, the magnitude of a vector A is denoted by A. It may also be denoted by | A | or mod A. UNIT AND ZERO VECTORS A vector of unit magnitude is called a unit vector and the notation for it in the direction of A, isA read as ‘A, hat or A, caret’. It is also often denoted by bold-faced lower case type letter a. Thus, we have A= AA or aA, A unit vector, as will be readily seen, merely indicates direction. A vector of zero magnitude is called a zero or a null vector, denoted by 0. All zero or null vectors are taken to be equal and their directions are quite arbitrary and, indeed, quite immaterial. Vectors other than null vectors are referred to as proper vectors.Multiple Vectors 73 GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF A VECTOR Graphically a vector is represented by an arrow drawn to a chosen scale, parallel to the direction of the vector. The length and the direction of the arrow thus represent; the magnitude and the direction of the vector respec- tively, Thus. the in Fig. 2.10(a) represents a vector A, parallel to the x-y plane and making an angle 6 with the axis of x or a line parallel to it. If the magnitude of vector A be 7 units ie., if A = 7, the arrow representing it is drawn 7 times (the length of the arrow representing unit veetor A, as shown in Fig, 2.10(b). (a) (b) {c) Fig, 2.10 The negative of vector A, is the vector -A, having the sume magnitude as A bat being oppositely directed to it. It is therefore, represented by an ‘arrow equa! in length to that representing A but, antiparallel to it, as shown in Fig. 2. 10(c). MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION OF VECTORS BY SCALARS From the law of addition of vectors it follows that the sum A+ A+ A Feces to m ferms gives a vector of magnitude m times that of A in the same direction with it, ée., equal to mA. So that, the product of a vector A and a scalar m is a vector mA whose magnitude is'm times the magnitude of A and which is similarly or oppositely directed to A according as the scalar m is positive or negative. Thus, jmA|= mA. Further. if m and n be two scalars and A and B, two vectors, we have (m + n)A = mA + nA and m(nA) = n(mA) = (mn) A. showing clearly that the multiplication of a vectar by a salar is distributive.74 Text Book of Vector Calculus The division of vector A by a non-zero scalar as is defined as the multiplication of vector A by I/w. Thus, if A = AA, we have A = A/A, EQUALITY OF VECTORS Although, a vector may refer to a physical quantity defined at a particular point, it does not necessarily have any particular location. So that, we can compare two vectors even though they may measure physical quantities defined at quite different points of space and time. It follows, therefore, that all vectors, with the same magnitude and direction, are equal despite their entirely different locations in space and remain so even if moved paraflel to thentselves. This. in Fig. 2.11 vectors A, B and C are all equal, since-they have all the same magnitude and direction, even though they are differently located in space. Fig. 2.11 Such vectors are called free vectors to distinguish them from a localised vector which must pass through a specified point in space, such as a position vector and is thus a bownd vecror. Their ‘invariance’ wader parallel trans- lation, i.e., when moved parallel to themselves, is a very important property of free vectors. COLLINEAR VECTORS The term ‘collinear’ is used as being synonymous with parallel. So that, vectors having the same (as in the case of A and C) or parallel lines of action (as in the case of A and B) are said to be collinear, Further, if the directions of the two parallel vectors be the same, they are referred to as like vectors. An important property of such (i.e, dike) vectors is the following: If A and B be nwo collinear or like vectors, there exists a scalar k such that B = kA, the absolute value of k being the ratio of the lengths of the two collinear or like vectors.Muitiple Vectors 15 ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF TWO VECTORS Addition : (i) two vectors may be effected with the help of the paral- felogram law of vector addition, according to which the sum or the resultant R of nvo vectors A and B is the diagonal of the- parallelogram of which A and B are the adjacent sides, ay shawn in Fig. 2.