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Dimitnje PeriSie
lliOUGffiS ON REGIONAL AND TOWN PLANNING
Nenad Spasie
PLANNING AND PYSICAL DEVELOPMENT LARGE

11
LIGNIE

BASINS

15

( )

19

23

'i 'ih

33

]uhani Pallasmaa
FROM ETAPHORICAL ECOLOGICAL FUNCIONALISM
Mihailo Canak
UNIVERSAL SYSEM EVALUAION IN HOUSING, LDING AND PLANNING - YU.88

39

45

53

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61

Sir Norman Foster

CARRe D'ART, NiMES

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"BYSANTIUM" IN BELGRADE

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- (1922 -1995) - IN

MEMORIA

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} Thoughts Regional
and Town Planning

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Definitioll Jld altero.atives

"The

is

dynamic system, envisaged as

kwldg

tlld struct of events, the function of. wblch is to

C1'eate its vimt, being th1' dic

system, such 1'gizatil changes that l' conside1'ed as
gss according to value tis of tl1e moment." This
definition could valid as criticism of tl1e practice of
pl1ysical and planning i country, wblch is
dd the concept that the l is the last ict of the
situti visgd as [in! goal , wl1ile ll activities
leading to the l"ealization of tl1is ict 1' considered as
sometblng secondary, and tl1Us are insufficiently studied and
operationalized Cas stages, pli011ties, etc.). In it is
justified to k celtain that hig the prepal<1tion of
physical l, tl1is is understood as "struct of
events", and not as system of static icts. This means that
we are pleading [01' the liti of the method of scenarios,
not single , but set of successive ones.
Upon defining genel<1l and specific development goals,
discussi d evaluation of thei1' utul 1sd and
feasibility, usually follows, i md methodology of
physical planning, the phase of "stlict lig" 1'l<1ti
of lttivs, slis, sls and dl<1fts).
The democratic lnig d is not l the 11gl1t of the
"subjects of lig" to pa1ticipate the disi making
ss tl1 establishment of developmel1t goals,
eliminatiol1 of cOl1flictil1g il1terests, etc., but evel1 more to
obtain svl diffel"ent possibilities, icts, sl10S, with
valid al1alyses of squs, impact social life, quality
of living ditil1S, equality - welfare i the gl sense.
cOl1sider this as the basic l of plannel"S i
l"lti to dvlmt.
The creation and testing of lttivs of gizati of land
use, as well as the hsig of the most suitable sl,
c011Sidel1ng the accepted goals d stits, l'sts the
basic ft and t palt of the ss of physical
planning. After making rtai um of ld use and
dvlt sls, the tasting of lttivs takes ,
sidrig
sodal, i ecological, and othel"
squs d possible influences u the quality of lif
d stisfcti of ds of the ulti. 1 making of
l dds u umus factors: s of the l,
ti available, ss, ll and fSSil

11

team, availability of data d

etc. Tl1ese fact01's affect both the
possibility of lig va1'ious lttivs, d thei1' tstig
d vluti. of tl1e basic d well kw ms is
the disi the basic fts of idividul lttivs
should we make vllts diffl1g utull 1'dig to tl1e
kig of elements of spatial dvlt Cinfl<1struct,
lusig systel11 - izati, work places, ld use, ecology,
distriuti of selvices, 01' smtl1ig else)? Tbls c1'eate
la1'ge diffl's g vllts, although they ust
witl1i tl1e fl11W1'ks of the dtnid gl and specific
dvlt goals. Otl1erwise, thel"e would danger that
the st iltat ld dvlt and 1'gizati
ms will mi uslvd. 1t is l's to k
several il11gitiv V11ts, v withi the fW1'ks of
l110d ttituds d hs. However, should keep
i mid tlblt the liti of cl"eative igiti, is rule, is
limited uus factol"S, iludig as tl1e l110st iltt
s available l"ss d possibilities to clblnge the
xistig negative trds. 1 case, the physical l i
giv stage should std i sevel<1l lttivs.
of the

