A113N AND DRAINAGE PAPER

FA0 IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE PAPER

small hydraulic
structures
by

d. b. kraatz
hydraulic engineer

and

i. k. mahajan
secretary, icid
prepared with the support of the
international commission on irrigation and drainage

FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS

Rome 1975

First printing 1975

Second printing 1982

The designations employed and the presentation

of material in this publication do not imply the
expression of any opinion whatsoever on the
part of the Food and Agri~culture Organization
of the United Nations concerning the legal
status of any country, territory, city or area or
of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation
of its frontiers or boundaries.

M-56
ISBN 92-5-100161-8
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means,
electronic. mechanical, photocopying or otherwise, without the prior
permission of the copyright owner. Applications for such permission,
with a statement of the purpose and extent of the reproduction, should
be addressed to the Director, Publications Division. Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations. Via delle Terme di Caracalla. 00100
Rom'e, Italy.

TABLE

OF

CONTENTS

VOLUME

I1

Page
PREFACE

6.

WATER LEVEL AND VELOCITY CONTROL STRUCTURES

6. 1
6.2
6. 3

Introduction
General Feat!ures of Checks o r C r o s s Regulators
Checks with Fixed Overfall C r e s t without Movable Controls
6r3.1
6. 3.2
6. 3. 3
6. 3.4
6. 3.5

6.4

Checks Regulated by Stop P l a n k s (Drop B a r s ) o r F l a s h B o a r d s

6.4.1
6.4.2

6.5

General
Standard check (USBR)
Check s t r u c t u r e m a d e of sheet m e t a l
Wooden checks
P o r t a b l e checks
Radial gate check
The Romijn gate

Hydraulically Automated Checks (Neyrpic)

6. 6 . 1
6. 6 . 2

6. 7
6.8
6.9

General
D r o p - b a r check s t r u c t u r e (Victoria, A u s t r a l i a )

Checks Equipped with Hand Operated Gates

6.5.1
6.5.2
6.5. 3
6.5.4
6.5.5
6.5.6
6.5.7

6.6

General
Hydraulic design
Design example (diagonal w e i r )
Design examples (duckbill w e i r )
Check- slab s t r u c t u r e (Mexico)

General s t r u c t u r e and application

Range of standard g a t e s available

Semi Automatic Time Controlled Check

Check S t r u c t u r e s Combined with a F a l l , Drop o r Chute
General F e a t u r e s of Drops (or F a l l s ) and Chutes

1
1
4
4
8
16
16
16
22

T a b l e of Contents
Contld.
Page
6. 10

Vertical Drops (or Falls)

6.10.1
6. 1 0 . 2
6. 10. 3
6.10.4
6.10.5

6. 11

Inclined D r o p s and Chutes

6.11.1
6.11.2
6. 11. 3
6. 1 1 . 4
6.11.5

6.12

General
Well d r o p r e g u l a t o r (U. S. S. R. )
Well type d r o p (India)
P i p e d r o p (India)
Inclinedpipedrop (U.S.A.)
Inclined pipe d r o p (U. S. S. R. )

F a r m Drop Structures
6.13.1
6. 13. 2
6.13.3
6.13.4
6.13.5
6.13.6
6. 13. 7

7.

General
Standing wave f l u m e f a l l (India)
F l u m e type fall (CDO, P u n j a b , India)
USBR r e c t a n g u l a r inclined d r o p
Rubble c a s c a d e inclined d r o p

Piped Drops
6.12.1
6. 1 2 . 2
6. 1 2 . 3
6. 1 2 . 4
6.12.5
6.12. 6

6.13

General
S a r d a - t y p e fall (India)
R e c t a n g u l a r w e i r d r o p with r a i s e d c r e s t
V e r t i c a l c h e c k - d r o p (USBR)
YMGT-type d r o p ( J a p a n )

General
Head wall d r o p with g r a v e l b a s i n
C e m e n t block check a n d d r o p
C o n c r e t e check d r o p
Wooden d r o p
Piped drops
Sloping r o c k d r o p

STRUCTURES AND DEVICES F O R WATER MEASUREMENT

Introduction
Sharp Crested Measuring Weirs
The Romijn B r o a d C r e s t e d W e i r
The Par s h a l l F l u m e
The Standing Wave M e a s u r i n g F l u m e
The C u t - t h r o a t F l u m e
The C o n c r e t e ( C a s t - i n - P l a c e ) T r a p e z o i d a l M e a s u r i n g F l u m e
U s e of C u l v e r t s a s M e a s u r i n g D e v i c e s
Propeller Meters
Deflection M e t e r s
The D e t h r i d g e M e t e r
The Constant Head O r i f i c e Turnout
C a l i b r a t i o n of M e a s u r i n g S t r u c t u r e s

Table of Contents
Cont'd.

Page

LIST O F REFERENCES

NOTATIONS AND SYMBOLS

LIST

OF

FIGURES
Page

Figure
6-1. - Flow through check s t r u c t u r e s : ( a ) f r e e overflow; (b) submerged
orifice flow
6 - 2 ( a ) and (b).

Duckbill w e i r s on distribution canals (Spain).

6-3. - Small duckbill weir installed in a concrete flume distribution s y s t e m

(Kiti D a m P r o j e c t , Cyprus).
6-4(a).
6-4 (b).
6-5.
6-6.

Double duckbill weir for 480 l / s discharge capacity

Duckbill weir for 160 l/ s discharge capacity.

D i a g r a m of flow o v e r diagonal, duckbill o r Z-type w e i r s .

Determination of coefficient Im' for angles of ot g r e a t e r than 45O.

.6-7.
Graph for determination of discharge o v e r diagonal, duckbill, o r
Z-type w e i r s (84)
6-8.

- Determination of

f r o m known B and S and of

(84).

6-9. - Standard diagonal check weir for capacities up to 500 l / s (84).

6- 10.

6- 11.

Duckbill w e i r , (Italy).
Standard duckbill weir design type "Giraudet" for capacities up to

1000 11s.

Duckbill weir for 260 to 280 11s capacity (Spain).

Determination of spacing of check s l a b s

6.23.

6-24.

6-12.

6-13.
Check s l a b s in a channel s t r e t c h with steep grade.
St. L u i s P o t o s i , Mexico).
6- 14.
6-15.
6-16.
6-17.
6-18.
6- 19.
6-20.
6-21.
6-22.

(State of

Data for design of check slab s t r u c t u r e s

Stop plank grooves (54).
Concrete check s t r u c t u r e for average soil conditions (13).
Small concrete check (33).
Ordinary flashboard check.
Typical d r o p b a r check s t r u c t u r e (52).
Drop b a r s t r u c t u r e (Australia).
Hand operated check gate ( F e r r a r a , Italy).
Concrete check.

(u. S. A . )

Check s t r u c t u r e m a d e of sheet m e t a l

- dimensions

L i s t of F i g u r e s
Cont'd.
Page

Figure
6-25.

- Check constructed f r o m prefabricated s t e e l p a r t s (75).

38

6-26.

- Single wall check' with side walls only f o r protection of banks (65).

38

6-27.

39

6-28.

- P o r t a b l e check for f a r m ditches (46).

40

6-29.

- P o r t a b l e canvas check, sleeve type (13).

41

Double wall check (74)

6- 30 ( a ) .

6-30(b).

- Downstream view of r a d i a l gate check (The Netherlands).

42

Radial check gate ( T h e Netherlands).

43

6- 31. - Typical medium s i z e u p s t r e a m constant level gate, (NEYRPIC AMIL).

6-32.

- Typical downstream constant level gate (NEYRPIC

- AVIS).

6-33. - Typical downstream constant level gate for discharge through an

orifice (NEYRPIC - AVIO).
6-34.

45
46

D i a g r a m m a t i c layout of AMIL gate.

47

6-35 ( a ) .

49

6- 35 (b),

- D i a g r a m m a t i c layout of AVIO gate.

D i a g r a m m a t i c layout of AVIS gate f r o m 561106 to 901190.

6-36 ( a ) . - B a s i c draw- s t r i n g check fitted with wing walls and bottom cut-off
f o r u s e in an unlined ditch.
6- 36 (b).
6-37.
6-38.

Semi automatic check installed in an unlined ditch.

50
51
51

S a r d a type f a l l (U. P. )

57

Rectangular weir d r o p with r a i s e d c r e s t .

62

Rectangular weir d r o p - relationship between H(crt), d i s c h a r g e

6- 39.
per m e t r e width of c r e s t and coefficients 0.32, 0 . 3 6 and 0.40.

64

6-40.

- Concrete v e r t i c a l check with 1 . 5 f t drop.

67

6-41.

Concrete v e r t i c a l check with 3 . 0 ft d r o p

68

6-42.

D r o p s t r u c t u r e in s m a l l flume channel (Cyprus).

74

6-43.

- YMGT type d r o p

- sill w a l l
- symbols

and stilling basin.

and notations for sill height, t r a j e c t o r y

6-44. - YMGT type d r o p
of jet and dimensions of stilling basin
6-45.
6-46.

YMGT fall

- type 300.

Details of a standing wave flume fall.

Height of hump r e q u i r e d to give proportionality for variation in

6-47.
discharge.
6-48.
6.49.

75
77
83

87
92

Height of hump to attain bulk proportionality.

94

Details of deflectors.

98

L i s t of F i g u r e s
Cont'd.
'

Page

Figure

6-50.
6-51.

99

Standing wave f l u m e f a l l .
Sketch of a f l u m e type f a l l with a d r o p of u p t o 0 . 9 0 m .

102

CDO type f a l l ( P u n j a b ) , h y d r a u l i c d r o p u p t o 1.00 m.

CDO type f a l l ( P u n j a b ) , h y d r a u l i c d r o p m o r e than 1 .OO m .
R e c t a n g u l a r inclined d r o p (U. S. A. )
D e s i g n of USBR inclined d r o p .
Rubble c a s c a d e type f a l l (India).
P i p e and s t r u c t u r e s .
Well d r o p r e g u l a t o r ( f o r c r o s s s e c t i o n s s e e F i g u r e 6-59).
D e t a i l s of well d r o p r e g u l a t o r ( a s shown i n F i g u r e 6-58).
P i p e d r o p spillway.
Well type d r o p

6- 63.

6- 64.

- Check a n d pipe inlet.

149

6- 65.

- C o n c r e t e outlet t r a n s i t i o n ( s u p p l e m e n t t o F i g u r e 6- 63).

15 1

6- 66.

161

6-67.

- P r e - c a s t c o n c r e t e h e a d wall d r o p (60).

168

6-68.

- C e m e n t block check a n d d r o p s t r u c t u r e ( C a n a d a ) .

169

6- 69.

170

6-70.

6-71.

- V e r t i c a l wooden d r o p , d

6-72.

6-73.

- Steel b a r r e l drop.

6-74.

- Sloping r o c k d r o p s t r u c t u r e ( C a n a d a ) .

6-62.

P i p e d r o p without c o n c r e t e outlet t r a n s i t i o n s .
P i p e d r o p with c o n c r e t e outlet t r a n s i t i o n .

Pipe drop regulator.

C o n c r e t e check d r o p ( U . S . A. )
V e r t i c a l wooden d r o p ,

d = 8".
=

12".

P l a n f o r a c o r r u g a t e d m e t a l pipe d r o p .

7- 1. - S t a n d a r d t r a p e z o i d a l (Cipolletti) m e a s u r i n g w e i r of 61 c m ( 2 ft)
c r e s t length i n s t a l l e d a t a f a r m outlet.
7-2. - D i a g r a m of f r e e d i s c h a r g e c o n t r a c t e d w e i r showing position of
staff gauge u p s t r e a m .
7-3.

P e r m a n e n t t r a p e z o i d a l w e i r d i s c h a r g i n g u n d e r f r e e flow conditions

7-4. - D i s c h a r g e o v e r a s u p p r e s s e d r e c t a n g u l a r w e i r p e r m e t r e of c r e s t
length.

L i s t of F i g u r e s
Cont'd.
Figure

Page

7 - 5 ( a ) and (b). - Small t e m p o r a r y V-notch w e i r s made of sheet m e t a l

(being u s e d for studies on i r r i g a t i o n efficiency and water l o s s e s ) .

20 1

7-6.

- Example of a design f o r a 90 V-notch weir plate.

202

7-7.

Romijn b r o a d - c r e s t e d w e i r , sliding blades and movable weir c r e s t

204

Romijn b r o a d - c r e s t e d weir, hydraulic dimensions of w e i r abutments.

205

7-8.

7-9. - Values of Cd a s a function of the r a t i o Hcrt : L c r t for the Romijn

weir.
7- 10.

- Approach velocity coefficient, Cv, f o r rectangular approach channel.

7- 11. - The Romijn movable measuring/regulating weir (drawing)

(with supplement, L i s t of M a t e r i a l s ) .
7-12. - Approach velocity coefficient, Cv, a s a function of the total head
over the movable weir c r e s t (H,,~) in the stage - d i s c h a r g e equation
2
2
1.5
Q = 5 C d C v ( j g ) 0 5 BtHcrt.
7- 13.

Small standard P a r s h a l l flume in operation.

7-14. - P l a n and elevation of a concrete P a r s h a l l m e a s u r i n g flume showing

component p a r t s (82).
7-15. - D i a g r a m showing the r a t e of submerged flow in l / s and in f t 3 / s ,
through a 15.2. c m ( 6 inch) P a r s h a l l m e a s u r i n g flume.
7- 16. - D i a g r a m showing the r a t e of submerged flow, in 11s and ft3/ s,
through a 23 c m (9 inch) P a r s h a l l flume.

7- 17. - D i a g r a m 'for computing the r a t e of submerged flow through a

30. 5 c m ( 1 ft) P a r s h a l l flume (82).

7- 18.

- Effect of submergence on P a r s h a l l flume - f r e e d i s c h a r g e (81).

7- 19. - Section of a P a r s h a l l m e a s u r i n g flume illustrating the determination

of the p r o p e r c r e s t elevation (82).
7-20. - D i a g r a m for determining the head l o s s through the P a r s h a l l
m e a s u r i n g flume (82).
7-21. - P a r s h a l l flume of 152 c m ( 5 ft) throat width a s s e m b l e d f r b m
prefabricated sheet m e t a l p a r t s .
7-22.

7- 23.

- Commercially available P a r s h a l l m e a s u r i n g flume.

P a r s h a l l flume of 183 c m (6 ft) throat width a t full discharge.

7-24. - Standard concrete P a r s h a l l m e a s u r i n g flume

1 f t to 8 f t .
7- 25.

7-26.

- Sketch of Cut-throat flume (85)

Standard concrete P a r shall flume.

t h r o a t width

209
21 0

L i s t of F i g u r e s
Contld.
Page

Figure
7-27.

F i n a l design of a 61 c m (2 ft) rectangular Cut-throat flume (90).

Cut-throat flume of 30.5 c m (1 ft) throat width, with automatic

7-28.
recording device, operating under f r e e flow conditions.
7-29. - Generalized f r e e flow coefficients and exponents and St for
Cut-throat flumes, in m e t r i c units.
7-30.

- Installation of a Cut-throat flume.

7-31 ( a ) and (b). - Trapezoidal m e a s u r i n g flume with a r a i s e d bottom

c a s t in a concrete ditch. The discharge i s about 34 11s (1. 2 ft 3 1 s ) a t a
submergence of about 70% (87).
7-32.
7-33.

Trapezoidal flume f o r 1 f t i r r i g a t i o n channels.

Typical parallel flow c r i t i c a l depth flume.

P o r t a b l e s t e e l forin used to c a s t trapezoidal concrete flumes

7-34.
in concrete ditches (8;').
7-35 ( a ) and (b).

M e t e r gate for pipe outlets (64).

7-36. - Sketch of pipe outlet with sliding gate for delivery control and
m e a s u r e m e n t (88).

Rating c u r v e for pipe outlet (8s).

Standard design of open type propeller m e t e r .

7-44.

The Rajasthan channel flow m e t e r in u s e .

7-45.

- Commercially available deflection m e t e r .

7-46.

7- 37.
7-38.
7-39.
7-40.

Sketch of a propeller m e t e r for open flows.

P r o p e l l e r m e t e r installed a t a pipe outlet
R e g i s t e r of a propeller m e t e r .

Range ability of a propeller m e t e r and the selection of m e t e r

7-41.
d i a m e t e r (+ 4% accuracy).
7-42.

Example of a deflection m e t e r with a pointer indicating against

7-43.
a fixed v e r t i c a l scale (Rajasthan, India).

Sketch of the Rajasthan channel flow m e t e r .

7-47.
Sample calibration curve for 30 c m ( 12 inch) Rajasthan
channel flow m e t e r .

246

PREFACE

This publication i s the r e s u l t of a joint effort by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and the International Commission on Irrigation and
Drainage (ICID) in producing a Handbook on small hydraulic s t r u c t u r e s and devices used
in open-channel irrigation distribution s y s t e m s .

There h a s been general recognition of

a need to review the abundant information and experience available on the subject and to
condense and dovetail them into a comprehensive and practical Handbook.

Much b a s i c

m a t e r i a l for the Handbook h a s been generously provided by National Committees of the

ICID and by F A 0 projects and contacts in Member Countries, while complementary data
and information have been assembled f r o m the extensive survey of the l i t e r a t u r e .
The scope of the Handbook i s confined a s the title suggests to small s t r u c t u r e s
used a t the f a r m level in fields, and in networks with small discharges a t the intakes,
such a s f r o m small surface o r ground water r e s o u r c e s .

Such s t r u c t u r e s , having

capacities of l e s s than 1 cubic m e t r e p e r second, and, indeed,many of them having

capacities of l e s s than 300 l i t r e s per second, account for m o r e than 70 p e r cent of a l l
the hydraulic s t r u c t u r e s installed in many irrigation networks.

In the past these s m a l l s t r u c t u r e s have not always received the attention they
d e s e r v e f r o m planners and designers.

It should be recognized that irrigation head

works, and other irrigation engineering works, however spectacular, would have little
value without an efficient distribution system (requiring small s t r u c t u r e s ) extending
right down to the f a r m e r s ' fields.

The heavy investments normally involved in an

i r r i g a t i o n system can be justified, through conversion into cash benefits and the social
welfare of the r u r a l population, only by paying full attention to the function and place of
each of the small s t r u c t u r e s described in this Handbook.

xiv.

The Handbook i s published in t h r e e volumes.

1 to 5.

Volume I c o m p r i s e s Chapters

The types of s m a l l hydraulic s t r u c t u r e s available, and t h e i r importance for

efficient distribution of i r r i g a t i o n water supplies a r e discussed in Chapter I.

Chapter 2 d i s c u s s e s the operation of irrigation s y s t e m s and how this governs the
choice of the type of s m a l l hydraulic s t r u c t u r e b e s t suited to the purpose.

Chapters

3 to 5 deal with s m a l l intake s t r u c t u r e s , s m a l l flow-dividing s t r u c t u r e s , and outlets

o r f a r m and field turnouts.

Volume I1 c o m p r i s e s Chapters 6 and 7.

Chapter 6

d e a l s with s m a l l water-level and velocity control s t r u c t u r e s (i.e . checks o r c r o s s

r e g u l a t o r s , falls o r d r o p s , and chutes) and Chapter 7 with s m a l l hydraulic s t r u c t u r e s
and devices useful for m e a s u r i n g flow in i r r i g a t i o n networks.

Volume 111, which will

be i s s u e d a t a l a t e r date, will cover s m a l l c r o s s - d r a i n a g e works, e s c a p e s and

miscellaneous s t r u c t u r e s and will include a chapter on the detailed design of
gates.
F o r definitions of t e r m s , r e f e r e n c e should be made to the ICID Multilingual
Technical Dictionary on Irrigation and Drainage.

Units of m e a s u r e m e n t a r e generally

e x p r e s s e d in the units f r o m which the formulae, designs, tables and graphs have been
derived (and a r e thus best known in that s y s t e m ) but in certain c a s e s i t h a s been
considered advantageous to convert English to Metric units for application in countries
using only the M e t r i c s y s t e m .

Since the Handbook attempts to a s s e m b l e and d e s c r i b e many types of s m a l l

hydraulic s t r u c t u r e s which have proved successful in certain countries, and which
may be used elsewhere under s i m i l a r conditions, i t i s hoped that i t will prove useful
to young engineers, technicians and extension w o r k e r s involved in the remodelling
of existing irrigation s y s t e m s o r in the design of new projects.

It i s a l s o hoped that

the Handbook will stimulate exchanges of ideas and information on techniques and
designs which have often been evolved in isolation.

The p r e s e n t edition i s a provisional version;

i t i s intended that an updated

version covering Volumes I to I11 will be printed in final f o r m a t a l a t e r date.

Any comments o r further contributions which r e a d e r s might like to offer will be
gratefully received and will be considered for incorporation in the next
edition.

xv.

Acknowledgments a r e due to the many who have a s s i s t e d in the production of

this Handbook, some with systematic contributions, such a s the ICID National
Committees of :

Arab Republic of Egypt

Ecuador

Australia

F e d e r a l Republic of Germany

Bulgaria

Guyana

Canada

Hungary

Colombia

India

Czechoslovakia

Japan

Republic of Korea

Republic of China

Malaysia

S r i Lanka

Mexico

Turkey

Philippines

U. S. A.
U. S. S. R

and personnel of F A 0 and individual contacts who have rendered valuable information
and advice, and to Mr. I. Constantinesco for h i s lucid eaiting of the manuscript.

Dated

Edouard Saourna
Director
Land and Water Development
Division
Food & Agriculture Organization
of the United Nations

K. K. F r a m j i
Secretary General
International Commission
on Irrigation & Drainage

6.

6.1

WATER LEVEL AND VELOCITY CONTROL STRUCTU'RES

INTRODUCTION
The w a t e r level and velocity control s t r u c t u r e s d e s c r i b e d in t h i s chapter
c o m p r i s e a group of engineering works installed in open channel i r r i g a t i o n networks
designed t o regulate the w a t e r l e v e l in a channel, to control the quantity of water .
passing through it, to dissipate energy and enable w a t e r to be delivered a c c u r a t e l y
and safely to the fields without causing erosion.
c r o s s - r e g u l a t o r s , d r o p s ( o r f a l l s ) and chutes.

Such s t r u c t u r e s include checks o r

F o r example, a check o r c r o s s

r e g u l a t o r will r a i s e the u p s t r e a m w a t e r level in a canal above i t s n a t u r a l flow l e v e l

during p e r i o d s of low d i s c h a r g e sufficiently to feed an offtake canal.

A check will

a l s o h e l p to t e m p o r a r i l y a b s o r b fluctuations of w a t e r supply in v a r i o u s sections of

t h e canal s y s t e m , o r to control velocities and prevent b r e a c h e s in the t a i l r e a c h e s .
D r o p s ( o r f a l l s ) and chutes n a r r o w the difference in slope of the land and that
r e q u i r e d f o r the canal.

Generally, a d r o p o r a fall will be used to obtain a

reduction in slope o v e r a s h o r t distance.

When the distance i s g r e a t e r and the

slope m o r e gentle, but s t i l l s t e e p enough for the w a t e r t o flow a t too high a velocity,
control m a y be achieved by employing chutes.

A.

6.2

CHECKS OR CROSS REGULATORS

GENERAL FEATURES O F CHECKS OR CROSS REGULATORS

Checks o r c r o s s r e g u l a t o r s m a y be fixed overflow w e i r s with no movable
controlling device, o r they m a y be provided with r a d i a l gates, slide gates, stoplogs, checkboards (flashboards), o r combinations of t h e s e , o r include a device to
maintain a given u p s t r e a m water level.

These s t r u c t u r e s may be fixed o r portable

(the f o r m e r should have provision f o r overflow) and they m a y be used in both lined
and unlined canals, ditches o r water c o u r s e s .

Where check gates a r e fitted, t h e s e

m a y be hand o r hydraulically o p e r a t e d (such a s the automatic Neyrpic g a t e s ) o r

equipped with automatic and t i m e controlled r e l e a s e devices.

Wherever possible,

and in the i n t e r e s t of economy, a permanent check should be combined with a d r o p

o r fall, o r a division box, o r a m e a s u r i n g device located above o r below an intake,

outlet o r escape.

FIGURE 6.1. - Flow through check s t r u c t u r e s :

( a ) f r e e overflow; (b) submerged o r i f i c e flow.

A check may be designed to function a s an overflow weir, a s an orifice o r a s

a combination of both.

When a constant u p s t r e a m water level i s d e s i r e d an over-

flow type check i s normally used ( s e e F i g u r e 6. l ( a ) ).

The flow over such a check

m a y be calculated f r o m the equation:

where

.--

discharge in m

7P

B(t)

overflowcrestlength

head o r water depth above the c r e s t , m e a s u r e d u p s t r e a m

f r o m the check ( m )

(4

.&

p e r second
d i s c h a r g e coefficient ( m

/ a)

(m)

Values of C a r e given below:

C

F o r m of Weir C r e s t

/----a,

AL

1.5 to 1 . 6

broad c r e s t e d with rounded edges, horizontal

s h a r p c r e s t e d with a e r a t e d b e a m

1.9

rounded with v e r t i c a l u p s t r e a m face and inclined

downstream slope

2.2

When the c r e s t length,

B(t),' i s l a r g e , variations ifl discharge r e s u l t in relatively

s m a l l changes in the u p s t r e a m water level.

The above formula (derived f r o m Poleni) i s valid only for f r e e flow conditions.
The values of C a r e a c c u r a t e enough for design purposes, such a s dimensioning
w e i r s f r o m given d i s c h a r g e s and water l e v e l s , but not for exact water m e a s u r e m e n t .
Also; a number of types of check s t r u c t u r e s have been individually r a t e d and flow
formulae developed for them, a s will be seen below.

The u s e of checks for water

m e a s u r e m e n t would r e q u i r e them to be constructed to standard dimensions for

which ratings a r e available o r to be calibrated individually.
Check s t r u c t u r e s m u s t be designed to c a r r y the full design discharge of the
canal a t maximum water l e v e l .

The velocity of flow through check s t r u c t u r e s with

flashboards should not exceed 1 m / s because of the difficulty of placing and

removing the flashboards.

1.5 m/s.

Checks with gates can t o l e r a t e velocities g r e a t e r than

F r o m the selected design velocity the r e q u i r e d opening and the c o r r e -

sponding head l o s s a r e determined.

The total head l o s s ,

h$)

through a check

s t r u c t u r e can be estimated a t 0 . 5 of the difference in the velocity heads of the

u p s t r e a m canal section and the check opening, thus:

When the water level i s to be controlled downstream f r o m a s t r u c t u r e , an

orifice-type check i s m o r e desirable because of i t s m o r e constant discharge ( s e e
F i g u r e 6. 1 (b) ).

The discharge through an orifice may be determined f r o m the

general equation:

-1
Q

--

C A

(orf)

( '8

(crt) )

where
C
A
and

(orf)

coefficient of discharge

a r e a of opening ( m2)

(4=

head causing flow ( m )

The coefficient C r a n g e s f r o m 0 . 6 to 0 . 8 , depending on the position of the

orifice relative to the sides and bottom of the s t r u c t u r e and on the roundness of
the orifice edge.

F o r f r e e discharge the head,

depth m e a s u r e d f r o m the centre of the opening.

H(crt), i s the u p s t r e a m water

F o r submerged flow, the

effective head i s the difference between the u p s t r e a m and downstream water

surface l e v e l s .

Because of i t s head-di scharge relatianship, an

orifice-type

check i s not so well adapted for u p s t r e a m water level control since fluctuations in
flow r e s u l t in relatively l a r g e u p s t r e a m water level variations.

6.3

6. 3. 1

CHECKS WITH FIXED OVERFALL CREST WITHOUT MOVABLE CONTROLS

General

A fixed overfall c r e s t o r weir controls the water level a t a given height

within relatively n a r r o w l i m i t s .

This height and the c r e s t length,

B(t), a r e

determined in relation to the discharge to be passed over the weir c r e s t and to

the control requirements ( e . g. maximum permissible level fluctuations, etc. ).

FIGURE 6. 2 ( a ) and (b).

c a n a l s (Spain).

Duckbill w e i r s on distribution

The n a r r o w e r the tolerances, the g r e a t e r m u s t be the c r e s t length.

In d i s t r i -

bution channels the available width i s usually insufficient to accommodate a

t r a n s v e r s a l weir with a c r e s t long enough to p a s s the full supply discharge within
the level tolerances.

Usual tolerances a r e in the o r d e r of 5 to 10 c m .

These conditions have led to the development of: the diagonal w e i r ; the
duckbill weir; and the Z-type o r other specially shaped w e i r s .

Of these the

duckbill weir i s the m o s t commonly used because i t i s , under m o s t conditions,

the m o s t economical one, providing optimum discharge capacity in relation to
length of s t r u c t u r e and amount of construction m a t e r i a l .

F i g u r e s 6 - 2 to 6-4

show different types of duckbill w e i r s .

FIGURE 6 - 3 . - Small duckbill weir installed in a concrete flume distribution system, (Kiti Dam P r o j e c t ,
Cyprus).

The g r e a t advantage of fixed weir c r e s t s i s t h e i r simplicity in construction

and maintenance and their reliability in operation.
impossible.

Tampering i s a l m o s t

However their ability to t r a p silt so efficiently prohibits t h e i r u s e

where i r r i g a t i o n water i s permanently charged with silt.

If the silt load i s small

o r t e m p o r a r y , siltation can be avoided by providing a flush opening in the weir a t

the floor of the s t r u c t u r e .

The provision of a gate i s advantageous on l a r g e r

FIGURE 6 - 4 ( a ) . - Double duckbill w e i r f o r 480 l / s

d i s c h a r g e capacitv.

FIGURE 6 - 4 (b).
capacity.

Duckbill w e i r f o r 160 l / s d i s c h a r g e

s t r u c t u r e s t o enable evacuation of the u p s t r e a m r e a c h .

Hydraulic Design
The following d i a g r a m s and c a l c u l a t i o n s a r e d e r i v e d f r o m the handbook
" L e s o u v r a g e s d ' u n petit r e s e a u d ' i r r i g a t i o n " p r e p a r e d by the Societe G e n e r a l e
d e s Techniques H y d r o - A g r i c o l e s (SOGETHA) a n d published u n d e r the s e r i e s
"Techniques R u r a l e s e n Afrique" by the F r e n c h G o v e r n m e n t in 1 9 7 0 .
The calculation of the d i s c h a r g e o v e r a diagonal o r a duckbill w e i r o r a
Z - t y p e w e i r i s b a s e d on the f o r m u l a :

-3
where

d i s c h a r g e coefficient

B(t)

length of c r e s t

w a t e r depth, i. e . h e a d on the c r e s t ( s e e F i g u r e 6-5)

(crt)

FIGURE 6-5. - D i a g r a m of flow o v e r diagonal, duckbill

o r Z-type w e i r s .

The valu& of m depends on the shape of the c r e s t a n d t h e angle of 6

For

l a r g e r than 45'

the v a l u e s shown i n F i g u r e 6-6 a r e u s e d :

Diogond weir
Unrounded
crest: m

Crest rounded
I I ~ B ~ ~ ~ U Im:
I I :

Duckbitl weir

Z type weir

0.34

0.32

0.31

0.38

0.36

0.34

FIGURE 6-6. - Determination of coefficient ' m ' f o r angles

of H g r e a t e r than 45O.
The graph, F i g u r e 6-7, can be u s e d to d e t e r m i n e the d i s c h a r g e p e r m e t r e
of c r e s t and f r o m this the total length of c r e s t r e q u i r e d .
F i g u r e 6-8 i s an aid f o r determining the angle
length.

If

f r o m the r e q u i r e d c r e s t

i s below 45O i t i s recommended, f o r r e a s o n s of economy, that an

oC

inclined w e i r be u s e d r a t h e r than a duckbill w e i r .

a duckbill w e i r i s p r e f e r a b l e .

Above 45O u p to 70 the u s e of

The end of the duckbill w e i r c r e s t i s fixed a t

40 c m independent of the bottom width of the canal.

If the t i p of the duckbill i s

shaped s e m i - c i r c u l a r with a d i a m e t e r of 40 c m , the c r e s t length will be

approximately 60 c m .
Example:
Canal d i s c h a r g e

150'1/s

side s l o p e s

1.5: 1

bottom width

0.50 m

w a t e r depth

0.40 m

Given

Maximum w a t e r l e v e l variation

i.e.
c r e s t height

(4

0. 13 m ,

0 . 1 3 m for

0.40

Available t r a n s v e r s a l c r e s t width

0. 13

(t)

150l/s
=

0.27 m

1.30 m

0 . 3 8 (rounded c r e s t , diagonal type )

0 . 3 6 (rounded c r e s t duckbill t y p e )

( f r o m F i g u r e 6-7)

D i s c h a r g e ( I / s ) p e r m e t r e of c r e s t length

FIGURE 6-7. - G r a p h f o r determination of d i s c h a r g e o v e r

diagonal, duckbill, o r Z-type w e i r s (84).

F r o m F i g u r e 6-7

80 l / s p e r m e t r e of c r e s t (diagonal type)

75 l / s p e r m e t r e of c r e s t (duckbill type)

total length r e q u i r e d (diagonal type)

F r o m F i g u r e 6-8 the inclination of the w e i r

i s found t o b e equal t o 47

T h e r e f o r e t h i s would call for a duckbill w e i r r a t h e r than f o r a diagonal one.

Required length f o r a duckbill w e i r :

FIGURE 6-8.
and of d

(84).

Determination of [ f r o m known B and S

Section 0-0

Section A-A

Ronqe of suitoble dimensions for copocities

up to 5 0 0 L/s

= 0 . 2 0 t o 1.00

=
=

y,

yCItl=

0.20 to 1.00

0.10 t o 0.70lupstreom woter depth)

0 . 0 5 to O.IS(difference between upstream
woter level ond crest level)

= 0.10 to 0 . 6 0

= 0.15 (thickness of weir)

f =

(width of ovoiloble upstreom woter surface)

B(t)C (crest length) = C X

o<

&

(ongle between weir crest and cross section

Plon

FIGURE 6-9. - Standard diagonal check weir for capacities

up to 500 l / s (84).

S e c t ~ o n E-F

Offtake

canal-

S e c t ~ o n C-D

F A 0

ICID

DUCKBILL

WEIR

P r c j e c t , R e g ~ o n ,Country
Agency for A g r o r ~ a n R e f o r m , C ~ c ~ l y
Secrlon

A-8

ltoly
F ~ g u r e N o 6-10

+I

-----I

Section 8-8

Section A - A
Range of suitable dimensions for copocitlCs
up to \ooo c/s

6 = 0 . 2 0 to 1.00
f = 0.20 to 1.00

4 = 0 10 to 0.70 (upstream woter depth)

IfCrf,= 0 0 5 to 0.15 (difference between upstream woter

level and crest level)

3

: 0.10

t o 0.60

= 0.15 (thickness of weir)

= (width of ovoiloble upstream woter surface)

L = (tot01 lenqth of crest :0.40 2 A )
f

o< :(angle

between weir crest ond cross section

of chonnel)

m = 1.5 f

- 1.5s + 0.20

k = A sinw
p

:2 . 5 f

s f

FIGURE 6- 1 1 . - Standard duckbill weir design, type IqGiraudet"

for capacities up to 1000 l / s.

030

3 80

1.00

Plan

t
. - -I . . . . . . . . .

0 15

-5 $ 5

per running metre

3
\

0 59

0-44

I
Cross

section

--'fj0 15

lb " ' /

5 per running metre

Concrete

= 7 . 3 cbm

Iron

= 25:5 kg

F A 0

ICID

DUCKBILL W E I R

FOR 2 6 0 to 280 t / s
tr

.
Project

CAPACITY

, Region , Country
Spoin

Detail A-A
Detail 6-6

Figure No

6 -12

F r o m F i g u r e 6-8

a le i r s )
Design E x a m p l e ( ~ i a ~ o n W
F i g u r e 6-9 shows a s i m p l e but efficient design f o r i n situ c o n s t r u c t i o n of a
diagonal w e i r i n u n r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e .

Design E x a m p l e s (Duckbill W e i r )
S t a n d a r d d e s i g n s f o r duckbill w e i r s have b e e n developed in s e v e r a l c o u n t r i e s
of the M e d i t e r r a n e a n B a s i n .

F i g u r e 6-10 shows a type u s e d in Sicily.

D i m e n s i o n s of c a p a c i t i e s between 110 a n d 370 l / s a r e given in the d r a w i n g .

w e i r i s u s u a l l y combined with one o r m o r e f a r m o u t l e t s .

The

They a r e u s u a l l y

provided with m a s k m o d u l e s but a l s o s i m p l e m e t a l g a t e s a r e in u s e .

The

s t r u c t u r a l design i s adapted to lined c a n a l s .

R Bouillon e t a l . (55) r e p o r t on a duckbill w e i r of 24 m total c r e s t length.
With a h e a d of only 8 c m the w e i r d i s c h a r g e s 1, 100 l / s .
F i g u r e 6- 11 shows a s t a n d a r d d e s i g n developed by the SOGETHA (84) f o r
l i n e d and unlined c h a n n e l s .

It can be c o n s t r u c t e d e i t h e r in c o n c r e t e o r m a s o n r y .

D i m e n s i o n s shown a r e f o r u n r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e .
F i g u r e 6-12 i l l u s t r a t e s a design a s developed in Spain.
1/
Check Slab S t r u c t u r e (Mexico)-

6. 3. 5
6. 3 . 5 . 1

General
The check slab s t r u c t u r e

" Based

d e s c r i b e d h e r e i n , developed and in u s e in

on i n f o r m a t i o n provided by J . A n s h e r t o Manobe Galvan, D e p a r t m e n t of

S m a l l I r r i g a t i o n , S e c r e t a r i a t of H y d r a u l i c R e s o u r c e s , Mexico.

Mexico, i s an example of a check which controls depths and velocities in r e a c h e s

of field l a t e r a l s o r ditches which have steep g r a d e s , t o enable water to be
delivered to the field through siphons ( ~ i ~ u 6-13).
r e

The slab i s adapted for

u s e in lined channels and can a l s o be used a s a water m e a s u r e m e n t device.

FIGURE 6- 13. - Check slabs in a channt . etch with

s t e e p grade. (State of St. Luis Potosi, Mexico)

6.3.5.2

Structural and design c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

The check slab s t r u c t u r e consists of a slab made of concrete, wood,

o r other m a t e r i a l s and placed a t convenient i n t e r v a l s a c r o s s the lined channel

sections in r e a c h e s of steep g r a d e s .

Each check slab o p e r a t e s a s an independent

spillway where heads depend on the geometry of the slab.

T h e r e i s an orifice a t the lower p a r t of the check slab d r o p to allow
drainage and evacutation of sediments.

The thickness of the slab m a y be 5, 10 o r 15 c m .

The height of the

The section of the channel

slab above the channel bed may b e 20, 30 o r 40 cm.

m a y be rectangular, o r trapezoidal with side slopes of 1 : 1

F o r smooth flow and to facilitate operation of the spillway, a minimum
w a t e r cushion of 10 c m a t the b a s e of each check slab i s required.
conditions, the spacing,

Under these

of check s l a b s (in m e t r e s ) will be given by the

X,

following formula (where s i s the grade):

FIGURE 6-14.

- Determination of spacing of check s l a b s .

Thus, for example where H( slab) of the check s t r u c t u r e i s 0.30 m, the spacing
will be :

0.30

- 0.10
S

0.20
S

(m)

F r o m t h i s X can be determined f o r different g r a d e s :

X
(metres)

S i m i l a r tables can be p r e p a r e d f o r other values of H(slab)

Application a s water m e a s u r i n g device

6.3.5.3

I t h a s been proved by experiments that the check slab s t r u c t u r e can

a l s o be u s e d a s a w a t e r m e a s u r i n g device by designing i t according t o the
following formulae:

where Q
B(t)
H

d i s c h a r g e of the canal, in m 3 / s

width of spillway slab a c r o s s the a x i s of flow,

in m e t r e s

head on the spillway c r e s t , m e a s u r e d a t a distance

not l e s s than five t i m e s i t s approximate value
u p s t r e a m f r o m the check slab s t r u c t u r e , i n m e t r e s

f o r a trapezoidal section

will b e e x p r e s s e d a s

0.5 t 0.04

H(crt)
H(slab) T( slab)

and f o r a rectangular section:

=

r"

0.6 t 0.01

H( c r t )

H(slab) T( slab)

where:
H(slab)

T(slab)

6.3.5.4

height of the check slab above the bed of the

channel, in m e t r e s

thickness of slab,

in m e t r e s .

