A PROJECT REPORT ON

WHEEL ALINGMENT

FOR

ASHOK LEYLAND LTD.

BY

ADITYA SRIVASTAVA
IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF SUMMER TRAINING FOR THE
REWARD OF THE DEGREE OF
BACHOLOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

FROM
DELHI COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY AND
MANAGEMENT
(2015-2016)

 CONTENTS
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ACKNOWLEDMENT
WHAT IS WHEEL ALIGNMENT
NEED OF WHEEL ALIGNMENT
DO WE NEED WHEEL ALIGNMENT
WHATS INVOLVED IN A WHEEL ALIGNMENT
BENIFITS OF WHEEL ALIGNMENT
WHEEL ALIGNMENT PROCEDURE
FRONT END ALIGNMENT
o TOE
o CASTER
o CAMBER
o KINGPIN INCLINATION
o TURNING ANGLE

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TURNING ANGLE OR RADIUS

ACKERMAN GEOMETRY
AXLE ALIGNMENT
TRAILER TRACKING
AXLE OFFSET
TECHNICAL ASPECTS
SYMPTOMS
SENSOR/COMPUTER ALIGNMENT
SUMMARY
BIBLIOGRAPHY
CONCLUSION

What is Wheel alignment ?

Wheel alignment, sometimes referred to as breaking or tracking, is part of

standard automobile maintenance that consists of adjusting the angles of the
wheels so that they are set to the car maker's specification. The purpose of these
adjustments is to reduce tire wear, and to ensure that vehicle travel is straight
and true (without "pulling" to one side). Alignment angles can also be altered
beyond the maker's specifications to obtain a specific handling characteristic.
Motorsport and off-road applications may call for angles to be adjusted well
beyond "normal" for a variety of reasons.
All new vehicles leave the factory with their alignment checked and adjusted.
Usually the technician paints the heads of the adjustment hardware to show it
has been set, also to show if it has moved later on. It is advisable to do the
alignment of the car after the first 5000 km, since all the suspension get set.
Failure to do this may result in the camber and toe specifications drifting
outside the manufacturer's limit. This may lead to vehicle pulling and tire wear.
Initially consumers may not notice these defects but after usage of some days or
running some kilometres it can cause uneven tire wear and a pull/drifting to the
left or right. Tire wear leads to frequent replacement of tires thus adding to
running cost for the consumer. Vehicle pulling causes irritation and/or fatigue
while driving the car.
Under normal driving conditions many vehicles can go 50 000 km+ before they
need a new set of tires, which is a good interval to have the alignment checked
as well. Any severe driving incidents, or changed suspension components would
also warrant a check.
The typical alignment on an economy sedan takes about an hour under ideal
circumstances. A utility or performance vehicle may require additional labour.
When fasteners and hardware are rusted/seized, extra time may be required
and/or parts may need to be replaced. A good start is to consult your local
licensed automotive technician.
In the same fashion that you will wear out your shoes if you walk only on the
inside or outside edge, so your tires may become worn if not within allowed

specifications. Many performance vehicles sacrifice tire life for driving

performance.
As the tire will bounce, it is the first spring that your car rides on, affecting and
potentially shortening the life of all other components. Braking distance, ride
quality, and even fuel economy are all affected by the correct inflation and
rotation of tires. A major improvement in fuel savings would result if everyone
correctly inflated their tires.
If your vehicle squeals while turning corners on dry pavement, it is probably
time to have your alignment checked. (or slow down)
Changing rims and tires will normally not affect the alignment but will affect
secondary angles. Consult your local licensed automotive technician.
The primary angles are the basic angle alignment of the wheels relative to each
other and to the car body. These adjustments are the camber, caster and toe. On
some cars, not all of these can be adjusted on every wheel.

Need Of Wheel Alignment

In a word: Potholes. Potholes are an enemy of your car or truck. They show up
unexpectedly and cause damage to tires, steering, and suspension parts, shocks
and struts and not least of which wheel alignments. If a pothole is large enough
for the tire to drop into it you can expect damage to occur. Your only defence
against the damage caused by potholes is avoid as many as possible and slow
down for the ones you cannot avoid. If you do hit a pothole with a jolt that jars
your teeth it is best to have your vehicle looked at by your servicing mechanic.
Even though there may not be visible damage there is the potential for
problems.

Do We Need A Wheel Alignment?