lig

ssig quit,

Role of pl1ysical lJ1llg

Yugoslav system of lJ1llg
Physical lig i Yugoslavia has likd i
nntiv d organizational way to tw lig d t
to sodal lig (il" excludes s 1' endeavors of
istitutill likig physical d social lig Belgrade,
wl1ich wel'e usussful as it was find that exclusive
istitutil cti, without uit tul,
l11ethodological d nntiv levels, could not repl"eSent
basis [01' itgl planning). 1t could ludd that
dvrs for the stishl11t of unique sst of
lig i Yugoslavia have remained stl declarative d
partly nntiv, wl1ile st systel11s of lig exist i
reality, which is t so gtiv i 1'lti to the low level of
rditi of these f1S of lig i gl<1l. Althougl1
the 1tiv and gizatil aspects of unifonn planning
i Yugoslavia are irtt, of greater significance the
gl concept and h to dvlt and fut, ..
thhsivs d uifnnity of tbls concept. Up to w
social lig has dmitd tl1 wish for mi
gwth, d t so much for hsiv dvlt,
wl1ich could pa1tly explained low degree of total
dvlt. Such h to social lig obviously

has fut, and, besides, it questions the notion of "social" for it had justly remal'ked that tllis kind of planning could
better called "planning of i g1'wth", 1t seems to us
that it is justified to question some of the s categOlies
selving as g1'ud for this kind of social planning, e.g.
revenue as basic categOlY, f1'm the point of view of general
requirements of lg-tm development of the Yugoslav
society.
Under pl1ysical planning, ls of the techno-economic
development and political economists considel' the allocation
model of distribution of m capacities, stating the
majolity of cases f1'm the critel10n of techno-economic
maximization of l'evenue, and that sholt-term basis.
5hOlt- and medium-telm i elements of planning,
ig investments at least, l lbld l significant
long-term consequences land use, both physical and
social senses. 5uch analysis would w us tlblt we do not
have socially 1'vd pl1ysical planning, or lig of
physical development, but instead simplified spatial llti
of i [, without mti to foresee [esults - 01'
squs of such activities - 01' to l space as factor of
development.
The notion of space has remained social planning primalily
as ti of pl1ysical f111wks, of given te111tOlial data, of
stit that lbls to taken into consideration, plimarily
the ss of negative dfiiti of develop111ental
possibilities. Thel'efore this often results i ducig physical
lig to "izati of space". 1 othel' words, we have
not accepted as yet the l attitude towards space,
factOl' of development, as basis [Ol' integrating ll [Ol's of
lig, keeping, mind the m fact that space itself
defines ta criteria of development. here is
udstading, or at least t enougl1, that the way of land
organization and use is ssi [Ol' significant patt of
development and 1'ducti costs.
Of patticulat, impoltance is the sh [Ol' ling . Quite
number of studies for physical and planning purposes
has mid completely "utl". 1 other words, we still
lkig methodologically well educated reSeat'Cl1 Sll
and practice to dict research towards planning actions. II
l'esearch for the purpose of physical planning had as
l'esult statements and presentations of relations, l10111
and 1'sss in space. Motivations and reasons for negative
trends in land use and OI'gizati, 01' ml, are not
sufficiently studied and analyzed, like occupation of fil'St class
agricultural land, irrational and uld development of
settlements, etc. 1nst111ments and activities wllich could affect
the change of negative trends and decrease the expl'essed
arbitrariness in the decision mkig 1'ss d i ( spatial
arrangement and const111ction are v less studied. 1t would
difficult, for ml, to obtain answer to the question
what research is based the pl'esent li of urizati i
Serbia today, or the land use, housing, or tstati
policies. The nizati 1'ss could taken as
ml of non-directed l'esearch ing actions and
hgs of the situti . One could not say that tllis 1'ss
has not sufficiently studied, paticularly mists
and, geographes . Research activities i Yugoslavia
particularly intensive i the post-census yeas, d 111l
analyses and trends i certain time intervals. Seeking
for ideal population distriuti, witlut sidrig the
fact that tllis distribution is fucti of economic 1'ducti
i wider meaning, wllich is tred of physical ls,
could sometimes sot of idealistic 1'h, utopia, 01'
assumed reality that would never acllieved (except that it is

dw d Wlitt i ls). I1

sa111e is valid [l' gl

tl1eses wllicl1 could fud in social ls and
slutis of asse111bIies various levels ig the
"stoppage of 111igti of 11.11'31 ulti to s",
"til dvl111t of tl1e twork of sttlmts", etc.
l