\2(a), ie. R= A + BL As will be seen, A, B and R are all concurrent. fa) (b) (c) Fig. 2.12 (ii) The triangle faw : The triangle law of vector addition follows from the parallelogram law and states that if the tail-end of one vector be placed at the head or the arrow-end of the other, their sum or resultant R is drawn from the tail-end, of the first to the head-end of the other. As is evident from Figs. 2.12 (b) and (c), the resultant R is the same irrespective of the order in which the vectors (A and B) are taken. So that, we have R=A+B=B+A, showing that vector addition too is commutative. It may be noted that veetors need not lie in the same plane for the laws of vector addition to be applicable to them. Fig. 2.13 Subtraction : Clearly, if the sum of two vectors A and B be equal to a vector of zero magnitude, we have A + B = 0, showing that vectors A and B are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction. So that, we have76 Text Book of Vector Calculus B = —A, indicating that -A is a vector of the same magnitude as vector A but pointing in a direction opposite to that of A. And this at once gives us a method of subtracting a vector B from a vector A namely, the addition of the vector A to the vector ~B. 50 that, A + (-B) = A —B, as shown in Fig 2.13. ADDITION OF MORE THAN TWO VECTORS—(COMPOSITION OF VECTORS) The determination of the sum or the resultant of a system of more-than two vectors (not necessarily in the same plane) is called composition of vectors. This may be done with the help of what is called the polygon law of vector addition which states that if a vector polygon be drawn, placing the tail-end of each succeeding vector at the head or the arrow-end of the preceding one, as shown in Fig. 2.14 (a) and (b), their resultant; R is drawn from the tail-end of the first to the head or the arrow-end of the last. This fee ‘ “et fo we a an Fede eet foe : 78 a (a) (b) Fig, 2.14 follows directly from the Triangle /aw. For, what we do, in effect, is to first obtain the resultant (A + B) of the first two vectors (A and B) by the mriangle faw and then the resultant R of (A + B) and C by the, same law. Or, we could fiat obtain the resultant (B + C) of B and C and then that of A and (B + C) which give R, the resultant of A, B and C. We thus have R=A+B+C =(A+BY+C =A+(B+C), showing that vector addition too, like scalar addition, is associative and may be extended to any number of rectors.Multiple Vectors 77 VECTORS IN A COORDINATE SYSTEM Although, it is quite possible to deal with physical law in terms of vectors, it is found most helpful in actual practice to represent them in a coordinate system, and the one most widely favoured is the familiar Car- tesian coordinate system which may be right-handed or left-handed. The former is shown in Fig. 2.15 (a) with its three mutually perpendicular axes OX, OY and OZ represented by the extended thumb, fore-finger and middle finger respectively of the right hand. Its mirror image (Fig 2.15 (b)] forms the left-handed system which is, however, not quite so convenient to me. We shall, therefore, stick to the right-handed system only, in which to an observer at O, right-handed rotations about the axes OX, OF and OZ appear to be from X to Y, ¥ to Z and Z to X respectively. Y ! Y¥" Zz Z (a) (b) Fig. 2.15 RECTANGULAR COMPONENT OF VECTOR Two or more vectors which, when compounded in accordance with the parallelogram law or the polygon law of vectors-give a vector A, are said to be the components of vector A. The most important components with which we are concerned are mutually perpendicular or rectangular ones along the three coordinate axes OX, OY and OZ respectively. Let us. deduce their values. With O as the origin, let vector OD-be R. Then on OD as diagonal, let us construct a rectangular parallelopiped with its three edges along the three coordinate axes, as shown. Let.the vector intercepts of the three components of R (also spoken of as the resolutes, or the resolved parts, of R) along the three axes respectively be R,. R, and R,.78 Text Book of Vector Cateulus Then, we have R=R.+R +R, - (i) Let i, j and k be unit vectors along the three coordinate axes. chosen as the hase vectors or forming what is called the orthogonal triad of vectors. Then, we have R, = Ri, R, = Ry and R, = RK. So that, substituting in relation (i), we have R=Rit+ RJ +Rk. Ai) Here, Ri, R,j and R,k are the orthogonal projections of R on the directions of i, j and kK respectively. We have OD? = OH? + OF? + OB? ie. R?