Road surface such as potholes, hitting a curb, and just plain old driving time
affect your wheel alignment and it is the alignment of the vehicle that maintains
the tires proper contact with the road surface. If you notice that your vehicle is
pulling left or right, or that your tires tread is wearing off on the inside or
outside edge consult an alignment shop. However, pulling problems are not
always related to wheel alignment. Problems with tires (especially unequal air
pressure), brakes and power steering can also be responsible. It is up to a good

wheel alignment technician to determine the cause. You will find that a properly
aligned vehicle will save you money by increasing fuel economy by as much as
6% and providing extended tire life. Even if you dont live in a pothole filled
area, like Maine, a wheel alignment should still be performed annually as a
preventative maintenance.

Whats Involved In A Wheel Alignment?

A proper wheel alignment should always start and end with a test drive. The
front end and steering linkage will be checked for wear before performing an
alignment. The tires should all be in good shape with even wear patterns
from proper tire rotation, deep tread and sufficient tire pressure. A technician
will determine, through a series of test and measurements how each tire needs to
be balanced and aligned. However, if you find yourself discussing the specifics
of an alignment you are really talking about toe, caster and camber
measurements.
Toe measures the difference between the front of the tires and the back of
the tires. This is determined by checking if the front of the tires are closer
together than the rear of the tires your tires are toed in. This means your
vehicle is going down road like a crab. If the toe isnt corrected you can
expect the tires to wear quickly.

Camber is the measurement that looks at how much a tire is leaning in or

out. A camber problem will cause wear to the inside or outside edge of the
tire.

Caster measures the relationship of the wheels to one another. Most

vehicles today require a four wheel alignment. To have your vehicle properly
aligned you need to find a shop that has the proper equipment and a qualified
technician to perform the service.

Benefits of Wheel Alignment

Most of the customers shy away from getting rear wheels aligned because of the
cost and / or their lack of knowledge of the workshops offering such services.
The following are some of the benefits of a four wheel alignment the
importance of which should be communicated to the customer by the Workshop
employees:

Reduced Tire Wear:

Improper alignment is a major cause of premature tire wear.
Over the years, a properly aligned vehicle can add thousands of
miles to tire life.
Better Mileage:

Mileage increases as rolling resistance decreases. Total alignment sets all four
wheel parallel which, along with proper inflation, minimizes rolling resistance.
Improved Handling:

Most of the time the cars pull to one side and the steering wheel vibrates. The
driver has to constantly move the steering wheel to keep the car traveling
straight ahead. Many handling problems can be corrected by total 4 wheel
alignment. With all the system components aligned properly, road shock is more
efficiently absorbed for a smoother ride.

Safer Driving:

A suspension system inspection should be made part of the alignment

procedure. This allows for spotting worn parts before they cause costly
problems.

WHEEL ALIGMENT PROCEDURE

With the development of computerized alignment machines the wheel
alignment process has been very much simplified. However there are two types
of wheel alignments that are widely practiced:
Two Wheel Alignment:
The term Two Wheel Alignment is a process where both front wheels are
aligned to provide the best Toe in, Caster and Camber settings to provide the
best all around handling and tire wear under normal driving conditions
Four Wheel Alignment:
The term Four Wheel Alignment is a process where both front and rear wheels
are aligned. In a typical Four Wheel Alignment, the rear wheels are checked for
toe and tracking.
In a typical situation the Rear wheel "Toe" is adjusted by adding or removing
small shims between the rear wheel hub and the rear axle. Tracking is checked
with the computerized software and the rear axle is checked to make sure that it
"tracks" properly behind the front wheels. On a Four Wheel Alignment, the
adjustments are first made to true up the rear alignment, then the front is
adjusted. Therefore a full Four Wheel Alignment will cost more because there is
a lot more work involved

How toe, camber, caster, axle inclination, turning

radius, and axle alignment affect tire wear,
directional stability, and handling

Front-end Alignment
The toe ,camber ,caster, axle inclination, turning radius, and axle alignment all
come under front alignment

A front end that is properly aligned will result in:

Easier steering
Longer tire life
Directional stability
Less wear on front-end components
Better fuel economy
Increased safety

The primary alignment angles are:

1. Toe
2. Caster
3. Camber
4. Kingpin inclination
5. Turning angle

Toe
Toe is a measurement that determines how much the front and/or rear wheels
are turned in or out from a straight-ahead position. The amount of toe, whether
its toe-in or toe-out, is expressed as the difference between the track widths as
they are measured at the leading and trailing edges of the tires. Toe is expressed
in degrees or fractions of an inch, and while your wheels should be pointed
directly ahead as you are travelling straight forward, there are some benefits to
toeing depending on the type of vehicle that you drive.