Integra1 or pllysical pIan of dle mmun

h !11l11us

Wl1iCl1 11 pl1ysical ls l'111idig

great deal to ltai type of "oew social ls of I11111Us",
diffl1g f1'111 tl1e oldel' gti of si111i1ar ls few
l' lmts of lss of pl1ysical vi1't d
st111cts witl1i the mmu, with few data about
sttlmts d tWOl'ks of ifl'3- d sustucts. The
basic shOltmig of tl1ese ls l' isuffiitl is
latig sttts land use. 1 othel' WOl'ds, we would
like ( say that suc11 plans l'l physical ls.
Tl1erefore, they could t valid istl1t for l1ivig
lat'ge!' degree of timizati d l'3tilit i [elation of
society towards space as pl1ysical categOly. (One could v
say as [ 1'duig tl1is space).
ig tl1e exposed ii, could 111k
tlblt it takes us back tl1ikig about pl1ysical lig, [Ol' it
is view Ol'dig to wllicl1 spatial lig lbls st1ictly
physical charactel' al1d is [' away f1' the itgl'3l ll1ig i
g 1'31 , d f1'm the itgl'3l l of the l111llu in
patticulac COl1trary to these doubts, it could stated that
spatial lig is l1 its ss ld use and orgizati
lig Ciddtl f1' tl1e fact t11at it ust based
1 lti social d mi C!itelia d 1'gl<lms). If
tl1is is lt (l1 case, tl1 could qusti the l d [l'
tl1e existence of tl1is lnig discipline. It see111S justified i
ditiI1S to 1't Ol' t it1'ducti of tl1e ti
of itgl dvlt i lig tldlg, tl1 the
ti 01' possible liti of the
itgl<ll
ll1
(0111assig sws to qustis what do we wal1t to
lish dvlmt - l mi or some otl1e!'
gowtl1 too - , besides, tl1e 1'mti of social ltis,
bette OI'gizd, hum d more tul 11um
viI1111t, . . what the dditil yal1Jes tl1at we are
tdil1g to i the itgl t of d lmt).
sho1Jld t believe that the itgl<lti of !11l11ul social d
pl1ysical ls - d possibly the total 1'ss of lig l1
the m1U - w01Jld stim1Jlated tl1e [ that tl1ese
ls (01' mt palts of 011 l , if we li that tl1
is l ) will lose their physiognomy, 1'l1s, bases of
tt, peculiarities of the lig devices, techniques d
stti. the contralY, l'l1diti i the dsi for
itgtig lig al1d ls sists of ll detelmined
udl1s ig objects, 1'l1s, stti, etc.
The qusti of Ol'diti of physical lig i the
1111ll1 deselves attel1tiol1 too. Tl1is fucti of tl1e pl1ysical
l of tl1e C0111111U11e is extl'e111ely impoltal1t, sidl1g the
[ that tl1is
hysical ll1 is not acl1ieved diectly, but tl)Ugh medium-telm
plal1s d 1'gms of various palticipants i the lig
1'ss. However, it happens quite oftel1 in practice that there
uustifid ctatis that these lticits i the
lig 1'ss should dtni ll of the sstil
l111ts of the physical l, wllile team of fssil1l
ls w01Jld latel' these elements it dl<lft ll1.
Does ' tl1is til1 W1'g udstdig abo1Jt t11e
so-called "tiiti i lig", as Sigl1ifical1t feature of
the slf-mal1gt l11nig 1'ss, al1d
unnecessary decrease d l1iding of 1'fssial ssibilit
of the l11ing team, futher 011, there are cases i practice of

