Design of Steel

Structures
Design of Towers and Masts

INTRODUCTION

A tower or mast is a tall skeleton structure with a relatively small cross-section, which
has a large ratio between height and maximum width.

A tower is a freely standing self supporting structure fixed to the base or foundation
while a mast is tall structure, pinned to the base of foundation and braced with guys
etc.

APPLICATION & USE

i.

Electric power transmission (10 to 45 m high)

ii.

Microwave transmission for communication

iii.

Radio transmission (short and medium wave wireless)

iv.

Television transmission (100 m to 300 m)

v.

Satellite reception

vi.

Air traffic control

vii.

Flood light stand (15 to 50 m)

viii.

Meteorological measurements

ix.

Derrick and crawler cranes

x.

Oil drilling masts.

xi.

Over head tanks.

INTRODUCTION
CLASSIFICATION
Depending upon the size and type of loading, towers are grouped into two heads:
(a)

Towers with large vertical loads; (such as those of over head water tanks, oil
tanks, meteorological towers etc.) have their sides made up of vertical or inclined
trusses.

(b)

Towers with mainly horizontal wind loads; subjected predominantly to wind loads
categorized as:
i.

Self-supporting towers or Free standing towers or Lattice towers

Free standing towers, known as lattice towers, are generally square in plan and
are supported by four legs, fixed to the base. These towers act as vertical
cantilever trusses, subjected to wind and/or seismic loads. Free standing towers
are commonly used for T. V. microwave transmission, power transmission, flood
light holding etc.
ii.

Guyed towers or Masts

guyed towers are hinged to the base, and are supported by guy wires attached to
it at various levels, to transmit the wind forces to the ground. Due to this reason,
guyed tower of the same height is much lighter than a self-supporting tower.
However, it requires much larger space in plan, to accommodate the placement
of guy ropes.

Fig. 1 Typical free standing towers

Fig. 2 Guyed tower or Mast

LATTICE TOWERS
CONFIGURATIONS AND BRACING SYSTEMS

The self supporting towers, subjected predominantly to wind loads, are called
lattice towers.

Such towers are square or rectangular in plan. The width b of the side face at the
base may vary between 1/6 to 1/12 of the height of tower.

The top width of towers is kept between 1.5 to 3 m or more, depending upon the
requirement.

Some common configurations with bracing systems are listed as:

i.

Single diagonal bracings (Fig 21.3a): This is the simplest form of bracing. The wind
shear at any level is shared by the single diagonal of the panel, such bracing is
used for towers up to 30 m height.

ii.

X-X bracing (Fig 21.3b): -This is a double diagonal system without horizontal
bracing, and used 'for towers up to 50 m height. It is a statically determinate
structure.

iii.

X-B bracing (Fig 21.3c): This is a double diagonal system with horizontal bracings,
such bracings are quite rigid, and may be used for towers up to 50 m height. The
structure is statically indeterminate. The horizontal members are redundant
members and carry only nominal stresses.

LATTICE TOWERS
CONFIGURATIONS AND BRACING SYSTEMS
iv.

K bracing (Fig 21.3d): Such bracing gives large head room. The structure is
statically determinate. Such bracing can be used for towers of 50 to 200 m
height.

v.

X-B-X bracing (Fig 21.3e): This is combination of XX and XB bracing where

horizontal members are provided only at the level of crossing of diagonals. The
structure is statically indeterminate. The system is suitable for towers 50 to 200m
height.

vi.

W bracing (Fig 21.3f): This system uses a number of overlapping diagonals. The
structure is statically indeterminate. However, the effective length of the
diagonals is reduced. The system is quite rigid and may be used for towers of 50
to 200 m height.

vii.

Y- bracing Fig 21.3 (g): This system gives larger head room and can be used for
lower panels. The system is statically determinate.

viii.

Arch bracing Fig. 21.3(h): Such a bracing can be adopted for wider panels. This
system also provides greater head room. The system is statically determinate.

ix.

Subdivided V bracing Fig 21.3(i): Such bracing are used for tall communication
systems towers, radio and TV transmission etc., for heights between 50 to 200m.

x.

Diamond lattice system: Fig 21.3(j): A typical diamond lattice system used for
towers of 100 to 200 m height. The base width is kept at 1/5 to 1/6 of the height.