=R2+R?2+R3, (iii) where R is the magnitude (or modulus) of vector R. Thus, the square of the magnitude (or modulus) of a vector is equal to the sum of the squares of its rectangular components R+R,74R,°. div) And, clearly, R. = R cos(R, x) R. = R cos(R, y} and R, = R cos (R, z), where the three cosines, viz., costR, x) = RJR, cos (R. y)=R/R and cos(R, 2) = R,/R are referred to as the direction cosines of vector R. since they help determine its direction. They are quite often represented by the letters /, m and n respectively. Dividing relation (iii) by R?, we have =R YR? 2/p2 YR? P= ROR? + RZ/R? + RFR, = cos" (R, x) + cos? (R, y} + cos? (R, 2) =P + nm? +n}, wv) ie, the sum of the squares of the three direction cosines of a vector is equal fo unity. ’ Clearly, the unit vector along R is given by R =RoIRj, —j+ Ray R R R where R/R = cos (R, x), R/R = cos (R, y) and R/R = cos (R, z) are the direction cosines of R. We therefore have unit vector R = cos (R, x) i + cos (R, y)j + cos (R, zk, ...(vi)Multiple Vectors 79 Further, if we have a number of vectors R,. R,, R, etc., their sum may be expressed in terms of their rectangular components in the form DVR =(TR, HER, i+ (ERK So that, R,. is the resolute of /R in the direction of i and DR, and ER,.its resolutes in the directions of j and k respectively. Since the directions of i. j and k may be chosen arbitrarily. we have the result that the resolute of a sum of vectors in\any direction is equal to the sum of the resolutes of the individual vectors in that direction POSITION VECTOR The position of a point P from any assigned point, such as the origin O of the Cartesian coordinate system, for example, is uniquely specified by the vector Ob= r (Fig. 2.16 ), called the position vector of point P relative to O. Fig. 2.16 The coordinates of point P being (x, y, z), we have r= xi + yj + zk, wo (Wil) where r= dx?+y?+ 2 The direction cosines of r are obviously x/r, y/r and z/r. Such a point, with a position vector r, is often spoken of as the point r. It follows from the above that if there be two points P, and P,, with (x,, ¥,» Z,) and (x,, y,. Z,) (as their respective coordinates80 Text Book of Vector Calculus > > and op, = 1, andop, =r, as their respective position vectors (Fig, 2.17), we have r = Xi + yJ + z,k and t= Xi + ya) * 24k . > > > and therefore.p, Pp, =P,O +OP, = — 1, + =) - 1 =X, — xpi + Oy, - y+ & ~ 2k. (xy A Py FB (4)! Mk Fig. 2.17 Now, keeping the direction of A unchanged, /.¢., keeping it fixed in its position (with respect to any of the so called fixed objects) imagine the reference frame to be rigidly rotated about the origin, say, in the anticlock- wise direction, with the coordinate axes now taking up the positions OX’, OY' and OZ’. Then, if the new orthogonal triad of unit vectors be formed by i’, j' and k' and the components of A along the new coordinate axes be A. AJ and A,', (Fig. 2.18) we have Fig. 2.18Muttiple Vectors 81 A= ATT AY + ASK wi) Since the length of vector A must obviously be quite independent of the orientation of the coordinate system, or its frame of reference, we have A? = Ax? + Ay? + Ag? = Ax? + Ay? +Az?. 3 > ayy Or, AS VACHAS +A? = yA HAS +A,? In other words rigid rotation of the Cartesian system (or the frame of reference) of a vector brings about no change in its form of magnitude. PRODUCT OF TWO VECTORS From the manner in which two vectors enter into combination in physics we come across two distinct kinds of products: (i) a number or a scalar, called the scalar product, and (ii) a vector, called the vector product. The process by which we obtain a product is called mu/tiplication and each of the two vectors is called a factor of the product. The scalar and the vector products are also called in immer and the ourer products, after Grassmann. VECTOR PRODUCT The vector product (or the emer product) of two vectors A and B is denoted by A * B, read as ‘A cross B’. It is, therefore, also called the cross product of the two vectors. It may also be denoted simply as [A.B]. / is defined as a vector R whose magnitude (or modulus) is equal to the product of the magnitudes of the (wo vectors A and B and the sine of their included angle 8. This vector R is normal to the plane of A and B and points in the direction in which a right- handed screw would advance when rotated about an axis perpendicular to