12

which is important for case) are intermediate goals nl,

namely mediators for the achievement of direct goals. The
necessity of increasing the material production (particularly
energy as part of the production which connects other
forms of material production) is obvious without doubt,
but it is nearly impossible to ro that it is sufficient
condition for the achievement of numerous other goals
(particularly those considered as direct ones, like the
satisfaction of human needs conceming housing and healthy
environment, elimination of poverty, decrease of
unemployment, decrease of inequalities, etc.).
These few marginal remarks have made only as sort of
framework for evaluation: did we have sufficiently clear and
well founded postulates for research that we have undertaken,
and which should represent basis for preparing physical
plan of special purpose area for REIK Kolubal'a?

-sidd

inquiries conceming desires, attitudes and opinions

development. Namely, quite often it is considered that the
essential is to obtain the opinion of the organization of
assodated labor requirements of space, water, in-going and
out-going of goods, or the possible evaluation of future jobs.
And than the professional planner, accepting uncritically these,
makes "collective" and "coordinated" plan. It seems as if the
organizations of assodated labor do not have to say anything
else m the spatial organization and arrangement of
the commune. the other side, in [! communities, the
inquiries m mostly questions of sodal standard and
infrastructure constructions. Therefore it is not surprising that
theyappear later in the physical plan of the commune as sort
of sum of [! communities desires (sometimes more wishes
than needs and possibilities).

Planning of mining and energy systems

- Macro project of REI Kolubara The ! mining and energy production costs are permanently
increasing as result of poorly planned land use. The
protection of surfaces considered as energy resources is still
not [ regulated in Yugoslavia, so that various enterprises
and settlements are built there, and have to moved later for
the construction of power plants and exploitation of
resources. That means that there are additional high costs for
removal, reconstruction etc. It is indispensable to prepare
future definite solutions, parallel to investment programs, of
physical plans for larger territorial entities, particularly where
similar energy capacities have to developed.

It had indispensable to large number of

scientific organizations, teams and experts to able to
master operatively the exceptional diversity of the subjects of
research (ranging [ro the narrow sphere of natural sdences,
over research the fields of social and technical sciences, to
research the area of management and dedsion making),
requiring additional efforts the organization and
coordination of work. The starting positions of these
institutions and teams have objectively very different as
result of varied degrees of sdentific constitution of individual
topic areas;
different ; available information;
development and usability of analytical methods and
techniques, etc. this mind, the project manager
had had very complex task to establish necessary unity of
the project, both content and methodology. Therefore
the project determined the "joint bases" of research, with 12
subtitles: , subject of research, goals, irnportance,
expected results, methodology, form of presenting results,
research organization, work program, schedules, users, and
institutions undertaking research. The airn with these
"joint bases" has to secure the necessary degree of
uniformity of research for of the 14 sub-projects (topic
areas).

Negative effects of energy production the total human

environment balance and the degradation of certain elements
(in this case air, water and soil) are well known. physical
plan of spedal purpose and its solution must start [ro
attitudes that would contribute to the prevention of further
degradation of the human environment as much as possible
the conditions of irnperative requirements for increased
energy production. The spatial organization itself
represents of the measures for environment protection.
Research m the land use plan should point to the
limiting values and allocation of individual production
facilities, starting [rom the fact that there is certain limit
of the total environment capacity, determined its natural
features and already constructed buildings. Besides, of
particular irnportance is the need to observe and evaluate the
effect of individual facilities andactivities upon the human
environment [ro the point of view of the total spati;:J.l
organization, and in relation to other natural and manmade
environmental elements. In practice, the application of this
prindple requires developed [! of information and
planning techniques, developed forms of cooperation and
coordination various compositions of planning teams,
as well as developed forms of cooperation various
carriers of production and other activities.
If we would accept the concept of integral development
(which is not the case neither in the system nor the practice
of planning Yugoslavia), if would the definition and
application of large aspect of developmental goals (from
economic to sodal ones). should reminded to the
ini that the direct goals of development are the essential
ones, for they are realized consumption, .. their fulfillment
is connected to the satisfaction of material human needs. It
means in fact that indirect goals of development are the
for achieving direct developmental goals. If this attitude would
further analyzed, the result would that economic
goals of development (including the energy production,