Fig. 3 Lattice tower configurations with bracing

LATTICE TOWERS
LOADS ACTING ON TOWERS
Following are the various types of loads acting on a lattice tower:
a)

b)

Gravity loads (Wg)

i.

Weight of members

ii.

Weight of platforms, railings, ladders, lifts etc.

iii.

Weight of antenna, instruments, appliances etc.

iv.

Weights of gussets and secondary bracings

v.

Live loads

Lateral loads
i.

Wind load

ii.

Seismic loads

c)

Erection loads

The gravity loads are almost fixed, since these are dependent on the structural
design, Seismic load is also not critical as mass of the structure is not very heavy
and it is more near the ground. However, maximum wind pressure is the chief
criterion for the design of lattice towers.

LATTICE TOWERS

CALCULATIONS
FOR WIND LOAD (IS 875 Part III)

The designed wind speed Vz (m/s) is given by

Vz =
Where,

VB : basic wind speed in at 10 m height

: probability factor

: terrain, height and structure size factor

: topography factor, the value of which varies from 1 to 1.4
The designed wind pressure pz (N/m2) is given by

The wind force on any member is given by

Where,

: effective frontal area

: net wind force coeff. Which depends on solidity ratio of the tower
: Solidity ratio = obstruction area of the front face/gross area of face

FOR TOWERS COMPOSED OF FLAT SIDED MEMBERS

FOR SQUARE TOWERS COMPOSED OF

ROUND MEMBERS

FOR TRIANGULAR TOWERS COMPOSED OF

ROUND MEMBERS

LATTICE TOWERS

Tower Appurtenances:

The wind loading on tower appurtenances, such as ladders, conduits, lights,

elevators etc. shall be calculated using appropriate net pressure coefficients for
these elements.

Tower mountings:

Usually, towers have mountings such as antenna dishes etc. on these mountings
can be computed by suitably selecting pressure coefficient. The values of C f for some
limited shapes are given as:
VALUES OF FORCE COEFFICIENT Cf FOR SOLID SHAPES OF MOUNTING

LATTICE TOWERS

ANALYSIS

AND DESIGN

The wind loads, acting at panels points have two effects

i.

Horizontal shear effect due to lateral load

ii.

Vertical force due to moments due to lateral load

The lateral load due to wind is resisted mainly by the web members while the
gravity loads and the vertical force due to wind moments are resisted by chords or
leg members.

At any level under consideration, let Wg be the gravity load and Mw be the moment
due to lateral loads. Then force Fl due to lateral loads is given by

For a square base tower:

For a triangular base tower:
For a multi post tower:
)

Similarly, if is the inclination of the tower leg with the axis of the tower, the
force due to gravity loads is given by

, where, N = no. of legs in tower

LATTICE TOWERS

ANALYSIS

AND DESIGN

Hence the total force F in the leg is given by

F=

The lateral load (i.e. wind shear) is resisted by the web member in tension at the
section.

The leg members are designed as compression members while the web members
as tension members.

The width of base is taken equal to 1/8 to 1/12 of the height, while the
inclination or pitch of the sides is kept between 1/16 to 1/40.

Fig. 4 Maximum vertical force in posts

LATTICE TOWERS
EXAMPLE
A 60 m high microwave lattice tower is to be built near Agra where the terrain at the
site is nearly level ground with terrain of category 2. The diameter of the hemispherical antenna disc fixed at the top is 3 m. The width of the tower at the top has
to be 3.5 m. Select a suitable configuration for the tower and determine maximum
compressive force and tension in the tower legs and the maximum shear at the base,
for the following data:
Weight of antenna disc and fixtures : 9 kN
Weight of platform at top : 0.82 kN/m2
Weight of railing at top : 0.30 kN/m2
Weight of ladder and the cage : 0.65 kN/m
Weight of miscellaneous items : 2.5 kN (such as beacon lights, lightening cables etc.)