the plane of the two vectors in the direction from A to B through the smaller angle @ between them (Fig. 2.19). Or, alternatively, we might state the rule thus: if the fingers of the right hand be curled in the direction in which vector A must be turned through the smaller included angle @ to coincide with the direction of vectors B, the thumb points in the direction of R, as shown in Fig. 2.19 (a). Either of these rules is referred to as the \right handed screw rule. Thus, iff’ be the unit vector which gives the direction of vector R, we have82 Text Book of Vector Calculus R=A*B h- ae Sar Plane of a ane ©: qa = Ua and B Plane of A and B -R=Bx*xA=A*«B (a) (b) Fig. 2.19 R=A x B=ABsin6 A, (O< B< 180° or n,) IMPORTANT POINTS ABOUT VECTOR PRODUCT (i) Since Op O> x, sin 6 and, therefore,|R| or R cannot be negative. AxB iA] |B) (ii) A change in the order of factors A and B in the cross product obviously reverses its sign on account of the reversed sense of rotation of the screw, [Fig. 1.20 (b)]. So that, the cross product Bx A=-A*B = —R =~ AB sin @ ft, indicating that the vector product is not conmunulative. (iii) /f either vector (A or B) be multiplied by a number or a scalar m, their vector product too is multiplied by the same number. Thus (mA) « B = A x (mB) = (mAB) sin 6 fn. Again, (mA) = (nB) = (mA nB sin Q)n = nA = mB = mnA x B= A x (mnB), where n is another scalar. Thus, we see that the vector product is associative. And, clearly, sin@ = (iv) A andB be unit vectors, we have A = B = | and, therefore, A *B = AB sin 6fi = sin 6,Muttiple Vectors 33 (vy) (vi) (vii) ie, the magnitude of i * is the sine of the angle of inclination of the two. if the two vectors (A and B) be orthogonal or perpendicular to each other, we have @ = 90° or 1/2 and therefore, sin @ = 1. So that. A x B= ABH. The vectors A, B and (A * B) thus form a right-handed system of mutually perpendicular vectors. It follows at once from the above that in the case of the orthogenal triad of unit vectors, i, j and k (each perpendicular to the other), we have ixj=-jxi=k jxk=-k*jei and kx i=-ixk=j. if the two vectors (A and B) be collinear or parallel, 0 = 0 or n and, therefore, sin @ = 0. So that, A= B= AB sin 00 = 0. It follows at once, therefore, that A x A = 0, indicating that the vector product of two parallel or equal vectors is zero and , clearly therefore, the vector product of a vector with its ownself is zero. Obviously, therefore, in the case of orthogonal triad of unit vectors, we have ixi=jxj=k*k=0 Conversely, if the vector product A * B = 0, we have AB sin 671 = 0. So that, either A = 0 or B = 0 or sin 9 and , therefore, 8 = 0 or n, i.e. either one of the vectors is a null (or zero) vector or the two vectors are parallel to each other. The distributive law holds good for the cross product of vectors. Thus, A*(B+C)=A*Bt+A*C. This may be seen from the following: Putting U = A x (B +C)-A x B-A ~ C and taking the scalar product with an arbitrary vector V, we have V.U=VJA x (B+C)-A*xB-AxC]=V.A~(B+C)-V. (A x B)- V. (A « C). As we shall see under § 1.22, A. (B * C) = (A * B).C. Therefore, we have84 (viii) (ix) Text Book of Vector Calculus V.U=(¥ = A). (B+ C)—(V * A).B-(V * A).C. Or, because scalar products are distributive, we have V.U = (V « A).B + (V « A).C —(V * A).B -(V * A).C=0 Obviously, therefore, either V = 0 or perpendicular to U or U=0. Since V is an arbitrary vector, it can be chosen to be non-zero and non-perpendicular to U. Hence, U = 0 and we, therefore, have Ax(B+Q)5AxB+AxC in accordance with the distributive law. A vector product can be expressed in terms of rectangular components of the two vectors and put in the determinant form, as may be seen from the following: Writing A and B in terms of their rectangular components, we have A=Ai+Aj+ Ak and B= Bi+ Bj + Bk And, AX B= (AJi+ Aj + Ak) * (Bi + BY BY) = (A.B) i + (A,B,)i xj + (A, Bjixk + (A,B) j xit (A,B) j x jt (A,B,)j ~k + (A,B,) k x i+ (A,B) k x j + (A,BJk x k. Sinceeixi=jxjsk*k=Oandi* j=k=—j * iete.