Numerical example
Design a suitable check slab s t r u c t u r e f o r a canal with r e a c h e s
having g r a d e s of 0.0005 (length 100 m , joints a t 30 m i n t e r v a l ),
90 m ) and 0.02 (length 90 m ) a s shown in F i g u r e 6-15.

0.005 (length

A s s u m e a trapezoidal

section with side slope 1 : 1, channel bed width 0. 30 m , lined with plain concrete,

discharge 0.074 rn3/ s and N (roughness coefficient) = 0.01 6

Reoch A

FIGURE 6-15.

Reoch B

Reoch C

Data for design of check slab s t r u c t u r e s .

Using the above data, and Manning's Formula, the depths' and
velocities in the three reaches of the canal will be:

Reach

y (water depth
of channel ( m ) )

Hydraulic conditions of the canal in r e a c h e s B and C show relatively

high velocities and, consequently, insufficient depth for l a t e r a l irrigation with
siphons.

One solution to the problem would be reduction of the grade and intro-

duction of falls in the channel bed.

An alternative i s to maintain the g r a d e s but to

introduce check slabs a t appropriate distances.

The l a t t e r has been found

economical in Mexico.
While reach A has favourable hydraulic conditions and needs no check
structures, i t i s essential to apply such s t r u c t u r e s to reaches B and C.
Reach B
Assume a check slab with H(slab) = 0.30 m and T(slab) = 0.05 m ,
then the maximum spacing of check slabs will be :

and

(t)

0.9 m .

This spacing m a y eventually be reduced to 30.00 m and s o the check s l a b s may be

located a t the construction joints of the concrete lining.

Now

and if

(4

where

$rfi

0;30 m and T(slab)

Then

1.477

For

0.074 and

7.885 H

0.05 m

(4

Therefore

This equation i s solved by t r i a l s , a s s u m i n g different values of

H(crt),

a s shown in Table 6- 1.

being 0. 11 m , the channel will have the following c r o s s

(4

section, etc.
B

*(ws)

0.30 m

--

1.12 m

TABLE

6-1

col 4

+5

Reach C

In t h i s r e a c h the c r o s s section of the channel will be the s a m e a s in

r e a c h B, the difference being the spacing of check s l a b s due to the different slope.
Thus the m a x i m u m spacing in t h i s c a s e will be :

The hydraulic dimensions of t h i s r e a c h will be the s a m e a s above

except that s = 0.02.

6.4
6.4.1

CHECKS REGULATED B Y STOP PLANKS (DROP BARS) OR FLASHBOARDS

General
Stop planks o r d r o p b a r s a r e used in checks with capacities l e s s than

1 . 5 m 3 I s , where operational changes a r e infrequent.

The water p a s s e s freely

over the top of the planks which a r e fixed horizontally, in slots, in the s t r u c t u r e .
Flashboards should not be used in openings g r e a t e r than 1.5 m wide o r with water
depths over 2 m .

The guides o r grooves should be vertical.

F o r stop planks of

thicknesses above 5 c m the groove design shown in F i g u r e 6- 16 i s recommended.

Headed anchors welded to

ongle; for dio. and length,

-lct

-,

Lonper leg of ongle

L,

..

fi

n
U

All dimensions in inches

Stop plank
thickness

Dimensions

Angle for
groove

Weight
p e r ft

1
2-

-2

1
2-x2

3
-

x2-x2 16

-43

x2-x2 16

Stop plank grooves (54).

FIGURE 6- 16.

x 4

,,

Anchor

3. 62

83 dia.

x 4

5.60

-1 dia..

x 5

5.60

21 dia.

x 5

F i g u r e s 6-17, 6-18 and 6-19 show simple concrete check s t r u c t u r e s for

s m a l l flows.

e ~ n ~ o nP U~ I IeO J ~
P Y ~ O ~ W O pOu n P ~ I I * l~l v 6 n w o q I .q p l n o w 1111 4 1 1 0 3

101s 40 *.PIS
p u n s p u e u o O ~ U O J O-+
~ ) ~ e d w plnoqs e p ~ n o q q s q j
pOpUOLUUlO3OJ #I U!OlIOq V i 4 I P UDeJ4SU*OP "1 d o l d l l W O ( l
1e.11 ~ Y I S J O J U I ~a J q 101
~ pe4n~1)sqns
e q l n w UJOJ etJ) YO OIqOBMD OJD lDq4 SJDq UOJl

elf

. ..
nY3

UWCO@

eel=

1;

19 J
MI

I)(;Un39
PA
J O ~d n3 c

I W o S El
/ D l d / W JO l)UflOY/V O I D Y I X O J ~ ~ V

, C C D ~ , C SI :a6 I
,CCO<Qax,*
IIP*PO*H
,FCOZEI ~ , Ea r a *IID**PIS
,csor,gar,sz I
IOADJ6 U J O d +
p u o e *IJW a
~ u o w e o4 ~ o . i 1
e ~ n 4 l lP~I P U ~ U I Y ~ O ~ ~ Y

S311UN Wfk9 11383N03

FIGURE 6-19.

- Ordinary flashboard check.

1I
Drop B a r Check Structure (Victoria, Australia) -

6.4. 2
6.4.2.1

General
Check s t r u c t u r e s f o r irrigation canals a r e currently being standardized in Victoria, Australia.

Under the prevailing conditions a trapezoidal weir

fitted with drop b a r s , a s shown in F i g u r e 6- 20, h a s proved an effective and

economical m e a n s f o r controlling velocity a t o r below 60 c m p e r second.

The

s t r u c t u r e maintains minimum water levels and depths of water for delivery

through f a r m outlets and minimizes l o s s of water when r a i n c a u s e s a shutdown of irrigation.

Under suitable conditions and with appropriate

modifications such checks may a l s o be used to m e a s u r e flows with a reasonable

degree of accuracy.

I'

Based mainly on information f r o m the Australian National Committee of ICID.

Prwa-t plmr* am4

diopraghm

CROS SECTION

LONGITUDINAL SECTION

FIGURE 6-20.

Typical dkop b a r check structure (52).

Design considerations
These checks a r e construtted with C6. trapezoidal shape to fit the canal
c r o s s section; this i s then divided bf p i e r s

which m a y be p r e - cast

into

openings that a r e blocked by easily Handled timber d r o p b a r s , to the required

c r e s t height.

The normal width of bpening between p i e r s i s 183 cm.

This

width gives an easily handled b a r of 196 cm length with a c r o s s section of 10 cm

height and 7 c m width.
The limit of discharge for these checks i s 1,400 11s per 183 cm
opening, but i t i s m o r e usual to design for 850 11s per opening.
Downstream from the concrete apron, r i p - r a p i s placed on the bed,
and b a t t e r s f o r some 6 m .

The r i p - r a p on the bed i s dished in shape.

End sills

a r e not provided a t the end of the concrete apron.

There i s some problem in adapting the trapezoidal regulator to small
channels.

F o r regulation, checks should be evenly spaced where possible, and

a t such intervals that when a channel i s shut down, the wedge volumes a r e small
enough to be successively passed down the channel within a reasonable period.
Spclting of checks must be such that the d r o p in water level i s generally l e s s than

one m e t r e and the minimum water depth immediately downstream i s 30 cm.

F o r d r o p s in water level of above 30 c m a s many openings a s possible
should be used to p a s s the flow, provided that the minimum depth of water below
the outer openings i s 60 cm.
F o r s m a l l drops in water level, the water s t r e a m s through the openings and the velocity energy i s not dissipated in the drop.

In this c a s e the length

of c r e s t spilling the water should not be g r e a t e r than the channel water width
downstream, and water should not fall d i r e c t on to the concrete batter ; i t should
have a water cushion of some 60 c m in depth.

The average channel velocity a t

the'downstream end of the s t r u c t u r e i s limited to 60 c m p e r second.

The s t r u c t u r e becomes v e r y l a r g e relative to capacity, particularly
when i t i s r e q u i r e d to provide a l a r g e d r o p in water level, but with p r e - c a s t units
i t i s still fairly econdmical.
Ratings f o r calculation and m e a s u r e m e n t

6.4.2.3

Because the previously used "Gibson" formula was considered to be

insufficiently a c c u r a t e and because of the i n c r e a s e d need to u s e d r o p b a r checks
f o r flow m e a s u r e m e n t s , model t e s t s were undertaken in o r d e r t o obtain m o r e
exact ratings f o r f r e e and submerged flow f o r a variety of s t r u c t u r a l a r r a n g e ments.

The t e s t e d model check had openings of 61 c m width.

Ratings w e r e

based on the total u p s t r e a m head applied t o the full c r e s t length.

The t e s t s showed that, for consistent and accurate r e s u l t s , special
attention m u s t be given t o the condition of the top b a r and, f o r f r e e flow w e i r s , to
aeration of the nappe.

It was found that if the top u p s t r e a m edge of the c r e s t

d r o p b a r became rounded to 12 m m radius, the discharge could be i n c r e a s e d by

10%.

F o r m o r e a c c u r a t e measurement, i t i s recommended that a m e t a l plate

with s h a r p edge be fixed to the u p s t r e a m face of the top t i m b e r b a r s .

Under f r e e weir flow, non-aeration of the overfall nappe may i n c r e a s e
the coefficient of discharge by up to 7%.
w e r e tested.

Different methods of providing aeration

The s i m p l e s t a r r a n g e m e n t suggested is the fixing of 7 . 5 c m x 3 c m

t i m b e r wedge deflector s t r i p s t o the drop b a r guides, ( F i g u r e 6-21 (b) ).

The

other method is t o u s e an open m i l d s t e e l section, with a slotted inside face, a s

I ( a ) Port longitudinal section of

typical structure
( b ) and (c) Plan view of aeration arrangements
( d Dipstick measurement of total head
(el , ( f ) and (9) Pier nose arrangements
( i Timber drop bars
(ii) Drop bar guide
(iii) Dsflector strip
(iv) Slotted steel guide aerator
( v ) Average run-up on dipstick
(vi) Sharp upstream edge

FA 0

DROP

- ICID

B A R STRUCTURE

Project, Region, Country

Victoria, Austrolio
Fi,gure No. 6- 21

the drop b a r guide, ( F i g u r e 6-21 ( c ) ).

A s well a s these two important f a c t o r s , the pier shape, position,
number of openings in the s t r u c t u r e and number of d r o p b a r s i n s e r t e d (i. e . c r e s t
height) a l s o affect the rating.

Thus i t was found n e c e s s a r y to p r e p a r e s e p a r a t e

ratings for t h r e e different s t r u c t u r a l designs because of differing p i e r nose

arrangements:

23 cm thick concrete pier with a mild steel flat plate and d r o p b a r

r e (e) )
slot a t the u p s t r e a m edge of the pier, ( ~ i ~ u 6-21

23 c m thick concrete p i e r with square front face, except for 2.5 cm

chamfers on the edges, and drop b a r slot 33 cm in f r o m the u p s t r e a m
edge

present standard,(Figure 6-21 (f) )

30 c m thick concrete p i e r with u p s t r e a m edge rounded to a 15 cm

radius fofiowed immediately by the drop b a r slot, ( F i g u r e 6-21 ( g ) ).

With each s t r u c t u r a l design, different ratings were a l s o found to be

required for multi-opening s t r u c t u r e s , a s ratings differed between e x t r e m e outer
and inner openings and these in turn differed f r o m single opening s t r u c t u r e s .
Separate ratings were a l s o found to be required for inner openings
with six b a r s o r m o r e in place ( c r e s t height approximately 60 cm) and with five
bars or less.
The various ratings a r e close for low heads, but for heads f r o m 30 cm
up to 76 c m a s tested, t h e r e i s a variation f r o m 670 up to 1170 between and within
ratings f o r different s t r u c t u r e a r r a n g e m e n t s .
The multiple opening trapezoidal check i s the c u r r e n t standard used.
F o r accurate m e a s u r e m e n t this s t r u c t u r e r e q u i r e s t h r e e tables, one for extreme
outer openings and two f o r inner openings related to number of drop b a r s in place.
If the top d r o p b a r s have s h a r p u p s t r e a m edges, f r e e flow has proper aeration,
a dipstick ( s e e below) i s used for u p s t r e a m total head m e a s u r e m e n t and the
downstream gauge i s correctly located for submerged flow.
ratings a r e considered to have a maximum probable e r r o r of

The model t e s t

+ 2.5 70.

A detailed s e t of t a b l e s f o r f r e e and submerged flow and different

p i e r and bay a r r a n g e m e n t s i s given in a r e p o r t "Rating of D r o p B a r Structures"
by C. Kirkham, September 1967.

This r e p o r t a l s o s e t s out r e q u i r e m e n t s for

accurate measurement.
6.4.2.4

F r e e flow w e i r formula
The t a b l e s f o r f r e e flow w e i r s over d r o p b a r r e g u l a t o r s w e r e plotted,
and an a v e r a g e curve was interpolated and r e l a t e d t o the b a s i c weir formula:

discharge in 11s

full c r e s t length of opening in c m

H(crt)

total head in c m

coefficient related to head a s given below.

where, Q
B(t)

The coefficients C calculated f o r an a v e r a g e rating w e r e a s follows:

This rating i s within - 5 0/0 of the rating'tables f o r the c u r r e n t

standard s t r u c t u r e f o r heads up to 76 cm.

It a g r e e s within s i m i l a r l i m i t s f o r the

o t h e r two s t r u c t u r e a r r a n g e m e n t s , except at heads over 60 cm the difference i s

up to 7 % in s o m e c a s e s .

6.4.2.5

Submerged flow formula

The submerged flow r a t i n g s w e r e related to a coefficient C1 in the
formula :

where H

i s the total u p s t r e a m head m e a s u r e d to the top of the d r o p b a r s and

HDR i s the difference between w a t e r l e v e l s u p s t r e a m and downstream, both

m e a s u r e d in feet.
The coe'fficient C1 v a r i e s f r o m 0.58 t o 0.72 over the range of subm e r g e n c e and different s t r u c t u r e a r r a n g e m e n t s tested, and i s s m a l l e s t a t 40 %
submergence, where submergence =

H(crt) - H(dr) ,
H(crt)

The C1 values w e r e

plotted against the submergence f i g u r e s and a n a v e r a g e C1 rating interpolated a s

follows :

70 submergence

10

20

The average rating i s within

regulator and
6.4.2.6

+ 770

30

+ 5%

40

50.

60

70

80

90

of the various ratings for the c u r r e n t standard

to+- 5% of the other a r r a n g e m e n t s .

Measurement of head
The common method of m e a s u r i n g u p s t r e a m head i s the u s e of a dipstick held vertically on top of the d r o p b a r .

The head i s taken a s the depth of

w a t e r !!run-up" on the b a r a s shown in F i g u r e 6-21 (d).

This method i s liable to

e r r o r s if the dipstick' i s not of a standard width and i s not held vertically.

The

w a t e r height should be taken to the m e a n of the fluctuations in run-up and not to

the highest w a t e r m a r k .
The model t e s t s indicated that the use of a 5 c m dipstick i s a s a t i s factory method of obtaining head and gives a head v e r y close to the total head a s
indicated below:
.dipstick reading

19 c m

31.4 c m

46.5 c m

61.1 c m

75.5 cm

total head

18.5

30.6

45.7

61.0

76. 3

Because of this, the total head was used a s a b a s i s for the rating tables.
The head m a y a l s o be r e a d f r o m staff gauges s e t some 3 m u p s t r e a m
and close to the side of the channel.
F o r submerged flow conditions, the head difference between u p s t r e a m

and downstream water levels i s taken f r o m staff gauges s e t u p s t r e a m and downstream.

The downstream gauge in the model t e s t s was placed immediately
downstream of the s t r u c t u r e behind the p i e r in s t i l l water.

This location i s not

possible with some trapezoidal regulators and the t e s t s indicated that a staff
gauge placed some 4 5 m downstream, close to the side of the channel in a back
flow section and facing downstream against the back flow, would give a close
reading.

6.5
6.5.1

CHECKS EQUIPPED WITH HAND OPERATED GATES

General
Gated checks a r e commonly used in channels where water level
adjustment i s r e q u i r e d m o r e frequently o r where the higher cost, compared
to stop-logs a r e justified

(e. g. saving of labour).

These checks a r e usually

fitted with hand-operated slide gates ranging f r o m simple wooden s h u t t e r s to

hand-wheel noprated adjustable orifice type gates ( F i g u r e 6- 22).

FIGUdE 6-22.

Hand operated check gate ( F e r . ,ra,

Italy).

e wall, reinf. not shown

Extend c u t o f f
concrete as di

concrete deck

C.L. Pipe hondroil post connections.

Pipe hondrail post connection details

(Handroil requlred when

H,k

is qreoter

than 16 inches)
Assembly pole guides
w ~ t h flotheod bolls

Section A-A

CONCRETE

CHECK

The s i l l of the gate i s usually made level with the bottom of the channel.

Slide

gates a r e usually operated a s an orifice with the exception of w e i r , g a t e s , such a s

the Romijn gate ( s e e 6.5.7 and Chapter 7 ) which can be used a s an overfall weir.
Also, if checks a r e combined with a d r o p in the channel bed the gate may be
designed a s an overflow weir.

The design of gates i s discussed in detail in

Volume 111 of this Handbook, while in this section discussion will concentrate on
the functional a s p e c t of gates and the design of the supporting s t r u c t u r e .
Checks may be stationary o r portable.

A l a r g e variety of conventional

stationary checks exist, each of which have been developed to suit a given s e t of
conditions.

These checks can be dimensioned a s outlined in section 6.2.

few examples a r e described in 6.5.2 to 6.5.4 below and portable checks a r e

mentioned in 6.5.5.
1/

Standard Check (USBR)-

6.5.2
6.5. 2.1

General design f e a t u r e s
This check h a s been developed by the USBR for u p s t r e a m water level
control f o r maximum discharge capacities f r o m 300 l / s up to 2,400 l / s .
The structure, ( F i g u r e 6- 23), consists of:

an u p s t r e a m approach of 3 m (10 feet) with gradually widening transition

f r o m the width of the n o r m a l channel section to the width of the check
( a c r o s s the axis of flow) and with the bed sloping down to the c r e s t of the
check

a check wall with guides f o r a slide gate (the slide gate i s not shown in the
drawing), and wing walls

a middle section with a p r e - c a s t concrete deck with handrail on the downs t r e a m side

downstream wing walls and a 3 m (10 ft) transition returning back to n o r m a l

channel section.

I' See a l s o under drops.

TABLE 6-2
Dimensions of Standard Check (USBR)
Slide gate
Str.
No:

Max.

.Standard dimension

Width
Heighdl H ( f r a m e )

Q
11s ft3/s

in

B~~

ywk)

L(str) B(str)top

X(vhr)

L
1

E s t i m a t e d Quantities
(

ft

T(ww)
~ T~( ) 4 ~ T(CHW) Concrete
Tcoff
3
in
in
m

Reinf.
steel

Misc.
metal

kg

kg

283

10

36 x 12

31 0"

1411 41 6"

101 6"

24"

6'

2.1

150

30

425

15

36x18

31

2011 41 6"

121 0"

51 6"

24"

2.5

170

90

595

21

36 x 24

735

26

36 x 30

595

21

792

990

on

31 o w

21 2"

51 0"

131 6"

61 3"

24"

2.9

195

100

31

21 8"

61 0"

151

on

71 0"

21 6"

4.5

245

110

48 x 18

4' 0"

131 3"

61 2"

24"

2.7

185

95

28

48 x 24

41

ow

21 3"

51

ott

141 9"

6111"

24"

3.1

210

105

35

48 x 30

41 0"

21 9"

61 0"

161 3"

71 8"

21 6"

4.7

260

110

1190 42

48x36

41 0"

31 3"

71

OH

171 9"

51 7"

21 6"

5.7

300

130

35

60 x 24

51 0"

21 3"

51

ott

151 9"

71 5"

24"

3.3

220

125

10

1220 4 3

60x30

51

21 9"

61 0"

171 3"

51 511

21 6~

5.0

280

145

11

1190 42

72x24

61 o w

21 311 51 011

161 9"

7111"

24"

' 6

3.4

240

125

ow

2111 41 6"

II

990

OH

L 1 ~ h e na gate of specified height i s not available a gate with the next height available m a y be used with
appropriate f r a m e height.

The whole s t r u c t u r e i s of reinforced concrete except the gate.

Transitions a r e in e a r t h but the bed i s protected by a l a y e r of c o a r s e gravel.
The e s s e n t i a l dimensions of the check a r e given in Table 6- 2 f o r 6
different standard s t r u c t u r e s .
follows.

Size of s t r u c t u r e and elkvation i s determined a s

The c r e s t i s s e t s o that the top of the check wall (adjacent to the gate)

is a t control w a t e r level.

This i s the level to be held by the check and i s usually

equal to the n o r m a l level of the w a t e r s u r f a c e a t the check f o r design discharge.

F o r a known d i s c h a r g e ' Q 1 a s t r u c t u r e i s selected f r o m Table 6-2 and i t s c r e s t
( a t elevation B in F i g u r e 6-23) is s e t s o that the top of the check wall i s a t control
water level.
E x c e s s i v e flow can p a s s over the concrete check wall.
Numerical example
Given
Elevation

575 l / s

310.25 m

45 c m

y1

a s s u m e n o r m a l water surface =

control w a t e r surface
Refer to Table 6-2.

control water surface

310.25

0.45

310.70 m

T h e r e i s no s t r u c t u r e number for a Q of 575 l / s , s o

Q = 21 f t 3 / s = 595 11s. S t r u c t u r e s Nos 3 and 5 both

3
Select s t r u c t u r e No 5 because i t h a s a
have a maximum discharge of 21 ft / s .

s e l e c t the next highest,

working head (h(wk)).which m o r e n e a r l y suits the given canal section and i t h a s

l e s s concrete than s t r u c t u r e No 3.
Dimensions :

h(wk)

21 inches

53cm

ElevationB

310.70-0.53

310.17 m

l leva ti on

of B m u s t not be higher than that of C )

Elevation C i s normally set 1. 5 to 3 c m lower than Elevation A to

allow for hydraulic head l o s s through the structure.

Therefore,

Elevation

C = 310.23 m.

Check Structure made of Sheet Metal

A prefabricated steel check structure i s shown in F i g u r e 6-24.
i s g l a s s coated to reduce corrosion.

The steel

The joints a r e bolted and sealed with a

special m a s t i c to help eliminate seepage.

The data given below a r e for a

122 cm (4 ft) wide opening.

Model
Number

Dimension (ft)
L F B E C

Arsa
ft

Wt.
lb

160

1075

List ~ r i c e l /
$ us

4 ft wide
4W4442

FIGURE 6-24.
dimensions.

380

Check s t r u c t u r e made of sheet metal

FIGURE 6-25. - Check constructed from prefabricated

steel parts (75).
6.5.4

Wooden Checks
Designs of small wooden checks a r e shown in Figures 6 - 2 6 and 6-27.

Shutter
.,

Recommended S i z e s
ft3/s

.^------I

91011 31011 31011 21011 31011 31611

1010"

31011 41011 21011 31011 31611

12

111011 31611 51011 21011 3lOl1 31611

16

1110" 480"

51011 21611 31011 4toll

Single wall check with side walls only for

protection of banks (65).

71011 21'611 31011 11611 21011 31011

REAR VlEW

FIGURE 6-26.

9
FRONT VlEW

Minimum dimensions in inches

FIGURE 6-27.

Double wall check (74).

The s t r u c t u r e s can be improved by adding an apron at the downstream end. Aprons

can be made of almost any convenient m a t e r i a l ranging f r o m burlap sacks to concrete.

The tables in F i g u r e s 6-26 and 6-27 give dimensions recommended for

various flow capacities o r opening widths.

The capacities for the double wall

check in Figure 6-27 range f r o m 0 to 1,000 11s.

6.5.5

Portable Checks
Often i t i s desirable to use a ditch in sections, filling sections lower downs t r e a m a s irrigation progresses.

A s e r i e s of permanent structures for this

purpose would be costly ; but a portable dam o r stop in the form of a f r a m e of

canvas, plastic o r butyl rubber, o r a metal panel that can be driven into the earth
and a c r o s s the ditch, can be used repeatedly to control flow.
applicable only to earth ditches.

These devices a r e

To permit the same control in lined systems,

slots f o r the checks can be cast into the sides of the channels a t any desired
interval.

F i g u r e s 6-28 and 6-29 show two simple designs for local manufacture.

Ditch bonk

AL

L C O ~ O Ibottom
Angle bar 4 0 x 40

Section A-A

FIGURE 6-28.,

6.5.6

Portable check for f a r m ditches (46).

Radial Gate Check

The radial gate check i s used successfully for level control purposes in the
Netherlands.

Its g r e a t advantages a r e that: the gate a c t s a s an overflow weir,

which requires l e s s frequent adjustment should the discharge of the channel

fluctuate; i t allows debris to p a s s the weir; and the gate can be lowered for
periodical cleaning of the upstream channel section.

The gate i s operated with a

portable screw-thread b a r and i s then kept in the required position by a chain on

FIGURE 6-29.

Portable canvas check, sleeve type ( 1 3 ) .

FIGURE 6-30 ( a ) .

Radial check gate

h he

Netherlands).

FIGURE 6- 30 (b).

D o w n s t r e a m view of r a d i a l g a t e check ( T h e N e t h e r l a n d s ) .

e a c h side.

(See F i g u r e s 6-30 (a) and 6-30 (b).)

L a r g e gates a r e operated by a

fixed hoisting device.

6.5.7

The Romijn Gate

The Romijn gate i s a hand-operated broad c r e s t e d weir used for: level cont r o l a t intakes t o distributing o r other subordinate channels; o r f o r level control
within a channel; o r a s a measuring device.

The gate h a s been thoroughly

laboratory t e s t e d and r a t e d for water m e a s u r e m e n t and is t h e r e f o r e discussed in

detail under Chapter 7

S t r u c t u r e s and Devices f o r Water Measurement in

Volume I1 of this Handbook.

6.6

HYDRAULICALLY AUTOMATED CHECKS (NEYRPIC)

General Structure and Application

6 . 6.1

The need f o r m o r e a c c u r a t e water level control than i s possible with handoperated check gates h a s , among other needs, l e d to the development of the
Neyrpic automatic gates.

Their operation r e l i e s entirely on the f o r c e s in the

s y s t e m itself, such a s hydrostatic t h r u s t and the weight of the device.

The devices

to be discussed h e r e a r e the standard AMIL, AVIS and AVIO gates.

The AMIL gate, a s shown in F i g u r e 6-31, i s designed f o r constant level
u p s t r e a m control.
leaf.

I t consists of a balanced radial gate with a float attached to the

The gate i s designed s o that the f o r c e s acting oneit position the leaf to

maintain the u p s t r e a m water level a t the height required.

With the constant level

downstream gate (AVIS) a s shown in F i g u r e 6-32 a float automatically positions the

gate leaf over the gate opening to maintain a predetermined and n e a r l y constant
level downstream.

F i g u r e 6- 33 shows the AVIO gate, a variant of the downstream

level gate, which i s placed behind an orifice type outlet.

The AVIO variant i s

required when the discharge of the supply canal i s l a r g e and the discharge to be
taken off i s small.

I t i s m o r e generally used on water offtakes that a r e controlled

f r o m the level variations of a body of water such a s a storage pond.

The choice

between the open and the orifice type gate i s solely determined by the maximum
level differential likely to occur between the u p s t r e a m and the controlled levels.
With the constant level u p s t r e a m gate the branch canal o r f a r m outlet i s placed

u p s t r e a m of the gate and with the constant level downstream gate downstream of
the gate.

(See a l s o Chapters 2 and 3 . )

FIGURE 6-31. - Typical medium s i z e u p s t r e a m constant level gate,

NEYRPIC - AMIL.
(1. Servo-tab, 2. float, 3. gate leaf, 4. hinge,
5. adjustable counterweight)

FIGURE 6-32.

Typical downstream constant level gate (NEYRPIC - AVIS)

FIGURE 6-33. - Typical downstream constant level

gate for discharge through an orifice, (NEYRPIC-AVIO).
(1. Opening, 2. gate leaf, 3 . adjustable counterweight,
4. hinge, 5. float, 6. chamber communicating with the
downstream level. )

When comparing constant level gates with conventional gates the higher
initial cost of constant level gates h a s to be weighed against i n c r e a s e d water u s e
efficiency in the entire irrigation system.

Other aspe*cts to consider a r e the

labour saving automatic operation v e r s u s the i n c r e a s e d attention n e c e s s a r y to p r e vent jamming of and tampering with the device.

Because of t h e i r relatively high

cost and susceptibility to clogging by debris, the constant level gates a r e especially
suited t o h a r d surface lined canals o r flume irrigation s y s t e m s .

F o r a choice

between u p s t r e a m and downstream control s e e Chapter 2.

6. 6.2

Range of Standard Gates Available

The information given in the following
available standard AMIL, AVIS and AVIO gates only.

indicates the range of

F o r selection of s i z e of

gate within each category the following data m u s t be known:

maximum r a t e of flow

minimum head

maximum head a t z e r o flow

maximum head a t maximum flow.

F o r design and o t h e r complementary information r e f e r e n c e should be

m a d e to the abundant information available with the manufacturers.

AMIL gates
AMIL gates a r e described by the dimension indicated by IDt, which i s
approximately the width of the water s u r f a c e , a s shown in F i g u r e

FIGURE 6-34.

6-34.

- Diagrammatic layout of AMIL gate.

The depth of water u p s t r e a m i s 0.45 D ; the gate r i s e s to a maximum of 0.225 D ;

2
the a r e a of the p a s s a g e through which the water p a s s e s i s about 0 . 2 D ; and the
a r e a of wetted section of canal immediately u p s t r e a m f r o m the gate i s 0. 35 D 2

Table 6-3 s u m m a r i s e s the m a j o r p a r a m e t e r s of s m a l l AMIL gates.

TABLE

6-3

Major P a r a m e t e r s of Small AMIL Gates

Water
depth

Type

Cross
section
(cm)

Y1
D

R
(cm)

(cm)

63

Overall
(cm)

36

85

65

63

40

95

D-100

63

45

D-110

63

D-125

(cm)

Approximate
maximum
discharge

60

70

56

71

190

50

45

70

56

80

250

106

56

50

70

56

85

330

50

118

63

56

70

56

95

420

90

56

132

71

63

100

80

106

570

D-140

90

63

150

80

71

100

80

118

770

D-160

90

71

170

90

80

100

80

132

1100

10

D 80
D 90

6. 6. 2. 2

Approximate
minimum
head l o s s a t
maximum
discharge
(cm)

(11S )

AVIS gates
AVIS gates a r e identified in t e r m s of float r a d i u s

sluice k i d t h

I,

both in c e n t i m e t r e s ( s e e F i g u r e 6-35 ( a ) ).

and bottom

Two groups of

gates a r e available, one f o r high heads and another f o r low heads.

In the
3
capacity range below one m 1 s t h e r e a r e only two different s i z e s of the high head
type available, a s shown in Table 6-4.
TABLE

6-4

Major P a r a m e t e r s of Small High Head AVIS Gates

AVIS
high
head
gate
No
(r/c)

Max.
head
( cm)

O v e r a l l dimensions
(cm)
A

Sluice

(4

Jrn

9058

40

106

711132 205 165 155 110 127 78 112 71

50

132 121 180

561106 164 135 121

90 102 62

96 138.5

Approx.
max.
discharge
(l/s)

Appr ox:
min. head
loss at
maximum
discharge
(cm)

800

1400

downstream level

Sluice dimensions

- Diagrammatic layout of AVIS gate

from 56/106 to 90/190.
FIGURE 6-35 (a).

6.6.2.3

AVIO g a t e s

AVIO g a t e s a r e identified in t e r m s of float

outside r a d i u s in c m and

sluice c r o s s sectional a r e a s ( h x L ) in s q u a r e d e c i m e t e r s ( s e e F i g u r e 6-35(b) ).

A s an example the float r a d i u s and sluice c r o s s section of a n AVIO 56/25 gate a r e
3
56 cm and 25 dm 2 respectively.
In the capacity range f r o m z e r o to one m / s
t h e r e a r e 6 gate s i z e s available f o r high h e a d s and 4 for low heads a s shown in
Table 6-5.
TABLE

6-5

Major P a r a m e t e r s of Small t o Medium Size AVIO g a t e s

AVIO gate
NO.

High
head

Low
head

281 6
36/10
451 1 6
45/32
5 6/ 25
56/50
71/40
71/80
90163
90/125

O v e r a l l dimensions
(cm)
A

Max.
head
(cm)
I.

J~

85 60 65 35 50
105 75 85 45 63
135 90 100 55 80
135 90 100 55 80
165 115 130 7 0 1 0 0
165 115 130 7 0 1 0 0
210145170 90125
210 145. 170 90 125
265 180 210 110 160
265 180 210 110 160
Moximum
upstream level

>

FIGURE 6- 35 (b)

28
36
45
45
56
56
71
71
90
90.

Opening
(cm)

142
140
180
. 90
224
112
280
140
355
180

25
32
40
40
50
50
63
63
80
80

Approx.
max.
dis-

Approx.
min. head

charge

loss at
m a x . discharge

I.,

(11s)

(cm)

25
32
40
80
50
100
63
125
80
160

80
110
280
410
49 0
750
900
1350
1500
2030

14
16
20
12
26
15
33
20
40
24

Constant
downstreorn level

. - D i a g r a m m a t i c layout of AVIO gate.

FIGURE 6-36 ( a ) . - B a s i c d r a w - s t r i n g check fitted with

side wing walls and bottom cut-off f o r u s e in an unlined
ditch.

FIGURE 6- 36 (b).
unlined ditch.

Semi automatic check installed in an

6.7

SEMI AUTOMATIC TIME CONTROLLED CHECK

The u s e of t i m e controlled checks i s a s yet in the experimental stage and
t h e r e i s little field experience available.

The method i s s o far. confined to water

level control in f a r m distribution ditches.

After allowing the water t o r i s e t o a

predetermined level f o r a given t i m e an automatic gate i s r e l e a s e d , allowing the

water to flow on to the next check.

A s e m i automatic portable check f o r u s e in

unlined ditches i s shown in F i g u r e s 6-36(a) and 6-36(b).

available for lined ditches.

Similar checks a r e

The check consists of a nylon reinforced butyl

rubber dam s ~ ~ , ~ o rint ea dm e t a l f r a m e designed t o fit the ditch c r o s s section.

In the closed position the top edge of the flexible dam i s supported by a draws t r i n g threaded through g r o m m e t s .
draw-string.

A plastic covered s t e e l cable i s used for the

The draw-string i s r e l e a s e d a t the end of the d e s i r e d i r r i g a t i o n

period by a timing device.

This device, which i s commercially available, con-

s i s t s of a wind-up spring, d i r e c t reading

t i m e indicator, a tripping m e c h a n i s m

and an escapement r e l e a s e which i s operated by a small float.

mounted in a sealed casing.

The t i m e r i s

It o p e r a t e s a s soon a s water e n t e r s the ditch

immediately u p s t r e a m f r o m the check, when the timing mechanism i s tripped

into action by the r i s i n g float,
hour periods.

T i m e r s a r e available f o r two, five o r twelve

Checks have been manufactured for 30, 35, 40, 45 and 50 c m

design water depths.

Design details of the gates a r e given in Volume I11 of this

Handbook.
Humpherys (58) s t a t e s that the portable d r a w - s t r i n g check i s ideally suited
f o r u s e in an automatic cut-back furrow irrigation s y s t e m , i n a t h a t the a c r e a g e
one i r r i g a t o r can manage can be i n c r e a s e d up to ten o r m o r e times, while
keeping run-off a t a minimum.

6.8

(See a l s o Chapter 2)

CHECK STRUCTURES COMBINED WITH A FALL, DROP OR CHUTE

Sometimes, it i s n e c e s s a r y to combine check s t r u c t u r e s with falls, drops
o r chutes, particularly when i t i s n e c e s s a r y to control the u p s t r e a m w a t e r level
and i t s velocity, in addition t o achieving a reduction in grade and velocity downstream.

Examples of checks combined with falls a r e given in p a r t B of this

chapter, which follows.

6.9

GENERAL FEATURES OF DROPS (OR FALLS) AND CHUTES

Drops, o r falls, and chutes a r e control s t r u c t u r e s required a t suitable
intervals in canals o r channels which m u s t have a m o r e gentle slope than that of
the adjacent land, so a s to reduce the water level downstream, and reduce the
velocity of flow.

They also provide for the safe dissipation of surplus energy.

Generally such a control structure i s called a drop, o r a fall, when the lowering
of the water level i s accomplished over a short distance.

When the water i s

conveyed over long distances a t slopes which a r e still steep enough to maintain
high velocities (shooting flow), the structure generally used i s a chute.

Chutes

may also be used on sloping land where a single drop, o r a s e r i e s of drops (i. e.
cascades), would be m o r e expensive o r otherwise undesirable.

In the c a s e of main canals, branch canals o r sub-branch canals, which do

not directly i r r i g a t e any a r e a , the site of a drop i s determined in consideration of
the cost of canal construction, including balancing cut and fill and the cost of the
structure itself.

In the case of distributing canals, the falls a r e located so a s to

s e r v e the commanded a r e a without having to build the canal banks too high.

The

possibility of combining a drop with an intake, c r o s s regulator, measuring

device, bridge o r some other canal structure must be given due consideration, a s
such combinations often r e s u l t in economy and better regulation.

Drops a r e

usually provided with a low c r e s t wall, hump o r check gate upstream to prevent
shooting flow in the upstream approach section.

In this Handbook drops a r e subdivided into three categories: vertical drops,

inclined drops and piped drops.

Chutes a r e regarded a s being in the same

category a s inclined drops.

The choice between vertical and inclined drops i s governed mainly by the
difference in water level to be controlled by the structure, in other words, the
energy to be dissipated.

However, local conditions, traditional practices, e t c . ,

do not allow for generalization of the c r i t e r i a for this choice on a world-wide

scale.

The n e c e s s a r y drop in level and dissipation of energy can be achieved

either by one o r only a few l a r g e d r o p s o r by s e v e r a l m o r e small drops over the

s a m e distance.

The choice again i s much dependent on m a t e r i a l and labour

available and the total cost of construction.

The inclined d r o p o f f e r s the alternative of dissipating energy through a
standing wave (hydraulic jump) whereas the shock of the overfall jet of the
vertical d r o p i s dissipated.

Where the fall r e q u i r e d i s considerable the whole

s t r u c t u r e of the inclined drop r e q u i r e s l e s s m a t e r i a l and labour input than the

wall and dissipator basin s t r u c t u r e of the vertical drop.
Drops can be used to m e a s u r e the quantity of water flowing over them.

For

example, a vertical d r o p may be equipped with a calibrated weir section; and

inclined drops may be designed so a s to include a calibrated flume section.
Pipe

drops a r e often found useful and economical where a d r o p can be

sited so a s t o t r a v e r s e a road o r other crossing of an irrigation canal.

Drops in f a r m channels a r e basically of the s a m e type and function a s those
in distribution canals, the only difference being that the drops in f a r m channels
a r e s m a l l e r and simpler in construction and equipment.

They a r e m o r e often

provided with a check gate, which may be a simple slide gate o r a wooden shutter.
Both vertical drops and pipe drops may be employed, although v e r t i c a l drops a r e
the m o s t commonly used.
In the sections which follow in this chapter, e x a y p l e s of'drops and chutes
applicable to main irrigation distribution s y s t e m s a r e given in 6. 10 to 6.12, while
examples of drops for f a r m irrigation channels a r e described in 6.13.

6.10

6.10.1

VERTICAL DROPS (OR. FALLS)

General
Energy dissipation by a vertical drop i s usually r e s o r t e d to where the drop
i s small, although the interpretation of "small" differs in various p a r t s of the
world.

According to the USBR standards, a small vertical drop i s one which

does not exceed

3 ft ( say 1 m )

except where the canal i s lined with a h a r d

surface downstream of the structure, when the d r o p may be up to 6 ft ( s a y 2 m ) .