LATTICE TOWERS
SOLUTION
Selection of tower configurations
Keep B/H ratio as 1/8,
Hence, Base width B = 60/8 = 7.5
Keep top 12 m portion perfectly straight (vertical), and remaining portion inclined.
Let us keep 6 panels in this top height of 12 m so that length of leg member in this
portion = 2 m.
Inclination of base legs = tan-1 (7.5-3.5)/(2(60-12)) =2.3859o or 1/24
Divide the complete height in four segments as shown in Fig. 4
Provide Ktype bracing. Reduce the length the diagonals in the bottom segment by
providing secondary bracings. The width b of the tower at various heights will be
as under:
bo (at 0 m above base) = 7.5 m
b9 (at 9 m above base) = 6.75 m
b18 (at 18 m above base) = 6 m
b25.5 (at 25.5 m above base) = 5.375 m
b33 (at 33 m above base) = 4.75 m
b40.5 (at 40.5 m above base) = 4.125 m
b48 (at 48 m above base) = 3.5 m
b60 (at 60 m above base) = 3.5 m

Fig. 5 Lattice tower

configurations with bracing

LATTICE TOWERS
SOLUTION
Selection of tower configurations
The inclination of diagonals at various heights will be as under:
Segment I

60 = 48 = tan-1 2/(3.5/2) = 48.81o

Segment II

40.5 = tan-1 2.5/(4.125/2) = 50.48o

Segment III

25.5 = tan-1 3/(5.375/2) = 48.14o

Segment IV

9 = tan-1 4.5/(6.75/2) = 53.13o

Computation of gravity loads at base

Weight Of railing = 0.3 x 4 = 4.2 kN
Weight of platform = (0.82 x 3.5 x 3.5) = 10.05 kN
Live load @ 750N/m = (0.75 x 3.5 x 3.5) = 9.19 kN
Weight of ladder, cage etc. = 0.65 x 60 = 39 kN
Assume the self weight of tower truss @ 4.5 kN/m height, then
Self weight of tower truss = 4.5 x 60 = 270 kN
Total weight on the tour legs = 332.44 kN
Weight an each leg = 332.44/4 = 83.11 kN
Weight of antenna, born by two legs only = 9/2 = 4.5 kN
Total gravity load on a leg = 83.11+ 4.5 = 87.61 = 88 kN

LATTICE TOWERS
SOLUTION
Computation of wind loads
Basic wind speed = 47 m/s (for Agra), k1 = 1.07; k3 = 1.0 (plain
ground). The structure is of class C, and terrain is of category 2.
Hence from code, k2 0.99, 1.05, 1.09 and 1.11 respectively for 18,
33, 48 and 60 m heights. Hence, the design wind speed at various
height are as under:
V18 = 1.07 1.0 0.99 47 = 49.79 m/s
V33 = 1.07 1.0 1.05 47 = 52.80 m/s
V48 = 1.07 1.0 1.09 47 = 54.82 m/s
V60 = 1.07 1.0 1.11 47 = 55.82 m/s
The design wind pressures at various heights are as under:
p18 = 0.6(49.79)2 10-3 = 1.487 kN/m2
p33 = 0.6(52.80)2 10-3 = 1.673 kN/m2
p48 = 0.6(54.82)2 10-3 = 1.803 kN/m2
p18 = 0.6(55.82)2 10-3 = 1.870 kN/m2

LATTICE TOWERS
SOLUTION
Computation of wind loads
The average frontal area for various segments are as under:
AI = 3.5 12 = 42 m2
AII = 61.875 m2
AIII = 80.625 m2
AIV = 121.50 m2
Distance of c.g. of lateral wind force frontal area y from the base for
various segments are as under:
yI = 48 + (12/2) = 54 m
yII = 40.121 m
yII = 25.209 m
yIV = 8.667 m
Assume the solidity ratios for segments I, II, III and IV as 0.25, 0.24,
0.22 and 0.20. Hence the value of force coefficients (C f) are given as:
3.05, 3.1, 3.2 and 3.3 respectively.
For dish antenna: Cf = 1.4

LATTICE TOWERS
SOLUTION

The lateral loads at various segments will be as under:

Segment I

FLI = A Cf pz = (42 x 0.25) x 3.05 x 1.87 = 59.89 kN

Segment II

FLII = 83.00 kN

Segment III

FLIII = 94.96 kN

Segment IV

FLIV = 119.24 kN

Antenna :

FLA = 18.51 kN

Total load,

FL = 315.71 = 316 kN

the moments of lateral loads at the base will be given as

MI = FLI x x yI = 59.89 x x 54 = 4573.7 kNm
MII = 4709.4 kNm
MIII = 3385.4 kNm
MIV = 1461.5 kNm
MAntenna = 793.1 kNm
Total wind moment =14923 kNm
Force in each leg, Fl = = 1407 kN
Max. compressive force in each leg = 1407 + 88 = 1495 kN
Max. uplift at the base = 1407 - 88 = 1319 kN
Max. transverse shear = 316 kN

TRANSMISSION LINE TOWERS

Transmission line towers are used for supporting the extra high voltage (EHA)
electric transmission lines. Due to very heavy currents these transmission lines
should be carried at a higher level from the ground level.

