CHAPTER 2

GROUPS

2.1. Groups

A group (G, ) is a nonempty set G together with a binary

operation on G such that the following conditions hold:
(i) Closure: For all a,b

G the element a b is a uniquely defined

element of G.
(ii) Associativity: For all a,b,c G, we have
a (b c) = (a b) c.
(iii) Identity: There exists an identity element e G such that
e a = a and a e = a
for all a G.
(iv) Inverses: For each a G there exists an inverse element a-1

such that
a a-1 = e and a-1 a = e.
Example 1. If G is a group and a,b,c G, then ba = ca implies b = c and
ab = ac implies b = c.
This proposition tells us that the right and left cancellation laws
are true in groups. We leave the proof as an exercise. We can use
exponential notation for groups just as we do in ordinary algebra. If G is
a group and g G, then we define g0 = e. For n N, we define gn =
ggg | {z } n times and gn = g1 g1g1 | {z }
Example 2. Let G be a group. If a,b G, then (ab)1 = b1a1. Proof.
Let a,b G. Then abb1a1 = aea1 = aa1 = e. Similarly, b1a1ab = e.
But by the previous proposition, inverses are unique; hence, (ab)1 =
b1a1.
A group G is abelian if its binary operation is commutative.

CHAPTER 2

Example 1. The familiar additive properties of integers and of rational,

real and complex numbers show that Z, Q, R, and C under additive are
abelian groups.
Example 2. The familiar additive properties of integers and of rational,
real and complex numbers show that set Q+ and R+ of positive numbers
and the set Q+, R+ and C+ of nonzero numbers under multiplication are
abelian groups.
2.2. Subgroups
Definition: Let G be a group, and let H be a subset of G. We say that H is a
subgroup of G if the following conditions are satisfied:
the identity element of G is an element of H;
the product of any two elements of H is itself an element of H;
the inverse of any element of H is itself an element of H. A subgroup H of
G is said to be proper if H 6= G.
Example 1. Consider the set of nonzero real numbers, R, with the
group operation of multiplication. The identity of this group is 1 and the
inverse of any element a R is just 1/a. We will show that Q = {p/q :
p and q are nonzero integers} is a subgroup of R. The identity of R is
1; however, 1 = 1/1 is the quotient of two nonzero integers. Hence, the
identity of R is in Q. Given two elements in Q, say p/q and r/s, their
product pr/qs is also in Q. The inverse of any element p/q Q is
again in Q since (p/q)1 = q/p. Since multiplication in R is
associative, multiplication in Q is associative.

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CHAPTER 2

Example 2. Recall that C is the multiplicative group of nonzero

complex numbers. Let H = {1,1,i,i}. Then H is a subgroup of C. It is
quite easy to verify that H is a group under multiplication and that H
C.
Let G1 and G2 be groups, and let

: G1 -> G2 be a function. Then

is said

to be a group isomorphism if
(i) is one-to-one and onto and
(ii) (ab) = (a) (b) for all a,b G1.
In this case, G1 is said to be isomorphic to G2, and this is denoted by
G1

G2.

Example 1. To show that Z4 = hii, define a map : Z4 hii by (n) =

in. We must show that is bijective and preserves the group operation.
The map is one-to-one and onto because
(0) = 1 (1) = i (2) = 1 (3) = i.
Since
(m + n) = im+n = imin = (m)(n),
the group operation is preserved.
Example 2. We can define an isomorphism from the additive group of
real numbers (R,+) to the multiplicative group of positive real numbers
(R+,) with the exponential map; that is, (x + y) = ex+y = exey = (x)(y).
Of course, we must still show that is one-to-one and onto, but this can
be determined using calculus.

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