In Australian usage a small vertical drop does not exceed 1.05 m from c r e s t to
downstream bed (52).
The vertical drop structure generally incorporates a stilling basin and some
form of sill o r baffle, o r both, combined with side wall arrangements, to dissiThese structural arrangements should create a r e v e r s e rolling flow

pate the jet.

a t ground level to reduce scouring of the bed immediately downstream of the

structure.
erosion.

Rip-rap i s also usually placed on the downstream side to prevent

The dimensions of the stilling pool o r energy dissipator depend upon the

height of fall and the discharge over the crest.

Of a large number of designs available examples of t h r e e diverse designs
a r e described here, namely, the "Sarda" type used in India, the rectangular weir
drop proposed by SOGETHA (84), the standard USBR drop-check and the YMGT
type drop used in flumed systems in Japan.

In addition to these i t m u s t be pointed

out that extensive r e s e a r c h has been c a r r i e d out in the U. S. A. on small vertical

drop structures, which a r e dealt with in detail in a special r e p o r t under 'the
CUSUSWASH water management s e r i e s of Colorado State University (106).

6.10.2

Sarda Type F a l l (India)

6.10.2.1

General
The Sarda type fall i s a vertical drop structure, developed on the

Sarda Canal P r o j e c t in Uttar P r a d e s h (India) to replace the notch fall.

It has been

tested by hydraulic experiments in the laboratory and by observations on the

prototype.

It i s both simple and economical and therefore i s widely used in

Uttar Pradesh.

It i s not adapted to flow measurement but i t may s e r v e a s a

meter-fall when calibrated.

There a r e two types of Sarda fall, one with a vertical c r e s t wall for
discharges below 15 m 3 / s , and another with a trapezoidal c r e s t wall for
discharges above 15 m 3 1s. Only the vertical c r e s t type i s described herein.
At f i r s t no depressed cistern flaring in the downstream wing walls
were provided.

While the behaviour of this prototype was, on the whole, very

satisfactory, erosion of the banks downstream of the structure was noticed in

Model experiments w e r e c a r r i e d out a t Bahadarabad R e s e a r c h

some c a s e s .

Station ( ~ t t a Pr r a d e s h ) to eliminate the defects,and the design c r i t e r i a given

below follow the recommendations based on those experiments.
6.10.2.2

S t r u c t u r a l design
The Sarda fall i s a r a i s e d c r e s t fall with vertical impact (F'igure 6- 37).

It consists essentially of u p s t r e a m wing walls, a c r e s t wall, downstream

expansion and wing walls, an impervious floor and a cistern, and downstream
side and bed protection.
The u p s t r e a m wing walls a r e generally shaped a s a segment of a
c i r c l e with a radius equal to 5 to 6 H(,,t)

and subtending an angle of 60, and

c a r r i e d tangentially into the b e r m of the channel for a minimum of one m e t r e .

The foundations of the wing walls should be laid on an impervious concrete floor
( a t the level of the downstream bed), which should be extended on both sides for
the purpose.
One o r two drainage holes (15 cm width and 15 cm height) should be
provided in the c r e s t a t bed level to drain out the u p s t r e a m bed during a closure
of the canal.
The top width of the c r e s t wall, (along the axis of flow) L

L(crt)

i s given by

55

H(c-b)

(crt)

in m e t r e s

The bottom width (along the axis of flow) of the c r e s t wall, ( T ) ~ ~ ~

i s given by
where H

(T)bot

(c-b)

(min)

qc-b

in m e t r e s ,

i s the height of the c r e s t above the downstream bed level of the

canal.
The c r e s t breadth, B(crt),(across the axis of f1ow)is given by the
expression
B(crt)

B1

Y1

The downstream wings a r e kept vertical over a 1;ngth varying f r o m 5

.f 1'

, and then stepped down to their required level. They

(Hdr)
a r e then flared, i. e . the water face i s gradually sloped f r o m vertical to 1.5 : 1 o r

to 8 t i m e s

Downstreom F. S. L.

lea 0 1 5 x 0 1 5

Downstreom bed

Longitudinal section

(All dimensions ore in metres)

SARDA TYPE F A L L (U.P)

1 : 1.

If the wings be discontinued a f t e r they attain the slope of 1 : 1, the warping

m u s t be continued by the side pitching until i t h a s a slope of 1.5 : 1.

The total length of the impervious floor should be determined by
Bligh's theory, on the b a s i s of which the safe hydraulic gradients for different
kinds of soils a r e given hereunder :Type of soil

Hydraulic gradient

1
to

sand mixed with boulders

and shingles, and loamy soils

-51

-1

light sand and mud

fine micaceous sand

c o a r s e grained sand
The maximum hydraulic gradient will occur when the water i s headed
up to the top of the c r e s t on the u p s t r e a m side with no flow on the downstream
side.

The total length of floor required i s

1
H(c,b),

dependihg on the type

s(H)

of soil.

Of the total length, the minimum length of floor on the downstream side

in m e t r e s should be

2 (water depth u p s t r e a m

1.2)

drop.

The balance of

the total length may be provided under and u p s t r e a m of the c r e s t wall.

U p s t r e a m of the c r e s t the uplift p r e s s u r e s a r e m o r e than counter.
.
balanced by the weight of water standing on the floor. 4 Also the u p s t r e a m floor i s
laid below the bed u p s t r e a m of the fall and i s not subjected to flow, and thus a
thickness of 0. 3 m i s usually adequate for it.

The thickness of the floor down-

s t r e a m i s generally 0. 3 m to 0.45 m .
F o r very s m a l l f a l l s no c i s t e r n i s n e c e s s a r y , but when the hydraulic
d r o p w a r r a n t s it, t h e r e should be one, according to the following p a r a m e t e r s :

length of cistern,

depth of c i s t e r n

(bas)

[ ~ ( d r ) 'H ( c r t ) ] 2

The downstream bed pitching m a y be protected with d r y b r i c k about

20 c m thick r e s t i n g on 10 c m thick b a l l a s t over a length t h r e e t i m e s y2.
c u r t a i n wall 35 c m thick and of depth equal to

y2
2
,

subject to a m i n i m u m of

0 . 5 m , and r e s t i n g on 15 c m thick concrete, m a y be provided a t the end of the

pitching.
F o r downstream side protection a f t e r the wing walls, the side slope:
of the channel a r e pitched with 10 c m brick, ( i . e . brick on edge) for a length
The pitching should rest on a toe wall having the s a m e dimension^

equal to 3 y2.

a s the curtain wall.

6.10.2.3

Design formula
Under f r e e overfall conditions:

F o r drowned (submerged) falls:

-2

H(,)

i s determined f r o m the formula,

H(crt) =

6.10.2.4

(dr) +

H( s )

Numerical example
Data given:

B1

B2

y1

& y2

1.5 m

0.75m

(dr)

0.90 m

Maximum hydraulic gradient

Then

B(crt)

B1

Y1

--

1 in 5

1.5+0.75

2.25m

Top width of c r e s t wall

Bottom width of c r e s t wall

0.55
1. 29
2

0.62 m

0.65m

I n c r e a s e i t to 0.80 m

(4to

Radius of u p s t r e a m wing walls should be 5H

6H(crt) o r 1.80 m to 2.16 m .

A s s u m e a radius of 2 m .
F o r calculating the length of the impervious floor, the maximum hydraulic gradient i s
1 i n 5.
F l o o r length
=
5
1. 29
=
6.45 m say 6.5 m

F l o o r length required on downstream side

2(y1

1.2)

(dr)

2(0.75

+ 1.2) +

0. 90

P r o v i d e a length of 5 m on the downstream side.

The remaining length to be provided on the u p s t r e a m side and under the c r e s t

=
The thickness of the floor

6 . 5 - 5

- 0.3 m

1.5 m

for the u p s t r e a m side and under the c r e s t and

0.45 m for the downstream side up to 2.5 m f r o m the toe of the c r e s t wall.

Length of c i s t e r n

Depth of c i s t e r n

H(dr)

2.85 m

0'25

(4

2
-

LH(dr)
2
0.25 (0. 324)3

H(crt)

I3

Adopt 0.15 m

. 0.75

Length of downstream bed pitching

~ e n ~ oft hdownstream side pitching

2.25 m .

2.25 m

Rectangular Weir Drop with Raised Crest-1/

6.10.3
6. 10. 3.1

General characteristics
The rectangular weir d r o p with r a i s e d c r e s t i s a simple s t r u c t u r e for

u s e on s m a l l channels which m a y be constructed in concrete o r b r i c k m a s o n r y o r

a combination of both.

It does not m e a s u r e flow and does not s e r v e a s a check.

It r e q u i r e s little maintenance.
The design i s suitable for v e r t i c a l drops up to 7 m, for channel bed
widths of f r o m 0.2 to one m e t r e and f o r full supply depths f r o m 0. 1 to 0.7 m .
c o n s i s t s of u p s t r e a m bed and side protection, a c r e s t wall, stilling basin and
downstream bed and side protection.

(See F i g u r e 6- 38)

The width of the c r e s t ( a c r o s s the a x i s of flow) may be l e s s than the

width of the c i s t e r n by 0.10 m ,

but where t h e r e i s an offtake on the immediate

u p s t r e a m side of the d r o p the width of the c r e s t (in the c a s e of a rectangular

channel) m u s t be equal to the width of the channel.

'I

Derived from SOGETHA (84)

It

Bank

Bonk

Section A A
Bonk

Bank

I
FAO-ICID

RECTANGULAR

WEIR DROP

WITH RAISED CREST

C
Project, Region , Country

Developed by S O G E T A H (France)

Longiludinol

section

Figure No. 6-38

6. 1 0 . 3 . 2

Design p r o c e d u r e
F o r a given discharge,

width, B

and full supply depth,

Q,

hydraulic drop,

H(dr), u p s t r e a m bed

proceed a s follows:

*(dr)
150

Volume of basin,

Length of basin,

1.5

Area.of c r o s s section
of the basin along the
a x i s of flow

H(dr)

L ( Y 2 + H
(bas)

Width of basin
Depth of basin i s f r o m 0. 1 to 0. 3 m
In the c a s e of trapezoidal canal,
the width of c r e s t

B(t)

In the c a s e of a rectangular canal B (t)

Discharge formula :

where

O.lom

B1

-3

0. 36 for a v e r t i c a l u p s t r e a m face of c r e s t wall and 0.40 for

an u p s t r e a m face rounded off by the quadrant of a c i r c l e of 5 to 10 c m r a d i u s .

C r e s t water depth,

H(crt), i s determined f r o m F i g u r e 6-39 f o r a

given discharge p e r m e t r e and value of C.
Height of c r e s t over u p s t r e a m
bed level, H(b-,)

Y 1 - H

(4

Other dimensions of the s t r u c t u r e a r e a s given in F i g u r e 6-38.

6.10.3.3

Numerical example 1
Design a rectangular weir d r o p with the following data :

- Rectangular weir drop - relationship between

d i s c h a r g e p e r m e t r e width of c r e s t a n d c o e f f i c i e n t s 0. 32,
0.36 and 0.40.

FIGURE 6- 39.

H(,,.),

Volume of basin

Length of basin

C r o s s sectional a r e a of
' t h e basin along the a x i s
=
of t h e floor

--

200

1.5H

(0.50

0.80
150

( dr)

+ 0.10)

1.07 m

1.5

Width of basin

= H(bas) =

0.10m

Width of c r e s t

F r o m F i g u r e 6-39,
H(crt)

..

H(b- c )

= B(t)

(bas)

0.10

for C = 0.40 and q = 143 l / s ,

0.19 m

0.50 - 0.19

0.51 m

The design of the d r o p i s shown in F i g u r e 6-38.

6.10.3.4

Numerical example 2
Design a d r o p in a rectangular channel with the following

data :

0.80

. 1.20
=

Depth of basin

0.72 m

50

0.50
150

Volume of basin

=.

Length of basin

1.5

Depth of basin

(0.30t0.10)

0.40m

0.5

0.167m

0.75 m

0.10 m

A r e a of the basin
alongtheaxisofflow =

0.75

Width of basin

Width of c r e s t

= B(t)

F r o m F i g u r e 6.39 f o r q = 125 l / s ,

6.10.4

and m = 0.40

1/
Vertical Check-Drop (USBR) The s t r u c t u r e described h e r e i n i s used along canals having steep t e r r a i
where functions of both a check and a d r o p a r e r e q u i r e d .

The maximum

allowable fall a t each d r o p i s 3 feet, ( s a y 90 c m ) .

The s t r u c t u r e ( F i g u r e s 6-40 and 6-41) consists of: an u p s t r e a m approach
of 1 . 5 t o 3 m (5 to 10 feet) e a r t h transition gradually widening f r o m the n o r m a l
waterway section t o the width of the check-drop ( a c r o s s the a x i s of flow) and a l s o
with the bed sloping down to the c r e s t of the check; u p s t r e a m bed gravel protection; check wall with guides for a gate f r a m e o r stop-logs and wing walls; a.
s t r u c t u r e with a p r e - c a s t concrete deck with a handrail on the downstream side;
and downstream reinforced concrete floor with cut-offs on either end; o r a
stilling basin and floor with cut-offs on either end, downstream wing walls and a
1 . 5 to 3 m transition converging f r o m the width of the check to the n o r m a l w a t e r -

"Based on information

received through the US National Committee of the ICID.

precast concrete deck

concrete as directed

Place grouting mortor as

directed on top of asbestos
sheets to provide ,firm bearing surfoces for precast
concrete deck.
Section D-D

Section

8-8

bock seat and hondwheel

+"x 6"onchor bolts with square
heods, hex, nuts ond cut woshers.
Project

Plan of precosi concrete deck

14.

flothead bolts

Normal water surfoce

4 dio. x 5 headed anchors,weld to

angle.

Min. 3 onchors required

CONCRETE VERTICAL CHECK

WITH 1.5 FEET DROP

Section A-A

Gate frome guide details

Notes: Outer face transverse bars to be continuous in walls ond floors. Thickness of concrete to vary
uniformly between dimensions shown.
Ploce grouting mortar'on top of asbestos sheets to provide firm bearing surfoces for precast deck.
Gate frame height measured from centre line of gote opening.

Project, Region , Country

U S A

Figure No. 6-40

Precart concrete plonks, see &oils

$' oncha bdts a

<

project

homftr on dl edger of & n & s

10 anchor Mi wiih s q w hcod,

hex. nut, ond cut ~ S h t r
Reintorcement not shown

Plan
required

Upstream eneqy level

Reinf. not shown

Stoplog guide details

( 2 required)

FA 0

Section B-B

Longitudinal section

ICID

CONCRETE VERTICAL CHECK

WITH 3.5 FEET DROP
Project , Region, Country
U S A
Figure No. 6-41

way section with a bed sloping up f r o m the floor t o the n o r m a l bed of the
waterway downstream.

The side slopes of the downstream transition a r e in e a r t h

but the bed h a s a c o a r s e g r a v e l protection.

Overflow i s provided f o r o v e r the check walls a t the inlet on the check with
a 0.45 m (1.5 f t ) drop; however, t h e r e i s no provision f o r overflow on the check
with a 0.9 m ( 3 ft) drop.
Tables 6- 6 and 6-7 give, for a given discharge, the e s s e n t i a l dimension of
the various elements of the check- d r o p s t r u c t u r e f o r 0.45 m (1.5 ft) and
0.90 m ( 3 ft) d r o p respectively.
F o r d r o p s u p to and including 0.45 m (1.5 ft) the s t r u c t u r e shown on F i g u r e
F o r d r o p s g r e a t e r than 0.45 m ( 1 . 5 ft) and through 0.9 m ( 3 ft),

6-40 i s used.

the s t r u c t u r e shown on F i g u r e 6-41 i s used.

Numerical example 1 ,

3
25ft/s

El A

861. 10 f t (elevation of u p s t r e a m canal invert)

2.00ft

1 . 6 f t / s ( u p s t r e a m canal velocity)

El C

860.00 ft (elevation of downstream canal i n v e r t )

1 . 6 f t / s (downstream canal velocity)

1
v

H
i s equal to the difference between the u p s t r e a m and
(dr)'
the downstream energy l e v e l s
2
1
1. 6L
h
= - - =
0. 04 ft;
V1
2 (32. 2)
2g
The fall,

where g

acceleration due to gravity in feet p e r second p e r second

upstreamenergylevel

downstream energy l e v e l

861.10
860.00

+ 2.00 + 0.04
+ 2.00 + 0.04

863.14ft

862.04 f t

Note that u n l e s s the u p s t r e a m water depth and velocity a r e different f r o m the

downstream w a t e r depth and velocity,

HDR can be solved by simply subtracting

the downstream canal i n v e r t f r o m the u p s t r e a m canal invert.

Since

H(dr) i s l e s s than 1 . 5 ft, r e f e r to F i g u r e 6-40 and Table 6-6.

T h e r e i s no s t r u c t u r e for a Q of 25 f t 31 s . Consider s t r u c t u r e No. 4 with a
3
3
m a x i m u m Q of 26 f t / s o r s t r u c t u r e No. 6 with a maximum Q of 28 f t / s .
Select s t r u c t u r e No. 6 because i t h a s a "h(wk)" dimension which m o r e n e a r l y
s u i t s the canal section and i t h a s l e s s concrete than s t r u c t u r e No.4.

A s s u m e n o r m a l water surface
Control water surface = 861.10
Set E l B

control water s u r f a c e

2.00

863. 10 ft

so that the top of the check wall i s a t

control water surface elevation

( E l B m u s t not be higher than E l C)

Other dimensions a r e given in Table 6-6 and Figur.e 6-40.
C

Numerical example 2

30 f t 3 / s

El A

928. 60 ft ( u p s t r e a m canal invert)

El D

926.00 f t (downstream canal invert)

2.20ft

1.7ft/s

y2
v

TABLE
6-6
Dimensions of Cencrete Vertical Check with a 1.5 f e e t Drop (USBR)
Standard Dimensions

Slide Gate

Max'

Width x
height 11
in

NO.

L'

Frm
ht
ft

'CH

(wk)

(str)

(str)top

(vhr)

wwl

E s t i m a t e d Quantities

(T)-

Conc.

(T)ww2

in

in

in

Re. s t e e l

Yd3

lb

When a gate of specific height i s not available, a gate with next g r e a t e r available
height shall b e u s e d with a p p r o p r i a t e f r a m e height.

1 cubic yard = 27 cubic f e e t

TABLE
6-7
Dimensions of Concrete Vertical Check with a 3 f e e t Drop (USBR)
Str
No.

Max.
Q
ft3/ s

E x a m p l e only

H
(dr)

~ d~~
l

H
ww2

-1

(b-c)

(str)

l'ws
or

L~~

in

( T ) ~ ZB T R ~ B~~

(T)FR

--

EI A

EI B

EI

EI D

Misc.
metal
lb

Since y

= y2 and v

Tdr) is g r e a t e r than 1 . 5 f t ,

Since

-- v2'

Tdr)

= 928.60

926.00

= 2.60 ft.

r e f e r to F i g u r e 6-41 and Table 6-7.

Select s t r u c t u r e No. 6.
A s s u m e n o r m a l water s u r f a c e = control w a t e r s u r f a c e

= 928.60

Control water s u r f a c e

H~~

6. 00 ft,

El C

930.80

6.00

2.20 = 930.80 ft

HSB

0.67 f t

+ 0.67

925.47 f t

( E l C m u s t not be higher than E l D)

See Table 6-7 for completed example.
1/
YMGT Type D r o p (Japan)-

6. 10.5
6.10.5.1

General
D r o p s of rectangular notch type built i n the p a s t in Japan had suffered

f r o m problems of flow turbulence on the downstream of the fall, abnormal waves

and overtopping a t the side walls and damage a t the bottom and side walls of the
canals

.
In o r d e r to solve t h e s e problems the Yamagata P r e f e c t u r a l Govern-

m e n t evolved a new design of d r o p for i t s land consolidation p r o j e c t s for u s e in

flumed distribution s y s t e m s .

The design i s b a s e d on the r e s u l t s of hydraulic

model studies c a r r i e d out a t the Agricultdral Engineering ~ e s e a r c hStation,

Ministry of Agriculture and F o r e s t r y , Hiratsuka.
The s t r u c t u r e , which h a s no provision for a check, i s suitable for
s m a l l canals, field channels, o r w a t e r c o u r s e s , and f o r d i s c h a r g e s of l e s s than
3
one m / s. F i g u r e 6-42 shows a d r o p s t r u c t u r e of s i m i l a r design in u s e in
Cyprus.

L/B a s e d on information

supplied by the Japanese National Committee, ICID.

S t r u c t u r a l design
The YMGT type s t r u c t u r e i s a rectangular notch d r o p o r fall.

It

c o n s i s t s of a sill wall and downstream stilling basin with the n e c e s s a r y t r a n sitional bottom slope in the basin m e r g i n g with the n o r m a l bed of the canal on the
downstream side.

The foundations of the sill wall and the stilling basin a r e of

cobble stones, 15 to 20 c m in depth, s e t in cement.

The sill wall and the floor

of the stilling basin a r e of reinforced concrete laid over a 5 c m l a y e r of cement

over the cobble foundations.

The fall i s connected to a prefabricated r e -

inforced concrete flume channel a s shown in F i g u r e 6-42.

FIGURE 6-42. - Drop s t r u c t u r e in s m a l l flume

channel (Cyprus).

The standard design i s intended f o r flumed channels, but if the channels

a r e unlined, i t i s e s s e n t i a l to have sufficient protection and suitable approach
walls both on the u p s t r e a m and downstream sides.

Longitudinal

Section A

'section

Plan
FIGURE 6-43.

YMOT typo drop

s i l l - w e l l and a t i l l i n g baain.

tn

Design formulae
Brink depth, H(br) for a rectangular notch fall without s i l l
(elevated c r e s t )

where

Hc

where

H
(br)

brink depth at the end of the notch

Hc

critical depth of flow a t the notch

discharge per unit width through the notch

acceleration due to gravity

9.81 m / s 2

Dimension of the jet trajectory

The trajectory of the jet can be calculated by the following
equation :
Without sill

With sill

where

1
-

L(bas)l

horizontal length from sill to the point where

the average of the upper and lower nappe meets
the downstream water surface line

":

specific energy corresponding to Hc

height between the sill line and downstream

water surface line

H(c-w12)

FIGURE 6-44. - YMGT type d r o p - symbols and notations

f o r sill height, t r a j e c t o r y of jet and dimensions of stilling basin.

Angle of the jet

Without s i l l
tan

oc

0.886

With sill
tan

Ot

Velocity of the jet,

where

H(CEL-b)

V(jet)

i s the height between the energy line a t the c r i t i c a l depth over

the notch and the floor of the stilling basin.

Height of the s i l l above the u p s t r e a m bed level

The standard values of the height of the s i l l above the u p s t r e a m bed
level a r e given in Table 6-8.

TABLE

6-8

Stilling basin
I

Depth of stilling basin

c

(dr)

Length of the stilling basin

where

L(bas)

total length of the stilling basin

horizontal length f r o m the sill c r e s t to the point

where the average of the upper and lower nappe
m e e t s the downstream water surface line

(bas)

L(bas)2

=
'

horizontal length from the point where the average

of the upper and lower nappe meets the downstream
water surface line and the point where the average
of the upper and lower nappe strikes the floor of
the stilling basin.
4
.

L (bas)3

4b.4

L (bas)

horizontal length of the stilling basin to dissipate

the energy of the jet

i s given by equation ( 3 ) or equation (4)

L(bas)

(bas)2

L
(bas)2,

TABLE

6-9

Standard Design of Small - Size F a l l s (Dimensions and M a t e r i a l s ) in F l u m e d Canals

Dimensions
Discharge

Type
No.

Quantity

(cm)

H
(dr:
(t-bflIl

(c-b)

(bas) '(t-bfll2

(TcW) L(baS) '(bas

t)

(OP)

H(cw) (Tbas) B ( b a ~f)

(bas)