Following are various types of structures which support the electric power
transmission lines:

a)

Structures made of timber

b)

c)

i.

Wood poles

ii.

Wood H-poles

Structures made Of concrete

i.

R.C.C. poles

ii.

Pre-stressed concrete poles

Structures made of structural steel

i.

Round or I-section steel poles

ii.

Fabricated steel poles

iii.

Flexible towers

iv.

Semi-flexible towers

v.

Self-supporting wide base towers

vi.

Guyed towers.

TRANSMISSION LINE TOWERS

CONFIGURATIONS

Fig. 4 shows various configurations of self-supporting wide base towers. The main
bracing system may be of three types:
i.

Tension system; in this system, the diagonal members have l/r ratio high enough
to act in tension only, they become dummy when subjected to compression.

ii.

Tension-compression system; is suitable where lateral dimensions of the tower are

not too large with respect to the tower loads.

iii.

K braced system; is suitable only for large towers.

The web patterns are so chosen that tension members are long and compression
members are short and the inclination of members may be between 40 o to 60o .

Depending on the voltage rating (66 to 500 kV) and the number of circuits, the
height of transmission line tower varies from 20 to 40 m and the length of crossarm varies from 4 to 18 m. the ratio of width B, to height H, is kept at 1/6 for
tangent and small angle towers, 1/5 for medium angle towers and 1/4 for large
angle towers.

The economical base width B is proportional to the square root of the moment, and
is expressed by
B=K

where,

M is over turning moment

K is const. and varies from 0.09 to 0.168

Fig. 6 Self-supporting wide base towers

TRANSMISSION LINE TOWERS

LOADS ON TOWER
The transmission line towers are subjected to the following loads:
a)

b)

Vertical loads
i.

Weight of tower structure

ii.

Weight of insulator strings and fittings

iii.

Weight of power conductors

iv.

Weight of ground wire

v.

Weight of ice coatings (if any)

vi.

Weight of maintenance crew (line man) with tools (1.5 kN)

Lateral or horizontal loads

i.

Wind (or seismic) load on conductors

ii.

Wind (or seismic) load on ground wire

iii.

Wind (or seismic) load on insulator string

iv.

Wind (or seismic) load on tower structure

v.

Transverse components of tensions in conductors and earth wire

TRANSMISSION LINE TOWERS

LOADS ON TOWER
c)

d)

Longitudinal loads (P)

i.

Unbalanced pull due to a broken conductor

ii.

Unbalanced pull due to broken ground wire

iii.

Seismic load on wires

iv.

Seismic load on tower structure

v.

Load due to temperature variation

Torsional (Mt)
i.

Due earth wire broken

ii.

Due to conductor broken

Conditions of design
Design is done under two conditions:
iii.

Normal condition

iv.

Broken wire Condition; A broken wire condition occurs when a wire (Le- conductor
wire or earth wire) breaks from one line, giving rise to an unbalanced longitudinal
force.

As per IS : 802 (Part 1), the following broken wire conditions may be assumed in
design.

TRANSMISSION LINE TOWERS

DESIGN SPAN
The following terminology is used for various types of span:
i.

Normal span: It is the centre to centre distance between towers.

ii.

Wind span: The wind span (or wind load span) is the sum of the two half spans
adjacent to the support under consideration.

iii.

Weight span: the weight span (or vertical load span) is the horizontal distance
between the lowest points of the conductor, on the two spans adjacent to the
tower.