[ see (vy) above], we have A x B= (A, Bk - (A, Bj ~ (A, BOk + (A, BDi + (A, BOj-(A, ). This may be grouped together as A B=(A,B,-A, B)i + (A, BL- A. BD) + (A,B, - AL Bok. Or, putting it in the easily remembered determinant form, we have i jk AxB=lA, Ay A, B, By B, It may be noted that the scalar components of the first veetor A occupy the middle row of the determinant. if B = C + nA, where n is a number or a scalar, we have AxB=Ax(C+nA)=A*xC, Conversely, however, if A x B= A * C, it does not necessarily mean that B=C. All it implies is that B differs from C by some vector parallel ta A which may or may not be a zero vector.Multiple Vectors 85 SOME ILLUSTRATIVE APPLICATIONS OF VECTOR PRODUCT (i) Torque of moment of a force: Let a force F be acting on a body free to rotate about O (Fig. 2.20) and let r be the position vector of any point P on the line of action of the force. Then, since torque = force * perpendicular distance of its line of action from 0, we have torque (or moment) of force F about O i.e., T = Fr sin 0. Fig. 2.20 Now, as we know, Fr sin 6 is the magnitude of the cross or vector product r = F. So that, in vector notation, we have torque (1) =r = F Its direction being perpendicular to the plane containing F and tr. If we draw a set of three coordinate axes through O, as shown, we shall have r = xi + yj + zk, Where xi, yj and zk are the rectangular components of r along the three axes respectively. Similarly, F=Fit Fi +Fk and T=Tit+tTj+ Tk (i) the symbols having their usual meanings. ij k Now, T=rxF=|x y z FO RF which, on expansion, gives(ii) Text Book of Vector Calculus THi(Fy- F,z) +j(Fz-Fx)+k (F,x — F,y). .-(ii) Comparing expressions (i) and (ii), we have T,=Fy- Fz. T, =F2z-Fx and T,= FX - Fy, where T,, Ty and T, are the respective scalar components of T along the three coordinate axes through O. It will be easily seen that the scalar components T,, T, and T, of torque Tare given by the dot or the scalar products of T and the respective unit vectors along the three coordinate axes. Thus, T,= Ti, T= T5 and T, = Tk. For, T.ai= (Ti+ TY + Tk).i = Ti+ Ti+ Tki And since i. i= 1, j. i= 0 and k. i = 0 we have T, = Ti And, Similarly, T, = T. j and T, = T. k. Couple: A couple, as we know, is a combination of two equal, opposite and parallel forces. Let F and -F be two such forces acting at points P and Q (Fig. 2.21) and let the position vectors of P and Q with respect to O be r, and r, respectively. Then, since moment of the couple C with respect to O is equal to the ‘sum of the moments, (with respect to O) of the two forces constituting the couple, we have Ce=r, *F +r, x (-F)=(t,-1,)* F. Fig. 2.21Multipie Vectors 87 (iii) Since r, ~ r, = a, where a lies in the same plane with F, we have C=a*F Thus, the moment of the couple. C, is a vector lying in a plane perpendicular to that containing the two forces. The magnitude of couple C =|a x F| or a F sin 6. And since a sin @ = d, the perpendicular distance between the two Jorces, we have magnitude of the moment of the couple, i.e., C = Fd = (ane of the forces) (perpendicular distance between the forces). Area of a parallelogram: Let vectors A and B form the adjacent sides of a parallelogram OPQR, inclined to each other at an angle 6. Then, if OD be the perpendicular dropped from O on to PQ, we have area of the parallelogram = P Q(O D) = B (A sin 4). = AB sin @ = AB sin (A, B), which is obviously twice the area of the triangle OPQ with the same adjacent sides A and B. Clearly, AB sin 6 or AB sin (A, B) is the magnitude of the vector product A x B =C, say, whose direction is perpendicular to the plane containing A and B, i.e., to the plane of the parallelagram. Now, an area, by itself, has no sign but may be regarded positive or negative in relation to the direction in which its boundary is described. A* B=C, therefore, represents a vector area which gives both the magnitude and the orientation of the area of the parallelogram. Fig. 2.22 The direction of vector C, drawn normal to the plane of the figure 2.22 (Le., the parallelogram here) bears the same relation to the direction88 (iv) (v) Text Book of Vector Calculus in which the boundary of the figure is described as the direction of advance ofa right-handed screw does to its direction of rotation. Thus, with the parallelogram described as shown (A being taken first and B next), the normal vector C = A = B is drawn pointing upwards, the area of the parallelogram being regarded as positive in relation to this direction of C. With this convention, therefore, any vector area (i-¢., the area of any plane figure) may be represented by a vector drawn normal to the plane of the figure in a direction relative to which the area of the figure is regarded as positive. The law of sines in a triangle: Consider a triangle