Reinforced
m3

m 3 ~ s rn

~~~t~~

,3

350 ) 0.060

0.30

37

45

15

37

15

150

50

15

39.5

15

95

45

0.70

0.060

0.50

37

70

20

37

15

150

100

15

64.5

15

95

45

0.97

0.060

0.70

37

95

25

37

15

200

100

15

89.5

15

95

45

1.30

0.021
0.011
0.21
0.11
0.021
0.011

400

Plain
conFrame
crete works
,3
m2

0.17

7.05
6.93
10.11
9.99
13.86
13.74

0.12
0.14

Cobble
stones
m3

11.011
bars
kg

0.36

41.41

0.43

57.48

0.50

73.67

0.14

0.30

46

45

15

46

15

250

50

15

34

15

106

56

1.09

0.029

0.19

10.53

0.56

61.95

0. 1 4

0.50

46

70

20

46

15

250

100

15

59

15

106

56

1.44

0.029

0.21

14. 37

0.64

80.71

0.14

0.70

46

95

25

46

15

250

100

15

84

15

106

56

1. 62

0.029

0.21

16.80

0.64

91.25

500 ) 0.225

0.30

52

45

15

52

15

300

50

15

35.5

15

117

67

1.41

0.70

77.20

0.225

0.50.

52

75

25

52

15

300

100

15

65.5

15

117

67

1.86

0. 225

0.70

52

95

25

52

15

300

100

15

85.5

15

117

67

2.00

700 ) 0.417

0.50

68

75

25

68

20

350

100

20

64.5

20

151

91

3.32

0.417

0.70

68

105

35

68

20

350

150

20

94.5

20

151

91

4.04

0.417

1.00

68

135

35

68

20

400

150

20

124.5

20

151

91

0.720

0.50

78

75

25

78

20

450

100

20

62

20

163

0.720

0.70

78

105

35

78

20

450

150

20

92

20

163

0.720

1.00

78

140

40

78

20

450

150

20

127

20

163

1000 ) 0.996

0.70

95

105

35

95

20

500

150

20

90

20

0.996

1.00

95

145

45

95

20

500

200

20

130

0.996

1.50

95

200

50

95

30

500

200

30

185

800

0.043
0.029
0.043
0.029
0.043
0.029

4.77

0.102
0.029
0.102
0.055
0.102
0.055

103

4.30

103

5.12

103

5.62

188

128

6.27

20

188

128

7.40

30

208

128

12.12

0.23
0.26
0.26

13.41
13.23
18.54
18.35
20.52
20.34

0.79

98.57

0.79

106.38

1.16

161. 63

1.27

447.94

0.46

25.85
25.37
32.59
32.11
39.48
39.00

1. 38

510. 62

0.195

0.50

32.38

1.49

360.36

0.195

0.54

40.17

1.61

544.37

0.195

0.54

46.03

1.61

598.23

48.78
48.22
59.76
59.20
73.34
72.77

2.00

662.60

2.14

998.39

2.43

1362.83

0.324
0.296
0.324
0.296
0.324
0.296

0.39
0.42

0.67
0.71
0.81

Connection of the stilling basin to the downstream bed of the canal

The downstream end of the stilling basin i s joined to the downstream
bed o r bottom of the canal by a slope of 1 : 4.
To avoid lengthy calculations, s e e Table 6-9 which h a s been p r e p a r e d
to give the various dimensions of the different types of rectangular notch f a l l s in
flumed canals a s well a s quantities of construction m a t e r i a l s r e q u i r e d for them.

6.10.5.4

Numerical example 1
Design a YMGT type rectangular notch fall f o r an unlined canal,

without r a i s e d sill and with the following data:

sideslopes, (ss) =

Design
hvl

1: 1

2
1
2g

Brink depth a t the notch,

0.009 m

H(br)

0.72 Hc

0.360m

D e p t h of s t i l l i n g b a s i n

L e n g t h of b a s i n
0.567
L(ba s )

Angle of jet, oi
tan

0.886

(Y,

+ H
(bas)

=
=

..

6.10.5.5

(0.873
1.506.

0.433)
1.230

0.763

cot

6(

cot 38'5~'

1.606 m

T o t a l l e n g t h of b a s i n

2 . 5 (0.670

5.690 m

Say

5.70 m

1.606)

Numerical example 2
D e s i g n a YMGT t y p e r e c t a n g u l a r n o t c h f a l l with t h e following

data :

Moteriols
Reinforced concrete
"ortor

'

0.70 2
UF 300 0.021 n?
UF 350 901t. n?

0.12 4
UF 300 7.05 m3
UF 350 6 9 3 n?

~obble>l~nes

0.36 n?

Plain concrete
Frome work

Reinforcement bor

Longitudinal section

~i~

NO,

I 3

@
L

2.27

18.16

Unit

Total

H~QM weight

1.04

18.89

(All dimensions are in cen+imetres,l

F A 0 -ICID

-4

YMGT

dio. 9 C/C 25

Total
lenoth

Dio. 13 28.79 kg
Dio. 9 12.62 kg

dia. 9 Lz83n.2
k 6 5

dio. 13 C/C 20

dio. L . 2 4 0 n . 3

k160--/-5

N,.

dio. 9 L.105 n = 2

C87-I
Plon

lenpth
Unit

FALL-TYPE

300

dio. 13 C/C 20
5
I5

project

,Region,

Country

J opon

Section A

Section B

Figure No. 6-45

H(dr)

0.30 m

Canal is of flumed section

Height f r o m bottom to top of flume section

31.5 c m

D i a m e t e r of flume section

31.5 c m

Design
R e f e r to Table 6-9.
3
F o r a discharge of 0.060 m / s and a hydraulic d r o p of 0.30 m , the
type 300 o r 350 m a y be adopted.

The dimensions of the fall a r e a s h e r e u n d e r :

qc-b)

45 c m

H(bas)

15cm

( Tcw)

15cm

39.5 c m

150 c m

H( cw)
L(bas)

Thickness of basin floor

15 c m

The design i s shown in F i g u r e 6-45.

6.11

6.11. 1

INCLINED DROPS AND CHUTES

General
The g e n e r a l f e a t u r e s and applications of d r o p s and chutes have been
mentioned in Chapter 2 and Section 6.9 of t h i s chapter.
difference between an inclined d r o p and a chute.

T h e r e i s no b a s i c

Small inclined d r o p s and chutes

a r e usually rectangular in c r o s s section, but trapezoidal sections a r e also

occasionally used where the whole length of the structure happens to be located in
a cutting.

The energy dissipation in inclined drops and chutes i s usually effected

by the creation of a hydraulic jump a t the toe of the structure, supplemented by

friction blocks and other energy dissipating devices.

Inclined drops a r e often

designed to function a s flume measuring devices, notably the Indian Standing Wave
Flume.
F o r the design of an inclined drop to be effective i t m u s t be based on the
design discharge, depth a t the inlet, shape, slope, roughness and length of the
channel (or chute o r flume).

The slope of the channel section i s usually steep so

the control section of the flow will be a t the inlet.

The next, but most important,

step in designing inclined falls (and chutes) i s to compute the water surface profile
f r o m the inlet to the bottom of the structure and to design the energy dissipation
system.

A number of standard designs of such structures have been developed and

examples described in this Section include the Standing Wave Flume F a l l , the
Flume Type F a l l (both from India), the Rectangular Inclined Drop ( U . S. A. ), and
the Rubble Cascade Inclined Drop (India).
Standing Wave Flume F a l l (India)-1/

6.11.2

General
The standing wave flume fall described herein was developed a t the
Central Water and Power Research Station, Poona, India, based on the r e s u l t s of
experiments which had started a s long ago a s 1.926.

L a t e r , the design of the

s t r u c t u r e was standardized by the Indian Standards Institution.

The structure i s used when an appreciable fall of water level i s n e c e s s a r y
due to the surrounding topography (i.e. relatively steep slopes).

It dissipates

energy efficiently and i t can be designed to m e a s u r e the flow of water passing

through i t over a range from a few l i t r e s per second up to several hundred cubic
m e t r e s per second.

L'

Because of the inherent f r e e flow conditions the m e a s u r e -

Based on Indian Standard IS: 6062 - 1971

ment of flow r e q u i r e s only one gauge observation on the upstream side, (whereas
venturi flumes require two).

Another advantage i s that i t demonstrates

favourable modularity relationships even with the deposition of sediment on the

upstream side.
The design c r i t e r i a in respect of flow conditions in this type of fall
a r e confined to steady flows in open channels dependent only on the upstream head
and without consideration of submerged flows beyond modular limits.

In selecting the site for this flume particular attention should be paid
to the following points:

avoidance of super critical flow immediately upstream

r i s e in upstream water levels due to the measuring structure

absence of conditions downstream which may affect flow conditions

straight channel long enough to accommodate the structure

reasonably symmetrical and regular velocity distribution

in the controlling section ( e . g. submergence by backwater effect

originated downstream f r o m a check, o r silting).
6.11.2.2

Structural characteristics
The standing wave flume fall consists of an approach channel, a flow

measuring device and a downstream channel.

.

The flow in the approach channel should be f r e e f r o m disturbance and

i t s velocity should be distributed a s much a s possible over the cross-sectional
a r e a , (which can be verified by measurements).
The measuring structure consists of an approach transition, a throat
with o r without a hump, an exit transition, a baffle and a platform (between the
glacis and cistern) and for better dissipation of energy and exit i t may have either
parallel sides o r expanding sides ( s e e Figure 6-46).

The entire measuring

structure should be rigid and watertight, for at l e a s t a length given by L(str), a s

shown in Figure 6-46.

The structure should be s e t a t a right angle to the general

direction of flow.
The channel downstream of the measuring structure, i.e. of the con-

FIGURE 6-46.

Details of a Standing Wave Flume Fall.

trolling section, i s usually of no importance a s r e g a r d s accuracy of m e a s u r e m e n t

provided that the fall h a s been s o designed that i t cannot become submerged when
i t i s operating.

The effect of a r i s e in the water l e v e l on the downstream side due

t o the possibility of silting would not normally be m a t e r i a l , in so f a r a s rating i s

concerned.
6. 1 1 . 2 . 3

Measurement of head
The water level u p s t r e a m of the fall may be m e a s u r e d by any suitable

type of gauge installed in a stilling well.

The stilling well should be located s o a s to m e a s u r e the water level
This could be ensured

u p s t r e a m of the sill, where t h e r e i s no curvature of flow.

u p s t r e a m of the
(ma4
i s the maximum value of u p s t r e a m head over

by locating the stilling well intake pipe a t a distance of 4 H

bell-mouth entrance where

HI

(ma4
the sill c o r r e c t e d f o r the velocity of approach.

The stilling well should normally

be vertical and have a minimum m a r g i n of a t l e a s t 15 c m over the maximum water

level estimated t o be recorded in the well.

The well dimensions should be l a r g e

enough ( s a y 60 c m x 90 cm) to p e r m i t the bottom of the well to be cleaned.

The

diameter of the intake should generally be 10 cm.

Z e r o setting
Means f o r checking the z e r o setting of the head measuring device
should be provided, and should consist of a pointer with its point s e t exactly level
with the s i l l of the standing wave flume and be fixed p e r p a n e n t l y in the approach
channel, o r alternatively in the stilling o r gauge well.

The z e r o setting should be

periodically checked.
Head l o s s
The total head l o s s i s composed of l o s s e s in :

approach transition

exit transition

friction in the s t r u c t u r e

hydraulic jump.
The l o s s e s in the approach and exit transitions depend on the degree

and gradualness of the fluming.

They a r e e x p r e s s e d a s a fraction C of the

difference in velocity head of flow in the channel and the standing wave flume fall.
Accepted values a r e :

0.15 C f o r an approach t,ransition of cylinder quadrant type, and

0.3

C f o r an exit transition with a splay of 1 in 10, and

0.2

C f o r a hyperbolic type.

L o s s due to friction i s usually s m a l l , and may be of the o r d e r of 0.015

t o 0 . 0 3 m depending upon the s i z e and the c r i t i c a l velocity.
L o s s due to hydraulic jump,

where

H(j)
H(j)2

(1,)j

i s given by :

depth of flow before jump, and

depth of flow a f t e r jump.

The e n t i r e m e a s u r i n g s t r u c t u r e m u s t be finished with smooth (neat

cement finish) and t r u e s u r f a c e s .

The intersection of the u p s t r e a m curve and the

hump a s well a s the downstream slope m u s t f o r m two p a r a l l e l straight l i n e s a t a

right angle t o the direction of flow.

6. 11.2.4

Design procedure and formulae

Approach transition
The r a d i u s of the side walls of the bell-mouth entrance should be

rn, where H'

i s the u p s t r e a m head above the sill level of the throat

But when H'

c o r r e c t e d f o r the velocity of approach.

i s l e s s than 0. 3 m , the

f r o m the throat.
The curvature should continue until i t
r a d i u s may be Z H '
(crt)
subtends an angle of 60, f r o m where i t should be continued tangentially to m e e t
the side of the u p s t r e a m channel.

F o r s m a l l e r head l o s s e s the r a d i u s of

c u r v a t u r e should b e i n c r e a s e d t o 4 . 5 H'

m.

This curvature should continue

(4
0

until it subtends a n angle of 37 30' beyond which the wall should be continued

straight to meet the sides of the approach channel.

The bed convergence should

begin on the same c r o s s section a s the side convergence.

The radius o f ,

curvature of the hump in the bed should be :

where

R(hv)

L(app) =

H(hu)

the radius of curvature of the hump,

length between the junction of the side wall with the bed
of the upstream channel and upstream end of the throat
m e a s u r e d along the axis, and
height of hump above upstream bed of the channel.

Throat
The sides of the throat should be vertical and their length should be
1

'.

where H
~{crt)'
(4i s the upstream head above the sill level of the throat
corrected for the velocity of approach. The width of the throat may be calculated

f r o m the following formula :

where

discharge, m3/s

9f)

acceleration due to gravity

coefficient for friction having the following values:

B(t)

<

=
=

0.97 for Q from 0.05 to 0.30 m 3 / s ,

0.98 for Q f r o m 0.31 to 1.50 m 3 I s ,

width of throat,

'

2
1

It should be noted however that too much constriction causes too much
head l o s s .
1/

Therefore the throat width should not be l e s s than

1 . 5 ~ ; ~
and
~ ~ )

fluming4should normally be restricted to 50 to 60%.

-11

Fluming

width of controlling section

bed width of upstream channel

100

Hump
The stage discharge relation of a canal i s given b y :

Q
where

cly;

discharge,

C1

coefficient,

y1

depth of water in the channel,

an index varying f r o m 1 . 5 to 2.0 a s given in

Table 6- 10.

TABLE
Values

and

6-10
of

Shape of channel

Value of x

1. Rectangular

1.5

2. Trapezoidal

variable and i n c r e a s e s
with the flatness of the
side slope

3 . Unlined canals with design

side slopes 0.5 to 1

1 . 6 to 1.7

4. Lined canals with side

slopes 0 . 5 to 1

As compared to equation (4), in the case of a broad weir, Q i s

i s g r e a t e r than the exponent of H I ,
1
t h e r e will be draw-down a t low supply levels and ponding n e a r full supply levels,

proportional to

HI

5.

As the exponent of y

provided the sill of the throat i s at the same level a s the channel bed.
be avoided by providing a hump in the throat.

The height of the hump, H(hu),

required to give proportionality, that i s , the r a t e of change i n y

of change in H

(4a t a particular

This can

discharge, i s given by :
1

equal to the r a t e

Height of hump required to give

proportionality for variation in diecharge.

FIGURE 6-47.

where,
H

depth upstream over the sill of the throat,

any particular fraction of discharge.

(4

and

The height of hump required to give proportionality for a small

variation in discharge will thus vary according to the magnitude of the discharge.
Figure 6.47 gives the height of hump required for various values of m and x.
Where channels run with fluctuating discharge, proportionality i s not
obtainable for the whole range; i t i s then desirable to design the hump for
minimum e r r o r over the range of discharges chosen.

This i s called the bulk

proportionality and in this case the height of hump, H(hu), required i s given by the
equation ':

Figure 6-48 gives the height of hump required to attain optimum

proportionality.
In the c a s e of canals which run either full o r closed, a standing wave

flume fall which gives proportionality a t a full supply discharge i s desirable.

the case of channels in which the discharge v a r i e s considerably,

In

optimum

~ r o ~ o r t i o n a l i ti y
s preferable.
Glacis
The glacis slope should be 2 : 1 and connected with the throat by a
curve of radius equal to 2

; tangential
~ ~ ~to the
) ~
glacis and sill of the flume.

The downstream edge of the glacis should also be connected with a baffle platform
by a .curve of radius equal to
and the baffle platform.

HI

(4

( s e e Figure 6-46), tangential to the glacis

The axial length of the glacis, including the curved

portion, should be equal to :

0.1 Y l
1.6

1.7

VALUES OF X IN 0

FIGURE 6 - 4 8 .
proportionality.

1.9

1.8

C1 yl

Height of hump to attain bulk

2.0

where

H(c-bpt)

the difference in levels of the c r e s t and baffle platform.

Baffle platform
The baffle platform should be fixed a t such a level that a standing wave
will form a t the toe of the glacis.
occur.

If the platform i s too high then hurdling will

On the other hand, i f the platform i s too lo.w, surging will take place.

In

the case of a fall with parallel sides, the level of the baffle platform may be
estimated by the following procedure.
above the baffle platform in a parallel sided
yj ,
fall i s f i r s t calculated from the following equation:
The depth of water,

where
H(j)l

Cf

the supercritical flow depth at the toe of the glacis

immediately upstream of the jump,

the discharge per unit width,

the coefficient of friction.

A level of the baffle platform i s assumed which will give y

(c-bpt).

calculated.

Substituting the value of H

in equation (8),
(c-bpt)
This in turn gives a value of y

and

H(j)i i s

from equation (7).

If the assumed

value does not tally with the one worked out a s above, m o r e t r i a l s a r e needed.
The level of the baffle platform i s then obtained by deducting y

from the down-

s t r e a m water level.
In the case of a fall with expanding sides, the fall in water level,
A

Z(exp), m u s t f i r s t be converted into

A Z(par)' which i s the fall in water level

with parallel sides, by using the following equation:

where

(FR)

the flurning ratio :

( s e e Figure 6-46),
B1

y3 i s then estimated by t r i a l and e r r o r a s indicated above.

Z(par),

and y 3'

the value of y

4'

With known A Z

(~ x P ) '

which i s the depth of water above the baffle

platform in the c a s e of a fall with expanding sides may be worked out by using the
equation:

To ensure that the standing wave will f o r m at the toe of the glacis, a
baffle should be provided a t the end of the baffle platform.
baffle,

H(baf),

The height of the

i s given by :

where
Hc

the critical depth of flow above the sill of the flume a t the
controlling section,

that i s

The distance of the baffle f r o m the toe of the glacis should be equal to
If the baffle be fixed n e a r to the toe of the glacis then water would
5 ' 25 H(baf)'
hurdle over the baffle a t supercritical velocity without forming a p r i m a r y o r
secondary wave and the energy would not be dissipated efficiently.

The upstream

face of the baffle should be curved with a radius equal to, and ending at, twothirds of the H(baf). (Figure 6-50)
Expansion
The sides downstream of the baffle platform should expand hyperbolically to ensure uniform distribution of the flow downstream.
equation i s :

The hyperbola

where
=

width a t any distance y f r o m beginning of expansion

of the hyperbola,

distance f r o m beginning of .expansion of hyperbola,

B(t)

width of throat,

B2

bed width of downstream channel,

length of c i s t e r n ( s e e below).

(Y)

and

Cistern
The depth of the c i s t e r n a t i t s sides below the downstream water level
should be

1 . 4 y2, and in the middle

the channel downstream.

1.75 y

where y

2'

i s the depth of water in

The bed of the c i s t e r n a t the s i d e s should not be higher

than the bed of the channel downstream.

*

The recommended lengths of c i s t e r n for different soils follow the

following r u l e s :
in shingle bed,
in good earth,

y2

7.5 y

in coherent sand,

yz

The longitudinal profile of the c i s t e r n should be horizontal.

Deflectors
At the downstream end of the c i s t e r n deflectors of the following
dimensions should be constructed to ensure the formation of a positive bed
roller :
1

The height of each deflector should be equal to

12

of"the depth of water in

mid s t r e a m .
The gap between deflectors,

The length of each deflector,

The width of each deflector,

B(def)

(def)
(Clef)

F o r details see F i g u r e 6:49.

4H

H(def)

(def)
(def)

SECTION

HEIGHT:
LENGTH

L~(d,f)

DEPTH OF WATER IN MID-CISTERN

L(d.f)=4 H(d*f)

BRl3QU-l B[.,O
OAP BETWEEN BLOCKS X
DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO ROWS :X ( d . ~

FIGURE 6-49.

6.11.2.5

DEFLECTORS

Details of deflectors.

Modular limit
F o r satisfactory functioning of the standing wave flume fall the ratio

of the depth upstream over the sill of the throat td the depth downstream over the
sill of the throat should not be l e s s than 0 . 5 .
6.11.2. 6

Maintenance
Adequate maintenance of %hemeasuring structure and the approach

channel i s important to ensure continual accurate measurements.

The approach

channel, the gauge well and the connection to it must be kept clean and free from
sediment, and c a r e must be taken during the cleaning process to avoid damage to
the structure.
Design example
A standing wave flume fall should be designed to satisfy the following

conditions :

Lonqitudinol

section

STANDING WAVE FLUME

- FALL

bulk proportionality between full supply d i s c h a r g e (FSD) and

1
3

FSD,

and

hyperbolic expansion in the c i s t e r n .

Data given
Bed width of canal ( B

and B2)

Side slope of canal

Bed slope of canal
Manning

IN' ( m e t r i c ) f o r canal

--

F u l l supply depth in canal ( y l and y 2 ) =

F u l l supply discharge
F a l l in water level

= fall in bed level

=

H(dr)

Bed level of canal on the u p s t r e a m

side

On the b a s i s of the data given and the procedure s e t forth in 6.1 1. 2 . 4

the design i s i l l u s t r a t e d in F i g u r e 6-50.
1/
F l u m e Type F a l l (CDO-, Punjab, India)

6.11. 3
6.11.3. 1

General
The flume type fall described h e r e i n i s widely used in Punjab,

Pakistan, and in Punjab, Haryana and other s t a t e s in India.

It i s a m e t e r fall,

which i s simple and robust in construction and can con+eniently be built by local
labour in b r i c k m a s o n r y .
Up to 1 . 0 m e t r e drop, a glacis i s used on the downstream side and if
the d r o p exceeds 1 . 0 m e t r e , the c r e s t ends in a d r o p wall.

The s t r u c t u r e i s

often combined with a bridge, an intake of a third-degree canal o r both.

6. 11.3.2

S t r u c t u r a l design
F i g u r e 6-51 i s a sketch of a flume type fall with a d r o p of up to

0.90 m.

" Central Design

Office.

F.S.L.

Depth of floor below downstream bed

FIGURE 6-51.

of up to 0 . 9 0 m.

Sketch of a flume type fall with a drop

7.5 cm

U p s t r e a m approaches
The r a d i u s of the u p s t r e a m side wall i s equal to 3.62 H
s t a r t s f r o m the c r e s t side, the curve subtending an angle of 60

1.5
(crt)

'

and i t

and continues

tangentially to 0.60 m beyond the s u r f a c e width on e i t h e r side (B1

channel discharge m u s t be l e s s than 2.8 m 3 1 s .

yl)

The

The horizontal length of the side curve, a s well a s the bed curve,
1.5
= 3.74 H
joining the c r e s t with the u p s t r e a m bed =
L ( a ~ ~ )
(crt) '

The r a d i u s of the bed c u r v e -

R.

L~
app

H~
(b- C )

Length of Throat
The length of the throat,

L(t)

H(crt)

Glacis
A 0. 60 m ( 2 ft) curve joins the c r e s t with the downstream glacis.

The glacis should have a slope of 2 . 5 to 1 for f a l l s l e s s than 90 c m ( 3 ft).

Cistern
The length of the c i s t e r n should be y2

H(

dr)

The c i s t e r n floor should be 7 . 5 c m below the downstream designed bed

l e v e l of the channel for f a l l s up to 1 m (3.28 ft) and 30 c m (1 ft) f o r f a l l s above
1 m (3. 28 ft).
Downstream expansion
L(ex~)

r-

BZ

B(t)

o r length f r o m the downstream

edge of the c r e s t to the end of the c i s t e r n , whichever i s g r e a t e r .

In the c a s e of

f a l l s up to 1 m (3.28 f t ) , the expansion should be in a curve with a r a d i u s of

expansion.

In the c a s e of f a l l s above one m e t r e (3.28 ft), the downstream expansion

will simply be diverged.

U p s t r e a m protection
The u p s t r e a m end of the curved floor i n the approach should r e s t on a
m a s o n r y d r o p wall 35 c m thick and of depth equal to 0.33 y

subject to a
1
minimum of 27 c m of deep m a s o n r y wall o v e r 15 c m thick concrete. No o t h e r
protection either i n the bed o r sides i s required.
P r o t e c t i o n downstream
The side protection below the downstream expansion should be equal to
L(bas) and should consist of dry b r i c k pitching 20 c m thick supported on a toe
wall of depth equal to 0. 5 y Z subject to a minimum of 27 c m of deep m a s o n r y wall
o v e r 15 c m thick concrete.

It i s p r e f e r a b l e to lay roughened pitching.

The bed

protection should consist of b r i c k - b a t s of thickness depending on discharge a s

given below :
Up to 700 l / s

15 c m

700 1/ s to 1,400 l / s

23 c m

This bed protection m u s t be laid horizontal (without d e p r e s s i o n s ) a t

bed level, and b e hand packed, and should extend up to a length equal to y

(dr)

beyond the downstream end of the side expansion.

Section of walls
Standard sections of wing walls and abutments a r e given in Chapter 3 .
The f r e e board on the walls u p s t r e a m of the c r e s t , without bridges, should be
15 cm, and with b r i d g e s they should be r a i s e d to the p a r a p e t level of the bridge.
The f r e e board on the downstream walls should be 30 % m approximately, the exact
dimensions depending on the b r i c k c o u r s e s .
Gauges
Where t h e r e a r e no b r i d g e s , the bottom of the concrete coping on the
wall u p s t r e a m of the c r e s t should be accurately fixed a t designed full supply level.
1
With b r i d g e s the full supply level should be shown in the side wall by a 8 inch
s t r i p of s t e e l embedded horizontally in the m a s o n r y joint for a distance of 60 cm,
s t a r t i n g f r o m the water s u r f a c e edge, ( a s i t would ultimately be with a 0.5 to 1
slope).

NO gauge walls should be provided in addition.

B r i d g e s combined with falls
When a bridge i s required, the p a r a l l e l s i d e s of the flumes should be

The bed of the channel up to the u p s t r e a m

m a d e longer to s e r v e a s abutments.

end of the abutments should be i n m a s o n r y .

6. 11.3. 3

Design formula
Fluming r a t i o ,

--

(FR)

0.60

B1
Depth of w a t e r over c r e s t
This i s worked out f r o m the formula

Q
where Q
B(t)

.=

d i s c h a r g e in m 3I s ,

width of t h r o a t in m ,

qcrt)=

1.5
B(t) H(crt)

height of u p s t r e a m full supply level over c r e s t in m .

F o r d i s c h a r g e s of 0.014 m 3/ s to 0.56 m 3/ s
F o r dischar;es of 0.57 m 3/ s to 1 . 4 m 3 / s

1.66

1.68.

Numerical examples
Example 1
Design a CDO type fall with the following d a t a :

B1

B2

Yz

Fluming ratio,

2.25 m

0.56 m

(FR)

60 p e r cent
2.25

..

B(t)

With

Length of c r e s t

. 60
100

l.35m

0.8 m

B(t) H ( c r t )

2H

(4

2.5:l

1.5
(crt)

3. 74

R a d i u s of u p s t r e a m side

3. 62 H

Slope of g l a c i s
L

(~ P P )

3.74H

0.401.5

~=

0.92 m

3. 62

0.90 m

Depth of c i s t e r n below bed l e v e l

7.5cm

Depth of c i s t e r n below c r e s t

0.84m

Length of g l a c i s

0.84

2.5

2.10 m

Length of c i s t e r n

Y 2 + H
(dr)

0.56

1.16 m

Length of expansion

R a d i u s of expansion

The design i s a s shown in F i g u r e 6-52.

Example 2
Design a CDO type f a l l with the following d a t a :

Fluming ratio

60 p e r c e n t

0. 4 0 1 a 5

0. 60

Hydraulic drop--------0 6 0 m
Plon

Discharge-

----- ----0-56 m3/s

/A// dimensions ore in metres /

Bank
Bank

No.3

Sections
No. 2

No. I

FAO- ICID
Longitudinal

sect ion

C.D.O. T Y P E F A L L ( PUNJAB)

H Y D R A U L I C D R O P U P T O 1.00 m

5m

Floor 0.12rn
Concrete 0.15 rn

hand pocked

Country , Region, Project

lndio ond Pokiston
F i g u r e No. 6-52

-------- 1.20 m

Hydrodic drop

Discharge------------.
0 5 6 n?/r

Plon

Section No. 4
Sect~onNos l ond

Lonqitudinol

..

Section
-

.-

F A 0

ICID

C.D.O. T Y P E F A L L ( P U N J A B )
ncrete = 0.15 m

/ A / / o'imensions ore in metres

HYDRAULIC DROP ABOVE 1 . 0 0 m

Country, Region, Project
lndio ond Pokiston
Figure No. 6-53

-------- 1.20 m

Hydrodic drop

Discharge------------.
0 5 6 n?/r

Plon

Section No. 4
Sect~onNos l ond

Lonqitudinol

..

Section
-

.-

F A 0

ICID

C.D.O. T Y P E F A L L ( P U N J A B )
ncrete = 0.15 m

/ A / / o'imensions ore in metres

HYDRAULIC DROP ABOVE 1 . 0 0 m

Country, Region, Project
lndio ond Pokiston
Figure No. 6-53

TABLE

6-10

Single L a y e r Reinforcement in P o o l F l o o r f o r USBR Inclined D r o p

2/
P o o l Reinf. -

Ybas
H(dr)
Max

Q
Max

Lcrt

T.

-(t-chb)

T.

-bas

basw

*hw

+
hVbas

t'

N0.0f
weep

Transv
bars in
walls &
floors
4 @ 12"
4@12"
4@12"
4 @ 12"
4 @ 12"
4 @ 12"
4@12"
4@1zV
4 @ 12"
4@12"
4 @ 12"
4@12"
4@12"
4 @ 12''
4 @ 1
4@12t1
4@12"
4@12"
4@111'
4 @ 11"
4@101'
4 @ 1.2"
4 @ 12"
4 @ 12"
4@10t'
4 @ 9"
4 @ 8"
4 @ 8"
4 @ 12"
4 @ 11"
4 @ 9"
4 @ 8"
4 @ 8"
4@10t'
4 @ 9"
4 @ 12"
4 @ lof1
4 @ 9"
4 @ 8"
4@1Ott
4 @ 9"
4 @ 8"

i f s t r u c t u r e No. 5 - 3 i n d i c a t e s Q = 5 f 3 / s .
2'4 @ 7;

Hdr

= 3 ft.

i n d i c a t e s 0 . 4 i n . d i a m e t e r b a r s on 7f in spacing.

-3/1 cubic yard

27 cubic f e e t

Longit. Reinf
Floors
4 @ 72"
4@7+"
4 @ 7 9
4 @ 74"
4 @ 7+"
4 @ 7i"
4@7f"
4@7+11
4 @ 76"
4@7f"
4 @ 7+"
4@7f"
4@7 "
4 @ 7 "
~4 @~7 Q~"
4@7$
4@7+"
4@7Zf'
4 @ 7 "
4@7 "
4 @ 7 "
4 @ 76"
4 @ 7 9
4 @ 79'
4 @ 7 "
4 @ 7 "
4 @ 7 "
4 @ 7 "
4@7+"
4 @ 7i"
4 @ 7%"
4 @ 7 "
4 @ 7 "
4 @ 7 "
4 @ 6f"
4 @ 7f"
4 @ 7ftf
4.@ 7 "
4 @ 7 "
4 @ 7 "
4 8 7 "
4@6+"

Quantities

Walls

Conc.
(CU.

4 @ 10"
4 @ 10"
4@10W
4 @ 10"
4 @ 10"
4 @ 10"
4@10M
4@10gt
4 @ 10"
4@10"
4 @ 10"
4@1O1I
4@1Ot1
4 @ 10"
4@10t1
4 @ 1 0 ~ ~
4@10"
4@10"
4@101'
4 @ 10"
4@10"
4 @ 10"
4 @ 10"
4 @ 10"
4@10t'
4 @ 10"
4@10f1
4 @ 10"
4@10M
4 @ 10"
4 @ 10"
4@101'
4@101'
4 @ 8"
4 @ 8"
4 @ 10"
4 @ lost
4 @ 10"
4 @ 10"
4 @ 8"
4 @ 8"
4 @ 8"

yd) 31

Reinf.
steel
(lb)

Misc.
Metal
(lb)

60
.100

1.35 m

H(crt) a s in example 1

0.40m

Length of c r e s t

2H(crt)

0.95 m ( a s in example 1)

2 - 9 0 rn ( a s in example 1)

Radius of upstream side

0.92 m ( a s in example 1)

Depth of cistern

0.30m

Length of cistern

y2

1.76 m .

2.25

L ( a ~ ~ )
R(b- c )

(Hdr)

0.80m

0.56

1.20

The design i s shown in Figure 6-53.

1/
USBR Rectangular Inclined Drop-

6.11.4
6.11.4.1

General
The USBR h a s used standardized drop s t r u c t u r e s f o i many decades.

Figure 6-54 shows the m o s t recently published design, which was revised in 1970.
The structure i s built entirely in reinforced concrete.

Capacities, dimensions

and material requirements a r e shown in Tables 6- 10 and 6- 11.

TABLE

6-11

USBR Rectangular Inclined Drop

I'

Based bn USBR Standards (107)

- Dimensions

The rectangular inclined drop (Figure 6-54) coneists of: an upstream

10 ft e a r t h transition converting gradually the normal side slope of the channel to
1 . 5 : 1 a t the upstream end of the structure; an

inlet; upstream headwalls;

control section; glacis and pool with chute blocks; expansion; downstream headwalls; and an e a r t h o r concrete lined transition on the downstream side.
inlet provides a plank walk-way to operate the gate.

The

Overflow i s provided for by

overflow walls, 'or weirs, built into the sides of the inlet.
The design of the reinforcement steel i s based on working s t r e s s e s of
24.000 pounds per square inch (psi).

Monolithic concrete design i s based on a

compressive strength of 3,750 psi a t 28 days.

The standard drop structure i s easily designed, built and operated.
There a r e normally no erosion problems downstream i f the stilling pool i s
properly set with regard to the downstream canal water surface.

Rocks should

not be allowed to remain in the stilling pool for long periods because of their
rolling, erosive affect on the concrete floor.
6.11.4.2

Numerical example
Refer to Figures 6-54 and 6-55 and Tables 6-10 and 6-11;

calculations apply to a 20-11 model structure.

FIGURE 6-55.

- Design

of USBR inclined drop.

the

Top of s t r u c t u r e

(The value of H

(F)

El B

1025.33ft

(F 1

1022.00

3.33

i s taken f r o m Table 6-1 1 . )

Lower E l B by 0.20 ft.

( T h i s will reduce the amount the s t r u c t u r e

extends above the canal bank f r o m 0 . 4 3 ft to 0 . 2 3 f t . )

Refer to Table 6- 10

10 ft, s e l e c t S t r u c t u r e No. 20-11

With

H(dr)

El C

downstream energy level

1013.57

- 2.83

=
=

( Y(bas)

hv ( b a s ) )

1010.74 ft

A s a factor of safety against the possibility of unreliable downstream

canal water depths, lower E l C another 0. 10 ft.

Standard dimensions, except for L

and L(gla), which a r e

(str)
dependent on elevations B and C , a r e given on F i g u r e 6-55 and Tables 6-10 and
6-11 for d i s c h a r g e s f r o m 5 to 40 ft 3 / s .

To i l l u s t r a t e how to s e t elevations B and C , a s s u m e the

following :

2. 1 f t / s ( u p s t r e a m canal velocity)

2 . 9 ft (height of canal bank)

1.50 ft

2. 1 f t / s (downstream canal velocity)

(b- Cbk)

Y2

Refer t o F i g u r e 6-55.

The fall,

H(dr) i s equal to the difference between the u p s t r e a m and

downstream energy l e v e l s .

where g = acceleration due to gravity in f t / s

U p s t r e a m energy level

Downstream energy level

1022.00

1023.57 ft

1012.00

1.50

0.07

1.50

0.07

(Unless the u p s t r e a m canal water depth and velocity a r e different

f r o m downstream conditions,

(dr)

can simply be solved by subtracting El D

f r o m E l A. )

E l B can be s e t a s high a s E l A provided that the velocity through the

inlet does not exceed 3 f t / s , and provided f u r t h e r that the top of the s t r u c t u r e
walls do not extend objectionably above the top of the canal bank.

T r y a setting of E l B

El A

1022.00 f t

Check v

Q
-

--

20

4.5 (1.5)

by 1

A(x)

2.96 f t / s

and being l e s s than 3 f t / s i s satisfactory.

Check top of bank and top of s t r u c t u r e

Top of bank

E l A t H

Top o f check s t r u c t u r e

El A

(b- Cbk)

HF

On the other hand the length o f the s t r u c t u r e i s :

(str)

2 (El B

E l C)

u s e 22 ft 4 in

See Table on F i g u r e 6-54 for completed example.

6.11.5

Rubble Cascade Inclined D r o p

6.11.5.1

General
The rubble c a s c a d e type fall i s cheap and can be constructed where

stone i s easily available.

It i s u s e d for s m a l l d i s c h a r g e s up t o 560 l / s (20 ft3/ s )

o r s o and f o r f a l l s up to 1. 5 m (5 ft).

It h a s been installed a t a number of places

in India.
6. 11.5. 2

S t r u c t u r a l design
The fall c o n s i s t s of stone pitching u p s t r e a m , c r e s t , downstream

glacis, c i s t e r n , curtain wall, and downstream bed and side pitching.

The length of the u p s t r e a m glacis i s limited to 5.0 ft. The length of
2H
The downstream glacis h a s a slope of 1 : 8.
The
the c r e s t i s 3 (crt)'
c i s t e r n i s 10.0 ft long and h a s i t s floor level 1 . 0 ft below the downstream bed
level.
The details a r e shown in F i g u r e 6-56.

Spoil

bank

,-a.r

fss/ = I.5 : I
L 7

Berm a t

8.0'

N. S. L. 5 4 5 . 7 0

_519~61_J

:hing

.
Y

1.0 thick downst

Long~tudinol section

F.S.O.
F S.L,
F. S. D.
B.L.
Bed width
Free Boord
Bank width
Bonk level

Upstreom sectlon
Spoil bonk

8 . 6 6 f?/s
542.62
1.5'
545.12
4.5;
1.5
3'1 3'
548.12
N. S.L. 545-70

Flume bed wdth to 3 5 '

o = 3.09 x L r N"' where
H : (B.66)'"
:0.86

Spoil bonk

o=

8.66 ft3/s
543.1;
1.5
541.65
4.5,
1.5
3'1 3'
5 44.62

scale

8.66 t t f r ~ = 3 - i

2;5

F A O -

10 feet

I C I D

RUBBLE CASCADE TYPE FALL

3-09x 3.5

Length af crest 2/3H: 2/3 x 0.86'0.57 keep,

Crest level :546.62- 0 86 :545.76
Cistern to be 1.0' below downstreom bed level
Cistern level ;540.62
,
Length of cistern = I 0 0
Upstream gloc!s 1 . 5 ond limited to 9.0 length
Downsheom glocis I - 8
Cistern to lift r o l l = 1: 3

Downstream sectton A - B
I

Project. Region, Country

India'
Figure No. 6-56

The fall i s flurned 75 to 80% of the u p s t r e a m bed width.

6. 1 1 . 5 . 3

Design formula

where

Q
B(t)

( crt)

-3

3.09

33

(t)

discharge in f t / s

width of throat i n ft

height over c r e s t

H'
(

Numerical example
Design a rubble cascade type fall f r o m the following d a t a :

"

Q
Bed width

3
8.66ft/s

4 . 5 ft

Throat width to be 3 . 5 ft.

Then

3.09

Length of c r e s t ,

(t)

(4

H2

--

2
3

-H

(crt)

--

0.86
3 -

Adopt 1. 50 ft.
The design i s shown in F i g u r e 6- 56.

6.12

6. 12.1

P I P E D DROPS

General

A piped d r o p is usually the m o s t economical and p r a c t i c a l choice when a

necessity for a d r o p in the canal water level happens to coincide with a road o r

FIGURE 6-57.
Pipe end structures: (a) triangular type;
(b) extension wall; ( c ) p r e - c a s t type; (d) impact dissipator
(baffled outlet); ( e ) broken back; ( f ) subway; (g) diffuser., (52)

similar crossing of the canal.

A piped drop may also be the most suitable and

economical (even without such crossings) compared to an inclined drop for small
canals (i. e. for small discharges).
gate at i t s upstream end.
the pipe by debris.

A piped drop i s usually equipped with a check

Sometimes a grid i s installed to prevent the choking of

There a r e two main types of these drops

- the well drop and

The application of these i s governed by topography and

the inclined pipe drop.

soil and, in the ultimate analysis, by cost.

In the well drop most of the energy

i s dissipated in the bottom p a r t of the well, while in the inclined pipe the energy
dissipation takks place by the formation of the hydraulic jump, which f o r m s either
in the pipe itself o r downstream of the outlet, depending on the outlet design, the
velocity of the water and the relationship between discharge and the pipe
characteristics.
Piped drops require an outlet which i s designed to dissipate the remaining
surplus energy and to adjust the outflow to normal channel flow conditions. A few
*

designs a r e shown schematically in Figure 6-57.

It should be noted that these

designs have been developed primarily for capacities between 1 and 10 m 3 1s.
Yet some of them ( a s , for example, the baffled pipe outlet in Figure 6-57 (d) )
have also been standardized for smaller discharges, down to 200 11s.

In the

following paragraphs three designs of well drops and two designs of inclined drops
a r e described.
1/
Well Drop Regulator (U. S. S. R. ) -

6.12.2
6.12.2.1

General
The early U. S. S. R. well drop regulators were constructed of r e -

inforced concrete pipes, one m e t r e long, with smooth ends.

The well was built of concrete cast in sit.u.
covers a t the joints.

The pipes had metal

Shortcomings of these early structures were the numerous

pipe joints and the absence of an a i r discharge pipe.

The l a t t e r resulted in a i r

getting into the downstream flow, which gave r i s e to turbulence that damaged the
slopes and pipe joints.

The structures also tended to choke with debris.

L / ~ a s e don information supplied by A. T. Koshkina, E. P. Martin, A. V. Shatalova,

D. D. Aliev and B.V. Kazarinov (U. S. S. R. ).

Longitudinal section
Grovel bed 10 crn

Profile of the structure

Country, Region, Project

USSR

(All dimensions are in cm)

Figure No. 6-58

Carrying
Type of structure

Section 1 - 1

SHPR P R
Additional concreting

copocity

- 6 0 -250

250

85

90

1.12

1.20 1.32

95

I00
1.43

Detoils P- 120 x 180

L i s t o f detoils
?

Type of detoil
0

PPTR-60 TR-60 TP-80 SHVOO P0-480 120x186 180-3001 80

SH-

I20

10

Details SH-120

(U

I volume , m3

0.54

s
a

1-03

027

1.350 675

Weight, kg

1.05

0.13

0.30

2.575 2.630

325

750

0.371 0.04 0955

928

100

138

I:

V)

*:

Number

of

moin works

toil TR-80

Detoils P-120x 18

Volume

ravel layer 10 cm
Detoil SHVOO-0- 4 8 0

Cost-in-situ

Concrete bed 10 cm

concrete

Material

Reinforced concrete
detoils

Concrete
Reinforcement

Cast-in-ploce concrete

Concrete M-200

Gravel- fhling

.C

Nome

Grovel

Metal construction

Type of
structure
SHPR-60-250

-m3

kg

6.55
608.40

1.2

m3

9.6

kg

167.7

FA0 -ICID
Cross section 4 - 4

DETAILS OF
WELL DROP - REGULATOR,
AS SHOWN IN F I G U R E I
Grovel layer 10 cm

Country, Region, Project

USSR
! All dimensions are in cm )

Figure NO.6-59

The new design provides for damping of energy in the downstream end
a s well a s discharge of a i r trapped in the pipe, and protection against choking