Fig. 7 Various types of spans

TRANSMISSION LINE TOWERS

Weight
of tower

The weight (W) Of tower may be estimated by comparison with similar existing towers.
Alternatively, it may also be estimated with the help of the following formulae by Ryle:
W = K H kN
Where,

H is overall height of tower above ground (m)

M is overturning moment at ground, due to wind, in kN-m

k constant, the value of which usually lies between 0.035 and 0.046

Weight of conductors and ground wire

The vertical load due to conductors and ground wire shall be based on the appropriate
weight span. A provision of 1.5 kN may be made for the weight of a lineman.

In computing the weight of conductor and earth wire, the weight span, which is 1.5
times the normal span or wind span, is used.

In broken wire condition, 60% of the weight span is used, accounting for 10% for the
broken wire and 50% for the span with unbroken wire.

For tower and cross-arm design, the weight of maintenance crew (1.5 kN) is used for
cross-arm design only, an additional errection load of 3.5 kN is used.

The weight of string insulator, 225 mm in diameter with a length of 2 m may be taken
as 2 kN.

VERTICAL LOADS DUE TO CONDUCTOR AND EARTH WIRE

TRANSMISSION LINE TOWERS

Lateral loads due to wind
i.

Wind load on tower structure: Wind pressures on towers and supports shall be
computed as per IS : 875 - 1987. The wind load is then computed by multiplying
the basic wind pressure by the exposed projected area, using appropriate solidity
ratio and wind force coefficient. In case of lattice steel and other compound
structures, the wind pressure on the leeward side members may be taken as onehalf the pressure on wind ward side members. The wind pressure intensity on
towers varies from 1.5 to 2.8 kN/m2, depending on the zone and the height above
the ground where wind is considered.

ii.

Wind load on insulator strings: In calculating the wind pressure on insulator

strings (if any), the pressures as for towers are to be used on 0.5 times the
projected area of the cylinder having its diameter equal to the diameter of the
insulator skirt.

iii.

Wind load on conductors and earth wire: The wind pressure on wires may be
taken as 0.42 kN/m2 for light wind zone, 0.44 kN/m2: for medium wind zone and
0.51 kN/m2 on heavy wind zone. For wind load calculations, the full projected
area of each wire (whether single or a part of bundle of wires) over a length of
wind span is used. Thus, the shape factor of 1.0 is taken for circular wires. The
wind span (L') is taken as the sum of the half spans on either side of support
under consideration.

TRANSMISSION LINE TOWERS

Lateral loads due deviation
In addition to the lateral load due to wind, lateral (or horizontal) load is also induced
due to deviation in the line wires. Thus if T is the tension in the wire, the lateral load
due to deviation in the direction will be equal to 2T sin; for normal condition and
half of it in broken wire condition.
Summary of lateral loads due to conductor and earth wires
Let pe and pc be the pressure intensities on the earth and conductor wires
respectively, and let de and dc be their corresponding diameters. For wind span L, the
lateral loads are summarized as
LATERAL LOADS ON CONDUCTOR AND EARTH WIRE

TRANSMISSION LINE TOWERS

Longitudinal loads:

Longitudinal loads are mainly caused due to broken wire conditions, and these
loads have much more effect on the design of the tower than any other load.

The unbalanced pull due to broken conductor, in case of supports with suspension
strings, may be assumed equal to 50 per cent of the maximum working tension (T c)
of the conductor.

In case of bundle conductors, the pull due to broken conductor may be assumed to
be equal to 25% of the maximum working tension of all the sub-conductors in one
bundle.

For the ground wire broken condition, 100 per cent or such percentage of groundwire tension, for which the ground-wire clamp is proportioned and whichever is
less should be considered for the purpose of design of tower.

Thus, if Te and Tc are the working tensions in earth wire and conductor respectively,
and is the deviation, the longitudinal loads will be given as
LONGITUDINAL LOADS

TRANSMISSION LINE TOWERS

Torsional loads: (Mt)
Torsional moment is caused under broken wire condition, when the broken earth wire
or conductor wire is located at an eccentricity e with respect to the centre line of the
tower.
The torsional moment is given as
Mt = PL e

The torsional shear per face,

Q/t = mt /2b

Fig. 8 Torsional loads

TRANSMISSION LINE TOWERS

EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE VARIATION
Temperature variations:

The temperature range varies for different localities under different diurnal and
seasonal conditions. The absolute maximum and minimum temperatures, which may
be expected in different localities in the country are indicated on the maps of India
in Fig 9 & 10, respectively.