vector A, B and C such that A+ B= C, Taking vector product of both sides of the relation with A, we have A“ A+A*B=AxC, Or, since Ax A= 0. We have Ax B= A = C. So that, taking magnitudes of the two sides, we have C B AB sin (A, B) = AC sin (A, C). Or, B sin (A, B) = C sin (A, C) A B Cc ' whence. SS ooo = Fig. 2.23 sin(A,C) _ sin(A,B) which is the familiar /aw of sines in a triangle. / Force on a moving charge in a magnetic field. Imagine a charge q to be moving with velocity v at an angle 6 with a magnetic field B at any given instant. Then, the force acting on it in a direction per- pendicular to B as well as v ig F = qv B sin 8, where F. v and B are the magnitudes of the force, velocity and the magnetic field respec- tively. In vector form, therefore, we may put it as F = qv * B emu or SI units. This is called Lorentz force law, with the force itself referred to as the Lorentz force. In most cases, q is taken in esu and B in en (i.e, gauss). Since | esu charge = (I/c) emin, where c is the velocity of light in vacuo, we have q esu = q/c emu and, therefore, Fe tyxs. c In case the charge also simultaneously passes through anMuttiple Vectors 89 electric field E, an additional force g&| acts upon it and the Lorentz force law then takes the form F =qE+4 vxB. c SOME IMPORTANT FORMULAE . . . 3344 . . If > is a scalar point function and F, y, y, w are vector point functions then. » 4(F. Tage dy dt } dt t 2 ffavjeuS%e vt. dt dt dt d > + > dv + dv 3, —juxvjsux—+#+yvx—, dt dt dt d(,*)_gdu , 24 4. = =$——+u- é {oa oa a [ ad df" 7 > du7- 7 > > +> dw —] u,v, Wy =] —, vow] tt} ou, —, w/t] u,v, — 5. dt dt t dj7~ 7 >? du = > > dv > > = de —|/uxVvVxWwi=)—x vx c+) ux —— |X C+) UX Vv le — 6. dt dt dt dt - 7 vais jeeal . oe oy oz SOLVED EXAMPLES 1. Uff = (Qe y- x) i + fe" y sin x) j + 6° cos y) k then verify that ar af dy Ox Ox By Solution. Given f = (2x?y — x?) i + (e - y sin x) j + (? cos y) k ... (i) or @é@ . : . > rata -x)i+ fa (e" ~y sinx) j+ Zs? cosy) k90 Text Book of Vector Calculus - = (4xy — 4x*) i + (ye"-— yths ® p+ = (x* cos y) k et = = (4yy -4s3 pi tye" = y cos x) f+ — (2x cosy)k excy cy ey ey = (4x) i + (yxe™ + e" + cos x) j + (-2 % sin y) k . . Ati) Again from (i) we get edad y-x' 1+ re ~ y sing) J+ 07 cosy)k = (2x7) i + (xe — sin x) j + (-¢ sin y) k or é@.3. 6 4 ... @ 3, == (2x7) 1+ £ (xe" - sin x) j+ = (8? sinypk Ke mS x Vit = (xe sin x) J+ = x* siny) = (4x) i + (xye™ + e" — cos x) j + (— 2x sin x) k or &F From (ii) and (iii) we have By ox = ey 5 2. PA ax pri = de jt kh B= 221+ yj—x find the value of sox (A * By atid, 0-2 Solution. A « B = (x"yzi — 2xz* j + xz? k) * (22i + yj — 7k) = xyzi x j xtyzi x k - dxz4j «i Ze] x k + Ixz'k 5 i + xyz7k * j, {. ix i=O ete] = x*ytzk = xtygj + 4xztk + 2x32) i + 2xz3j-xyz"z i, [. ixj=k=-j*il or A * B= (2x°2) ~ xyz?) i + (xyz + 2xz°) j + Ocy?z + 4xz‘)k & {A * B) = (2x32? —xz*) i + (xtyz + 2x23) j + O¢y22 + 4xz4k ey (A * B) = (-2) i + (4x°z) j + G4 xyz) k At (1, 0, -2) we have oy (A « B) = [- C21 i+ [4 CP C2) 5 + [4 C1) © C2) k = dj - 8j = -4 (i + 2j) Ans.Multiple Vectors 91 3. Evaluate fa. xc)+ax(dx el] dt. wherreea=fi= 3f + 2th b= i-2P+ Qk em ZFirtjok Solution, b = ¢ = (i - 2) + 2k) x Gi+tj-k) =tixj-ixk-6j«it2pxk+6k~it2ekxj [. i + B? - 2AB cos0 or 4 AB cos 6 =0 If we assume that A’ and. are nonzero vectors, then 4 AB is nonzero and hence cos 8 = 0 ie. 8 = 90° Find the components of vector T= 2743 j dong the directions of i+jandi-j Solution: Here ye 2i43i In order to find the component of 4? along the directions of i + j, let us find out the unit vector along i+ j. If g is the unit vector along i+ J, then . it} itj a=—p FE i+) v2 Hence, the magnitude of the component vector of q along i + j j 5 =P .a = (2143 pitt e “BONG Therefore, component vector of A along j i +j 5 {ity ~ Ray * #(4)-$ 2040 Similarly, if f, is the unit vector along the direction of i-j. then magnitude of the component vector of 4” along i-j98 13. Text Book af Vector Calculus ui -i) 4| >. Abo jj Gad _Q-3 ae V2 V2 {a i+3p-— (2i+3 - Component vector of 4? along i-j Pen we 1 fi-j i-j Lar (A.b)6 * see es @-) if | A+B = 1Aa-Bi. then find the angle between F and B. Solution: Here, | RB = ra ~Bi Suppose 6 be the angle between A’ and’B . Dot product of a vector with itself is equal to square of its magnitude. A+BP= (A+B), (AYR) = WRN B+B A+B = A? + 2AB cos @ + B* . 7S, Oa Again, }|A—B/? = (A-B).