f r o m debris.
6.12.2.2

Structural design
The well drop regulator ( F i g u r e s 6-58 and 6-59) consists of a

rectangular well, a pipeline and a downstream apron.

In the upper p a r t of the

well t h e r e is an opening fitted with t r a s h b a r s and a metal gate.

formed by two welded lengths of channel c r o s s section.

The joints between the

various p a r t s a r e cement grouted and hydraulically sealed.

horizontal pipe at the lower part of the well.

'

The well i s

There i s a

This pipe i s connected with the well

by means of concrete cast in situ, and a m a s t i c packing to provide some mobility.

The diameter of this pipe s t a r t s a t 60 cm and then expands to 80 cm.
An asbestos cement vertical pipe i s fitted in the 80 c m diameter p a r t
to discharge a i r trapped in the main pipe.

At the end of the pipe t h e r e i s a

damper of cylindrical f o r m with a diaphragm a t the end.

The protecting walls of the well and the downstream p a r t s of the
structure a r e fixed by means of triangular slabs and concrete cast in situ.
A trapezoidal downstream apron i s made up of and protected by ribbed reinforced
concrete slabs, placed on a packed gravel bed.

All the pipe joints a r e of bell

and spigot type and the joints a r e packed with tow and mineral wool impregnated
with bitumen and cement grouted.

The height of the protecting s t r u c t u r e s above

the downstream and upstream water levels i s 40 cm.

6.12.2.3

Design formula
The hydraulic design of this structure has been a r r i v e d a t on the

b a s i s of the r e s u l t s of laboratory t e s t s on models.

The design i s also based on

a hydraulic drop of 2.5 m e t r e s .

The discharge capacity of the drop, which v a r i e s f r o m 1. 10 to
3
1.40 m / s according to different values of H(crt)9 i s given in Figure 6- 59.
The length of the protected downstream apron i s defined by the
formula:

velocity a t the end p a r t of the pipeline, m / s

assumed scouring o r flushing velocity, 0.8 m / s

(for medium loam)

D(p)2

diameter of the end p a r t of the pipeline,

2.4

where v

(PI,

"(flu)

'

coefficient, determined f r o m laboratory t e s t results.

The length of the protected section of the apron obtained by the above
formula i s decreased by 20 to 30% due to the use of the pipe damper.
6. 12. 2.4

Numerical example
3
Assume a design discharge Q = 1.25 m / s , and a hydraulic drop,

(dr)

= 250 cm.
It i s n e c e s s a r y to find the length of the protected section on the

downstream side.
The table of discharge capacity (Figure 6- 59) indicates that the
design discharge of the structure i s possible at a head,

H(crt), of 92 cm.

The assumed .scouring velocity i s 0.8 m / s (for medium loam). The

length of the protected section i s defined by the formula.

L(prot)

"(P)
2

2.4

"(flu)
3

v
(PI,

2.4

(P)2
0:6
0.8

The length of the protected section i s d e c r e a s e d by 2570 due to the u s e

of the pipe d a m p e r .
Adopted

L(~rot)

7.9-0.25.

7.9

5.9m

F u l l details of the design with tables of discharge capacities a r e

given i n F i g u r e s 6-58 and 6-59.

6.12.3

Well Type D r o p (India)

6.12.3.1

General design f e a t u r e s
A cheap type of well d r o p consisting of two m a s o n r y wells connected

by -a rectangular b a r r e l o r an earthenware pipe h a s been evolved in India.

The

d r o p ( F i g u r e 6- 60) c o n s i s t s of an u p s t r e a m bed and stone side protection, a d r o p

well with a single notch to p a s s the discharge, an earthenware pipe and downs t r e a m well, and bed and side protection of stone pitching.
F o r drops f r o m 4 to 6'ft the downstream well m a y be omitted.
Although this type of d r o p i s simple and cheap in construction i t i s
prone to choking by floating rubbish and r e q u i r e s r e g u l a r supervision and removal
of the rubbish without delay.

It i s widely used in s m a l l channels in some p a r t s of

India.
6.12.3.2

Design formula
F o r d i s c h a r g e s f r o m 10 to 20 f t 3 / s (280 to 560 l / s ) , the d i a m e t e r of

the wells (both u p s t r e a m and downstream) i s 4 . 0 ft (1.20 m ) .

One notch i s provided for these s m a l l d i s c h a r g e s and the formula for
f r e e flow u s e d i s :

-3
=

Q
where

Q
1

3.645 y;

(L(No)

0.4

3
discharge of the canal in f t / s

full supply depth u p s t r e a m in ft

=
L
(NO)

length of notch in f t

C yl )

Plan

Detail of qote
Woter level

(All dimensions ore in cm unless otherwise specified)

Section

Upstream water level

A-A

FA0
Earthen

- ICID

bund
PIPE

DROP

SPILLWAY

Clay rawer w concrete pipe length =3m : 4

, = 30 cm
Project

, Region , Country
India

Longitudinal

section
Figure No. 6-60

2 tan cx

where 6 i s the angle made by the sides of the

notch with the vertical.

In this equation there a r e two unknown parameters,

and i t can be solved i f values of Q, say,

L(NO) and C,

Q l and Q2 for any two values of y 1'

i. e. Y1. 1 and y 1.2 a r e known.

Substituting and solving for C

and

Q2

(NO) - *

3
3.745

0.4CYls2

2
1.2

The head required between two wells to pass the required discharge
may be calculated from the following formula :

Numerical example
Data
-

Q
Full supply level upstream
Full supply level downstream
Hydraulic drop
Full supply depth, upstream, y l

Full supply depth, downstream, y2

Bed width upstream, B1
Bed width downstream, B2

20ft

l.lft

Well diameter

4 ft

U s e 2. 0 ft diameter pipe, length

Area of pipe A,

F r e e Board,
for

.,

y1. 1

10 ft / s ,

Y1. 1

'

(P)

Water level in the upstream well

Sill of drop

(FB)

2tane

496.10

1. 65 ft;

0.93

1.65

y2

or

tan

0.465,

say'0.50

say

2.00 ft

Top width of notch

Invert level of pipe

482.45

Invert level of upstream well

482.45

481.45

485.95 f t

Invert level of downstream well

(NO)

( 2 y tan& )

1.00

F o r other details see Figure 6-60.

Pipe Drop (Indta)

6. 1 2 . 4
6. 12.4.1

General design features

The pipe drop described herein, which i s provided with a check, i s

a very simple and economical structure to u s e when a small t e r t i a r y channel, a

field channel o r a field watercourse h a s to negotiate an embankment.

The

structure (Figure 6-61) consists of a masonry o r concrete apron around the inlet
of the pipe to prevent seepage, a pipe gate f o r checking purposes, an

earthen-

ware o r cement pipe, a stilling basin in concrete, o r brick o r stone masonry and
downstream side protection of the embankment in r i p rap, and bed protection of
the channel.

The corner o r bend in the pipeline i s of l a r g e radius.

joints a r e made good with cement m o r t a r .

The pipe

The stilling basin i s 1.2 to 1.5 m

long.
Table 6-12 gives the diameter of concrete pipes for discharges for
different hydraulic drops,

H(dr).

F o r high hydraulic drops, the length of the

stilling basin m a y be 3 m and for small ones 1.2 to 1.5 m .

equal to (0.10 m

(P)

0.10 to 0.15 ) m.

Its depth should be

8045

Cement concrete 1:s: I

Longitudinal section

emnt conuete I:S:IQ

k e m e n t concrete ;in I: 3 :s

Half pkn ot top and half plan at bottom

Section of pipe

Section through joint

WELL

Elevation of notch
Detoil of notch

TYPE

DROP

Project, Region, Country

India
Figure No.6-61

TABLE

6-12

Discharge Capacities of P i p e Drops

using Different S i z e t of Concrete P i p e s
Diameter of pipe, c e n t i m e t r e s

(dr)
cm

7.5'10.0

12.5

15.0

30.0

5.6

17.5

26.0

10.7

17.5
20.0
22.5
Discharge Q (11s)
36.4

48.5

62.4

25.0

27.5

30.0

78.0

'95.5

114.8

Numerical example
Design a pipe d r o p with the following data:

Q
H(dr)
B1l B2
YIS Y2
(as)

200 l / s

100cm

0.7m

0.5m

0.5:l

F r o m Table 6- 12, f o r Q = 200 l / s and H(dr) = 100 c m , the d i a m e t e r

of the c o n c r e t e pipe,

D(~),

i s o v e r 29 cm.

Adopt D(p) = 30 cm.

Make the stilling basin 3 m long, 65 c m deep and 0 . 7 m wide.

dimensions a r e a s shown in F i g u r e 6- 61.

6.12.5

Inclined P i p e D r o p (U. S. A.

11 B a s e d on information

1-11

supplied by G. N. Thorsky, (USBR. U. S. A. )

Other

6. 12.5. 1

General design f e a t u r e s
The pipe drop described h e r e (made of reinforced concrete) i s used up

t o a maximum hydraulic d r o p of 4 . 5 m (15 ft) and i s of non-meter type.

The inlet

of the s t r u c t u r e i s equipped with a check gate.

F r o m F i g u r e s 6-62 to 6-65 i t will be seen that the s t r u c t u r e consists
of a 10 ft ( 3 m ) transition f r o m the n o r m a l canal section at the u p s t r e a m end
gradually changing to 1. 5 : 1 a t the u p s t r e a m end of the inlet s t r u c t u r e .
s t r u c t u r e i s fitted with a gate and a plank walk.

The inlet

The p r e - c a s t concrete pipe f i r s t

inclines sharply downward, then only slightly and then slopes upwards.

There i s

a concrete outlet transition and e a r t h transition (10 ft long) with side and bed
protection equal to 2 . 5 y 2 o r 5 feet ( 1 . 5 m ) minimum.

In the absence of a

concrete outlet transition, each transition m u s t have c o a r s e ' g r a v e l protection on

both the bed and the sides a s shown in F i g u r e 6-63.

The inlet and outlet can be

accommodated to either an e a r t h canal o r a lined canal.

Dimensions of standard designs of the inlet p a r t including the gate

s i z e s and pipe s i z e s a r e given in Table 6-13 and those of the outlet concrete
transition in Table 6-14.
Tables 6-15, 6-16, 6-17 and 6-18 show values of H2, H3, H4, L2,
3
L3, L4 for different hydraulic drops for 10 f t 3 / s , 17 ft / s , 25 f t 3 / s , and
34 f t 3 / s .

Tables for other values of Q a r e apailable but a r e not included h e r e .

I

6. 12.5. 2

Design procedure
Tables 6-13 to 6-18 may be used for design purposes for discharges

up to 36 f t 3 / s f o r any given conditions.

Pipe drops without a concrete outlet

transition a r e used for a maximum discharge of 22 f t 3 / s .

exceeding 22 ft3/ s , a concrete outlet transition i s required.
6.12.5. 3

Numerical example

10ft3/s

F o r discharges

Solve f o r H

( dr)

899.98
1.00
0.06
901.04

u p s t r e a m energy elevation

891.00
1.00
0.06
892.06

downstr earn energy elevation

901.04
892.06
8 . 9 8 feet

H( d r )

Design check and pipe i n l e t and solve f o r elevations of pipe i n v e r t .

Refer to Table 6- 15 f o r
and d i a m e t e r of pipe

3
10ft/s,

(IN)

= 3. 25 ft,

24 inches.

T h e r e i s no s t r u c t u r e for a Q bf 10 f t 3/ s and
Q = 17 ft 3 I s , which i s S t r u c t u r e
D(p) = 24 inches, s o s e l e c t the next highest,
Refer to Table 6- 13.

NO. 24-1.
900.98

=
=

-3.25'

897.73

n o r m a l water s u r f a c e
control w,ater s u r f a c e

El D

( F i g u r e 6-63)

of 8 . 9 8 ft, go the the next highest H(dr)

F o r the computed H
(dr)
of 9.00 f t (Table 6-15) and obtain H2, Hg, Hq, L 2 , Lg, L4.

L o n q i t u d i n o l section
Normal water surface
E E l e v a t i o n of energy

Original ground surface

r s t r u c t u r e length

r Precast

concrete pipe
Normal water surface

---

Check and pipe inlet

b i t e r e d pipe bendsJ

~ o t h s.
The pipe slopes used will allow the substitution of 7 3 6 precast
concrete elbows for the mitered pipe bends.
The length of the earth outlet transition equals 3 pipe diameters
(jminimum).
Precast concrete pipe shown. Other materials may be substituted
provided joints are rubber gasketed.

OUTLET. TRANSITIONS
Country

, Region,

Project

F i g u r e No. 6-62

Longitudinal sect ion

,-Org
in
i al
Normal water surface
rElevation of energy
Earth transition

ground surface
Precast concrete pipe

.L+

~ - - - i , + - ~ ~ ~ , - ~ l
Normal water

rElev~ti~n

Check and pipe

"i

LMitered pipe bends

5minimum)
12 coarse gravel protection
Concrete transition

For outlet tmnsition details refer to Figure 4.

Notes
The pipe slopes used will allow the substitution of 7 O 30'
precast concrete elbows for the mitered pipe bends.
Precast .concrete pipe shown. Other materials may be substituted
provided joints are rubber gasketed.

FA 0- I C I D
PIPE DROP WITH CONCRETE

OUTLET TRANSITION
Country, R e g i o n , Project

U S A

F i g u r e No. 6-63

Typical slide
gate assembly

Plan

ly qote puides

Section

B-B

#4

0 8. Bend into

0 12,

hcodroll

Both w y s

or horizontolly with

obout rnid-Ienqth

Section A-A

& 16 bolts's f with squore heods, hex,'nuts

ond cut woshers; project 4"

F A o - IC'ID

CHECK AND PIPE INLET

oround corners

continuous in ,walls ond floor

Country , Region, Project

US A
Figure No. 6-64

Plan

Section A-A

woll thickness to be some

. .

einforcement not shown

~onqitudinal section
into sidewalls

Section C-C

Reinforcemenl not shown

4~)
3

Lt4 tronsv.

12

Tronsversc bars continuous in wolb ond floor,

rpoced horizontally on structure C. L.

FrGURE 6- 65.
Concrete outlet transition
(supplement t o F i g u r e 6- 63).

TABLE

Structure
No.

Standard

(P)

(IN)

(IN)

Dimensions

(IN)

T( sw)

(IN)

!'

5
7
10
15
21
13
28
17
37
21
26
31
36

Or

(FB)

( =hw'

No.of
walk
/
planks

(hw)

(Tft)

ft3/s
12-1
15-1
18-1
18-2
18-3
21-1
21-2
24- 1
24- 2
27- 1
30- 1
33-1
36- 1

6-13

12"
15"
18"
180
18"
21"
21"
24"
24"
2719
30"
334,
36"

24"
24"
2' 6"
21 69,
3' 0"
3'0"
3' 6"
3' 0"
410"
39 608
31 6"
41 0"
4 , or!

1f a gate wlth a speclfled height

IS

21 6"
2'61,
2' 61,
39 69,
51 001
3, 0,)
5 ' 3"
3' 3"
5 1 6"
31 6"
31 qt?
4, 0"
4' 3"

3' 6"
316,~
31 68,
4tov
41 6"
4 1 0"
51 0"
4' o w
51 61,
4'6"
4 1 61,
41 6"
58 0"

15"
15"
15"
21"
3' 0"
15"
3' 0 8 ,
15"
3to1t
15"
15"
15"
15"

6"
6"
6"
6"
6"
6"
6"
6"
6"
6"
6"
6"
6"

6"
6"
6"
6"
6"
6"
6"
6'1
6"
6"
6"
6"
6"

12-1
15-1
18-1
18-2
18-3
21-1
21-2
24- 1
24-2
27-1
30- 1
33- 1
36- 1

12"
12"
12"
12"
15"
15"
18"
18"

4'
4'
4'
4'
4'
4'
4'
4'

0"
0"
0"
0"
0"
0"
0"
0"
4' 0"
4'4"
4' 4"
4' 9"
4' 9"

3
3
4
4
5
5
6
5
7
6
6
7
7

ConCrete

Reinf.
steel

Misc.
Metal

(cu.yd)

(lb)

(lb)

1.6
1.7

160
170

110
110

2.1

220

130

2.2

230

140

2.6
2.9

270
300

150
160

3.4

340

180

not available, an available gate with the next g r e a t e r helght should b e u s e d wlth a p p r o p r i a t e f r a m e h e ~ g h t .

TABLE

Structure
No.

12"
12"
12"
12"
12"

E s t i m a t e d Quantities

D (P)

5
7
10
15
21
13
28
17
37
21
26
31
36

12"
15"
18"
18"
18"
21"
21"
24"
24"
27"
30"
33"
36"

B (OUT)l

L (OUT)

6-14

H
H5

(WW)~

H6

9"

7 ' 6"

4' 9"

31 0"

3' 0"

12"

11"

9 ' 6"

5 ' 3"

31 3"

3' 6"

15"

(Tft)

6"
6"
6"
6"
6"
6"
6"
6"
6"
6"
6"
6"
6"

L(ww)

24"
246!?

(Ttw)

6"
6"
6"
616"
6"
6"
6"
6"
6"
6"
6"
6"

Slide Gate 1.1

Width x Ht.
B(ga)

H(ga)

Frame
H(frrn)

TABLE

6-15

Pipe Drops with Metre Bends Without Concrete Outlet Transition

3
Q = 10 ft / s

Diameter of pipe = 24 inches

Dimensions given in the Table are in feet

(IN) = 3.25 feet

TABLE

6-16

P i p e D r o p s with M e t r e Bends Without Concrete Outlet Transition

Q = 17 f t 3 / s

D i a m e t e r of pipe =

30 inches

Dimensions given in the Table a r e in feet

H(IN) = 3 . 75 feet

TABLE

6-17

Pipe Drops with Metre Benda with Concrete Outlet Transition

3

Q = 25 ft / s

Diameter of pipe = 30 inches

Dimensions given in the Table are in feet

(IN)

= 3.75 feet

TABLE

6-18

P i p e Drops with M e t r e Bends with Concrete Outlet Transition

3

Q = 34 ft / s

D i a m e t e r of pipe = 36 inches
Dimensions given in the Table a r e i n feet

H(IN) = 4.25 f e e t

3
F o r pipe drops with discharges exceeding 22 ft / s , a concrete outlet

transition i s required.
Refer to F i g u r e s 6- 64 and 6: 65 and Tables 6- 17 and 6- 18.
F o r the concrete outlet transition, s e e F i g u r e 6-65.
Design procedure for the check and pipe inlet and the pipe d r o p i s the
s a m e a s that given above f o r the pipe drop without concrete outlet transition.

,
1/
Inclined P i p e Drop (U. S. S. R. ) -

6.12. 6
6. 12. 6. 1

General
E a r l y pipe drop regulators used in the U. S. S. R. were built of a

number of one m e t r e diameter reinforced concrete pipes with m e t a l covered pipe

joints.

Sudden water level fluctuations in the channels resulted in joint m i s -

alignment and downstream scour.

The revised construction now used i s simple and reliable in operation,
and provides dissipation of energy downstream.

This pipe drop regulator i s both

a d r o p and a check s t r u c t u r e .

6. 1 2 . 6 . 2

Structural desipn
The s t r u c t u r e ( F i g u r e 6-66) consists of an inlet siil, an i n c l h e d pipe,

a stilling basin and a downstream apron.

The inlet sill i s designed in the f o r m of an inclined wall.

L'

A concrete

Based on information supplied by A . T. Koshkina, E. P. Martin, A. V. Shatalova,

D. D. Aliev and B. V. Kazarinov.

Threshold l c o n c r e t e ) ~

Road

Section 1-1
Section 2 - 2

/-

Prefab. concrete slabs

Reinforced concrete I
Reinforced concrete

Concrete, type 100, layer 6 cm

L c o s t -in- dace.
concrete, iype ioo

Stilling basin--/

I/

~ock-fillin~-q-

'(E~o?)

L ~ ~ 100,
p ecost -in - place,
concrete loyer 6 crn

Concrete slobs
d

Cross section 4 - 4

PIPE DROP
Type 100, cost-in-place
concrete layer 10 cm
(All dimensions are in cm

- REGULATOR

threshold (the height of which i s equal to the difference between the water depth in
the channel and i t s critical depth a t threshold) i s provided to prevent a drop of the
upstream water level.
The inclined pipe, consisting of bell and spigot jointed pipes, 5 m long,
60 cm o r 80 cm in diameter, and the stilling basin, a r e constructed of reinforced
A small length of pipe with bevelled edges i s inserted where the pipe

concrete.

The pipe joints a r e packed with tow and mineral wool,

levels off to the horizontal.

impregnated with bitumen and cement grouted.

A cylindrical stilling basin with a ring diaphragm a t the end i s provided
a t the end of the pipeline.

Reinforced concrete slabs set on a gravel bed secure

the inlet and downstream p a r t s of the structure in place.

A rock-filled support i s

provided'at the inlet and a t the end of the protected section.

These s t r t c t u r e s a r e equipped with slide gates and screw jacks and the
gate f r a m e s a r e secured to the inlets with bolts and rubber packing.
6. 12. 6. 3

Design formula
Maximum discharge capacity i s given by the formula:

where

( P)

diameter of the pipe.

This formula has been deduced on the basis of laboratory t e s t s a t the

Central Asia Scientific and Research Institute of Irrigation.
The head,

Hc,

with a f r e e opening, according to laboratory t e s t

data, i s assumed a s follows :

where

C1

0.'8

H'

and

specific u p s t r e a m energy relative to the floor of the

stilling basin; equal to the height between the u p s t r e a m
energy line and the floor of the stilling basin

the depth of flow with n o r m a l discharge a t the beginning

of the hydraulic jump, and

the discharge downstream p e r m e t r e m e a n width of the

channel,

(bas)l

H(j)l

where s s

side slope.

Reciprocal depths downstream a r e calculated f r o m Table 6- 19 using

formulas:-11

and

where

and

H(rec)l

H(rec)2

'

reciprocal depth of flow with a discharge, considered

a s controlling, a t the beginning of the hydraulic jump

'=

r e c i p r o c a l depths of flow corresponding to discharge,

considered a s controlling, a t the end of the hydraulic
jump

specific u p s t r e a m energy relative to floor of the

stilling basin; equal to the height between the
u p s t r e a m energy line and the'floor of the stilling basin.

(bas)

C' and C"

a r e coefficients whose values a r e given in Table 6- 19.

TABLE

-1/

according to Agroskin

6-19

It i s a s s u m e d that t h e velocity coefficient i s 0.8; the coefficient of

hydraulic jump submergence

C(js)

1.1.

The length of the downstream protected section i s calculated according

to the following formula, (deduced a t the l a b o r a t o r y ) :

-1

where

B2

6. 12. 6 . 4

(ss) YZ

Standard designs

The s t r u c t u r e s a r e designed f o r maximum d i s c h a r g e s of 0 . 4 and

3
0 . 8 5 m / s for d r o p s of 100 and 200 cm. Channel depths a r e a s s u m e d a t 60 and
80 c m according to pipe d i a m e t e r s 60 and 80 c m .
The height of the embankment above the u p s t r e a m and downstream
w a t e r l e v e l s i s 30 cm.
6.12. 6. 5

Numerical example (for type TPR-80- 100)

Data given
Pipe diameter,

0.60m

1.Om

1.2m

0.6m

(ss)

1.5

Coefficient of hydraulic jump

submergence, C
(js)

1.1.

D(~)

Hydraulic drop, H

(dr)

Downstream bed width,

Downstream canal depth,

B2
y2

It i s n e c e s s a r y to calculate the discharge capacity and the length of

the protected section

L(~rot)

According t o the formula

The head a t the threshold of the s t r u c t u r e

Hc

0.86 D

(P)

0.86

0. 60

0.52 m

The depth a t the beginning of the hydraulic jump:

0.8

A f i r s t approximation :

F r o m Table 6-19; f o r H ( ~ ) = 0.15 and for interpolation:

Taking into consideration the coefficient of hydraulic jump

submergence
'(j s )

1.1

The length of the protected section

6.13

8 .

3.85 m,

0.436.
Say

1.1
4.00 m.

FARM DROP STRUCTURES

General
Drops in f a r m channels a r e basically of the same type and function
similarly to those in distribution canals, the only differences being that the f a r m
drops a r e smaller and their construction and equipment a r e simpler.

They a r e

m o r e often than not provided with a check gate, which may be a simple slide gate
o r a wooden shutter.

Vertical drops a r e the most frequently used.

F a r m drops

should comprise: a cut-off wall, long and deep enough to prevent leakage and bypassing of the water a t the flanks; an opening with slots for a check gate; and a
stilling pool with some f o r m of end sill.

In 1971 the USDA Soil and Water Conservation Service published r e s u l t s of

field t e s t s of 16 different types of f a r m irrigation drop- check structures (60).
Out of the conclusions drawn, the following five m e r i t quotation h e r e .
"(1) Although there did not appear to be a consistent relationship between the
amount of scour and the end-sill height, visual observation indicated that t h e r e
was a greater degree of turbulence with the high sills.
( 2 ) Structures having relatively wide basins performed better than those
with narrow basins.

The narrow basins contracted and accelerated the flow,

resulting in higher exit velocities; the wide basins provided a l a r g e r flow a r e a

and thus a lower velocity.
(3) With adequate tailwater depth,

a trapezoidal stilling basin gave good

hydraulic performance: without sufficient tailwater, the performance was poor

and high velocity caused excessive downstream erosion.

(4) F o r relatively s m a l l s t r u c t u r e s and water depths, a n o n - a e r a t e d nappe

contributed to good stilling within the s t r u c t u r e .

(5) With adequate cut-off depth and head wall length, head wall s t r u c t u r e s
with a gravel-lined b a s i n o r plunge pool w e r e the m o s t economical and the m o s t
effective s t r u c t u r e s t e s t e d .

6. 13. 2

"

Head Wall D r o p with G r a v e l B a s i n

The s t r u c t u r e d e s c r i b e d in conclusion ( 5 ) quoted above i s p e r h a p s the m o s t
economical type of f a r m d r o p under a l l conditions.
m a y be m a d e of c o n c r e t e o r m a s o n r y .

The head wall o r cut-off wall

The wall should be m a d e considerably

s t r o n g e r than i n the s t r u c t u r e s having supporting walls in the direction of flow.

- T h u s , for a m a s o n r y wall the thickness should be a t l e a s t 30 cm, for unreinforced
c o n c r e t e 20 c m and for r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e 10 c m .

The width of opening r e q u i r e d

m a y b e calculated f r o m the f o r m u l a given in Section 6. 2.

The length of the g r a v e l

b a s i n m a y be taken a s approximately 3 to 4 t i m e s the difference between the

u p s t r e a m and d o w n s t r e a m bed l e v e l s .
c r e s t length of the opening.

Figure

The width should be about 1.5 t i m e s the

6-67 shows t h i s type of d r o p with a

h e a d wall m a d e of p r e - c a s t c o n c r e t e .

FIGURE 6-67.

P r e - c a s t c o n c r e t e head wall d r o p (60).

Cement Block Check and Drop

Figure 6-68 shows a design of a cement block check and drop a s developed
and used successfully in Canada.
the c r e s t height above the pool.

The length of the stilling pool i s about twice

This relatively short .distance i s compensated

for by the downstream gravel protection.

Wooden door

Concrete

Flow

8 x b i 16 block8

Wooden doo

6 x 8 x 16 blocks
Directions
I. Dig down os shown by survey.
. 2 . Stock blocks t o desired shope for correct
locotion of 'woll ond h e i ~ h tof sill.
3. Pour concrete in cores of blocks-eoch
row seporotely.
4 . Pour remoining concrete for splosh ond
floor. .
5. Any steel (spud links,etc.) in cores will
( A l l dimensions i n inches )

FIGURE 6-68.
(Canada).

greotly strengthen the structure.

Cement block check and drop structure

Concrete Check Drop

The structure shown in Figure 6-69 i s widely used in the U. S. A. where i t
i s usually made in p r e - c a s t reinforced concrete with a wall thickness of 7.5 to

to 10 cm.

The main dimensions are shown in the figure and in the tables below:

FIGURE 6-69. - Concrete check drop ( U . S. A. ).

Capacity of
ditch in
11 s

60
170
230
280
400

Width of
opening W
cm

cm

30
60
75
90
105

30
30
38
46
46

Drop (D)
-

30
45
60
90

H
*

'

cm

cm

15
15
15
20
20

60
60
60
75
90

Length of Apron (L)

rn

75
90
120
180

6. 13.5

Wooden D r o p
F i g u r e s 6-70 and 6-71 show designs of wooden d r o p s for d i s c h a r g e
capacities of

100 l / s t o 250 l / s .

These designs w e r e introduced some 30 y e a r s

ago by the USDA Soil Conservation Service and they have proved suitable and
economical.

The wood u s e d for the s t r u c t u r e should b e thoroughly impregnated

before assembly.

Piped ~ r o ~ s

6. 1 3 . 6

A simple pipe d r o p s t r u c t u r e recommended by the USDA Soil Conservation

Service f o r f a r m i r r i g a t i o n s y s t e m s i s shown in F i g u r e 6-72.

The figure a l s o

provides the n e c e s s a r y data f o r design capacities f r o m 45 11s ( 1 . 6 f t / s ) to

Protection by r i p - r a p , g r a v e l o r concrete lining m a y be

105 11s ( 3 . 7 f t 3 / s ) .

r e q u i r e d on e r o s i v e s o i l s .
concrete pipe.

The corrugated m e t a l pipe m a y be substituted by a

The s t e e l b a r r e l d r o p shown in F i g u r e 6-73 i s a simple and cheap pipe d r o p

recommended by the Alberta Department of Agriculture, Canada.

The following formula and table m a y be used for design purposes :

where

discharge in f 3 / s

pipe a r e a f t

head differential

pipe length

head l o s s coefficient.

lide. See
below

g-ODMin.

I-

PLAN

subst~tutedhere

DETAIL OF GATE GUIDE

Use when drop serves
as a check

Pressure treat oll lumber w ~ t hcreosote and use cement

c o o t ~ dn o ~ l s
Corr~ogebolts moy be substl tuted for n o ~ l swhere ~ndlcoted,~f deslred Upstreom
jolnts moy be covered w ~ t hloth bottens to moke
structure more water-t~ght
Bs Bottom w~dthof openlng
b = Bose width of dltch
d =Depth of water In d~tch
H =He~ghtof fall In woter surfaces
L = Lengf h of opron
Q= Cublc feet per second

WOODEN DROP STRUCTURE

FOR CHANNEL DEPTH
20 cm ( 8 inches )

OMETRIC VIEW

SECTION X- X

DETAIL OF GATE GUIDE

Corr~ogebolts may be substituted

cooted nolls
for nolls where lnd~cated~f deslred Upstream joints
moy be covered w ~ t hloth battens to make structure

Use when drop serves

as a check
water surfaces

PLAN
ISOMETRIC VIEW OF
CONCRETE SLAB

water Surfoc*

(See no*

No.

(I)

Top of Ditch Bonk -,

water Surfac*>

SECTIONAL ELEVATION ON CENTER LlNE

- -..
NOTES
SELECT A PIPE S I Z E THAT W I L L PROVIDE A GREATER CAPACITV THAN I S REQUIRED TO DISCHARGE
THE NORMAL STREAM USE0 W E N IRRIGATING. TRY TO KEEP THE VELOCITY I I THE P l P E B E L W
3 FPS BASE0 ON I O R W L I R R l G A T l I G STREAM.
W E R THE CMlRUGATEO METAL P I P E OROP I S U S I D AT A D I T C H CROSSIIG. INCREASE WIDTH OF
TOP OF DAY AND DIMENSIOI L2 BY 8'-0'
THE OROP (H) FOR ANY SPECIFIC STRUCTURE C A I BE IICREASED 3 IICHES BY PLAClIGrTHE TOP
OF THE RISER PIPE 3 l n c n c s BELW THE TOP OF THE CONCRETE FLOOR OF THE INLET
THE
THICKIESS
OF THE FLOOR SLAB ~OJICEIT
TO THE PIPE s n o u L o BE INCREASED 3 INCHES TO MAKE
A WATERTIGW CMlNECTlOI WITH THE PIPE. THE I N L E T TO THE P l P E SHOULD BE ROUNDED TO A
3 I I C H RADIUS TO SAVE FORMING AN0 IMPROVE THE EFFICIENCY OF THE INLET
THE DROP STRUCTURE I S FORMED BY CUTTING A STANDARD LEIGTH OF CORRUGATED WETAC P l P E
w n l c n IS M~IUFACTUREO II MULTIPLES OF 2 FT. IX LEIGTH.
01 A u 5 O &#OLE AND WELDING THE
C U i JOINTS TOGETHER TO F M l M A 90 BEN0
P l P E TO BE 1 6 GA CORRUGATED MET L
JOINT
BETWEEN HORIZONTAL A I D VERTIC&L PIECES OF P l P E TO BE BUTT WELOEO AND WATE!TlGIIT
SIX l N c n n r n o PLACEO RIP-RAP w r r BE s u s s r l r u r r o F ~ R
SLAB.

1.

3.

U.

cowrf

5.

NOMENCLATURE
d
o E n n OF WATER IN o l i c n
F
FREEBOARD I I DITCH
0
DIAMETER OF P l P E
R
LEIGTH OF VERTICAL P I P E ALONG CEMTER L l N E
12-LENGTHOFHORIZONTALPIPEALMGCENTERLIRE
V
VELOCITY OF PIPE
FPS
V O I S C L R G E THROiJCH PIPE C.F.S.
II DROP OF WATER SURFACE

--

--

T A B L E OF
CONCRETE Q U A N T I T I E S
O=IO'
0.15 CU.VDS.
0-12"
0 . 2 6 CU VOS
D=15.
029CUYOS

FAO-ICID

CORRUGATED METAL PIPE

DROP
Project, Region, Country
US A
Figure No. 6-72

FIGURE 6-7.3.
P i p e diameter
inches

Steel b a r r e l drop.

Values of C
Concrete pipe
Corrugated metal pipe

10

0.053

0.134

12

0.042

0.107

14

0.034

0.087

16

0.028

0.073

-6.13.7

Sloping Rock Drop

Another cheap drop design f r o m Canada i s shown in Figure 6-74.

It i s

suitable where greater falls, say 1. 5 to 3 m, a r e encountered, and where suitable

Gravel-fill between the rocks, o r grouting,

rock o r stone i s available locally.

improves greatly the durability of the structure.

."

to
N- - - ,

under 12
-Ditch

bc-

bed line

l+or more

Note:

I.Grovel (if ovoiloble) should be

used to fill between rocks.
2.Rocks con be grouted.

Ditch crosa section

FIGURE 6-74.

Sloping rock drop structure (Canada).

. 7.

7.1

7.1.1

STRUCTURES AND DEVICES FOR WATER MEASUREMENT

INTRODUCTION

Scope of this Chapter

The scope of this chapter i s restricted to the measurement of water in
irrigation systems and to methods of measurement which need only inexpensive,
but reliable and easily operated equipment.

Almost any kind of obstacle that

partially r e s t r i c t s the flow of water in an irrigation channel can be used a s a

measuring device, provided that i t can be calibrated.

However, the calibration

t e s t s n e c e s s a r y to detelop accurate ratings can be r a t h e r costly and time

consuming and justifiable only where the calibrated device i s to be utilized for
a number of different purposes, o r in the case of l a r g e structures outside the
scope of this Handbook.

F o r measuring small flows (say below 1000 11s) i t i s

nearly always preferable to use one of the numerous standard measuring devices
o r ratings already d e ~ e l o p e d . In this chapter emphasis i s placed on standard
devices, which a r e defined a s those which have been fully described, accurately
calibrated, correctly installed and have proved to be consistently successful in
operation.

Before proceeding to the descriptions of these various measuring

devices i t i s appropriate to r e c a l l a t this stage the reasons for the measurement

of irrigation water and where in the system such measurement should take place.

Why Measure ?
F o r efficient water distribution
Increased demand on available water r e s o u r c e s and ever increasing
irrigation development costs require that water be used economically and without
waste, and experience shows that this cannot be accomplished without water
measurement.

Measurements s e r v e to ensure the maintenance of proper delivery

schedules, t o determine the amounts of water delivered, to single out anomalies,

and t o estimate and detect the origin of conveyance l o s s e s .

F o r efficient water use at the f a r m level

More advanced knowledge of soil properties and soil m o i s t u r e / plant
relationships permits irrigation systems to be designed so that water can be
applied in the right amount and at the right time in relation to the soil moisture
status thereby obtaining maximum efficiency of water use and minimum damage
to the land.

This knowledge can be utilized m o s t effectively only by reasonably

accurate meagurement of the water applied.

F o r applied r e s e a r c h
To establish c r i t e r i a for efficient water use and management,field
t r i a l s and evaluation of existing irrigation a r e required f o r a number of i e a s o n s
such a s the evaluation of the efficiency of existing irrigation and to determine
intake r a t e s , s t r e a m sizes required, length of furrows and border runs, w a t e r
l o s s e s , etc.

Accurate water measuring devices a r e indispensable for such

t r i a l s and evaluations.

F o r socio-economic factors
Whether water be public o r private property, water m e a s u r e m e n t '
i s an important means f o r implementing a distribution pattern to meet actual
requirements o r legal rights o r both, and for providing a reasonable b a s i s for
estimating water charges.

If the charge to the u s e r i s based on the r a t e of

flow, then rate-of-flow measurements and adequate r e c o r d s a r e required.

Charges on the b a s i s of volume necessitate a volumetric measuring device,
o r a rate-of-flow device combined with a time recording device.

Ideally,

water flow should be measured at intakes from storage r e s e r v o i r s , canal

headworks, at strategic points in canals and l a t e r a l s and a t delivery points to
water u s e r s .

7.1.3

Where to Measure
In the terminal distribution system facilities for water measurement may
be required, o r be desirable at intakes to l a t e r a l canals (distributaries, e t c . )
o r at other bifurcation points.

Clearly the m o s t important point for m e a s u r e -

ment i s the f a r m outlet ( o r turnout) which i s the meeting point between the
management and the water u s e r s .

The degree of need for a measuring device at the outlet v a r i e s according to

the delivery system employed.

Delivery on demand usually r e l i e s upon the

measurement of water a s a basis for equitable distribution a s well a s for

computing possible water charges.

Where water i s distributed by rotation

among f a r m e r s along a l a t e r a l ( o r distributary o r "minor" canal) and where the

amount of water supplied to each f a r m e r m a y be different, a measuring device at
the turnout i s required.

On @e other hand, i f f a r m e r s along a l a t e r a l receive

water on the b a s i s of a r e a of land o r crops irrigated measurement i s not entirely

necessary, but may still be desirable for other purposes, such a s improvement
of irrigation efficiency.

Similarly, in all systems based on constant flow,

measurement i s not entirely n e c e s s a r y but may be advantageous.

Where s e v e r a l f a r m e r s s h a r e the water of each outlet and the flow in the
canal fluctuates considerably, each such outlet should be equipped with a
measuring device, ,even i f equitable distribution among outlets i s practised, so
that each group of f a r m e r s will know the flow available at any one time f r o m their
respective outlet.
It follows that i f all the irrigation water f r o m an outlet i s to be delivered
to one field ( o r f a r m ) a t a time, the measuring device on the outlet may be the
only one needed.

But, i f the supply i s divided between two o r m o r e ditches i t

m a y be desirable to install some kind of simple measuring device a t each offtake.

( F o r a comprehensive description of f a r m outlets s e e Chapter 5. )

7. 1 . 4

Limitations
Water measurement i s a difficult problem in many irrigated a r e a s : the
head available in the irrigation system may be too small to allow accurate
measurement; the varying water requirements on the f a r m s and supply
variations cause fluctuations in the levels of the water in canals o r variations in
velocity, o r both; the presence of weeds and silt, the difficulty of maintaining
close tolerances during construction and many other factors may reduce the
accuracy of water measurement.
Considering that there may be a l a r g e number of outlets on an irrigation
scheme, the introduction of a delivery system based on water measurement a t
turnouts may require a l a r g e and costly operating organization which may involve

problems of personnel, recruitment, training, etc.

The cost factor i s particularly important where f a r m units a r e small o r
economic r e t u r n s low.

In such c a s e s , simple devices with l e s s accuracy should

be selected ( e . g. calibrated shut-off gates a s discussed in Section 7. 8).

7.1.5

Methods, Structures and Devices Available

The weir i s the most practical and economical device for water m e a s u r e ment, provided t h e r e i s sufficient head available.

The three most commonly

used sharp-crested weirs a r e discussed in Section 7 . 2 .

Measuring flumes a r e extensively used in irrigation networks, where they
ape applicable to almost any flow condition.

Their m o s t significant advantages

a r e small head l o s s e s , reasonable accuracy over a l a r g e flow range, insensitivity

to velocity of approach, and little affected by sediment and debris transport.

Of

this category of measuring structure the P a r s h a l l flume i s treated in detail in

Section 7.4, and the Standing Wave Flume (India) in Chapter 6 because of i t s
other main application a s a drop.

Because of i t s future potential the Cut-throat

Flume, (on which experimental work has almost been completed) may become a
strong competitor to the P a r s h a l l and other flumes, and i s described for f r e e fall
conditions in Section 7 . 6 .

The cast-in-place Trapezoidal Flume i s also quoted

(7. 7), being a cheap and easily constructed device.

The use of the submerged orifice for the measyrement of water i s not
discussed h e r e since i t does not offer any advantage over the use of weirs (when
sufficient head i s available) o r flumes (for small head l o s s e s ) .

It i s however

discussed in reference (81).

Propeller m e t e r s a r e commercial flow measuring devices which have been
in use for a number of y e a r s and their advantages and limitations a r e discussed
in Section 7 . 9 .

They a r e particularly suited to systems where no head l o s s e s

can be permitted for water measurement and where water i s sold on a volumetric
basis.
F o r water measurement in small s t r e a m s , particularly in field ditches and
furrows and where head l o s s e s must be very small, the Deflection o r Vane Meter
h a s proved to be a useful device.

Two types of such m e t e r s a r e presented in

Section 7 . 10.
As pointed out e a r l i e r , the m o s t important point of flow restriction in the
terminal portion of an irrigation system i s the f a r m outlet ( o r turnout).

Many

outlets have been designed and calibrated to enable water measurement besides
the basic function of regulating the flow.

Some of the m o r e common ones a r e

the Flume Type Outlet, the Double Orifice Turnout, the Neyrpic Distributor, the
Meter Gate for culvert-type outlets, the Weir Box Turnout and the Dethridge
Meter Outlet.

The e r r o r of these devices under operational conditions i s

usually within the 5 5 % range but may exceed

+ 107'.

(A comprehensive

discussion of these outlets appears in Chapter 5. )

There a r e however a number of other outlets which have either not been
calibrated o r a r e not suitable for water measurement.

Where such s t r u c t u r e s

a r e used the installation of a separate standard type measuring device, located

some distance dowhstream of the outlet may be the best solution to obtain
sufficient accuracy in measurement without incurring further development o r
construction costs.

Trends
The evolution of water measurement techniques and devices h a s prog r e s s e d independently in many p a r t s of the world, the result being an abundance
of types and designs, each one developed to suit certain local conditions.
However, many such devices could serve a s well in other a r e a s .

There i s

also scope for certain desirable features of one device to be integrated with
those of another device to improve overall performance.

Refinement in

accuracy may be achieved by better calibration and by building structures m o r e

exactly to standard dimensions.