The purpose of toe is to ensure that all four wheels roll parallel to one another.
Toe-in also provides increased stability because it discourages turning. If your
vehicle has the proper amount of toe you should experience ideal straight line
stability, corner entry, and very little tire wear.

How toe affect tire wear, directional stability, and

handling

The ideal toe angle when a vehicle is running loaded down a highway is
zero.
We set toe angles statically.
The objective of setting toe at a specified angle when aligning the
front end is to have zero toe at highway speeds.
Incorrect toe angles not only accelerate tire wear but also can have an
adverse effect on directional stability of the vehicle.
Incorrect toe angles have the potential to cause more front tire wear than
any other incorrect alignment angle.

 Too much toe-in produces a scuffing, or a featheredge, along the inner

edges of the tires.
Excessive toe-out produces a similar wear pattern along the outer edge of
the tires.
When a fully loaded vehicle is moving at highway speeds, there is a
slight tendency of steering tires to toe-out.
Any looseness in the steering linkage and tie-rod assembly also will
contribute to the toe-out tendency.

Measuring Toe

First check kingpin inclination, camber, and caster. Correct, if necessary.

You should not make an adjustment to toe angle until the other factors of
front-wheel alignment are known to be within specifications.
Adjustment of toe angle or dimension requires lengthening or shortening
the tie-rod dimension.
This is achieved by loosening the tie-rod end clamp bolts and then
rotating the cross tube.

 Neutralize the suspension first.

When measuring toe angle, the front suspension should be
neutralized:
To neutralize the suspension, roll the vehicle back and forth
about a half vehicle length. This relaxes the front suspension
and steering linkages.
Neutralizing the front suspension is important before making
front-end adjustments, especially if the vehicle has been
jacked up on either side to scribe the tires.
This operation causes the front wheels to angle as each is
returned to the floor.
Make sure that the wheels are on the ground and fully supporting the
vehicle weight. Measure and record the measurements.

Camber

Camber is the angle of the wheel relative to the vertical of the vehicle, and
depending on the tilt, is either considered positive camber or negative camber.
When the top of the tires tilt away from the centre of the vehicle you have
positive camber, and when the top of the tires are tilted inward you have
negative camber. One isnt better than the other, but varying camber angles have
different effects on your vehicle.

 Positive Camber- - When your wheels are tilted outward, the vehicle has
improved stability.
Negative Camber- High performance vehicles that require better
cornering tend to use negative camber, because it gives the driver more
control in this regard.

Steering tires also are designed to use a positive camber angle setting.
Camber is a measure of the angle a wheel leans away or toward the
frame.
Positive camber means that the tires lean away from the truck
frame at the top.

 A positive camber setting is used to help compensate for that slight

tendency of steering tires to toe-out when the vehicle is moving.

How camber affect tire wear, directional stability,

and handling

Excessive positive camber causes the tire to wear on its outside shoulder.
Excessive negative camber causes the tire to wear on its inside shoulder.
Unequal camber in the front wheels also can cause the steering to lead to
the right or left.
The truck will lead to the side that has the most positive camber.

Caster

Caster is the angle that identifies the forward or backward slope of a line that is
drawn through the upper and lower steering pivot points. It does not affect tire
wear, but caster does have an influence on the directional control of the steering.

Caster angle settings allow manufacturers to balance steering effort, high speed
stability, and front end cornering effectiveness.

Positive Caster- - If the line slopes towards the rear of the vehicle, then
you have positive caster. The down side to positive caster is if the vehicle
does not have power steering. In this case steering effort will be
increased. Positive caster is primarily beneficial to the vehicle as it
increases the lean of the tire when the vehicle is cornering, while
returning it to an upright position when driving straight ahead.
Negative Caster- - If the line slopes towards the front of the vehicle then
the caster is negative. Negative caster will allow you to steer less around
turns, but may cause you to drift if you are driving straight forward.

Positive and negative caster mainly apply to race cars, and unless your vehicle
is lifted or customized in some way that calls for an adjustment, street cars
usually run on factory determined settings

 Caster is the forward or rearward tilt of the kingpin centerline when

viewed from the side of the vehicle.
Zero caster occurs when the centerline of the kingpin is exactly vertical.
Positive caster indicates the kingpin is tilted rearward.
Negative caster indicates that the kingpin is tilted forward.
Caster is a directional stability angle only. Incorrect caster by itself will
not affect tire wear.
Most heavy-duty trucks are designed with some degree of positive caster.
Positive Caster

Positive caster creates a force in the front wheels, which tends to keep
them tracking straight ahead.