(A-B) RA-RB-BA+HR = A? — 2AB cos 6 + B? As |R+Bi=/R-B| a hence, | A+B) =|A-B[° or A? + B? + 24B cos q = A? + B? — 2AB cos6 or 4 AB cos 8 = 0 If we assume that PB and E are nonzero vectors, then 4 AB is nonzero and hence cos 8 = 0 i.e. 8 = 90° Find the components of vector a: 2i+3 7 along the directions of i+ jandi-j Solution: > - - Here A =2i+3iMultiple Vectors 99 In order to find the component of 4? along the directions of i+ j. let us find out the unit veetor along j + j .If g is the unit vector along i+ j, then ac isi _itj i +] 2 Hence, the magnitude of the “mponen vector of x along i +3 a “ i+} 3 =R.a= (2143 Dave = a 2td= E Therefore, component vector of A alongi+j = (Ra) 4= = eet =z 0d Similarly, if § is the unit vector along the direction of i-j, then magnitude of the component vector of 4 \ along i-j 7 43 ) ~ 21+3jp.—— = 25 = OM) ij —ootaay ied 2-3) = 2i+3). a= = a = a -. Component vector of 4? along i-j 1 fi-j ae >. . 2 | Lt} eye aoe Bl Be 15. if r(t) = (5°) i+ tj = €& prove that 2 Frex fave - tai 755-158 dt* Solution. Given r(t) = (5t*) i + (t)j — (¢) k # - Monit] =e) kand a Oi (1) j) = Gv) k an We = (10) i + (0) j = (6t) k Pp rx ope Glin tj= Ok) * (i= 61K)100 Text Book of Vector Calculus =-30Pixk+10t}xi-6Pjxk- Wk xi, [. 1x j=k-j* ietce.) =-308 (j)+ 10t(-k)-6 2 () - 102 G), [. ix j=k-j * i ete] =-6Pi+20Pj-10rk fre SF u=-6i fe +205 f Pdi 10k fi dt --o(4i] -so(e -oa(de) | I = 21 (8 - 1) + 5) (16 - 1) - 5k 4-1 =-Mit75j- 15k. 2 d°r 16. Solve x =at+b. where ‘a’ and ‘b’ are constant vector, given that di r =O and 5 = 0; when t = 0. : A dr _ _ Solution. Given = frats b)} dt = fata + [oat Intergrating both sides with respect to t, we have a. frat +b) dt = fat dr + four za(te}ebise, (i) where c is an arbitrary constant vector Given ¢ = 0 when t = 0, so from (i) we have 0=a(0)+b(0)+core=0 So from (i) we have <. a(3 | + b(t) Intergrating again with respect to t, we get r= (ia ? + bi] dt 2Multiple Vectors 101 =! 1) (4c) or rasa a(t +b vied where d is an arbitrary constant vector. Given r = 0 when t = 0, so from (ii) we have 0-5 ai0)+ bi) +4 or d=0 as Eo o3 I. From (ii) we get T= 7 at tbe Ans. 17. Find the unit vector perpendicular to each of the vector a = 3i + j + 2k and b = 2i- 2j + 2k. Also determine the sine of the angle between a and b, What will be the vector perpendicular to a and b and having a magnitude 44/3? Solution: By its very definition, the vector product a * b is perpen- dicular to the plane of a and b. So that, we have wait vector perpen- dicular to a and », say, 4 = axb la x bf Now, a x b = (3i + j + 2k) x (21 - 2j + 4K) = 8i - 8] -. 8k and .. lax bl = (64464464 = 8y3. Hence unit vector 4. perpendicular to a and b _ 81-8) 8i-8j-8k i-j-k) sis ( ! Finally, since the unit vector perpendicular to a and b isq equal oR 3 (i - j — k), we have vector of magnitude 4 {3 and perpendicular to a and b = 4/38 | = 4,3| La 18. (a) Find the area of the parallelogram determined by the vectors a= Ji + 2j and b = 2j - 4k. (b) Find the area of the triangle whose vertices are (1, — 1, ~ 3). (4, - 3, 1) and (3, ~ 1, 2). Solution: (a) Here, vector area of the parallelogram i j-k)] sii = 4(i- j-k).102 Text Book of Vector Calculus =a * b= (3i + 2j) * (2) — 4k) = §i -— 12] + 6k. -, magnitude of the area of the parallelogram = |8i+12)+6k) _ = ¥64+144+36 = 2V61. (b) Clearly. the position vectors of the vertices A, B and C of the triangle ABC are a ~ (i —j — 3k) b = ( 4i— 3) +k), and ¢ = Gi- j — 2k). .BA=a—b=-3i+2j)-4k and Bé=c-b=—-i+2j+k. . . I> > Hence vector area of the triangle = — BA xBC 2 1/2 (= 3i + 2] = 4k ) = (i + 2j +k) = 1/2 ( 10i + 7j — 4k) i ! . me and magnitude of the area of the triangle = > |10i+7j-4k| = 5 {1004951 = 5 Vi65. 19.) Prove that the vector area of a triangle whose vertices are a, b, ¢ is 12 (b™* co +e ata ™* bj. What is the condition for the collinearity of the vertices ? Solution: As in example 18 above, let the triangle be ABC. Then, we have BC = (c ~ b) andpAa = (a~- b) >» > - veetor area of the triangle = \/2BC «BA= 1/2 [(e - b) » (a-b)] =W2(cexa-c*xb-bxa+b* bj Now, bx b=0,-cxb=bx*cand-b*xa=axb So that, the vector area of the triangle = W/2(bxe+exat+a x b). If the vertices of the triangle be collinear, we shall have area of the triangle equal to zero and, therefore vector area of the triangle too equal to zero. Thus, the condition for collinearity of the vertices is that 1/2 (bxct+eoxat+ax by =0. 