Structures may be further modified so a s to

become cheaper and e a s i e r to construct, such a s the Cut-throat Flume. F u r t h e r

standardization and calibration of distribution and control structures could add
to economies in water measurement, such a s for example the use of culverts a s
measuring devices.

7.2

SHARP CRESTED MEASURING WEIRS-i /

7.2.1

Synopsis
Weirs a r e probably the most extensively used devices for the measurement
of the r a t e of flow of water in open channels.
crested weirs, and broad crested weirs.
a r e discussed,

Weirs may be divided into:

sharp

In this section only s h a r p c r e s t e d weirs

Broad crested weirs a r e commonly incorporated in irrigation

structures but a r e not usually used to determine flow, with the exception of the
broad crested weir often known a s the "Romijn Gate", described in Section 7-3.
The types of sharp c r e s t e d weirs commonly used for measuring irrigation
water a r e the :

s h a r p crested contracted rectangular w e i r s

II

I'

suppressed

I. 1

"

and sharp sided trapezoidal (Cipolletti) weirs

11

s h a r p sided 90 V-notch weirs.

Each of these weirs h a s characteristics appropriate to particular operating

and site conditions.
(Figure 7- 1).

The Cipolletti i s perhaps the most frequently used type,

However, a considerable number of rectangular weirs may be

found in irrigation systems, notably at the f a r m level since they a r e simple in

construction and operation.

The 90'

V-notch weir gives the most accurate

r e s u l t s when measuring small discharges and i s particularly adapted t o the

measurement of fluctuating flows.

Measuring w e i r s require comparatively high

heads, considerable maintenance of the weir o r stilling pool and protection of the
channel downstream of the c r e s t .
good.

The accuracy of measurement i s comparatively

The selection of type and dimensions of the weir should in the f i r s t

instance be based on the expected r a t e of flow, o r the limits of the r a t e s in the

case of fluctuating s t r e a m s .
(i)

Consideration should be given to the following.

The head should be no l e s s than 6 cm (0.2.ft) for the expected r a t e of flow

and should not exceed 60 cm ( 2 ft).

L / ~ h einformation presented i s based largely on the US Bureau of Reclamation

Standards (81).

(ii)

F o r rectangular and trapezoidal weirs, the head should not exceed one-third
of the weir length.

(iii)

,The weir length should be selected.so that the head for design discharge will
be n e a r the maximum subject to the limitations in (i) and (ii).

(iv)

The c r e s t s should be placed high enough so that the water flowing over them
will fall freely, leaving an,airspace under and around the jets.

A weir, together with a turnout gate, operated with a f r e e falling nappe and
without submergence, may be considered a s a semi-module.

Any change in

upstream level results in a change of discF-rrge.

Calibration curves and tables have been developed for the standard type
weirs mentioned above and discharge through the weirs can be estimated readily
by reading the head recordedon a staff gauge against the table to obtain the
actual r a t e of flow.

FIGURE 7 - 1 . - Standard trapezoidal (Cipolletti) measuring

weir of 61 cm ( 2 ft) c r e s t length installed at a f a r m outlet.

Hydraulic Properties
When the water surface downstream from the bulkhead i s far enough below
the crest so that a i r moves freely to the area below the nappe, the weir i s said to
have free discharge, when the rate of flow can be determined from only the .
upstream gauge stick and a knowledge of the weir size and shape. (Figure 7-2).

Point t o rneosure depth H

Shorp- crested weir

Elevation of

--A

FIGURE 7-2. - Diagram of f r e e discharge contracted

weir showing position of staff gauge upstream.

If the water surface in the downstream channel does not permit free
aeration around the nappe the discharge may increaseddue to low pressure.

When

the water level r i s e s above the elevation of the c r e s t the flow i s considered to be
submerged; this may o r may not affect the discharge rate to a measurable
degree, but dependable measurements under these conditions cannot be expected.

However, when the downstream water level r i s e s above the weir c r e s t a distance
of about 66 per cent o r more of the head on the crest, the degree of submergence
will appreciably affect the rate of flow through the weir notch.

The rate of flow

can be determined under these submerged conditions provided that both the
upstream and downstream heads be measured and reference be made to submerged flow tables.

Submerged and non-ventilated flows a r e not desirable for

standard conditions and, except in unusual cases, should be avoided.

In most

c a s e s therefore weirs should be placed so a s to obtain ventilated and free-flow

discharge conditions.
If the weir notch be made of a relatively thin plate with a sharp upstream
edge and it be mounted on the supporting wall so that the water does not contact
the wall a s i t p a s s e s (i.e. i t "springs" past it), the weir i s called a s h a r p crested
weir.

If the weir notch be mounted in a wall too thick for the water to "spring"

past it, the weir i s classed a s broad crested.

Discharge coefficients and

discharge tables a r e usually obtained for broad crested weirs by calibrating the
weir in place.

Most measuring weirs a r e constructed a s sharp crested weirs.

When the distances from the ends o r sides of the weir notch to the sides of
the weir pool a r e great enough t o allow the sheet of water a f r e e and unconstrained
approach to the c r e s t , the water will flow uniformly and relatively slowly toward
the weir ends.

As the water from the sides of the channel n e a r s the notch, it

accelerates and turns to pass through the notch opening.

This turning effect

cannot occur instantaneously and a curved flow path o r contraction r e s u l t s with

the water "springing1' f r e e to form a jet narrower than the weir opening.

When

approach conditions allow contraction a t both the ends and a t the bottom of the jet
the weir i s called a contracted weir.

F o r contracted conditions, the ends of the

weir should not be closer to the sides of the channel than twice the head on the
weir.

F o r complete bottom contraction the weir c r e s t should be placed no closer

than 2H from the bottom of the channel (Figure 7-2).

Setting of Weirs
The setting of weirs according to accepted standards i s a s important a s the
use of standard dimensions and shapes.

Only then can the available rating tables

and graphs be applicable and individual calibrations be avoided.

Standard contracted rectangular weirs

The conditions and settings recommended for standard contracted
rectangular w e i r s a r e set forth below.

(i)

The upstream face of the bulkhead should be smooth and perpendicular

to the axis of the channel.

The upstream face of the weir plate should be smooth, straight and

(ii)

flush with the upstream face of the bulkhead.

The entire c r e s t should be a level, plane surface with a sharp,

(iii)

right-angled edge facing upstream.

The thickness of the c r e s t should

be between 1 and 2 m m (about 0.04 to 0.08 inches).

Both ends of

rectangular weirs should be. truly vertical and of the same thickness a s
the c r e s t .
The upstream c o r n e r s of the notch m u s t be sharp.

(iv)

They should

be machined o r filed perpendicular to the upstream face, and f r e e of

b u r r s o r scratches.

Knife edges should be avoided because they a r e

difficult to maintain.
The downstream edges of the notch should be chamfered i f the

(v)

plate i s thicker than the prescribed c r e s t width (iii).

should be a t an an angle of 45

(4

This chamfer

o r more.

The distance of the c r e s t f r o m the bottom of the approach channel

should preferably be not l e s s than twice the depth of water above the
c r e s t and in no case l e s s than 30 cm.
The distance f r o m the sides of the weir to the sides of the

( vii)

approach channel should preferably be no l e s s than twice the depth of

water above the c r e s t and never l e s s than 30 c m .
(viii)

The overflow sheet (nappe) should touch only the upstream edges
of the c r e s t and i t s sides.
Air should circulate freely both under and at the sides of the

(ix)
nappe

(x)

.
The measurement of head of the weir should be taken a s the

difference in elevation between the c r e s t and the water surface at that

point upstream f r o m the weir which i s at a distance of four t i m e s the
maximum head on the c r e s t .

(A staff gauge i s usually installed h e r e

having a graduated scale with zero placed at the same elevation a s

the weir c r e s t . )
(xi)

The cross-sectional a r e a of the approach channel should be a t

l e a s t eight t i m e s that of the overflow sheet a t the c r e s t for a distance

upstream from 15 to 20 times the depth of the sheet,.

(If the weir pool

i s ernaller than defined by these criteria, the velocity of approach may

.
7.2.3.2

be too high and the staff gauge too low. )

Standard suppressed rectangular weirs
The standard suppre seed rectangular weir requires the same con-

ditions for accuracy of measurement a s the contracted rectangular weir, except

for the conditions relating to side contraction. In the suppressed weir the sides of
the approach channel should be coincident with the sides of the weir, and should
extend downstream beyond the c r e s t to prevent horizontal expansion of the nappe.
7.2.3. 3

Standard trapezoidal (Gipolletti) weirs

The standard trapezoidal weir, for which the discharge tables given

herein a r e applicable, has a trapezoidal shape (see Figure 7-3) with the sides inclining at a slope of 1 (horizontal) to 4 (vertical). All conditions for accuracy
listed'in 7.2.3.1 for the contracted rectangular weir apl)iy to the trapezoidal weir.

FIGURE 7-3.
Permanent'trapezoidal weir discharging
under free flow conditions.

7.2.3.4

Standard 90 V-notch w e i r s
The c r e s t of the standard 90 V-notch weir consists of a thin plate,
the sides of the notch being inclined 45O f r o m the vertical.

This weir o p e r a t e s a s

a contracted weir and all conditions for a c c u r a c y stated f o r the standard contracted
rectangular weir apply again.

The minimum distances of the s i d e s of the weir

f r o m the channel banks should be a t l e a s t twice the head on the weir, and should be
m e a s u r e d f r o m the intersection points of the maximum water surface with the
edges of the weir.

The minimum distance f r o m the notch to the pool bottom

should be a t l e a s t twice the head on the w e i r , m e a s u r e d f r o m the point (apex) of

the notch t o the channel floor.
Because of the shape of this weir the head required f o r a s m a l l flow
through i t i s g r e a t e r than that required with the other types of w e i r s with a long
horizontal c r e s t .

This m a k e s i t particularly suited to m e a s u r e s m a l l flows with

high accuracy.

7.2.4

Hydraulic F o r m u l a e and Discharge Measurement

7.2.4.1

Standard contracted rectangular w e i r s

Numerous formulae have been developed for computing the discharge
of rectangular, s h a r p c r e s t e d w e i r s with complete contraction.
and generally accepted one i s the F r a n c i s f o r m u l a :

where Q

discharge in m 3 p e r second

length of c r e s t in m

head in m o r the vertical difference between the

elevation of the weir c r e s t and the elevation of the
water surface in the weir pool.

Equivalent in English units :

3

where Q

discharge in ft 3 p e r second

length of c r e s t in ft

head in ft

The m o s t popular

TABLE

7-1

Discharge of Standard Contracted Rectangular Weirs' (in m 3 per s e c ) -11

Length of Weir L (cm)

Head
H(cm)

15.00

25.00

50.00

75.00

100.00

125.00

*150.00

175.00

200.00

.50
1.00
1.50
2.00
2. 50
3.00
3.50
4.00
4. 50
5.00

.0001
.0003
.0005
.0008
.0011
.0014
.0017
.0021
.0025
.0029

.0002
.0005
.0008
.0013
.0018
.0023
.0029
.0036
.0042
.0049

.0003
.0009
.0017
.0026
.0036
.0047
.0059
.0072
.0086
.0101

.0005
.0014
.0025
.0039
.0054
.0071
.0089
.0109
.0130
.0152

.0006
.0018
.0033
.0051
.0072
.0095
.0119
.0145
.0173
.0203

.0008
.0022
.0042
.0064
.0090
0 118
.0149
.0182
.0217
.0254

.0009
.0027
.0050
.0077
.0108
.0142
.0179
.0219
.0261.0306

.0011
.0032
.0059
.0090
.0126
.0166
.0209
.0256
-0305
.0357

.0013
.0036
.0067
.0103
.0145
.0190
.0239
.0293
.0349
.0409

TABLE 7- 1 (Cont'd.)

Head
H( c m )

Length of Weir L ( c m )
15.00

25.00

50.00

75.00

100.00

125.00

150.00

175.00

200.00

TABLE 7-1 ( C o n t t d . )

Head
H( c m )

Lkngth of Weir L ( c m )
15.00

100.00

125.00

150.00

175.00

200.00

42.00
42.50
43.00
43.50
44.00
44.50
45.00

.4583
,4660
.4738
.4815
.4893
.4971
.5050

.5834
.5934
.6034
.6134
.6235
.6336
.6437

.7085
.7207
.7330
.7452
.7576
.7700
.7825

.8336
.8481
.8626
.8771
.8917
.9064
.9212

.9587
.9754
.9921
1.0090
1.0259
1.0429
1.0599

45.50
46.00
46.50
47.00
47.50
48.00
48.50
49.00
49.50
50.00

.5129
.5208
.5287
.5366
.5446
.5526
.5607
.5687
.5768
.5849

.6539
.6642
.6744
.6847
.6951
.7055
.7159
.7264
.7369
.7474

.7950
.8075
.8202
.8328
.8456
.8583
.8712
.8840
.8970
.9099

.9360
.9509
.9659
.9809
.9960
1.0112
1.0264
1.0417
1.0570
1.0724

1.0771
1.0943
1.1116
1.1290
1.1465
1.1640
1.1816
1.1993
1.2171
1.2349

-1/

25.00

50.00

75.00

Values determined partly experimentally, partly f r o m the formula

Q = 3. 33 (L

- 0.2H) H'

and convertbd to m e t r i c unit? (81)

Table 7 - 1 gives the discharges of standard contracted rectangular

weirs for 9 different lengths and for heads ranging f r o m 0 . 5 to 50 cm.

The table

i s intended to be used for discharge measurements of standard rectangular weirs

but may serve a s well for their design.

The discharge data may be interpolated

for other lengths of weir if their corresponding heads do not exceed one-third of
the c r e s t length.
An improved. method for computing r a t e s of flow through rectangular
thin-plated .weirs h a s been developed by Kindsvater and C a r t e r .

In their formula

they have introduced the effective coefficient of discharge, the effective weir
length and the effective weir head in o r d e r to take account of effects of relative
depth and width of approach channel and of velocity of approach.

Since the

formula i s hardly ever used in the measurement of irrigation water with small
s t r u c t u r e s i t i s not elaborated on h e r e , but reference may be made to (61) and (81).
Standard suppressed rectangular weirs

7.2.4. 2

F o r computation of discharge of the standard suppressed rectangular

weir the Rehbock formula and the F r a n c i s formula a r e commonly used.
diagram shown in Figure 7-4 i s based on the Rehbock formula:

where
Q

d i s c h a r g e i n m 3 per second

u
,

discharge coefficient

length of weir c r e s t in m

headinm

The discharge coefficient u

,

i s determined from:

where

distance from the c r e s t to the bottom of the approach

channel in millimetr e s

head in m i l l i m e t r e s

The

Somplc calculation
Given:

D =60

L =
H=

80

Measured:
Wanted:

9 =

38

P = 4 6 0 x 0.80
3 6 8 1/r

0 =

'

10

3
30

4
40

@
@

2
20

I00

200

400

6 7 8 9 1 0
60
loo
600
8 0 0 1000

per m crest length

- Discharge over a suppressed rectangular

weir per metre of creet length.

FIGURE 7 - 4 .

According to Swiss standard (SIA No. 109)

D should not be s m a l l e r than H,
Dmin

300mm

Hmin

25 m m

Hm,

800 m m

H
D

(- 6

1 ),

The US B u r e a u of Reclamation (81) recommends that D should be a t l e a s t

(D 2 Z H ) ,

2 t i m e s H,

Hmin

60 m m (below this the nappe may not spring f r e e of the c r e s t )

The US Bureau of Reclamation u s e s the F r a n c i s formula

where

discharge in f t 3 p e r second

length of weir c r e s t in ft

headinft

F o r discharge t a b l e s in English units r e f e r e n c e m a y be made to (81).

Standard trapezoidal (Cipolletti) w e i r s

Taking the F r a n c i s formula a s a b a s i s , Cipolletti h a s developed the
following formula f o r t h i s type of weir :

where
3

length of the c r e s t in ft

head in ft o r the v e r t i c a l difference between the elevation

of the weir c r e s t and the elevation of the water surface in
the weir pool

d i s c h a r g e in ft

p e r second

TABLE

7-2

Discharge of Standard Trapezoidal Weir e (CIPOLLETTI)

1/
(in m 3 per sec) -

Head
H( cm)

Length of Weir L (cm)

15.00

25.00

50.00

75.00

100.00

125.00

150.00

175.00

200.00

TABLE 7 - 2 (Contld.)

Head
H(cm)

Length of Weir L ( c m )
15.00

25.00

50.00

75.00

100.00

125.00

150.00

175.00

200.00

TABLE .7-2 (Conttd.)

Length of Weir L (cmf

Head

H (4 15.00

-1 /

25.00

50.00

75.00

100.00

125.00

150.00

175.00

200.00

Values determined partly experimentally, partly from the formula

P = 3. 367 LH

and converted to metric units (81)

Metric equivalent :

where

discharge in m

length of c r e s t in m

headinm

per second

Table 7-2 computed f r o m this formula and partly f r o m experiments

gives discharges over standard trapezoidal weirs of nine different c r e s t lengths
and for heads f r o m 0.5 cm to 50 cm.
Discharge measurements using the Cipolletti weir and the above
formula a r e not a s accurate a s those obtained from rectangular weirs using the
F r a n c i s formula, but accuracy i s sufficient for general irrigation use.
The discharge figures m a y be interpolated for other lengths of weir

if corresponding heads do not exceed one-third of the c r e s t length.

7.2.4.4

Standard 90 V-notch weirs

Of the several well known formulae used to compute the discharge
over 90 V-notch

weirs the formula recommended by the WMO (Ref. 61) i s

quoted h e r e :

<

where
3

discharge in m

acceleration due to gravity in m / s e c

Cd

coefficient of discharge

headinm

per second
2

Cd i s a function of H and fluid property.

3
Table 7 - 3 gives discharges in m / s multiplied by 10 for heads from 5 to

38 cm.

TABLE
Discharge of

7-3

3
90 V-notch Weirs (in m / s x 10)

-5

Computed from the Formula Q =

Head
m

Discharge
m 3 / s x 10

Head
m

BJG~
15

Discharge
m 31 s x 10

Head
m'

(61)

Discharge
m 3 / s x 10

F o r the English system of units the Cone formula, recommended by

the USBR, i s quoted :

where
Q

discharge in second-feet

head in feet o r the vertical distance between the elevation of the

vertex o r lowest p a r t of the.notch and the elevation of the water
surface in the weir pond.

Table 7-4 i e computed f r o m the Cone formula f o r heads f r o m 0.20 t o

1.25 f t ( 6 1 t o 380 mm).

TABLE
Discharge of

7-4

V-notch Weirs (in second-feet)

2.48
Computed f r o m the F o r m u l a Q = 2.49 H
(81)

Head in
feet

Discharge
in secondfeet

90'

Head in
feet

Discharge
in secondfeet

Head in
feet

Discharge
in secondfeet

FIGURE 7 - 5 (a) and (b). - Small temporary V-notch

w e i r s made of sheet metal, (being used for studies on
irrigation efficiency and water l o s s e s ) .

7.2;5

Construction of Measuring Weirs

Measuring w e i r s m a y be t e m p o r a r y o r permanent.
be portable.

Temporary w e i r s may

F o r e a r t h channels portable w e i r s m a y be made f r o m sheet steel

cut approximately t o the shape of the c r o s s section of the channel but r a t h e r

larger.,
of weirs).

The weir opening in the sheet m u s t be cut carefully ( s e e 7. 2. 3 on setting

F i g u r e 7-5 (a) and (b) shows portable 90 V-notch w e i r s m a d e of

3 m m and 5 mm sheet m e t a l respectively and F i g u r e 7-6 gives an example of a

suitable design.

FIGURE 7-6.
w e i r plate.

Example of a design f o r a 90 V-notch

In lined channels temporary measuring w e i r s may be installed in a bulkhead

made of wood o r other m a t e r i a l that has been sealed in place.

Another possibility

i s to use existing structures, such a s division boxes o r checks for measurements

by temporarily substituting the gate with a weir plate.
Permanent measuring weirs may be constructed in almost the same way a s
check o r drop s t r u c t u r e s (Chapter 6) and by applying standard proportions between
weir opening, bulkhead and weir pool a s indicated above.

Again for accuracy the

weir c r e s t should always be formed of a thin plate of strong m a t e r i a l such a s

Measuring weirs a r e sometimes built a s an integral p a r t of f a r m

sheet steel.

outlets, (an example of a design for this type i s given in Chapter 5).
Maintenance of weirs i s very important i f dependable measurements a r e to
be obtained over a long period of time.

7.3

7.3.1

Maintenance involves :

keeping the pool f r e e f r o m excessive deposits and weeds

preventing leakage through and around the weir structure

checking the elevation of the gauge in relation to the c r e s t
checking the condition of the c r e s t and r e - d r e s s i n g i t if required.

THE ROMIJN BROAD CRESTED WEIR-1/

General
The Romijn weir was developed by the irrigation service in Indonesia a s a
regulating and measuring device for use in relatively flat irrigated regions
where the water demand i s variable because of different requirements during the
growing season.

A description of the weir was published for the f i r s t time in 1932 by D. G.

Romijn (134),

after whom the structure has been named.

The Romijn weir consists of two sliding blades and a movable weir, c r e s t
which a r e mounted in one steel guide frame, (Figure 7-7).

" Based on information provided by M. G.

The bottom blade,

Bos, Irrigation Design Engineer,

Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement, The Netherlands.

which i s locked in place under operational conditions acts a s the bottom

terminal for the movable weir.

The upper blade, which i s connectdd to the

bottom blade by means of two ateel s t r i p s placed in the frame grooves, acts a s
the top terminal for the movable weir.
steel strips to a horizontal lifting beam.

The movable weir i s connected by two

The horizontal weir c r e s t i s

perpendicular to the water flow and slopes 1 : 25 upward in the direction of flow.
Its upetream nose i s rounded off in such a way that flow separation does not
occur.
The operating range of the weir equals the maximum upstream head
(Hcrt)

which hae been selected for the dimensioning of the regulating structure.

Upper slide

Grooves

y Lcr? = 0.78 Hlcrtl'lmox

Zero level
-----of crest

Movoble weir crest

Stobilizinp console

.-

FIGURE 7-7. - Romijn broad crested weir, sliding

blades and movable weir crest.

Weir Abutments
The weir abutments a r e vertical and a r e rounded in such a way that flow
separation does not occur.
regular velocity distribution.

There i s a rectangular approach channel to ensure

The total upstream head over the weir (Hcrt) i s

measured in this approach channel a t a distance of between two and three t i m e s

Hicrt)max

upstream of the weir.

The dimensions of the abutments should comply with those indicated in

Figure 7-8.

Aeration groove-

Diverted flow

Side s l o v
of c o n a l

FIGURE 7-8.
Romijn broad crested welr,
hydraulic dimensions of weir abutments.
Undet certa* circumstances the radius ( r ) of the rounding-off of the
bbiutriients may be reduced, so that r
instance, if :

>,

Hot.

This will happen, for

(a)

the average flow velocity, v, in the undivided main canal i s low

so that t h e r e i s little danger of flow separation; in other words,
-1

i f the Froude Number, F r =

v (

%)',

i s equal to o r l e s s than

0.10, where g i s the acceleration due to gravity,

A i s the c r o s s -

sectional a r e a of flow, and B i s the channel width at the f r e e

water surface;
(b)

the centreline of the weir structure i s parallel to o r coincides

with the centreline of the undivided supply canal (in-line
structure);

(c)

the water i s drawn directly from a storage basin.

'If several movable weirs a r e combined in a single structure, intermediate

p i e r s should be provided so that two-dimensional flow i s preserved over each

weir unit, allowing the upstream head over the weir to be measured independently
p e r unit.

The parallel section of the pier should therefore commence at a.point

1

located at a distance of H(crt) max upstream of the head measurement station and
extend to the downstream edge of the weir c r e s t .

P i e r s should have streamlined

noses, i. e. of semi-circular o r semi-elliptical profile ( 1 to 3 axes).

To avoid

s h a r p curvatures at the cut-waters, the thickness of the intermediate p i e r s

should be equal to o r m o r e than 0 . 6 5

HI

( crt)max

with a minimum of 0. 30 m .

Measurement of Head
.
I

To limit the effects of draw-down and to ensure that the energy l o s s between
the section of measurement and the upstream edge of the weir c r e s t i s negligible,
the total upstream head over the weir ( H ~ , ~ must
)
be measured at a point located
at a distance of between two and three times the total maximum energy head over
the weir upstream of the (imaginary) weir face.

Since.the weir c r e s t moves up

and down, a fixed staff gauge cannot be used to obtain a value for the upstream
head over the c r e s t .
A variety of devices for measuring head requiring two readings for the

calculation of the upstream head have been developed, but these a r e l e s s accurate
and m o r e liable to lead to e r r o r s in the determination of Hcrt than a device that
r e q u i r e s one reading only.

Of the latter type, the most simple and reliable i s a

staff gauge that t r a v e l s up and down with the weir c r e s t .

Zero level of this gauge

coincides with the downstream edge over the weir c r e s t (control section), s o that
the upstream head over the c r e s t equals the degree of immersion of the gauge.
Depending on circumstances, t h e r e a r e two ways in which the gauge can be
fixed to the movable weir :
Where the water surface in the approach channel i s smooth (no waves),

(i)

where n a r r o w intermediate p i e r s a r e to be used, o r where no g r e a t

accuracy of gauge readings i s required, the gauge may be located in the
approach channel a s n e a r a s possible to one of the abutments.

A steel

beam i s then welded o r bolted perpendicular to the lifting beam and

extended to the head measurement section.

A second beam i s welded o r

bolted to the movable weir 0. 15 m below c r e s t level, and this i s also

extended to the head measurement section.

The ends of the beams a r e

connected via a steel o r hardwood support to which the gauge i s mounted.

Where wave action in the approach channel makes i t difficult to make

(ii)

gauge readings; o r where t h e r e i s a r i s k of the gauge o r i t s support being

damaged by floating debris, the gauge should be located in a rectangular
stilling o r gauge well.

In such circumstances the lifting beam should be

extended on either the left o r right hand side of the guide f r a m e to just
above the well.

Attached to the end of the extended beam i s a vertical

support to which the gauge i s mounted. To ensure accurate gauge readings,

the length of this rectangular well a s measured f r o m the face of the gauge
should be equal to o r g r e a t e r than two times the maximum depth to the
water surface in the well; i t s width should not be l e s s than 0. 20 m .
If desired, the m e t r e scale on the vertical staff can be replaced by a scale
in m

/s

o r l i t r e s / s so that the immersion of the scale equals the weir discharge;

(i.e. any changes in the upstream head over the c r e s t , and thus any changes in

the weir discharge caused by the vertical movement of the weir and/or a change
in water level in the approach channel, can be read direct without a time l a g . )
Since the f i r s t gauge arrangement (i) i s liable to damage by floating debris
and to some extent by vandalism, i t i s advisable to use the latter arrangement
(ii) a s a standard solution.

If the rectangular gauge well i s used a s a stilling well t o prevent

oscillations of the water s u r f a c e caused by surging water and wave action, the
d i a m e t e r of the inlet pipe o r slot width (D ) i s limited by the minimum c r o s s P
sectional a r e a of flow a t the head m e a s u r e m e n t station (A,~,)
a s follows :

The pipe o r slot should have i t s opening a t l e a s t 0 . 5 m below the lowest

c r e s t level and i t should t e r m i n a t e flush with and perpendicular to the boundary
of the approach channel.

Provision for F r e e Flow Conditions

7.3.4

The flow over the weir i s independent of variations in the tailwater head
over the weir c r e s t ( H ~ provided
~ ~ ) this downstream head does not r i s e above a
c e r t a i n amount of the u p s t r e a m head over the weir (Hcrt).
c r i t i c a l flow in the tailwater channel,

the ratio

provide f r e e flow (modular flow).

7.3.5

Hdwl

If we a s s u m e sub-

should not exceed 0. 66 to

Hcrt

Hydraulic P r o p e r t i e s
The shape of the weir c r e s t a s introduced by Vlugter ( 1 3 6 ) in 1940 h a s the
following advantages over a truly flat and horizontal round-nosed weir :
a.

the length of the weir in the direction of flow ( L ~ , ~required

)
to
produce a m o r e o r l e s s constant value of the d i s c h a r g e coefficient
(Cd) can be reduced, so that the r a t i o H

~ :~ L c) r t~ i~s l e, s s

than 0.78, which c o r r e s p o n d s with a reduction of L c r t by about 40%;

b.

the l o s s of head due t o friction above the weir c r e s t i s reduced,

resulting in a 4% higher discharge coefficient;

c.

the movable p a r t of the s t r u c t u r e i s s m a l l e r and thus m o r e rigid;

d.

both the s t e e l s t r u c t u r e and the weir abutments a r e m o r e economical.

The general stage discharge equation for a b r o a d - c r e s t e d weir with

rectangular control section r e a d s

where Cd i s the discharge coefficient,

i s the approach velocity coefficient,

C;,

g i s the acceleration due t o gravity, and Bt i s the width ( o r breadth) of the weir
a c r o s s the direction of flow.
The value of the discharge coefficient,
laboratory t e s t s , (Vlugter. Cohen, Groot).
of the r a t i o H'
crt

e
.-U
.-u

l.06

1.05

. Lcrt

*,-

Averoge Cd reduction
due to friction/
1

.- 1.00
0-99

Variation of Cd values a s a function

1-04

h a s been determined in

i s illustrated i n e ~ i g u r 7-9.
e

.+I

"u 1.03 8 1.02 U

1.01

ope rot in^ ronge of the movoble ROMIJN rneor~ring/re~ulotingweir 1

'C

Cd

- W q t
i

101

I
I

0.4
0'2 Heft/ Lcrt
0'3 (dimensionlesr)
Rotio

0.3

0.6

= 0-60 m

Doto offer d a Groot (19721,

Doto of ter Cohen (19531, Lcrt = 0-30m

FIGURE 7-9. - Values of Cd a s a function of the

r a t i o Hcrt : Lcrt f o r the Romijn weir.

F o r field s t r u c t u r e s with concrete abutments, i t i s advisable to u s e an

a v e r a g e value f o r Cd, equal to unity.
The maximum percentage e r r o r in Cd can be expected to be l e s s than 3%
if an average value Cd = 1.00 i s used.
Values f o r the approach velocity (Cv) a r e shown in F i g u r e 7- 10 a s a

Hb-c ) where H
i s the height
(b- c)
of the weir c r e s t above the bottom of the rectangular approach channel.
function of the r a t i o Cd Hcrt : (Hcrt

FIGURE 7- 10. - Approach velocity coefficient,

for rectangular approach channels.

Cv,

Limits of Application
The practical lower limit of Hcrt i s related to the roughness of the sloping
'

weir blade, to the fluid properties, and to the accuracy a t which gauge readings
can be made.

The recommended lower limit i s 0.05 m or 0.12 Lcrt whichever

i s greater.
The width (or breadth) of the weir c r e s t (Bt) should not be l e s s than
0. 30 m , nor l e s s than the maximum value of the total energy head

over the weir c r e s t .

The height of the weir c r e s t above the bottom of the approach channel
H(b-c) should not be l e s s than 0.15 m , nor l e s s than 0.33

HI

(crt)max

'

whichever i s g r e a t e r .

In o r d e r to obtain a reasonably constant discharge coefficient, Cd, the

r a t i o Hcrt : Lcrt

7.3.7

should not exceed 0.78.

Commonly Used Weir Dimensions

It will be noted that a l l dimensions given h e r e of both the weir and i t s
abutments a r e r e l a t e d to the maximum value selected for the total energy head
over the weir c r e s t

(HI

( c r t ) m a x)

The l o s s of head (hc) r e q u i r e d f o r modular flow i s a l s o r e l a t e d to the total

energy head a s h c

>

0.33 H'
(crt)max

'

Since a limiting factor in m o s t relatively flat i r r i g a t i o n a r e a s i s the

available head for open canal and weir flow, the maximum value of Hcrt i s limited
to a p r a c t i c a l value of approximately 0.47 m .
the direction of flow),

L(crt),

The length of the weir c r e s t (in

consequently equals 0.60 m , of which 0.50 m i s

s t r a i g h t and sloping 1 : 25 upward in the direction of flow, while the remaining

0. 10 m f o r m s the rounded nose, i t s r a d i u s being a l s o 0. 10 m .
Theoretically, the width ( o r breadth) of the weir, Bt, which m a y be used i s
flexible over a relatively wide range ( s e e l i m i t s of application), but differences
in t h i s dimension should be limited in the i n t e r e s t of standardization of the
s t r u c t u r e s of an i r r i g a t i o n project.

It i s often p r e f e r a b l e for Bt not to exceed

1 . 50 m so that a c e n t r a l hand wheel can be mounted to move the weir in a simple

n a r r o w (0.01 m ) groove a r r a n g e m e n t .

Drawings of constructional details a r e

given in F i g u r e 7- 1 1.

Rating Tables f o r Standard W e i r s

7. 3 . 8

Hcrt

F o r the standard weir shown in F i g u r e 7- 11 the following values f o r C

d'
and Hb-c apply :
Cd
0.05 m

,(

0 . 5 5 4
0.60m

/
+

1.00

Hcrt
Hb-,
(Hcrt + H b - c )

0.45 m

( 0.95 m

<

l.00m

Due t o the regulating function of the movable w e i r , both the u p s t r e a m head (H,,~)

Ring

Welr toMe and

L o c k ~ n g handle
L50x100x8

Detoils cross sectlon A-6

Deto~l top corner frome

Strip 100x8 @

Cond~tlons e q u ~ r e d from dellvery

ex- workshop

Surface of plates to be perfectly fiat

Bottom of scourlnq qote to joln onqle Iron

Holes for bolts and locklnq wedges to be sufftciently overd~menstoned

All metol work l o be twlce red - leaded

Eoch qote (measurement

(even ~f "red

F A O -

correctly

THE

- ieoded*)

ICID

ROMIJN MOVABLE

MEASURING

REGULATING

WEIR

scourtnq) to be provlded wtth 2 sets of

padlocks (copper and steel, 2 inches)

Project.

Reg~on,C o u n t r y

The Netherlonds /

lndones~o

F~gureNo 7-11

FIGURE 7- 11 SUPPLEMENT.

- L i s t of Materials.

B = breadth of approach canal

W = design freeboard

Mark on
Drawing

~e~uired
Amount

Dimensions o r Breadth
Profile

Thickness

Remarks

Length

L50xlOOx8

1a

L50xlOOx8

W t 1850

L50xlOOx8

B t

600

L50xlOOx8

B t

550

L50x100~10

20

1950

L80x12OxlO

10

128x10

150

100x8

925

45x1 0

925

38x6

10

482

11

12

13

14

15

100

B +

100

665

10

492

- 132

+
+

50x10

10

50x8

476

16

50x8

W t

308

17

100x8

100

18

L50xlOOx8

150

19

Stem f3 32 c r 38

20

Steel housing with bronze nut

21

Hand wheel

22

Wedge

23

Blocking wedge

Welded t o f r a m e

100
180

1
1

See drawing

and the height of the weir above the bottom of the approach channel (Hb-c) a r e
variable.

Consequently, the Cv values range between the broken l i n e s shown

in F i g u r e 7-12.

In i r r i g a t i o n p r a c t i c e i t i s confusing to work with s e v e r a l Cv values f o r the

s a m e u p s t r e a m head.

Therefore, the u s e of an average Cv value, a s a function

of the u p s t r e a m head only, i s advised.

By using this a v e r a g e value, an e r r o r of

l e s s than 0.57'0 i s introduced in the r a t e of flow, with a maximum when

Hcrt

0. 29 m .

3
This d i s c h a r g e p e r m e t r e width (breadth) of weir c r e s t , ( q in m / s / m ) can

be calculated with the aid of F i g u r e 7- 1 2 .

Values of q for each 0.01 m of Hcrt a r e presented in Table 7-5.
If no bottom slide i s used and the movable weir i s lowered behind a d r o p in
the channel bottom, the height of the weir c r e s t above the approach channel
bottom (Hb-c) i s l e s s than in the previous (standard) c a s e .

Consequently, the

approach velocity and thus the approach velocity coefficient (Cv) a r e significantly
higher.
F o r the standard weir with a length of weir c r e s t Lcrt, in the direction of
flow, of 0.60 m the values of Cd,

Hcrt

and Hb-c range between the following

value s :

Values of the ratio Cd Hcrt : (Hcrt t Hb- c ) thus range m o r e widely than
before, a s do Cv values a s a function of Hcrt.
Cv values a r e shown again.

Minimum and maximum possible

By using the average Cv value, an e r r o r of 3.3%

i s introduced in the discharge.

In t h i s context i t should be noted that the a v e r a g e accuracy of the discharge
m e a s u r e m e n t i s l e s s if the height of the weir c r e s t above the bottom of the

Note:
T h e totol upstreom head over t h e welrfHcrt) should b e meosurtd
- between 0 . 9 0 m ond 1.35m upstreom of t h e foce of t h e weir
in o rectongulor opprooch chonnel whose the width equols t h e
width of t h e weir fq)ond t h e woter depth equols

f&t

+ be,).

The flowwise length of t h e weir crest is

Lot - 0 . 6 .

1.00

0.05

0.10

0.20

0.30

0.40

0.45

0.50

Upstream t'otal head over the weir crest /HCrt)

- Approach
velocity coefficient, C, , a s a function of the total head over the
-movable weir crest (HCrt) in the stage discharge equation
2
2
0.5
1.5
- C
C
=
3 d v (7')
BtHcrt

FIGURE 7 - 1 2 .

TABLE

7-5

Discharge p e r Metre Width (Breadth) of Weir C r e s t

for the Romijn MeasuringfRegulating Weir

L~~~ = 0.60 m and. 0.60 m

Head Hcrt
m

NOTE :

Discharge q
m3/ s / m

Head Hcrt
m

,< (Hcrt +

H ~ - ,
~( ) 1 - 0 0 m.

Discharge q
m3/s/m

Head Hcrt
m

Discharge q
m3/s/m

The width (breadtkS of the weir (Bt) should be equal to o r g r e a t e r

than 0.30 m and g r e a t e r than the total maxi'mum energy head over
the weir ( H : ~). ~
The total upstream head over the weir (HCrt) should be m e a s u r e d
between 0.90 m and 1.35 m upstream of the weir face in a
rectangular approach channel, the width of which equals the width
)
whose water depth equals (Hcrt
Hb-c).
of the weir ( B ~ and

The number of significant figures given in the column for the discharge should not be taken to imply a corresponding accuracy of
the values given, but only to a s s i s t in the interpolatioti'dnd rounding
off for various values of Bt.

a p p r o a c h channel (Hb-c) and t h e w a t e r depth in the approach channel

~
Hb-c)
~ v a~r y in such a way t h a t the r a t i o

in a wider r a n g e of v a l u e s while Hcrt

Hcrt : ( H , , ~

+ Hb-=)

moves

r e m a i n s constant.

The d i s c h a r g e p e r m e t r e width ( o r breadth) of t h e w e i r c r e s t (q) can b e

calculated with t h e aid of F i g u r e 7- 12.
e a c h 0 . 0 1 m of Hcrt

Values of q,

in m 3 / s / m , f o r

a r e p r e s e n t e d in Table 7-6.

TABLE 7 - 6
D i s c h a r g e p e r M e t r e Width ( ~ r e a d t h of
) Weir C r e s t (q)
f o r the Romijn MeasuringlRegulating ~ e k :
Lcrt

Head Hcrt
m

0. 60 m and 0.20 m

Discharge q
m3/?/m

S e e Footnote Table 7- 5.

Head Hcrt
m

(Hcrt

+ Hb-c)

Discharge q
m 3 / s/ m

0.60 m.

Head Hcrt
m

Discharge q
m3/s/m

7.4
7.4.1

THE PARSHALL FLUME-11

General Description
The P a r s h a l l flume i s a critical depth measuring device which may be
installed in a canal, ditch o r furrow to m e a s u r e the r a t e of flow of water.

It i s a

particular f o r m of venturi flume and i s named after i t s principal developer, the

late R. L . P a r s h a l l .

The flume ( F i g u r e 7-13) has been standardized and

calibrated f o r a wide range of capacities in the United States.

FIGURE 7-13.

- Small standard P a r s h a l l flume in operation.

The flume consists of three principal sections: a converging o r contracting

section at i t s upstream end; leading to a constricted section o r throat; and a
diverging o r expanding section downstream (Figure 7-14).

'

The l a r g e r sized

flumes have an approach floor and wing walls a t the upstream end.
the converging section i s level, both longitudinally and transversely.

The floor of
The floor

of the throat inclines downward, and the floor of the diverging section slopes
upward.
L'Based on information in USBR Water Measurement Manual and USDA National
Engineering Handbook Chapter 9 - Measurement of Irrigation Water,(81 and 82).

SEC n O N N-N

SECTION L-L

FIGURE 7 - 14. - Plan and elevation of a concrete Parshall

measuring flume showing component parts ( 8 2).

TABLE

7-7