 Positive caster tends to make the steering axle wheels want to return to a
straight ahead position.
Positive caster also means that when the front wheels of the truck are
turned, one side of the vehicle raises slightly and the other side is
lowered.
When the steering wheel is released, the weight of the vehicle forces the
lifted side downward, resulting in the wheels returning to a straight-ahead
position.
Caster settings generally affect steering performance in the following
ways:
Too little caster can cause wheel instability, wandering, and poor
wheel recovery.
Too much caster can result in hard steering, darting, oversteer, and
low speed shimmy.

Kingpin Inclination (KPI)

The kingpin inclination is the angle, measured in degrees, that forms the
line passing through the kingpin and the perpendicular to the ground,
looking at the vehicle from the front

 The amount that the top of the kingpin inclines away from vertical as
viewed from the front of the truck
In conjunction with camber angle, places the approximate center of the
tire tread footprint in contact with the road
Reduces steering effort and improves the directional stability
Cannot be adjusted in trucks
Once set, KPI should not change unless the front axle has been
bent.
Corrections or changes accomplished by replacement of broken, bent, or
worn parts

Turning Angle or Radius

Turning angle or radius is the degree of movement from straight-ahead to

either an extreme right or left position.
Two factors limit the turning angle.
Tire interference with the chassis and steering gear travel
To avoid tire interference or bottoming of the steering gear, there are
adjustable stop screws on the steering knuckles
Turning radius or angle should be checked using the radius gauge.

Ackerman Geometry

Ackerman geometry is the means used to steer a vehicle so that the tires
track freely during a turn.
During a turn, the inboard wheel on a steer axle has to track a tighter
circle than the outer wheel.
Ackerman geometry is also known as toe-out during turns. It allows the
inner and outer wheel to turn at different angles so that both wheels can
negotiate the turn without scrubbing.

 Toe-out on turns is accomplished by having the ends of lower steering

arms (those that connect to the tie-rods) closer together than the kingpins.
Actual toe-out during a turn depends on the length and angle of the
steering control arms and the length of the cross tube.
Even if the toe-in setting with the wheels in a straight-ahead position is
correctly adjusted, a bent steering arm can cause the toe-out on a turn to
be incorrect, causing tire scuffing.

Axle Alignment
Axle alignment is necessary to set the wheels and tires in the optimum
position for maximum tire performance.

All of the axles should be perpendicular to the vehicles centerline.

The thrust line thus created is parallel to the vehicle centerline.
If they are not positioned perpendicular to the vehicle centerline, the rear
wheels will not track directly behind the front wheels, and the thrust line
of the rear wheels deviates from the centerline of the vehicle.

 The steering fights the vehicle thrust line, resulting in an un-centered

steering wheel and accelerated front tire wear.

On a single-axle vehicle, the rear-axle thrustline can be off if the entire

axle is offset or if only one wheel has an improper toe angle.
On a tandem axle, there are a number of different combinations that can
cause incorrect tracking.
One method of checking a single axle for misalignment is to clamp a
straightedge across the frame so that it is square with the frame rails.

 Measure from the center of the hub to the straightedge.

The distances on each side should be within 1/8 inch of each other.
Trailer Tracking

It is also possible for the trailer axles to be out of alignment and cause a
tracking problem.
Depending on the severity of the trailer misalignment, it might be
possible to see the effects of the misalignment as the trailer travels down
the road.

 Usually, the trailer will travel at an angle to the tractor.

Misalignment also makes it very hard to back up the trailer.
This is commonly called dog- tracking.

Axle Offset

Another problem is an axle that is not centered with the centerline of the
vehicle.
When an axle is offset and the vehicle is driven straight down a highway,
the steering wheel should be centered and the vehicle will not dog-track.
However, as soon as it is cornered, it will oversteer in one direction and
understeer in the other.

TECHNICAL ASPECTS
Process of Manufacture:

It is very essential that all the wheels of a vehicle completely balanced and
aligned with each other as far as possible. If these are not properly balanced, the
dynamic forces are set in motion. These forces increase the load on bearings,
stress on various members of vehicles, unpleasant and dangerous vibrations in
members of vehicle. Besides, when the wheels of a vehicle are not properly
aligned, the free movement of wheels gets obstructed and tyres start bubbling,
which results into lesser life for tyres. These machines display fault on screen
automatically and are equipped with automatic self check, users friendly
calibration and protection in wheel clamping.