These may be used for assessing the temperature stresses on conductors and ground
wires. The absolute maximum temperature values given in figure shall be increased
by about 17o C to allow for the suns radiation, heating effect of current, etc., in the
conductor.

Effect of temperature on cable tension

A conductor hangs freely between two supports (towers) at the ends. It is therefore
subjected to tension T. The value of cable tension T depends upon the temperature.

The tension in conductor becomes (i.e. Tmax.) when the atmospheric temperature t is
minimum (tmin ). This maximum temperature should not exceed the allowable
tension in the conductor.

Similarly, the tension in the conductor becomes minimum (i.e. T min) when the
atmospheric temperature t is (i.e. tmax). Hence the resulting tensile stress in the
conductor is temperature dependent.

Fig. 9 Map showing highest maximum temperature

Fig. 10 Map showing lowest minimum temperature

TRANSMISSION LINE TOWERS

ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
Analysis of tower
A transmission line tower is a three-dimensional cantilever truss. Its analysis as a
space frame is highly tedious. However, a majority of the forces acts only at its top
end. The conventional procedure is to analyze it by resolving the tower in planar
frames. Fig 11 shows various situations of horizontal load P

Fig. 11 Longitudinal load on tower

TRANSMISSION LINE TOWERS

ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
Design of members
The members of the tower are either tension members or compression members.
Since the members are slender, secondary stresses are ignored. The design of towers
are done as per recommendations contained in IS : 802 - 1977. Some of the salient
recommendations are given here.
i.

Factors of safety: In accordance with Rule 76(1) (a) of Indian Electricity Rules
1956, the factor of safety (n) in the design of structural members of steel
transmission line towers may be assumed as 2.0 under normal conditions and 1.5
under broken-wire conditions. In accordance with Rule 76(1) (c) of the Indian
Electricity Rules 1956, the factors of safety of conductor and ground wires may be
assumed as specified below.

The minimum factor of safety (n) for conductors may be assumed as 2.0 based on
their tensile strength at minimum temperature and maximum wind pressure expected
in the region.
In addition, the conductor tension at 320C without external load, should not exceed
the following percentages of the ultimate tensile strength of the conductors:
a.

Initial unloaded tension : 35 per cent.

b.

Final unloaded tension : 25 per cent.

TRANSMISSION LINE TOWERS

ANALYSIS
ii.

AND DESIGN

Allowable stress: The allowable stresses given here are based on

recommendation contained in IS : 802 - 1977, using the factors of safety (n)
specified above, for steel in general (having yield stress fy) and for steel to IS :
226 having fy = 255 N/mm2.
a.

For tension members:

fat = fy / n

b.

Fore compression members:

Where,

for l/r < Cc ,

fac = (fy / n)

for l/r > Cc ,

fac= 1.96 e 06 / (n (l/r)2)

Cc = 124.4 for mild steel

l = effective length
r = minimum radius of gyration

Based on above equations, the values of Fac for steel are given in Table.

PERMISSIBLE STRESS fac IN COMPRESSION AS PER IS : 802

TRANSMISSION LINE TOWERS

ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
Slenderness ratio
IS : 802 specifies the following limiting values of l/r ratio where L is the actual length of
the member, between the centres of end connections.
LIMITING VALUES OF L/r

Permissible stresses in bolts:

The joints of tower are made by using bolts, to facilitate easy an quick installation. The
following are the permissible stresses:
1.

Permissible tensile stress on root of thread : 194/n N/mm 2

2.

Permissible shearing stress on gross area of bolt : 218/n N/mm 2

3.

Permissible bearing stress on gross area of bolt : 436/n N/mm 2

Where, n = 2.0 for normal condition and 1.5 for broken condition.

FOUNDATION FOR TOWERS

The stability of a tower depends both on the strength as well as stability of

foundations.

The foundation for a tower is designed for the following forces/momenls

a)

Downward load on the leg

b)

Uplift load on leg

c)

Horizontal thrust

d)

Over turning moments

Generally. the load acting on the top of a footing is inclined, and this Inclined load
can resolved into vertical and horizontal (or lateral) components.

The lateral and longitudinal loads, acting at a great height cause large overturning
moments. which are to be resisted by the foundation with a minimum factor of
safety of three.
FOUNDATION FOR TOWERS

Fig. 12 Foundations for towers