S t a n d a r d D i m e n s i o n s a n d C a p a b i l i t i e s of t h e P a r s h a l l F l u m e
f o r V a r i o u s T h r o a t Widths (W) f o r F r e e F l o w
I

Throat
Width W
1. E n g l i s h u n i t s

A
ft

15.2 c m

B
ft

in
cm

2. M e t r i c u n i t s
6 in

1
4 . 5

1
1 2 ft
45.8 c m
2 ft
61 c m

cm

86.4

38.1

134.4

61.0

7
4-75

2 - 6

96.6 1

142.3

76.2

3 -

3 -

101.7
3 - 8

c m

44.3

2 - 0

57.5

61.0

76.3

in

ft

c m . cm)cm
1 - 0 ' 2 - 0 1

in
cm

in

in

cm

cm

1
0 - 4 ~2

3 0 . 5 6 1 . 0 7.6
1 - 0 ~ 2 . 6 1 3
I
3 0 . 5 1 76.2; 7.6

Free-Flow Capacity
Minimum
1.
2.

ft3/,

Maximum
1. f t 3 / s
2. 11s

0.05

3.9

11.4

5.1

7.6

1.42

110.4

1
0-42

0.09

8.9

11.4

5.1

7.6

2.55

251.8

0 - 9

0.11

16. 1

7.6

3.11

455.6

0.15

24.6

4. 29

696.2

2 - 0 1 3 - 0 )I

3 - 0

1-01 3 - 0

0 - 9

91.5

5 . 1 91.5

7.6

22.9

0 - 9

0.42

33.1

7.6

22.9

5.1

7.6

11.89

936.7-

0 - 9

0. 61

50.4

22.9

5.1

7.6

1
1

9 1 . 5 1 120.711 9 1 . 5 1
3
5 - 4 ~4 - 0 5 -

149.6

1
3 - 0
2 - Q
84.5 91.5

7
4-1%

3 - 0

f t i n f t in f t i n

1 - 3 I I - l $ z - 6

91.5

in

5
1-35 2 - 0

50.8

2-10

cm

1
1-32

7
4-43

ft

in

'

3 -

3 ft

ft

63.0

in

2 -

22.9 c m

30.5 c m

c m

9 in

1 ft

5.1i

91.51 7 . 6 ' 2 2 . 9
I

1I
13-11-3-0 12-01 3 - 0

5 . 1 ,I

91.5

5.1
21

5.11 7 . 6

91.5 c m

111.8

164.6

122.0

7.6,

4 ft

17.26
1.3
36.79

5 ft
152.5crn
6 ft
183.0 c m

4 -

1
6 - 471 6 - 0

17-$

3 - 0

2 - 0

91.5

5.1

3 - 0

2 - 0

91.5

5.1

3 - 0

0 - 9

1. 6

22.9

5.1

7.6

45.28

1426
67.9
1922
85.6

132.2

194.4

1183.0

4 - 8
142.3

230.3

91.5j 7 . 6

0 - 9

2. 6

91.5 7.6

22.9

5.1

7. 6

73.58

3-01
I

2422
103.5
2929

The flume has a number of significant advantages.

relatively small head l o s s .
channels with flat grades.

It can operate with

This ability permits i t s use in relatively shallow

F o r a given discharge, the l o s s in head through a

P a r s h a l l flume i s only about one fourth that required by a weir under similar f r e e
flow'conditions.

The flume i s relatively insensitive to velocity of approach.

It

also enables good measurements with no submergence, moderate submergence

o r even with considerable submergence downstream.
maintained accuracies within f 270 for f r e e flow and
be obtained.

Properly constructed and

+ 5% for

submerged flow may

The velocity of fiow i s sufficiently high to virtually eliminate

sediment deposition within the structure during operation.

Another advantage i s

that there i s no easy way to alter the dimensions of flumes already constructed or
to change the device o r channel in any way to obtain an unfair proportion of water.
A disadvantage of the flume i s that standard dimensions must be followed
within close tolerances in o r d e r to obtain reasonable accuracy of measurement.
This requires accurate construction and a high standard of workman ship which
makes the device relatively expensive.

A further drawback i s that flumes cannot

be used in close-coupled combination structures consisting of turnout, control and

measuring devices.
The P a r s h a l l flume can be constructed in a wide range of sizes to m e a s u r e
discharges from a l i t r e per second to m o r e than 100 m 3 per second.

The width

of the throat (W in Figure 7-14) i s used to designate the size of the flume.

The

sizes discussed in this Handbook a r e limited to throat widths of from 15 cm ( 6

inches) to 183 cm (6 ft).

This i s the size range especially suited to the measure-

ment of f a r m deliveries and the flow in relatively small s t r e a m s and their

capacity range i s 11 11s (3.9 f t 3 / s ) to 2.9 m 3 / s (103.5 ft 31s). The selection of
size of flume depends on the range of discharges to be measured.

The ranges of

discharges and appropriate standard dimensions for various throat widths a r e

shown in m e t r i c and English units in Table 7-7. Care must be taken to construct
the devices according to the structural dimensions given for each one, because the
flumes a r e not geometrically similar.

F o r example, i t cannot be assumed that a

dimension in the 6-ft flume will be three times the corresponding dimension in the
2-ft flume.

Hydraulic P r o p e r t i e s
Discharge through the P a r s h a l l flume can occur under either f r e e flow o r
submerged flow conditions. To determine the r a t e of discharge, two depth gauges,

Both gauges a r e s e t with z e r o points a t

(Ha and Hb) a r e provided ( F i g u r e 7-14).

the mean elevation of the c r e s t of the flume.

When the c o r r e c t relation between throat width and discharge i s chosen, the
velocity of approach i s automatically controlled.

This control i s accomplished by

selecting a throat wide enough t o accommodate the maximum flow to be m e a s u r e d

yet n a r r o w enough to cause an i n c r e a s e in the depth of flow upstream.

The r e s u l t

i s a l a r g e r cross-sectional a r e a of the approaching s t r e a m and hence a reduction

in velocity.
F r e e flow
Under f r e e flow conditions, the r a t e of discharge i s dependent solely on the
length of c r e s t , W, and the depth of water at the gauge point,Ha, in the converging
section, this being s i m i l a r to a weir where only the length of c r e s t and head a r e
involved in computing the discharge.

One of the important c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the

P a r s h a l l flume i s i t s ability t o withstand a relatively high degree of submergence,

over a wide range of backwater conditions downstream f r o m the structure, without
/

reduction in the indicated r a t e of f r e e flow.

The s t r e a m passing through the

t h r o a t and diverging sections of the flume can flow a t two different stages:
(i) when the water a t high velocity moves in a thin sheet conforming closely to

the dip a t the lower end of the throat (indicated by Q in F i g u r e 7-14), and
(ii) when the backwater r a i s e s the water surface to elevation S , causing a ripple

o r wave to f o r m a t o r just downstream f r o m the end of the throat.

The relationship between gauge reading Ha
Q a r e shown in Table 7- 8 in m e t r i c units.

throat width W and discharge

The equation which e x p r e s s e s this

relationship in English units for W f r o m 1 to 8 feet i s :

where Q i s in cubic feet p e r second, and W and Ha in feet.

The equation for the 9 inch (22.9 cm) P a r s h a l l flume (Table 7-8) r e a d s :
Q

1.53
3.07Ha

The equation for the 6 inch (15.25 cm) P a r s h a l l flume (Table 7- 8) r e a d s :

Q

1.58
2.06 Ha

TABLE

7-8

F r e e Flow D i s c h a r g e Values f o r P a r s h a l l M e a s u r i n g F l u m e
ge, Q, f o r t h r o a t widths, W , of

Disch
2 2 . 8 6 c m 30.48 cn
(0. 75 ft)

(1. 00 ft

'

45.72cm

0 0 . 9 6 c m 91.44cm 121.92cm

( 1 . 5 0 ft)

(2. 00 ft) (3.00 f t ) ( 4 . 00 ft)

.0025
.0032
.0039
.0047

.0033
.0042
.0052
.0062
.0072

.0048
.0060
.0074
.0089
.0105

.0063
,0072
.0082
,0092
.0102
.0112
,0123
.0135
.0146
.0158

.0084
.0096
.0108
.0121
.0134
.0148
.0162
.0177
.0192
.0208

.0170
.0183
.0196
,0209
.0222
.0236
.0250
.0264
.0279
,0294

.0116
.0137

.0169
.0200

.0122
.0139
.0157
.0176
.0196
.0217
.0238
.0260
.0282
.0306

.0159
.0182
.0206
.0231
.0257
.0285
.0313
.0342
.0372
.0402

.0232
.0266
.0302
.0339
.0378
.0418
.0459
.0503
.0547
.0593

.0348
.0395
.0444
.0495
.0549
.0604
.0661
.0720
.0780

.0224
.0240
.0254
.0274
.0292
.0310
.0328
.0347
.0360
.0385

.0329
.0354
.0379
.0405
.0431
.0458
.0485
.0513
.054I
.0570

.0434
.0466
.0500
.0534
.0569
.0604
.0641
.0678
.0716
.0755

.0640
.0688
.0738
.0789
.0841
.0894
.0949
1004
.lo61
. 1119

.0843
.0907
.0973
. 1040
.I110
. 1181
1253
1327
.I403
. 1480

.0309
.0324
.0340
.0356
.0372
.0388
.0405
.0422
.0439
.0456

.0405
.0425
.0445
.0466
.0487
.0508
,0530
.0552
.0574
.0597

.Ob00
.0630
.0661
.0692
.0723
.0755
.0788
.0821
.0854
.0888

.0794
.0834
.0875
.0916
.0958
1001
. 1045
1089
1133
. 1179

.0474
.0492
.0509
.0528
.0546
.0565
.0584
.0603
.0622
.0642

.0619
.0643
.0666
.0690
.0714
.0738
.0762
,0787
.0812
.0838

.0923
.0957
.0993
1029
. 1065
1101
. 1138
1176
.I214
.I252

. 1225

.
.
.

(5. 00 ft) ( 6 . 0 0 ft)

.
.
.

.I271
. 1319
1366
1415
1464
1513
1564
. 1614
1666

.
.
.
.
.
.

. 1178
. 1238
. 1299
.I361
. 1425
. 1489
.I554
.I620
. 1688
. 1756

. 1825
.I896
. 1967
.2039
.2112
.2186
.2261
.2337
.2413
.2491

..

. 1558
. 1638
. 1720

.0726
.0805
.0887
.0971
. 1059

.1149

. 1242

. 1338

. 1436
.1537

.1640

. 1746
. 1854
.1965
.2078
.2194

.2060
.2149
.2239
.2330

.2311
.2431
.2554
.2678
.2805
.2934
.3065
.3198
.3333
.3471

.2423
.2516
.2612
.2708
.2806
.2905
.3005
.3107
.3210
.3314

.3610
.3752
.3895
.4040
.4188
.4337
.4489
.4642
.4797
.4954

. 1803
. 1887
. 1973

Cont'd.

T a b l e 7-8 ( C o n t t d . )

D i s c h a r g e , Q, for t h r o a t widths, W , of

Head
Ha
(cm)

15.24cm 22.86cm
( 0 . 5 0 ft) ( 0 . 75 f t )

25.50
26.00
26.50
27.00
27.50
28.00
28.50
29.00
29.50
30.00

.0440
.0454
.0468
.0482
.0496
.0510
.0525
.0539
.0554
.0569

.0661
.0681
.0701
.0722
.0742
.0763
.0784
.0805
-0826
.0848

30.50
31.00
31.50
32.00
32.50
33.00
33.50
34.00
34.50
35.00

.0583
.0599
.0614
.0629
.0645
.0661
.0677
.0693
.0709
.0725

.0870
.0892
.0914
.0936
.0959
.0981
1004
. 1027
.lo50
.lo74

35.50
36.00
36.50
37:OO
37.50
38.00
38.50
39.00
39.50
40.00

.0742
.0758
.0775
.0792
.0809
.0826
.0843
.0861
.0878
.0896

40.50
41.00
41.50
42.00
42.50
43.00
43.50
44.00
44.50
45.00
45.50
46.00
46.50
47.00
47.50
48.00
48.50
49.00
49.50
50.00

.0914
.0932
.0950
,0968
.0986
.lo04
. 1023
1042
1060
,1079

.
.

30.48
45.72 c m 60.96 c m 9 1 . 4 4 c m 121.92 c m 152.40 c m 182.88 c m
( 1 . 0 0 f t ) ( 1 . 5 0 ft) ( 2 . 0 0 ft) ( 3 . 0 0 f t ) ( 4 . 0 0 ft) ( 5 . 00 ft)
( 6 . 00 ft)
.0863
.0889
.0915
.0942
.0968
.0995
.lo23
1050
1078
.I106

.I291
.I330
'.I370
. 1410
1450
.I491
. 1532
.1573
. 1615
.I658

.I134
.I162
.I191
. 1219
1248
.I278
.I307
.I337
1367
1398

. 1718

,2041
.2097
.2153
.2210

.2569
.2649
.2729
.2810
.2892
.2975
.3058
.3143
.3228
.3314

.3419
.3525
.3633
.3741
.3851
.3962
.4075
.4188
.4303
.4418

.4267
.4400
.4535
.4672
.4810
.4949
.5090
.5233
.5377
.5522

.5113
.5274
.5436
.5601
.5767
.5935
.6105
6277
6451
.6626

.I700
. 1743
. 1787
.I831
.I875
1919
1964
.2010
.2055
.2101

.2267
.2325
.2383
.2442
.2502
. 2 5 62
.2622
.2683
. 27.44
.2806

.3401
.3489
.3577
.3667
.3757
. 3848
.3939
.4032
.4125
.4219

.4535
.4653
.4772
.4892
.5013
.5135
.5259
.5383
.5508
.5635

-5669
.5817
.5967
.6118
.6270
.6424
. 6579
.6736
.6893
.7053

.6803
.6981
.7162
.7344
.7528
.7713
.7901
.8089
.8280
.8472

.lo97
.I121
.I145
.I169
.I193
. 1218
1242
1267
.I292
. 1317

.I428
. 1459
1490
. 1521
. 1552
. 1584
1616
.I648
.I680
1713

.2148
.2194
.2241
.2289
.2337
.2385
.2433
.2482
.2531
.2580

.2869
.2932
.2995
.3059
.3123
.3188
.3253
.3319
.3385
.3452

.4314
.4410
.4506
.4603
.4701
.4799
.4898
.4998
.5099
.5201

.5762
.5891
. 6021
.6151
.6283
6416
. 6549
.6684
6820
.6957

.7213
-7375
.7538
.7703
.7869
.8036
.8204
-8374
.8545
.8718

.8666
.8861
.9058
.9257
.9457
.9659
.9863
1.007
1.027
1.048

. 1342

.I745
.I778
. 1811
.I845
.I878
.I912
.I946
. 1980
.2014
.2049
.2084
.2119
.2154
.2189
.2225
.2260
.2296
.2333
.2369
.2405

.2630
.2680
.2731
.2782
.2833
.2884
.2936
.2988
.3040
.3093
.3146
.3199
.3253
.3307
.3361
.3416
.3471
.3526
.3581
.3637

.3519
.3586
.3654
.3723
.3792
.3861
,3931
.4001
.4072
.4143
.4214
.4286
.4359
.4432
.4505
.4579
.4653
.4727
.4802
.4878

.5303
.5406
.5509
.5614
.5719
.5824
.5931
.6038
.6146
.6254
.6363
.6473
.6584
.6695
.6807
.6919
.7033
.7147
-7261
.7376

.7094
.7233
.7373
.7513
,7655
.7798
.7941
.8086
.8231
.8377
.8525
.8673
.8822
.8972
.9124
.9276
.9428
.9582
.9737
.9893

.8891
.9066
.9242
.9419
.9598
.9778
.9959
1.014
1.033
1.051
1.070
1.088
1.107
1.126
1.145
1.164
1.184
1.203
1.223
1.242

.
.

.I368
.I394
.I419
.I445
1471
. 1498
. 1524
1551
.I577
.I604
.I631
.I659
.I686
1713
.I741
1769
.I797
.I825
1853

.
.

.
.
.

.
.

.
.
.

.
.

. 1770

. 1823
. 1877
. 1931
. 1986

.
.

.
.

1.069
1.090
1.112
1.133
1.155
1.176
1.198
1.220
1.243
1.265
1.287
1.310
1.333
1.356
1.379
1.402
1.425
1.449
1.473
1.496

Cont'd.

T a b l e 7- 8 (Cont'd. )
Head

H
( c a

D i s c h a r g e , Q, f o r t h r o a t widths, W , of 1 5 . 2 4 c m 22.86 c m 30.48 c m 45.72 c m 6 0 . 9 6 c m 91.44 c m 121.92cm 1 5 2 4 0 c m 1 8 2 8 8 c m

(0.50 ft) (0. 75 ft) (1. 00 ft) (1.50 ft) ( 2 . 0 0 f t ) (3. 00 ft) ( 4 . 0 0 ft) (5.00 f t ) (6. 00 ft)

50.50
51.00
51.50
52.00
52.50
53.00
53.50
54.00
54.50
55.00

. 1882
.I910
.I939
.I968
.I997
.2026
.2056
.2085
.21.15
.2144

.2442
.2479
.2516
.2553
.2591
.2628
.2666
.2704
.2743
.2781

.3693
.3750
.3806
.3863
.3921
.3978
.4036
.4094
.4153
.4212

.4953
.5030
.5106
.5183
.5261
.5339
,5417
.5495
.5575
.5654

.7492
.7609
.7726
.7844
.7962
.a081
.a201
.a321
,8442
.a564

1.005
1.021
1.037
1.052
1.068
1.085
1.101
1.117
1.133
1.150

1.262
1.282
1.302
1.322
1.342
1.363
1.383
1.404
1.424
1.445

1.520
1.544
1.569
1.593
1.617
1.642
1.667
1.692
1.717
1.742

55.50
56.00
56.50
57.00
57.50
58.00
58.50
59.00
59.50
60.00

.2174
.2204
.2235
,2265
.2295
.2326
.2357
.2388
.2419
.2450

,2820
.2858
.2897
.2936
.2976
.3015
.3055
.3095
.3135
t 3175

.4271
.4330
.4390
.4449
.4510
.4570
.4631
.4692
.4753
.4815

,5734
.5814
.5895
.5976
.6057
.6139
.6221
.6304
.6387
.6470

.a686
.a809
.a932
.9057
.9181
,9307
.9433
,9559
.9686
.9814

1.166
1.183
1.200
1.217
1.233
1.250
1.267
1.285
1.302
1.319

1.466
1.487
1.508
1.529
1.551
1.572
1.594
1.615
1.637
1.659

1.767
1.793
1.818
1.844
1.870
1.896
1.922
1.948
1.975
2.001

.2481
.2513

.3215
.3256
.3296
.3337
.3378
,3420
.3461
.3503
.3544
.3586

.4877
.4939
.5001
.5064
.5127
.5190
.5254
.5317
.5381
,5446

.6554
.6638
.6723
.6808
.6893
.6978
.7064
.7151
.7238
.7325

,9943
1.007
1.020
1.033
1.046
1.059
1.073
1.086
1.099
1.113

1.336
1.354
1.371
1.389
1.407
1.425
1.443
-1.460
1.479
1.497

1.681
1.703
1.725
1.748
1.770
1.793
1.815
1.838
1.861
1.884

2.028
2.055
2.082
2.109
2.136
2.163
2.191
2.218
2.246
2.274

.3628
.3671
,3713
.3755
.3798
.3841
.3884
.3927
.3971
.4014
.4058
,4102
.4146
.4190
.4235
.4279
.4324
.4369
.4414
.4459

.5510
.5575
.5640
.5706
.5771
.5837
.5903
.5970
.6036
.6103
.6170
6238
6306
.6373
.6442
.6510
.6579
.6648
,6717
.6787

.7412
.7500
.7588
.7677
.7766
.7855
.7945
.a035
.a125
.a216
.a307
.a399
.8491
.a583
.a675
.a768
.8862
.8955
.9049
.9143

1.126
1.139
1.153
1.167
1.180
1.194
1.208
1.222
1.236
1.249
1.263
1.278
1.292
1.306
1.320
1.334
1.349
1.363
1.378
1.392

1.907
1.930
1.953
1.977
2.000
2.024
2.047
2.071
2.095
2.119
2.143
2.167 .
192
2.216
2.240
2.265
2.290
2.314
2.339
2.364

2.302
2.330
2.358
2.386
2.415
2.443
2.472
2.501
2.530
2.559
2.588
2.617
2. 647
2.676
2.706
2.736
2.766
2.796
2.826
2.856

'

60.50
61.00
61.50
62.00
62.50
63.00
63.50
64.00
64.50
65.00
65.50
66.00
66.50
67.00
67.50
68.00
68.50
69.00
69.50
70.00
70.50
71.00
71.50
72.00
72.50
73.00
73.50
74.00
74.50
,75.00
Note:
-

j:
1/

1,
/

1.515
1.533
1.552
1.570
1.588
1.607
1.626
1.645
1.663
1.682
1.701
1.720
1.759
1.778
1.797
1.817
1.836
1.856
1.876

1 . ' T a b l e taken a n d c o n v e r t e d i n t o m e t r i c v a l u e s f r o m P a r s h a l l , R. L . , M e a s u r i n g
w a t e r i n i r r i g a t i o n ' c h a n n e l s , U. S.Dept.Agr., C i r . 843, p. 62, 1950 (out of print).
2. F o r Ha a n d W s e e F i g u r e 7-14
3. T o c o n v e r t m3/ s i n t o c u s e c s multiply above f i g u r e s By 35.3

Submerged flow
In m o s t installations, when the discharge i s increased above a critical value
the resistance to flow in the downstream channel becomes sufficient to reduce the
velocity, i n c r e a s e the flow depth, and cause a backwater effect at the P a r s h a l l
flume.

It might be expected that the discharge would begin to be reduced a s soon

a s the backwater level Hb exceeded the elevation of the flume c r e s t ; however,

t h i s i s n o t t h e case.

C a l i b r a t i o n t e s t s s h o w t h a t t h e d i s c h a r g e i s n o t reduced

until the submergence ratio Hb : Ha

expressed a s a percentage, exceeds the

following values :
Width of throat (W)

F r e e flow limit of

Hb
Ha

15.2 to 23 cm ( 6 to 9 inches)

60 %

30. 5 to 244cm (1 to 8 feet )

70 %

The upper limit of the submergence ratio i s 95%.

At this point the flume

c e a s e s to be an effective measuring device because the head differential between

Ha and Hb becomes so small that any slight inaccuracy in either head reading
r e s u l t s in a l a r g e e r r o r in flow measurement.
Approach flow conditions
Experience h a s shown that P a r s h a l l flumes should not be placed at right
angles to flowing s t r e a m s , such a s in turnouts, unless the flow i s effectively
straightened and uniformly redistributed before i t entefrs the flumes.
waves of any appreciable size should be eliminated.

Surges and

The water should enter the

converging section reasonably well distributed a c r o s s the entrance width, and the
flow lines should be essentially parallel to the flume centreline.

Also, the flow

at the flume entrance should be f r e e of "white" water and f r e e f r o m turbulence in

the f o r m of visible surface "boils" such a s might occur below a control gate.
Only then can the flume m e a s u r e water a s intended.
Experience h a s also shown that i t i s better to provide standard conditions of
approach and exit than to t r y to estimate the effects of non-standard conditions;
such flow conditions cannot be described and evaluated in t e r m s of measurement
accuracy.

Non- standard approach flow conditions should therefore be eliminated'

by deepening, widening, o r straightening the flow channel, o r by resetting o r r e -

arranging the m e a s u r i n g station.

In locations where approach flow conditions have resulted in m e a s u r e m e n t

difficulties, and no u p s t r e a m wing walls have been included in the original construction, the curved wing walls shown in F i g u r e 7- 14 should be considered.
Curved wing walls a r e p r e f e r r e d over straight 45O walls, although any
a r r a n g e m e n t of walls, channel banks, o r other shapes that achieve uniformity
and smoothness in the approaching flow i s acceptable.
7.4.3

Discharge Measurement
F r e e flow conditions
When the flow i s f r e e , o r when the submergence i s below the l i m i t s quoted
in 7.4.2, the discharge m a y be r e a d directly f r o m Table 7-8, using the u p s t r e a m
head Ha and the throat width,

W,

of the flume.

To i l l u s t r a t e the determination of the degree of submergence and r a t e of d i s charge, i t i s assumed that f o r a 2 f t flume the m e a s u f e d heads (Ha and Hb) a r e
1

67 c m (2.2 ft) and 40 c m ( 1 . 3 ft) respectively.

The r a t i o of Hb to Ha i s 40 divided

by 67, o r 0. 6, o r 60%. Since this value i s l e s s than 70% ( p a r a . 7.4.2), f r e e flow

conditions exist, and to find the discharge i t i s only n e c e s s a r y to u s e the one
m e a s u r e d head Ha = 67 cm. Referring to Table 7-8 f o r a 2 ft flume gives a
discharge of 768 11s.
Submerged conditions
When the ratio of the two heads Hb and Ha exceeds the l i m i t for f r e e flow
conditions, i t becomes n e c e s s a r y to apply a negative correction to the f r e e flow
discharge in o r d e r to determine the r a t e of submerged flow.
F o r throat widths of 15.2 cm (6 inches) and 23 cm (9 inches) the submerged
r a t e of flow can be r e a d directly f r o m F i g u r e s 7- 15 o r 7- 16 respectively.
Example:
Given

15.2 cm ( 6 inch) flume

m e a s u r e d Ha = 36.6 cm (1.20 ft)
m e a s u r e d Hb = 32.9 c m (1.08 ft)

Calculate percentage of submergence :

R e f e r to F i g u r e 7- 15.

The submerged flow i s 50.9 l / s o r 1.80 ft 3 p e r s e c .

E
~

60

v u

n t o i n ! C

0
1

0.4

cu

0.8

C,

1-6
2.0
2.4
Discharge in f t /s

1-2

20

10

30

40

50
60
ma/ s

2.8'
I

70

C,

rr)

C,

C,

n3

c\r

C,

cv

C,

32

80

90

F I G U R E 7- 15. - Diagram showing the r a t e of submerged flow, in

11 s and in ft3/ s, through a 1 5 . 2 crn ( 6 inch) P a r shall m e a s u r i n g flume

3.6
I

100

4-0
I

110

E
0

E
o

05

1.0

1.5

cu

15

v
c\r

2.0

nl

2-5

o
E
v

rr,

rr)

30

35

F
2
rr,

40

4.5

&

0t,

C,

<o

5.0

Discharge in f t /s

FIGURE 7- 16. - Diagram showing the rate of submerged flow.

in l / s and f t 3 / s , through a 23 crn (9 inch) Parshall flume.

5.5

60

F o r flumes with throat widths between 1 and 8 ft, the submerged discharge
i s determined by using a correction diagram (Figure 7- 17).

This diagram i s

for a 1 ft throat width and is made applicable to the l a r g e r fliunes by multiplying

the correction for a 1 f t flume by the factor (M) for the size of flume in use.
Thiebcorrectioni s then subtracted from the f r e e flow discharge f6r the measured
head (Ha), a s obtained from ~ a b l d7-8.

The factor M for various throat widths

i s tabulated below.
Throat width
ft
cm

0.06

0.10

0.20

Multiplying factor (M)

050
1.0
Correction in f i l s

1.4

2.0 2.5

FIGURE 7- 17.
Diagram fox computing the r a t e of
submerged flow through a 30.5 cm (1 ft) P a r shall
flume (82).

810

Example:
Find the submerged discharge through a 3 f t P a r s h a l l flume:

Given

91.5cm

(3ft)

measured Ha

64 c m ( 2 . 1 ft)

measured Hb

61 c m (2.0 ft)

Percentage of submergence:
2.0
2.1

0.95 o r 95%

F r o m the correction diagram, Figure 7- 17:

Correction for a 1 f t throat width = 163 I / s (5.75 ft 3/ s )
Since this correction m u s t be made applicable to a 3 ft throat width,
multiply i t by the applicable value of M f r o m the above tabulation

Correction for a 3 ft throat width:

165 x 2 . 4 = 391 11s (13.8 f t 3 / s )

F r o m Table 7-8 find the f r e e flow for W = 91.5 c m and Ha = 64 c m
Q f r e e flow

1086 I / s (38.4 f t 3 / s )

Q submerged flow

1086

- '391

= 695 l / s (24.6 ft 31s).

Approximate determination of submerged discharges

Figure 7- 18 illustrates the effect of submergence on the discharge r a t e s of
various flume sizes.

F o r example a t 70% submergence only the .6 inch to 1 ft

flumes would be affected.

discharge rate.

The 6 inch flume would discharge 94% of the f r e e

At a submergence of 80% the discharge f r o m all flumes will be

affected to some extent.

The f r e e discharge values can be obtained f r o m Table

7-8 a s shown before.

The graph may be useful in determining approximately the size of flume
required and the beet setting in the channel.

The curves represent data obtained

during calibration tests and have a maximum deviation of

50

70

60

Submergence

80

Hb

90

+ 7%.

100

in per cent

FIGURE 7- 18. Effect of submergence on Parshall

flume free discharge (81).

Siting of Flumes
Generally i t i s advantageous to have the measuring flume conveniently near
the

of diversion o r regulating gate i f conditions bf operation require frequent

recording of discharge.

On the other hand the flume should not be placed too

near the head gate, a s *e disturbed water just downstream from the outlet may
cause surging and unbalanced flow; i t should best be located in a straight section
of the channel.

7.4.5

Selection of Flume Size

Following the selection of the site, information should be obtained on the
maximum and minimum flows to be measured, the corresponding flow depths,
the maximum velocity and the dimensions of the channel at the site.

These

dimensions should include width, side slopes and depth, and the height of the
upstream banks with special reference to their ability to contain the increased
depth caused by the flume installation.

With this information and the use of

discharge tables for standard flume dimensions the size and proper elevation of
the c r e s t can be obtained.

Examples a r e given below to a s s i s t in the problem of

size and setting of the measuring flume a s covered by general field conditions
usually found in irrigation practice.
Example:
Given

- A discharge of up to 566 l / s (20 second ft) i s to be m e a s u r e d in

a channel of moderate grade where the water depth i s 77 c m
( 2 . 5 ft) and the channel banks a r e about 3 m (10 ft) apart.

Solution

This quantity of flow can be measured through several s i z e s of

flume, but for the sake of economy the smallest practical size
should be selected.

F i r s t l e t i t be assumed that a submergence of 70% m u s t not be exceeded in

o r d e r that the flow may be determined by the single gauge reading of Ha.
As a rule of thumb, the most economical flume size, W , i s from one-third
to one-half the width of the channel.

Considering the 3 m (10 ft) channel width

the 4 ft (122 cm) flume s e e m s to be the most practical, but the 3 ft and 2 ft
flumes should be investigated a s well.
4 ft (122 cm) flume
F o r this size and the given maximum discharge of 566 l / s (20 s e c ft) the
head Ha i s found to be 35 cm (1.15 ft) f r o m Table 7- 8.

FIGURE 7-19.
Section of a P a r s h a l l measuring flume illustrating
the determination of the proper c r e s t elevation (82).

F o r a submergence of 70% the r a t i o of Hb gauge to Ha gauge i s 0 . 7 ; hence,

Hb for t h i s condition of flow is 25 c m (0.81 ft).

At 70% submergence, .the w a t e r

surface in the throat a t the Hb gauge is essentially level with that a t the lower
end of the flume.

Under t h i s condition of flow, the water depth just below the

s t r u c t u r e will be approximately the s a m e a s before the flume was installed, that

i s 77 c m ( 2 . 5 f t ) .

InFigure 7-19thedimension D representsthisdepthof

By subtracting Hb, o r 25 c m , f r o m 77 c m , the value of X, o r 52 c m

77 cm.

(1.69 ft) i s obtained.

channel.

This i s the elevation of the c r e s t above the bottom of the

F o r t h i s s i z e of flume, s e t with the c r e s t a t 52 c m (1. 69 ft), the flow

of 566 11s (20 sec-ft) will be a t 7070 submergence, and the actual l o s s of head (L)
o r difference in elevation between the u p s t r e a m and downstream water s u r f a c e s
will.be 13 c m ( 0 . 4 2 ft) a s determined by F i g u r e 7-20.
2+4 Cm
zr3 5 cm
183cm
1525 crn
122 cm
91 5cm
61cm

30 5cm

93

90
85
80
70
Psrcento~eof submergence

6050

OM5002

003004

0.06QO8OlO
015020
Loss of heod L ~n feet

0.30040

06008010

FIGURE 7-20. - Diagram for determining the head l o s s through

the P a r s h a l l m e a s u r i n g flume (82).

The depth of water upstream f r o m the s t r u c t u r e a t a flow of 566 11s (20 sec-ft)
will t h e r e f o r e be 90 c m (2.92 ft).

It will b e n e c e s s a r y t o examine the f r e e b o a r d

of the channel, a s well a s the effect of the r i s e of the water surface upon the flow
through the head gate, in deciding which s i z e of flume i s the m o s t practical.
3 f t (91.5 c m ) flume
F o r t h i s s i z e and the given maximum d i s c h a r g e of 566 l / s (20 second-ft)
the head Ha

i s found to be approx. 43 c m (1.39 ft) f r o m Table 7-8.

Again for

a submergence of 70% the r a t i o of Hb to Ha i s 0.7; hence the Hb for this

condition of flow i s 30 c m (0.97 ft).

By r e f e r e n c e to F i g u r e 7- 19, the value of X,

o r the elevation of the c r e s t above the bottom of the channel, i s found to be 47 c m

( 1 . 5 3 ft), and the actual l o s s of head through the flume ( F i g u r e 7-20) i s found to
be 16 c m (0.52 ft).

The depth of water u p s t r e a m for t h i s s i z e of flume will now

be 92 c m ( 3 . 0 2 ft).
2 f t (61 cm) flume
As before, find the Ha head in Table 7-8 for a f r e e flow of 566 11s

(20 second-ft).

F o r the 2 ft flume t h i s head i s 55 c m (1.81 ft).

m e r g e n c e of 70% the value of Hb i s 39 c m (1.27 ft).

At a sub-

By again r e f e r r i n g to

F i g u r e 7-19 the value of X o r the elevation of the c r e s t above the bed of the
channel i s found to be 77

39 o r 38 c m (1. 23 ft).

F o r t h i s s i z e of flume d i s -

charging 566 l / s (20 second-ft) a t a submergence of 70%, the actual l o s s of head

( F i g u r e 7-20) i s 21 c m (0. 70 ft) and the depth of water u p s t r e a m i s 97 c m

( 3 . 20 ft).
If i t i s found that the banks of the channel and entrance conditions through
the head gates a r e satisfactory, the 2 f t flume will be m o s t economical because of
i t s s m a l l dimensions; however, when the width of the channel i s considered the
final selection m a y favour the 3 o r 4 f t flume because m o d e r a t e to long wing walls
m a y be r e q u i r e d .
In the above analysis of the t h r e e s i z e s of f l u m e s investigated, the actual
i n c r e a s e o r r i s e in the depth of water u p s t r e a m f r o m the s t r u c t u r e i s
considerably l e s s than the elevation of the c r e s t above the bottom of the channel

(X).

F o r the 4 f t flume the c r e s t i s 52 c m (1.69 ft) above the channel bed, and

the r i s e in water u p s t r e a m will be only 12 c m (0.42 ft).

This analysis shows f u r t h e r that a s the s i z e of flume i s d e c r e a s e d , the

elevation of the c r e s t becomes l e s s , and the depth of water upstream f r o m the

s t r u c t u r e becomes g r e a t e r for similar r a t e s of discharge and like d e g r e e s of
submergence.

It i s usually better to s e t the flume high rather than low, to

provide a margin of safety f o r variations of the water surface downstream.

In

irrigation channels, especially those with e a r t h banks and bottom, deposits of

sand o r silt may change the downstream flow conditions, and weeds o r other .
debris may likewise affect the degree of submergence.
Although the above analysis of the f r e e flow data for the 4 ft flume shows
that i t would be n e c e s s a r y o r desirable to lower the upstream water surface
elevation a s much a s possible, the effect of operating the flume a t 95% submergence ( o r any other value between 70 and 95%) a t the maximum discharge
might be investigated.

F o r example, a submergence above 70% would lower the

entire structure in the channel and because of reduced headloss could provide
m o r e bank freeboard upstream.
Using the data from the above example, suppose that the maximum
discharge of 566 11s (20 second-ft) i s to be passed with a depth of 77 cm (2. 5 ft)
but with 95% submergence (instead of 70% a s previously).
F r o m Table 7-8,

Ha i s found to be 35 cm (1.15 ft)

F o r 95% submergence,

In Figure 7-19,

Hb

77

- 33

44 cm (1.41 ft)

Therefore, for 95% submergence the c r e s t of the 4 ft flume should be set

a t 44 cmabove the bottom of the channel, a s compared with 52 cm for 7070
submergence. F r o m Figure 7-20 the head l o s s i s found to be

2 cm (0.077 ft),

a s compared with 13 cm (0.42 ft) for 70% submergence.

7.4.6

Deviation f r o m Standard Dimensions

In principle, i f standard measuring procedures, tables and graphs a r e to

be applicable under all flow conditions, the P a r s h a l l flume h a s to be constructed

exactly according to standard dimensions a s given in Table 7-7. However, if

the flume i s never to be operated above the 7070 (60% for 6 to 9 inch flumes)
submergence limit (i. e . where enough head i s available and no backwater f r o m
down s t r e a m i s anticipated in the future) modifications of the standard design
downstream f r o m the dip (e. g. different floor shape, stilling basin, wing walls)
should have no effect upon .discharge.

With this submergence limit i t i s not

necessary to construct the portion of the flume downstream from the end of the
c r e s t , shown a s station 1 in Figure 7-19.

When only the upstream portion of the flume i s constructed, the flume i s
sometimes r e f e r r e d to a s the Montana flume.

The c r e s t of the Montana flume

should be s e t above the channel bottom in the same manner a s worked out in the
above examples.

This will ensure that the flow profile over the c r e s t section

i s not modified by backwater from the downstream channel.

Erosion protection

downstream f r o m the flume may need to be considered.

In the case of submergence above the 70% ( o r 60%) limit, the effect of
modifications may cause measurements to be inaccurate when using standard
discharge tables.

In such a case i t i s necessary to specially calibrate the

modified flume by the current m e t e r o r some other suitable method.

Construction
The P a r s h a l l measuring flume may be constructed of sheet metal, timber
o r reinforced concrete.

Sheet metal flumes (Figures 7-21, 7-22) have proved

very satisfactory, but since the cost usually exceeds that of either wood o r
concrete, their use has been restricted to the smaller sizes.

The most

common and practical sizes a r e those of l e s s than 6 1 c m ( 2 ft).

Sheet metal flumes have the advantage of being portable,

can readily be r e s e t and readjusted a s needed.

and they

They have a relatively

long life and a r e immune to f i r e hazards such a s those caused by ditch

cleaning.

FIGURE 7- 21. - P a r shall flume of 152 cm (5 ft) throat width

assembled f r o m prefabricated sheet metal p a r t s .

FIGURE 7-22. - P a r s h a l l flume of 183 cm ( 6 ft) throat width

at full discharge.

Commercially made flumes of this type (Figure 7-23) a r e available in a

wide range of capacities.

FIGURE 7- 23. - Commercially available P a r shall

measuring flume.

Monolithic reinforced concrete flumes constructed in any of the previously

discussed sizes have proved satisfactory.

Such flumes have the distinct

advantage of permanence and a r e little subject to expansion o r contraction, thus

ensuring uniformity of operation.
a s a r e timber structures.

They a r e not subject to f i r e and other hazards

Their principal disadvantage i s their relatively high

initial cost,

Standard designs, a s used in the U . S. A . , a r e shown in Figures 7 - 2 4 and

7-25.

Where a number of flumes of the same size a r e to be built of concrete,

i t will be found economical and practicable to built portable knock-down f o r m s ,
preferably in sheet iron o r plywood.

It i s advantageous to construct the sides

of the flume f i r s t and after the concrete is set, to remove the f o r m s and place
the floor.

The floor i s screeded to proper grade by iron angles installed

a t the changes in grade along the floor.

Ha gauge i f gauge
well not prwided

Dimensions,. co~ocities
and ouantities for vorious throat widths
.
Free- Flow
Dimensions
Quantities
cawcitv

H b gouge well

gauge well
(optional-

if

need*7

Notes :
The dimensions X x D depend upon the setting
of the crest of the flume with reference to the
bed of the channel and will be determined for each
setting.
To obtain accurate discharge measurements,the flum
must be constructed exactly to dimensions listed in
table ond given on plans.
and X = d d
Quontities given in table are for D
All reinforcing steel to beg&. rods placed ot centre
of sections.
gouge not required unless Hb gouge reoding will
be over 70 % of the Ha gauge reading.
The use of an Ha gouge well is optional. If an
gouge well is not used, install the Ha gouge on
the side woll of the flume,
For discharge tables, loss of head and setting
of crest of flume with reference t o the bed .
of the chonnel. see Engineering Handbook and
U.S.D.A. Farmers Bulletin No. 1683.

=i

Flow

.ords,

set
icrete
'

C/C

Plon

die. bolt

gauge i f gauge well

is not pravided-1

set

6 tn concrete

Concrete morto

Flow
Bottom
of chonnel-)

) stirrups

of flume
m of chonnel
Crest elevotion
Provide suitable rip-rop or
concrete opron to protect
chonnel from scour ot flume
outlet

12C

/
C
A
rods l i c / c
i d i a . galvonized pipe : 1 long
i f gauge well provided
Sectionol elevotion A-A

Ll*common
woshers. Top of washers to be ot
exact crest elevation
Sectionol elevotion 8 - 6
Showing

~f a fixed gouge is used, install 1 8 din. or lorger vitrified

cloypipe, j long. If removable gouge is used, d dio. pipe
may be instolled

elbow. Set end of pipe

with inside face of conc

We

gauge well (optional)

FA0 -ICID

STANDARD

CONCRETE PARSHALL

MEASURING FLUME

Crest elevotion

Throot width I foot to 8 feet

2-6,

Sectional elevation C-C

Showing Hb

gouge well

i-i

concrete base

Project, Regi0.n , Country

U S A

Figure No. 7 - 24

FIGURE 7 - 2 5 . - Standard concrete P a r s h a l l flume.

The water depth i s r e a d on the staff gauge in the stilling
well and i s converted to r a t e of flow by r e f e r e n c e to a
rating table.

7.4.8

Maintenance
After a P a r s h a l l flume h a s been properly installed, periodic maintenance i s
r e q u i r e d to e n s u r e satisfactory operation.

Moss m a y collect on the walls of the

entrance section and in certain channels d e b r i s may collect on the floor of the
entrance section and they should be removed.

Walls of steel flumes may become

encrusted and the encrustation should be removed with a steel wire b r u s h .

Once

the walls have been s c r a p e d clean, applying asphaltic paint will add to the life of
the flume.
Commonly, P a r s h a l l flumes, o r any other type of flow m e a s u r i n g flumes,
placed in unlined channels will "settle" after being in operation f o r a period of
time.

The levelness of the entrance floor should be checked a f t e r a few months

of operation, and again at the end of the season o r y e a r .

E i t h e r settling o r i m p r o p e r installation can cause a flume to tilt sideways.
If the settling i s m i n o r , the discharge can still be estimated with f a i r accuracy

by m e a s u r i n g the flow depths on both sides of the flume.

By employing the

a v e r a g e of the two readings when using the d i s c h a r g e equations o r rating tables.

the d i s c h a r g e can be determined.

Settlement occurs m o s t commonly n e a r the exit section because of channel

erosion immediately downstream from the flume caused by the jetting action of
the water.

Use of the flow depths Ha o r Ha and Hb to obtain the discharge f r o m

standard discharge tables will yield values l e s s than the t r u e discharge.

Satis-

factory solutions to this problem include raising the lower end of the flume so
that i t i s level again o r placing a new level floor in the flume.

Correction values

for settled "Cut throat flumest1of a few sizes have been determined
experimentally and further r e s e a r c h i s being c a r r i e d out (83).

7.5

THE STANDING WAVE MEASURING FLUME

The standing wave measuring flume developed in India i s essentially a drop

which has been standardized and calibrated to s e r v e for the measurement of flow.
It i s described in detail in Chapter 6, sub- section 6.1 1.2.

7.6

THE CUT-THROAT FLUME-1/

7. 6. 1

General
. The Cut-throat Flume h a s been developed recently to overcome some of the
shortcomings of other types of flumes already in existence. Figure 7-26 shows
the standard shape of this flume which was derived eGperirnentally.
has a flat bottom and vertical walls, a s seen in Figure 7- 27.

The flume

It can be operated

( a s the P a r s h a l l flume) under both f r e e flow and submerged flow conditions.

Since the flume h a s no longitudinal throat section the flume was given the name
"Cut-throat" by i t s developers (Skogerboe, Hyatt, Anderson and Eggleston).
Figure 7-28 shows a 1 f t flume in operation.

Advantages of the flume a s com-

pared with the P a r s h a l l flume a r e a s follows.

Construction of the flume i s facilitated by the horizontal floor and removal
of the throat section.
Since the angles of convergence and divergence remain the' same for all

L'

The description i s based mainly on reference (85).

flumes, the s i z e of the flume can be changed by merely moving the walls in o r out.
Therefore, ratings for intermediate sized flumes can be developed from the
ratings available.

This i s extremely helpful when sizes other than those with a

rating a r e required o r a miatake i s made in the throat width during construction.

FIGURE 7-26.

Sketch of Cut-throat flume. (85)

If circumstances allow, i t i s preferable to have the cut-throat flume operate

under f r e e flow conditions.
degree of accuracy.
dition.

This facilitates measurement and ensures a high

The following description i s limited to the f r e e flow con-

F o r corresponding information on the submerged flow condition reference

(85) may be consulted.

As to be expected there a r e similarities in the installation

and operation of the P a r s h a l l flume and the Cut-throat flume.

As the former has

been described in considerable detail, discussion of the Cut-throat flume i s

limited to the essentials.

FIGURE 7-27. - F i n a l design of a 61 c m ( 2 ft) rectangular

cut-throat flume ( 9 0 ) .

FIGURE 7 - 28. - Cut-throat flume of 30.5 c m (1 ft) throat

width, with automatic recording device, operating under
f r e e flow conditions.

Determination of Discharge under F r e e Flow Conditions

F r e e flow through the Cut-throat flume i s given by the two formulae