Working Process:

(i) For Wheel Balancing: the machine is fully automatic. The wheel is to be
loaded on turn table for balancing and sensor holders are attached to it. All front
and rear wheel values for the measured value printout are calculated in a single
wheel alignment run. Cordless remote control is provided with machine to
enable the operator to operate the machine from the steering wheel. In these
machines, normally there is a castor like adjustment and simultaneous display of
castor, camber and toe readings on computer screen. The alignment data are
displayed in figures and also in graphic form on screen.
(ii) For Wheel Alignment: The measuring process in these machines is normally
automatic. After the wheel data is entered by potential meters and the machine
started, the measuring run is made automatically until the wheel comes to a
stand-still at the point to be balanced. The degree of precision for measurements
is determined fine, medium or average. The data of rim width, rim diameter,
distance can be stored in the machine alongwith the method of compensation
(weight). The computer automatically runs the standard programme for the two
wide balancing using hammer on weights. Special programmes for other type of
balancing is also possible in the machine. The size of the weight required and
the attachment point are calculated exactly and stored by the computer.

SYMPTOMS

The symptoms of a car that is out of alignment are, uneven or rapid tyre wear,
pulling or drifting away from a straight line. To find out if you need an
alignment, first check each tyre and look for uneven wear patterns. The problem
with this method, however, is that if you can see a wear pattern, it may be too
late to save that tyre. This is why it is a good idea to have your alignment
checked periodically. Another indication of an out-of-alignment condition is a
car that continuously drifts or pulls to one side of the road when you let go of
the wheel. A car that is hard to keep in a straight line without constant steering
corrections is also a candidate.

A wheel alignment cannot be done on a car with loose or worn front-end parts.
The mechanic will first check for worn parts and inform you of any problems
before beginning the alignment. After the wheel alignment is completed, you
should drive the car on a straight and level road and check that the car goes
straight and that the steering wheel is in the proper position. If you notice a
problem, take the car back and have the mechanic drive it and fine-tune the
alignment settings. It is imperative you check your alignment and balancing
often because you are going over bumps and hitting potholes will not make
things any better wheels and tyres may need balancing?

SENSOR/COMPUTER ALIGNMENT

 This shows an initial analysis made by Aladin wheelaligner software as

displayed by a Windows driven PC.
WheelAligner automatically calculates the correction for the technician.
As the adjustment is made, the arrow moves across the bar graph target
guiding the technician.

 Sensors are mounted at each wheel for fast, precise alignment.

Alignment readings, specifications, and step-by-step instructions are
displayed on a display monitor.
Keyboard-entered specifications are automatically compared against the
actual angles of the vehicle, with the results displayed on the display
screen.
Specifications can be retained in computer memory for future use or on
CD.
As adjustments are made on the truck, these are automatically displayed
on the monitor, enabling a high degree of precision.

 When the adjustment is within spec, the bar graph changes from red to
green.
A typical system provides for:
Four-wheel alignment with four sensors
Two-wheel alignment with two sensors
All wheels are aligned to a common centerline for precise alignment.
By moving instruments, the system can also check both rear axles of a
tandem drive axle, as well as the front steering axle.
Computerized alignment systems make truck alignments an exact
science.
They will also measure and display frame offset angles.
This allows technicians to true truck and trailer chassis and suspensions.

Summary

Steering systems used in trucks must deliver precise directional control of

the vehicle and its load, in both loaded and unloaded conditions, and at
highway and park/stall speeds.
Truck steering systems are either manual or power-assisted.
Power-assist systems are required to default to manual operation in
the event of a loss in the power-assist circuit.
Power-assist systems can use either hydraulic or air-assist circuits.
Improper steering adjustments and front-end alignment can lead to
suspension and tire wear problems.
A properly aligned front-end results in:
Easier steering
Increased tire life
Directional stability
Less wear and maintenance on front-end components
Better fuel economy
Increased safety
Ackerman geometry provides toe-out on turns, permitting tires to roll
freely during turns when each travels through a different arc.
Axle alignment measurements can be taken in a number of ways.
The most accurate and easiest to use alignment systems in use today are
computer-controlled and feature in-memory specifications, step-by-step
instructions, and user-friendly displays. Keyboard-entered specifications
are automatically correlated to the actual angles measured on a vehicle,
with the results displayed on the monitor screen.