20. Show that if the vector area of each face of a tetrahedron has the direction of the outward normal, the sum of their vector areas is zero.Multiple Vectors 103 21. 22. Solution: Let DABC be the tetrahedron, such that taking D as the origin, the position vectors of A, B and C are a, b and c respectively. Then, we clearly have veetor area of face DBC = 1/2 b * c, of fac DAB = 1/2 a * b, of face DCA = 1/2 c¢ ~ a and of face BAC = 1/2 (b - a) (b-c)= 12(bxb-bxc-axbtaxc)=-l2(bxect+a x b + ¢ » a), all directed along their respective outward normals. ‘, sum of the vector areas of all the faces of the tetrahedron u W2(bxct+axbtexa)-12(bxct+axb+ea)=0. A rigid body is rotating with angular velocity 3 radians/second about an axis passing through the point 2i — j — & and parallel to i — 2j + 2k. Find the magnitude of the velocity of the point (of the rigid body) whose position vector is 2i + 3j - 4k. Solution: Obviously, the unit vector, 7,say. in the direction of oo i-2j+2k i~ 2) + 2k = Ff 542k| i-2j+2k _ I vl4+44+4 3 (i-2j+2k). angular velocity of the rigid body, © = of = 3 [1/2 G - 2j + 2k) = §-2j + 2k, Let the point whose velocity is desired to be determined be P. Then, its positive with respect to the point 2i ~ j — k on the axis given by r= (2i + 3j - 4k) - Qi-j- k) = 4j 3k. Hence, if v be the velocity of point P, we have v = © * r i jk (i-2j+2k)»(4j-3k) =|] -2 b| =-2isajean 0 4 -3| So that, magnitude of the velocity =¥(-2)° +3744? =,/29units. 23. A force F = — 2i + 3) +4k is acting at a point 3i + 47 + 3k. Obtain the moment of the force about the origin. Solution: Here, r= 51 + 4j + 3k. Therefore, moment of the force about the origin r™ F = (5i + 4j + 3k) x (- 21 + 3j + 4k) = i (16 - 9) + j (-6 - 20) +k (15 + 8) = Ti — 26) + 23k. A = 4i - 5j + 3k, B= 2i- 10j- 7h and C = Si + 7j — 4k calculate the following: (i) A * B.C, (ii) A = (B * C).104 Text Book of Vector Calculus Solution: We have lq -5 3} () AXB.C or [ABC] = 2-10 -7) 57 4 = 4(40 +49) - 5(-35+8)+3(14 +50) = 356+ 135+ 192 = 683. (ii) A « (B x C) = B (A.C) - C (A.B) = (2i — 10) — 7k) 20 - 35 - 12) - (Si + 7j - 4k) (8 + 50 - 21) = — 54] + 270) + 189k — 185i - 259) + 148k = — 239) + 11j + 337k. 24, (a) Prove thata * (bX ch +b xX (eo X alte Xa x b= 0, (6) Prove that the four points (4i + 35j + ki, - G+ W, (Bi + 97 + 4h) and (4 — i —j — k) are coplanar. Solution: (a) As we know a ~ (b * c) = (a.c)b — (a.b)}c i) -bx*(c * a) = (abjc- (boda (ii) and ¢ * (a * b) = (be)a ~ (c.a) b. .Aiii) So that, adding up the three, we have ax(bxc)+bx (ex a)+ex(a* b)=0, (b) If 4i + 5) + k,- Gj +k), 31 + 9j + 4k and 4 (~i +j + k) be the position vectors of four points A, B, C and D with reference to an origin O, clearly the points will be coplanar if the vectors BA. BCand CDbe coplanar. > > . * . . * Now,BA = OA-OB = (4i + 5j + k) —[ - G + k)]=4i + 6) + 2k, > +> => BC= OC_OB = (31 + 9j + 4k) - [- G + k)] = 3i + 10j + 5k > - => and CD =OD — OC= (~ 4j + 4j + 4k) - (31 + 9} + 4k) - Ti — 5]. And, these vectors (BA. BC and eb) will be coplanar if their scalar product is zero, Let us see if its is so. The triple scalar product of the vectors is clearly 4 6 2 [BA BCCD ]= 3. 10 5] =4 (25) + 6 (-35) + 2 (55) =0 -7 -5 0Multiple Vectors 105 > > The three vectorsBA Be and CD, and hence the four points A, B, C and D. are thus coplanar. 25. The edge of a parallelopiped are given by the vectors i + 2j + 3k, Sj and 4j + mk. What should be the value of m in order that the volume of the parallelopiped be 20 units? Solution: The volume of a parallelopiped, as we know is given by the scalar triple product of the vectors representing its three edges. So that, we have: 12 3 volume of the parallelopiped = {0 5 0) = I(5m) + 2(0) + 3(0) = 5m. 04 mi Since the volume is given to be 20 units, we have 5m = 20, whence, m= 4, 26. Show that (i) (a x b) x (c x d) = fabd]c - fabe]d. (ii) (a * bj X fc * d) = facd]b — [bed]a. Solution: (i) Let a * b = m. Then, (a » b) x (c x d) =m * (c « d) =(m.d)c-(c. mjd = [(a = b).d] ¢ - [c. (a * b)]d. Since in the triple products (a = b).d and c.(a * b), the positions of the dots and crosses are quite immaterial and may be interchanged or omitted, as desired, we have (a * ) = (c * d) = [abd]e — [abe]d. (ii) Again, putting (c x d) = n, we have (a * b) « (c x d) = (a = b) * n = (a.n)b - (b.nja = [ate « d)} b — [b.(c x d)Ja = [acd]b — [bed]a. 27. Obtair the value of the product (A * By

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