where

flow r a t e in m / s

f r e e flow coefficient

Ha

u p s t r e a m flow depth ( m e a s u r e d a t a distance of

throat,

- f r o m the
9

s e e F i g u r e 7- 26 )

and
where

f r e e flow coefficient ( a s above)

the flume length coefficient

the throat width in m .

The values of n and K a r e obtained f r o m F i g u r e 7-29 for a given flume

length.
The d i s c h a r g e can then be calculated for any Ha by using the above two
formulae, provided f r e e flow conditions exist in the flume, ( c r i t e r i a for these
conditions a r e described in 7.6.3).

F o r a c c u r a t e d i s ~ h a r g em e a s u r e m e n t s , the

recommended r a t i o of flow depth to flume length (Ha : L) should be equal to o r

l e s s than 0.4.

Increasing values of this r a t i o r e s u l t i n g r e a t e r i n a c c u r a c i e s .

Example of flow calculation

A f r e e flow rating i s needed f o r a Cut-throat flume of length, L, of 1. 22 m and

width, W,

of 0.36 m.

the value K i s 3. 16.

F r o m F i g u r e 7- 29 the value of n i s found to be 1 . 7 5 and

Then, using equation(2)the value of the f r e e flow coefficient

C i s calculated.
C

K W

3.16

Now, knowing the values of n and C,

1.025

0.36

1.025

the flow r a t e through the flume can

be calculated for any value of Ha using equation (1).

Assuming Ha = 0 . 3 6 6 m

Installation of Cut- throat Flumes for Operation under F r e e Flow Conditions

C r i t e r i a for location of the Cut-throat flume a r e identical to those already
described for P a r s h a l l flumes ( s e e 7.4.4).

After the site h a s been selected i t i s

n e c e s s a r y to determine the design c r i t e r i a :

maximum quantity of water to be measured;

depth of flow n e c e s s a r y to obtain this discharge;

allowable head l o s s through the flume.

F o r design purposes, the head l o s s may be taken a s the change in water

The downstream depth of

surface elevation between the flume entrance and exit.

flow will remain essentially the s a m e after installation of the flume, a s i t was
p r i o r to installation, but the upstream depth will i n c r e a s e by the amount of head
,The allowable increase in upstream depth may be limited by the height of

loss.

the canal banks upstream of the flume, and such condition may require an
i n c r e a s e in the flume size in o r d e r to bring the water level down to acceptable
limits.
<

The flume must be placed level in the channel, both longitudinally and
laterally, and be aligned straight with it.
(As already

The most important dimension i s the throat width, W.

mentioned one of the principal advantages of this flume i s that an e r r o r in constructing the throat resulting in an e r r o r in the width can be taken into account by
writing new flow ratings, using equation ( 2 ) ) . If a Cut-throat flume i s to be
constructed in concrete, a steel angle can be placed a t the throat cross-section
embedded in the concrete and this will fix the width correctly.

In the experience of the developers of this flume a transition structure

between the open channel and the flume i s not necessary.

The only guidelines

to follow i s that the ratio of flow depth to flume length (Ha : L) should be 0 . 4 o r

-4
0

0
0

22

Transition submergence, St, in per cent

FIGURE 7 - 2 9 . - G e n e r a l i z e d f r e e flow coefficients and
exponents and St for C u t - t h r o a t flumes, in m e t r i c u n i t s .

-I

0
0

l e s s a s already pointed out.

F o r the usual installations in channels of gentle

grade this will e n s u r e that approach conditions will satisfy the conditions under
which the laboratory ratings w e r e developed.
Measurements may be made in the flume by the use of a staff gauge o r
stilling well s e t a t the specified location f o r Ha.

The staff gauge m u s t be

carefully referenced to the elevation of the flume bottom.

In o r d e r to e n s u r e f r e e flow conditions the ratio between the water depth a t

)
not exceed a certain limit, called the
the exit and at the entrance ( H : ~H ~ should
transition submergence,

St,

which can be determined f r o m F i g u r e 7 - 2 9 .

The procedure to follow for installing a Cut-throat flume t o operate under

f r e e flow conditions i s s u m m a r i z e d a s follows :
(i)

Determine the maximum flow r a t e to be m e a s u r e d .

(ii)

At the site selected f o r installing the flume, locate the high water line
on the canal bank and a s c e r t a i n the maximum p e r m i s s i b l e depth of flow.

(iii) Using equation ( I ) , calculate the depth of water that corresponds to the

maximum discharge capacity of the canal for the flume being used.
(iv)

P l a c e the floor of the flume a t a depth @Ib) which does not exceed Ha
multiplied by the transition submergence St (Hb

Hast).

Generally,

the flume bottom should be placed a s high in the kana1 a s grade and other
conditions p e r m i t to e n s u r e f r e e flow.
There i s no established r u l e f o r proportions between W and L o r W and
Ha.

Therefore, a s long a s f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h r e s u l t s a r e pending i t i s

recommended that the range of proportions which have been laboratory tested
be applied, which, adjusted to even m e t r i c values, a r e given in Table 7-9.
The procedure i s f u r t h e r illustrated by F i g u r e 7-30 and by the following
two example s:
Example 1
.A Cut-throat flume of length L = 1. 22 m and throat width W = 0. 36 m i s
to be installed f o r f r e e flow operation ( F i g u r e 7-30).

The maximum flow r a t e in

the channel is 0.200 m 3 / s .

Maximum water surface

after flume installation

surface before

L O r i g i n a l canal bottom

FIGURE 7-30.

Installation of a Cut-throat flume.

The transition .submergence f o r t h i s flume can be determined f r o m F i g u r e

7;29 a s St = 68.2%.

F r o m equations (1) and (2) the value of Ha that c o r r e -

sponds to the maximum flow of 0.200 m 3 / s can be calculated:

1.75 ( F i g u r e 7-29)

TABLE

7-9

F r e e Flow Calibrations for Selected Cut-throat Flumes,

Flume Length L (85)

Expressed by Throatwidth W x

Discharge
Ha

Q (m

per second)

TABLE 7-9 ( C o n t t d . )
Ha
(cm)

Discharge Q ( m 3 p e r second)

10cm
X 90 20 x 90 30 x 90 20 x 180 40 x 180 60 x 180 30
270 60 270 100 270
cm
cm
cm
cm
cm
cm
cm
cm

.205
.210
.215
.220
.225
.230
.235
.240
.245
.250

.019
,020
.021
.022
.023
.024
.025
.026
.027
.028

.041
.043
.045
.047
.049
.051
.053
.055
-057
.059

.060
.062
-065
.068
.071
.074
-077
.080
.083
.086

.255
.260
.265
.270
,275
.280
.285
.290
.295
.300

.029
.030
.031
,032
.033
.034
.035
.037
.038
.039

.061
.063
-066
.068
.070
.073
.075
.078
.080
.082

.089
.092
.096
.099
102
.186
109
.I13
.I16
.120

.305
310
..315
.320
.325
.330
.'335
.340
.345
.350

.040
.041
.043
.044
.045
.046
.048
.049
.050
-052

.085
.088
.090
.093
.096
.098
.lo1
.lo4
.lo7
.110

. 124

.355
.360
.365
.370
.375
.380
.385
,390
.395
.400

.053
.054
.056
.057
.059
.060
.062
.063
.065
.066

. 115
.118
. 121
. 124
. 127
. 131
. 134

.405
.410
.415
.420
.425
.430
.435
.440
.445
.450

.068
.069
.071
.072
.074
.076
.077
.079
.080
.082

.112

.137
.I40

. 143
. 147
.150
.153
157
.160
163
.167
.170
. 174

.035
,036
.038.039
.041
,042
.044
.045
.047
.049

.071
.074
.077
.080
,083
.086
.089
.092
.096
.099

.lo8
.112
.117
.I21
.I26
130
.135
140
145
.150

.052
.055
.057
.059
.061
.063
.065
.067
.069
.072

.lo2
.lo6
.lo9
.112
.116
.119
123
126
.130
.134

.155
,160
.165
170
.I75
.I80
.186
.I91
,197
.202

.074
.076
.078
.081
.083
.085
.088
.090
.093
.095

.I93

.254
,261
.269
.277
.285
.293
.302
.310
.318
327

.098
.lo0
.lo3
105
. 108
.I10
.I13
.116
118
.121

.I99
.204
.209
.214
.219
.224
.230
.235
.241
.246

.335
.344
.353
.361
.370
.379
.388
.397
.406
.416

.
.

107
.111
.I15
.119
123
128
132
.I37
141
146

.
.

.
.

. 150

.I80

. 187
. 194

. 201
.209
.216
.223
.231
.238
.246

.127
.131
. 135
. 139
. 143
.I47
.I51
.I55
.159

.050
.052
.053
.055
.057
.059
.060
.062
.064
.066
.067
,069
. .071
.073
.075
.077
.079
.081
.083
.085

,141
.I45
149
152
.156
.160
164
.168
.172

,208
.213
.219
,225
.231
.237
.243
.249
.255
.261

.I64
.168
172
177
181
185
190
195
199
.204

.087
.089
.091
.093
.095
.097
.099
101
103
105

.176
.180
185
189
,193
197
.202
.206
.210
.215

,267
.273
.279
.286
,292
,299
.305
.312
,318
.325

.124
.126
129
132
.I35
138
.140
.I43
. 146
149

.252
.257
.263
.268
,274
.280
.286
.291
.297
.303

.425
.434
.444
.453
.463
.473
.482
.492
.502
.512

.332
.339
,345
.352
.359
.366
.373
,380
.388
.395

.152
.I55
158
.I61
.164
.167
170
173
.176
.179

.309

.112
.114
.I16
119
.121
.123
.I26
.128

.219
.224
.228
.233
.237
.242
.247
.251
,256
.261

. 315

.522
.532
.542
.552
.563
.573
.584
.594
.605
.615

.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.

.209
.213
.218
.223
.228
.233
.238
.243
.248
.253

.
.
.
. 108
. 110
.

.
.

. 137
.
.

.
.

.
.
.

.
.

. 155
.. 164
159
.169
..I79
174
. 183

. 188

.321
.327
.333
,339
.346
.352
.358
.364

TABLE 7 - 9 (Cont'd.)

Ha

( cm)
.455
.460
.465
.470
.475
.480
.485
.490

Discharge Q ( m3 per second)

10 x 90 20 x 90 30 x 90 20 x 180 40 x 180 60 x 180 3Cx 270 60 x 270
cm
cm
cm
cm
cm
cm
cm
cm
. 130
.266
.402
.182
.37 1
.133
.270
.409
.185
.377
. 135
.275
.417
189
.383
. 138
.280
.424
. 192
.390
.I40
.285
.432
.195
.396
.142
.290
.439
. 198
.403
. 145
.295
.447
.201
.409
. 147
.300
.454
.205
.416

100 x 270
cm
.626
.637
.648
.659
.669
. 681
.692
.703

The downstream flow depth,

Hb

Hast

Hb,

0.377

becomes
0.682

0.257 m

T h e r e f o r e the floor of the flume should be placed no lower than 0 . 2 5 7 m

below the high w a t e r line in the canal ( F i g u r e 7-30).

Suppose the logical Cut-throat flume s i z e n e c e s s a r y to m e a s u r e a maximum

discharge of 350 11s under f r e e flow conditions m u s t be found.

P r e s e n t l y , the

maximum flow depth in the channel i s 30 c m and the head l o s s i s not to exceed
15 cm.

Under t h e s e conditions, the maximum downstream flow depth would be

30 c m and the maximum u p s t r e a m flow depth 45 c m (30 15 = 45).

The
30
submergence would b e 67% ( 45 = 0. 67). F r o m F i g u r e 7-29 i t i s found that the
only f l u m e s with a transition submergence g r e a t e r than 67% a r e those with a
length of 1.15 m and above.

To s e l e c t the p r o p e r flume s i z e r e f e r to Table 7-9.

Tentatively 'select the 40 x 180 c m flume and find the value of Ha which
c o r r e s p o n d s to the given d i s c h a r g e of 350 11s.

F o r this value the u p s t r e a m

depth i s 54 cm, which i s g r e a t e r than the allowable maximum u p s t r e a m depth of

45 cm.
imposed.

Consequently a l a r g e r flume s i z e i s n e c e s s a r y to satisfy the conditions

F r o m Table 7-9.it i s found that the 60 x 180 c m flume h a s an u p s t r e a m

depth of 42 c m f o r a discharge of 0.350 m 3 / s , and since this value i s l e s s than

the r e s t r i c t e d depth of 45 c m i t would be selected f o r u s e in this p a r t i c u l a r
situation.

A slightly s m a l l e r flume s i z e could be used, e . g. a throat width, W,

between 40 and 60 c m could be selected, which however would n e c e s s i t a t e

preparation of a s e p a r a t e rating table.

With known W and L the flume can be

dimensioned according to F i g u r e 7-26.

7. 6.4

Maintenance
As f o r P a r s h a l l flumes ( s e e 7.4.8).

Experience and r e s e a r c h have 'shown that, in many r e s p e c t s , trapezoidal

flumes a r e s u p e r i o r to the rectangular o r P a r s h a l l - t y p e flumes, p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r

m e a s u r i n g s m a l l e r flows.

The shape conforms to the n o r m a l shape of ditches,

particularly those that a r e lined.

This m i n i m i z e s the amount of transition

section needed a s compared to that r e q u i r e d when changing f r o m a trapezoidal

shape to a rectangular one and back to the trapezoidal.

The trapezoidal shape i s

a l s o desirable since the side walls expand a s the depth i n c r e a s e s .

that one s t r u c t u r e can convey a l a r g e r range of flow.
depth f o r a given range of discharge i s s m a l l e r .

This m e a n s

Also, the e n t i r e range of

Another d e s i r a b l e feature of

the trapezoidal flume i s the flat bottom throughout r a t h e r than a dropped section
such a s with the.Parshal1 flume.

The l o s s in head, i. e . total head l o s s , through

the trapezoidal s t r u c t u r e , m a y be l e s s f o r comparable discharges.

These f e a t u r e s make the trapezoidal flume particularly suited f o r
installation in concrete lined ditches.

The flume i s usually put on top of the

lining, thus constricting the flow section to the extent required for f r e e flow
conditions over the whole range of discharges up to the design dischargk of the
ditch ( F i g u r e 7-31 (a) and (b) ).

The elevation of the flume floor above the ditch

bottom depends on the existing grade of the ditch; the lower the' grade the higher
the elevation.

FIGURE 7-31 ( a ) and (b). - Trapezoidal m e a s u r i n g flume with a

r a i s e d bottom c a s t in a concrete ditch.
The discharge i s about
34 11s (1.2 f t 3 / s ) a t a submergence of about 70% (87).

A tentative standard for trapezoidal flumes, coded ASAE S 359 T, was

adopted by the American Society of Agricultural Engineers (AsAE) in 1972, see
Two c l a s s e s of flume a r e included.

(103).

The f i r s t - c l a s s consists of f o u ~

experimentally calibrated flumes of short length relative to their flow capacity.

Some of their characteristics a r e given in Table 7- 10. Figure 7-32 shows a
standard design for the No. 1 flume.

Flumes Nos. 1 and 2 a r e designed for use

in two standard lined ditch sections.

Flumes 3 and 4 a r e recommended primarily

for use in unlined channels.

TABLE

7-10

Some Characteristics of the Standard Calibrated Trapezoidal Flume

(Derived f r o m ASAE Standard S 359 T)
I

Flume
No.

Width of approach
section (= bed
width qf ditch)
cm

Side slope of approach

section ( = side slope
of ditch)
(horizontal : vertical)

Range of
calibrated
flow depth
cm

Range of
calibrated
flow
l/s

The second c l a s s of flume has a long enough thi-oat 'section to result in

parallel flow (in that section) to permit the discharge relationships td be
calculated by the solution of equations describing the conservatidn of energy
between the flume approach and throat sections, rather than by experimental
calibration.

The size and shape of the flumes were also selected for use. in

ditches conforming to ASAE standard slipform lining.

Submerged flow ratings

a r e not available for this c l a s s of flume since they will operate ilnder f r e e flow
conditions in channels with the specified slope o r a steeper one.

Table 7- 11

gives some particulars of this c l a s s of flume which h a s been designed in 30

different types divided into five categories.
parallel flow critical depth flume.

Figure 7-33 illustrates a typical

THROAT SECTION

PLAN VlEW

Fitting for
recorder w el I .

+l'-@,'+A

kl~5g

3'-10g

PROFILE VlEW

FIGURE 7 - 3 2 .

E N D VIEW

Trapezoidal flume for 1 ft i r r i g a t i o n channels.

TABLE 7-11
Some Characteristics of the Standard Parallel Flow Flume
(Derived from ASAE Standard S 359 T)

Flume
code 11

Bed width of
approach section
(= bed width of
ditch)
cm

Side slope of approach

section ( = side slope
of ditch)
(horizontal : vertical)

Range of
maximum
upstream
flow depth
cm

Range of
maximum
measurable
flow
I/ 8

Each flume codp represents a group of 6 geometrically slightly different

flumes ,

Trapezoidal flumes can be used to measure discharge with an accuracy of

-+ 5% with free flow conditions.

The accuracy i s however dependent on the

accuracy of the dimensions of the throat cross section, the stage of measurement
and the flume installation.
to throat area e r r o r s .

Discharge e r r o r s will be approximately proportional

For trapezoidal flumes with a wide throat width, the

discharge e r r o r approaches 1.5 times the e r r o r in stage *reading. F o r flumes

with a triangular throat section the discharge e r r o r wil1,pe about 2.5 times the
e r r o r in stage reading (103).

Submerged conditions should be avoided but may

be necessary where head loss through the flume must be reduced to the minimum.

FIGURE 7- 33.

Typical parallel flow critical depth flume.

Although the s t a n d a r d flumes mentioned above m a y be u s e d in unlined

ditches if cut-off walls a r e attached t o each end, they have been designed
p a r t i c u l a r l y for c o n c r e t e lined d i t c h e s .
s t e e l f o r m a s shown in F i g u r e 7-34.

Installation i s b e s t accomplished by a

If only a s m a l l n u m b e r of f l u m e s a r e to

be i n s t a l l e d a l i g h t e r f o r m , using plywood and t i m b e r , which a r e c h e a p e r , m a y

be s a t i s f a c t o r y .

Construction of a c o n c r e t e flume without using a f o r m i s not

recommended i f s t a n d a r d r a t i n g t a b l e s a r e t o be applied.

As with a l l f l u m e s

the a c c u r a c y of m e a s u r e m e n t depends to a g r e a t extent on the p r e c i s i o n of construction.

The t h r o a t section i s the control section and t h e r e f o r e the exact

dimensioning of t h i s a r e a i s m o s t i m p o r t a n t . F l u m e s in unlined ditches m a y be

built of galvanized s t e e l s h e e t o r r e i n f o r c e d p o l y e s t e r r e s i n s .
Complementary information such a s complete dimensions and r a t i n g s a r e
given in the ASAE Standard (103) a s well a s in ( 5 9 ) and (87).

FIGURE 7-34. - P o r t a b l e s t e e l f o r m used to c a s t

trapezoidal c o n c r e t e f l u m e s in c o n c r e t e ditches (87).

7.8

7.8. 1

USE O F CULVERTS AS MEASURING DEVICES

General
Numerous c u l v e r t s a r e found in i r r i g a t i o n distribution s y s t e m s a s well a s
in f a r m h e a d ditches.

They a r e useful for c r o s s i n g w a t e r c o u r s e s , r o a d s o r

railway l i n e s and they a r e commonly placed through canal banks to d i v e r t water

into l a t e r a l s (pipe outlets), e i t h e r with a head gate placed a t the culvert inlet to

ROD

HOOK BOLT

CLIP

SPIGOT BACK WITH PlPE ATTACHED

7-71

ANCHOR

GROUT

SEATING'
FACE

<

' ,

FLAT BACK ATTACHED TO CONCRETE

NOTCH CUT IN LlFT STEM AT

TOP OF LlFT NUT WHEN GATE
IS AT POINT OF ZERO OPENING

OPENING IS DETERMINED BY MEASURING DISTANCE

- GATE
BETWEEN NOTCH ON STEM AND TOP OF LlFT NUT

f/

6 MINIMUM TO INSURE COMPLETE SUBMERGENCE OF THE

OUTLET PlPE AND A POSITIVE WATER MEASUREMENT IN THE

WELL CONNECTED TO THE TOP OF PlPE

XJ

'DIFFERENCE IN WATER
ELEVATION IN WELLS
NOT GREATPR T H A N 1 R

BOTTOM OF
OUTLET DITCH

ON TOP OF PlPE
4'MIN f
INSTALL PIPE ON LEVEL GRADE

F I G U R E 7 - 3 5 (a) and (b).

(64).

M e t e r g a t e f o r pipe o u t l e t s

xcIZ

control the quantity of flow diverted to the lateral, o r without any control device.

If properly calibrated, culverts with and without control gates can be used for
discharge measurements.

Gated Culverts

A shut-off is, in most instances, required at a farm outlet because of the

manner in which the system i s operated.

If properly calibrated the shut-off can

also serve a s a means of measurement and there have been numerous attempts to
provide this combination.
A measuring gate used in the U. S. A. and in some other countries i s shown

in Figure 7-35 (a) and (b).

It consists of a circular plate, operated by a screw,

which can shut off the outlet pipe.

Two stilling wells, a s shown, a r e fixed to the

outlet; one is connected to the canal and the other to the delivery pipe on the
downstream side of the gate.

The difference in water levels in the two wells and

the gate opening is measured and the discharge obtained from tables derived from
standard calibrations.

The head loss i s low but changes in either upstream or

downstream water levels alter the rate of flow so that periodic observations and
manual adjustments a r e necessary.
The flow through gated culverts may be estimated by using the formula :

where Q = discharge in 11s

C = coefficient = 0 . 7 for short culvert%. (such a s those used

for farm outlets)
A = area of orifice in cm 2
g = 981 c m f s2

= head in cm causing discharge through the orifice

Example:
Aasume orifice a r e a

300 cm2

and

H = 40 cm

Farm ditch

Tertiary canal
-Sliding

iron gate

L = 300 cm (minimum

FIGURE 7 - 3 6 . - Sketch of pipe outlet with sliding 'gate fdr delivery

control and measurement (88)

A simpler form of gate and method of measurement i s used in the

installation shown in Figure 7-36.

Calibration of this type of concrete pipe

outlet has been conducted by 'the State Hydraulic Works Department in Turkey.
The r e s u l t s a r e shown in Figure 7-37.

After the water level in the supply canal

has been established by a canal eheck gate, the r a t e of flow through the outlet i s
determined by correlating i t s gate opening to the head which i s read f r o m staff
gauges up and downstream of the pipe.

Although accuracy i s relatively low, the

cost to provide this measuring facility i s negligible.

45

40

35

30

25

Gote opening (cm)

FIGURE 7-37.

20

- meorurad

15

10

inclined

Rating curve for pipe outlet (88).

7.8.3

U n ~ a t e dCulverts
The discharge of a culvert i s dependent on effective head, i t s c r o s s section,
degree of submergence of inlet, pipe ( o r b a r r e l ) and outlet, shape of inlet, length,
slope, and roughness of the pipe ( o r b a r r e l ) .

Of the basic flow conditions that

can exist, downstream conditions ( f r e e surface, o r submerged) usually control

the flow in culverts used in irrigation systems.

So f a r only approximate dis-

charge formulae a r e available f o r f r e e surface flow affected by downstream

conditions, and hydraulic computations a r e involved.

Recent r e s e a r c h on

culvert hydraulics conducted a t the Colorado State University, Report No. 17 (96),
h a s provided the theoretical b a s i s on which culverts can be accurately rated a s
flow measuring devices for t h r e e basic flow conditions.

Rating tables have been

produced for a 30.5 cm (12 inch) diametric corrugated metal pipe for various
slopes, including horizontal, and pipe lengths of 1.5, 3 and 6 m (5, 10 and 20 ft),
and the r e p o r t recommends discharge rating experiments be extended to a
variety of culvert sizes and lengths.

PROPELLER METERS

General
Propeller m e t e r s a r e commercial flow measuring devices used near the
end of pipes o r conduits flowing full (under gravity flow) o r a s in-line m e t e r s in
pressurized pipe systems.

The latter application will not be discussed h e r e ,

since p r e s s u r e distribution systems a r e excluded f r o m the scope of this Handbook

If used for gravity flow the m e t e r i s also known a s an open flow m e t e r .

The

propeller rotates about a horizontal axle which i s geared to a totalizing head that
r e c o r d s the total number of cubic m e t r e s o r cubic feet, passing the measuring
section.

Some m e t e r s indicate instantaneous discharge a s well.

Hydraulic P r o p e r t i e s
Hydraulic properties such a s range of discharge, head l o s s and calibration
curves, vary slightly between manufacturers who usually furnish such data for
individual types.

The data quoted below r e f e r to one make which may be

generally representative of m o s t of the available propeller m e t e r s

FIGURE 7-38.

FIGURE 7-39. - Propeller meter

installed at a pipe outlet.

FIGURE 7-40. - Register of a

propeller meter.

The diagram in Figure 7-41 shows that the flow velocity should fall within
the range from 0.35 m / s (1.15 f t / s ) to 2.5 m / a (8.2 f t / s ) and that *e normal
flow velocity should preferably range between the limits 1.3 to 2.0 m / s (4.25 to
6.5 ftfs).

If the velocity falls short of 0.35 m / s accuracy rapidly deteriorates.

Max. test flow

velocitv ronoe
Min. test flow,

1I

FIGURE 7-41.
Range ability of a propeller meter and
the selection of meter diameter (t4% accuracy).

Example of determination of required propeller diameter :

Given

Solution

0.5 m3/ s

Minimumdesignflow

0.15m3/s

Normal flow rate

0.4 m 3 / s

Maximum design flow

'

F r o m Figure 7-41 it i s found that a propeller diameter of 600 mm

would best fit the given flows.

Its permissible velocity range covers the

required maximum and minimum flows and the normal flow rate may be diecharged within the normal velocity range.

F r o m the p r o p e l l e r d i a m e t e r required, the suitable pipe d i a m e t e r i s d e t e r mined.

The l a t t e r should be f r o m 1. 25 to 2.0 t i m e s a s l a r g e a s the propeller.

F o r n o r m a l velocity distribution in the m e a s u r i n g section the pipe u p s t r e a m

of the m e t e r should be s t r a i g h t f o r a length of 15 pipe d i a m e t e r s .

Straightening

vanes may be r e q u i r e d ahead of the device i f spiralling flow i s expected.

This

m a y develop a t the entrance f r o m the canal into the pipe.

F o r p r o p e r r e g i s t r a t i o n the p r o p e l l e r m u s t be completely submerged.
Therefore, if occasionally the pipe i s to be run only partly filled, a backwater h a s
t o be c r e a t e d a t the outlet.

This i s done by installing a submerged weir with a

c r e s t 10 c m ( 4 inches) above the top of the pipe.

The face of the weir should be a t

l e a s t 1 m e t r e plus 2 pipe d i a m e t e r s away f r o m the pipe mouth ( s e e F i g u r e 7-42).

The head l o s s e s of the m e t e r shown in F i g u r e s 7-38 to 7-40 a r e 10 c m
( 4 inches) for flow velocities below 2.5 m / s ( 8 . 2 f t / s ) and 15 c m ( 6 inches) for

flow velocities f r o m 2. 5 up to 3 m / s (10 f t / s ) .

Performance
P r o p e l l e r m e t e r s a r e used to a considerable extent in the U. S. A., Japan
and Australia, and some other countries have s t a r t e d to introduce them.

They

may be used with advantage in s y s t e m s where water i s sold on a volumetric b a s i s

since flow volumes a r e given directly without computation.

Other advantages

a r e s m a l l head l o s s e s , and independence f r o m external power.

However,

propeller m e t e r s do suffer f r o m some distinct limitations :

the m e t e r s a r e v e r y susceptible to weeds ahd other d e b r i s in the flowing

water;

suspended sediments m a y enter into the bearings and reduce the number of
p r o p e l l e r revolutions thus resulting in under - r e g i s t r a t i o n ;

the m e t e r s m u s t be submerged under a l l flow conditions;

m a n u f a c t u r e r s usually c l a i m a d e g r e e of m e a s u r i n g accuracy which may be
obtained under controlled l a b o r a t o r y conditions (e.g. f 2% a c c u r a c y ) but
hardly under field conditions; a p a r t f r o m e r r o r s introduced by d e b r i s and
bearing problems, considerable registration e r r o r s may be caused by faulty
installation.
be c l o s e r to

Under average field conditions the m e a s u r i n g accuracy m a y

+ 5% than -+ 2% and even l e s s .

the serviceable life i s relatively short; Japanese s o u r c e s c l a i m a life of 5

Dia. 13 (@ 2 5 0

Front elevation or plane

Section B-B

I. B = 1,200 mm for Dl

5 0 0 mm 5 = 1,500 mm for
6 0 0 mm
2 The half of the pipe is used for the attachment t o the
square box
3 The water vent and top is installed in the inside wolf
i f indicated
4 Standard size of 6
1 ,B2
61= 2 4 + 1,000 mm (min. 1,200 mm)
B2 if Dl & 5 0 0 mm
5, = 5 0 0 mm
Dl 3 5 0 0 m m
6, = 1,000 mm

43

F A O - lClO
Dia. 13 @ 2 5 0
STANDARD DESIGN OF OPEN TYPE
Section A-A

PROPELLER METER
Project , Reqron, Country
Unspeclfled , Jopon
F~gureNo 7-42

to 8 y e a r s .

propeller m e t e r s require continuous maintenance

- purchase of spare p a r t s

may cause problems; the r i s k of damage i s high;

7.9.4

propeller m e t e r s a r e relatively expensive to purchase.

Design Example
Figure 7-42 shows a standard design developed in Japan for low p r e s s u r e

pipe systems. The design i s easily modified to fit into a pipe outlet to an open ditch.

7.10
7.10.1

DEFLECTION METERS
General
A deflection m e t e r consists of a vane o r rod dipped in the flowing water and
mounted on a horizontal spindle a c r o s s the measuring section in a channel.

The

deflection caused by the f o r c e of the flow against the vane o r rod i s indicated on a
calibrated scale giving the instantaneous discharge.
indication a r e in use:

At l e a s t two systems of

in the simplest one a pointer indicates the deflection on a

fixed vertical scale ( F i g u r e s 7-43 and 7-44); a m o r e advanced type consists of a

bubble glass tube attached to a scale that i s directly fixed on the top of the vane.
The discharge i s determined by reading the position of the centre of the bubble
against the scale ( F i g u r e 7-45).

FIGURE 7-43. - Example of a deflection m e t e r with a pointer

indicating against a fixed vertical scale (Rajasthan, India).

FIGURE 7-44.

The Rajasthan channel flow m e t e r in u s e

Deflection m e t e r s a r e usually manufactured commercially but a s shown

in F i g u r e 7-43

and 7-44 can be constructed locally a s well.

The m e t e r s a r e

usually portable and m a y be e a s i l y moved f r o m one station to another.

The

b e a r i n g s which keep the m e t e r in position a r e usually permanently installed in a

trapezoidal o r rectangular m e a s u r i n g section.

Thus one m e t e r head can s e r v e a

number of ditches of about the s a m e flow capacities, provided these ditches a r e

equipped with permanent liner sections.

Each m e t e r handles about 1: 15 range of

flows in a given size of ditch and automatically compensates for different combinations of velocity and depth.
Under ideal conditions a measuring accuracy of

+ 2% may be obtained but in

-

practice the level of accuracy depends on local factors.

Wind i s a m a j o r source

of inaccuracy and can produce l a r g e e r r o r s .

Since deflection m e t e r s a r e handy and easy to install, they have been used
successfully in field t r i a l s for irrigation efficiency and water management studies,
a s well a s for water distribution control at the f a r m level.

FIGURE 7-45.

Commercially available deflection m e t e r .

Elevotion

Slot to just OllOw,

possoge of rod-

End elevation

4nti-vortex
boffk

Table of dimensions

_IZ.

I
a,:*ionol

7-

elevotbn A-A

Rods, needle bearings, lock nuts

to be of brass
Tube, 60f f le i n d heodwoll to
be of 245 G.I.

f
.3
-

Plon

FIGURE 7-46.
flow meter.

Sketch of the Rajasthan channel

The m e t e r shown i n F i g u r e 7-44 i s commercially available in 16 standard

models.

The s m a l l e s t model h a s a capacity range of 3 t o 100 11s ( 0 . 1 to 3.5

ft3/ s ) while the l a r g e s t model i s applicable to a flow r a n g e f r o m 40 t o 850 l / s

(1.5 to 30 f t 3 / s ) .

The cost (in 1968) ranged f r o m $595 t o $615 f o r the m e t e r s

and f r o m $ 4 3 to $ 8 3 f o r the l i n e r sections; i t i s c l e a r t h e r e f o r e that t h i s type of

device i s economic only if one m e t e r can s e r v e a s many m e a s u r i n g stations a s
po s sible

7.10.2

The Rajasthan Channel Flow M e t e r

The Rajasthan Channel Flow Meter ( F i g u r e s 7-43, 7-44 and 7-46) was
developed by the FAO/UNDP P r o j e c t

- Soil and Water Management R e s e a r c h and

Demonstration in the Rajasthan Canal A r e a , in 1970, a s a m e a n s of m e a s u r i n g

flows in i r r i g a t i o n efficiency t r i a l s .
Design c r i t e r l a for the m e t e r a r e : they should b e operated with a negligible
head l o s s in muddy water containing some t r a s h ; they should be simple, robust,
capable of manufacture by village c r a f t s m e n and portable; the a c c u r a c y should be
of the o r d e r of 10% o r b e t t e r and the indicating device should be simple to r e a d .
On this b a s i s four different s i z e s have been developed a s indicated below.
M e t e r Size
cm
inch

Measurement Range
11s
ft5/ s

A cost of 150 Indian r u p e e s ($20) was quoted (in 1970) for the 30 c m m e t e r .

F i e l d testing showed that in g e n e r a l deflections and discharge corresponded

well in the middle r a n g e s of flow, with an a c c u r a c y of
high flows r e s u l t s w e r e scattered.

10/o, while a t low o r

It i s concluded that the flow m e t e r a p p e a r s

to be a cheap and useful m e a s u r i n g device, that with reasonable c a r e in

manufacture, handling and installation, will attain m e a s u r e m e n t s within
accuracy limits.

+ 570

Flow
0

0.01

0.02 0.03

in ft/s

004
0 0 5 0 0 6 0.07
1
'
1
I
1
3
Flow in m / s

0.08 0.09

0.10

0.11

FIGURE 7 - 4 7 . - Sample calibration curve. for 30 c m

( 1 2 inch) Rajasthan Channel flow m e t e r . '

7.11

THE DETHRIDGE METER

The Dethridge m e t e r i s a self-integrating m e a s u r i n g device developed in
Australia.

It i s designed particularly to fit f a r m outlets and i s t h e r e f o r e

d i s c u s s e d in detail i n Chapter 5, F a r m Outlets, Section 5.5.

7.12

THE CONSTANT HEAD ORIFICE TURNOUT

The Constant Head Orifice Turnout i s a combined regulating and m e a s u r i n g
device that u s e s an adjustable submerged orifice for the m e a s u r e m e n t of d i s -

charge.

The structure may be installed in canal intakes o r (the m o s t common

application) may s e r v e a s a f a r m outlet (or f a r m turnout).

A comprehensive

description of the structure i s given in Chapter 3, Section 3.4.

7.13

CALIBRATION O F MEASURING STRUCTURES

Calibration of a measuring -structure i s required in o r d e r to establish in
numerical values the exact relationships between water stage o r gauge height
and discharge for any given water depth o r opening (in the case of orifices).
Most of the standardized measuring weirs and flumes have been extensively
calibrated through laboratory o r field t e s t s and the r e s u l t s a r e available in
published rating tables o r graphs.

If the individual measuring s t r u c t u r e s be

built to these standard dimensions, these tables will be directly applicable with
a high degree of accuracy, say f r o m

+ 170to + 5%.

However, if in actual

practice dimensions and m a t e r i a l s of in-situ-built s t r u c t u r e s differ so much

f r o m standard that application of standard rating tables would cause e r r o r s above

-+ 5%,

individual field calibration may be n e c e s s a r y in o r d e r to i n c r e a s e accuracy

to acceptable values.

Calibration i s usually required where ordinary gates,

sluices o r other existing s t r u c t u r e s a r e to be used for water measurement.

In calibrating an individual structure, a s e r i e s of discharge measurements

a r e made covering the whole range of water depths o r the whole range of gate
openings expected in the future and the working heads a r e recorded
simultaneously.

F r o m this information curves o r tables have to be prepared.

F o r calibration measurements the current m e t e r method i s commonly used a s

described in many textbooks.
known dimensions.

Measurements a r e made in a rating section of

The rating section should be situated in a uniform channel

reach, f r e e f r o m disturbances caused by upstream conditions such a s bends,

waves and other distorting influences.

A l a r g e number of current m e t e r

readings a r e required to obtain a good match curve a s individual readings may

vary considerably.
Another calibration method that, where applicable, will yield accurate
r e s u l t s i s the use of a temporary weir o r flume of standard type installed ups t r e a m or downstream of the permanent structure to be calibrated.

F o r this

method, however, sufficient fall h a s to be available to ensure f r e e fall conditions.

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Kruse,E.G. The Constant-Head-Orifice F a r m Turnout.
1955
Publ. ARS 41 -93, January.

P r o c . Bombay Engng.

USDA Agric. Res. Serv.

L i s t of R e f e r e n c e s
Cont'd.
Mahajan, I.K. and Handa, C.L. Control and Distribution of Water in Irrigation
1957
Systems with Special Reference t o t h e Punjab. ICID T r a n s . 3 r d
Congress on Irrigation and Drainage, Vol IV, Q 9, R 25, pp 9.3699.398. New Delhi.
Mahbub, S. I. and Gulhati, N. D.
1951
Delhi.
Neyrpic
1951

I r r i g a t i o n Outlets.

p p 184. Atma R a m & Sons,

~ a t e / r i e d'irrigation,
l
Notice A P 21 1.

Meacham, I. Measuring Irrigation Deliveries, the Dethridge M e t e r .

1961
April. pp 184-189.
Molesworth, H. W. and Yenidunia, T. H.
1922
Murley, K.
1966

Aqua,

Irrigation P r a c t i c e in Egypt.

Dethrldge M e t e r Investigations.

Aqua, May.

pp 201 - 21 1.

P i e t r i , M. q u v r a g e s s u r canaux secondaires e t t e r t i a i r e s dans l e s Beni Moussa

1957
(Reseau de distribution). ICID T r a n s . 3 r d Congress on Irrigation and
Drainage, Vol IV, Q 9, R 24, pp 9.320 - 9.398. New Delhi.
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1931
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1934
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Punjab Engng.Congr. P a p e r No 237. Lahore.
1940
S h a r m a , K. R. Outlets and Tail C l u s t e r s .
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Irrigation Engineering; Vol I,

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Neyrpic - The Distribution of Water in Irrigation Networks with the Help of

1950Neyrpic Apparatus. Grenoble.
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a s p e c t s theoriques p r e m i e r e s applications pratiques.
Working P a p e r for the Regional Meeting of ICID, Aix- en-Provence ,

L i s t of References
Cont'd.
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Measuring Weir a s Turnout S t r u c t u r e . ) De Waterstaatsingenieur, n r 9.
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NOTATIONS AND SYMBOLS-11

Area
A r e a of c r o s s section
A r e a of c r i t i c a l section

Breadth o r width (usually a c r o s s the a x i s

of flow)
Bed width of canal u p s t r e a m a fall, syphon,
aqueduct, etc. , and in p a r e n t channel in
c a s e of intakes and outlets
Bed width of canal downstream a fall,
syphon, aqueduct, etc. Bed width i n the
offtake channel below the intake o r
w a t e r c o u r s e below the outlet
Width of t h r o a t o r controlling section o r
width of weir c r e s t a c r o s s the a x i s of
flow
Width of inlet
Width a t outlet end
Width of gate opening o r sluice opening
Wi dth of stilling basin, c i s t e r n , etc.

'/

F o r terminology and definitions r e f e r e n c e should be m a d e to the Multilingual

Technical Dictionary on Irrigation and Drainage published by the ICID in
1967.

Coefficient of discharge
Coefficient of roughness
Coefficient of submergence
Coefficient of submergence of hydraulic jump
Coefficient in Chezy's formula
Coefficient, approach velocity

Depth of canal
Designed depth of canal (if distinguished)
~ e ~ oft canal
h
u p s t r e a m of falls, proportional
d i s t r i b u t o r s o r d i v i s o r s , syphons, aqueducts,
e t c . , and i n parent channels of outlets and
offtake channels
Depth of canal downstream of falls, etc.
and depth of offtake channels below intakes
and of w a t e r c o u r s e s below outlets
Depth of stilling basin
Diameter
D i a m e t e r of pipe
Discharge
Discharge intensity o r discharge p e r unit
width
Discharge in the parent canal
Discharge of offtake channels o r outlets
Small i n c r e m e n t in discharge
Distances and spacings

Efficiencies

Flexibility
F r e e board
Froude number

Height over h a r ding s

Head over c r e s t , etc.
Working head

~ e a d - d u to
e velocity of approach
Head l o s s
Height of gate opening
Height of c r e s t above u p s t r e a m bed level
Height of c r e s t above bottom level of
stilling basin
Height of c r e s t above downstream bed level
Height of u p s t r e a m water level above
soffits of orifices, pipes, etc.
Height of orifice above c r e s t o r bottom
level of control section
Hydraulic d r o p
Depth of flow a t the beginning of hydraulic
jump o r super critical sequent depth
Depth of flow a t the end of hydraulic jump
o r subcritical sequent depth
Critical depth corresponding to minimum
energy

L
Length
Length of c r e s t along the axis of flow
Length of glacis
Length of stilling basin
Length of pipe
Length of jump

Proportionality

Radius
Hydraulic radius
Ratio

Sensitivity
Shear s t r e s s
Slope (longitudinal)
Side slope

Thickness

Velocity
Critical velocity
von K a r m a n ' s constant

Weights
Specific weight of fluid

.and and
econon