Systems of settlements
The study of settlements had expressed until recently
various individual aspects, just as the settlements themselves
had treated independently in the physical and spatial
sense, or according to some spatial groupings, which often did
not have mutual connection. Typological research was
often reduced to the factography and description of the
settlements's morphology, without sufficient study of mutual
connections and interdependence of various structures:
physical, economic, sodal, regional, and others. At the same
time, the studies of certain socio-economic problems (function
of settlements, , transport, etc.) were undertaken
separately, without sufficient attention devoted to correlation
of factors affecting settlements, as wall as settlements
themselves as component part of the wider area.
It must admitted however that the attitudes and methods
of study up to now cannot considered outside the general
situation and evaluation of human knowledge and sdentific
thought. They ref1ect the time of absolute domination of the
analytical ro to scientific disciplines, of elaboration of
some specific and relatively narrow studies, followed
whole set of more or less valuable general or specialized
monographs. Without pretending to make kind of valid
[! evaluation, we could say that we are at the inni of
period which the main emphasis studying, settlements,

13

as well as in the scientific thought in general, has been laid

upon problems of integration, coreiation of the present and
the planned future development, and the revaluation of
certain spatial frameworks and units which had been
considered as sacred for centuries.
It is realistic to expect great progress in basic studies of
development of certain processes and phenomena in
settlements and their networks, especially in urban areas.
Quite lot of attention has been devoted to the regularity of
certain development. This was particularly the case with the
accelerated increase of the urban population and the
corresponding decrease of the rural one, both in national a~d
intemational frameworks. The same holds true for the
regularity of spatial distribution of the population and
settlements, the increase in the number of urban settlements,
their size (as tendency towards the "optimal size"),
unification of functions, physical growth, spatial expansion,
etc.
Starting [ro the technological and economic progress which
could expected at the end of this century, faster, permanent
and more dynamic movements are realistic feature.
Therefore the question could we use in foecasts the
attitudes that we have today conceming the "place of
residence - living", "work place", population of given town,
etc. is quite appropriate. This process of liberation from local
belonging in the classical meaning of the term, will
intensive due to the possibilities resulting from the total
societal development, in which the closed inherited relations
and spatial entities willlose their present importance.

Detenninants concerning the

constitution of the system of sett1ements
Like in the case of other spatial categories, here too we could
take as the basic spatial deterninants the extemal personal,
and the intemal or specific ones. At the same time, it is
possible to ll them general or basic deterninants.
Extemal (personal) determinants of the constitution of the
system of settlements determine its place, developmental and
constitutional possibilities in relation to other agglomeration
systerns, .. theyare the l'esult of the ti- between the given
system and other ones. Besides, among systems of settlements
large scale (regional, natiol1al) th exist too relations of
hierarchy, complementary, larger smaller cohesion, etc.
expressed in greater or smaller measures, as they exist
among individual settlements within one system. These
systerns too, like settlements, have their position. Certainly
their position ref1ects the relation to larger geographic
categories and entities, than is the case with individual
settlements.

Due to these assumptions, attention is devoted to the

regularities of interdependence of the development of the total
network of settlements, urban areas, and transportation
networks, as well as the greater expansion of group fns in
the settlements' network.
It should mentioned that the system of settlements, more as
notion than as term, is nothing new. In some sources both
the notion and the terninology have been elaborated.
However, shortcomings which could considered as nornal
in the initial stage of every new attitude serving to break down
the established and vested attitudes are expressed here too,
particularly in the one-sided approach and insistence
fornality. The one-sidedness is ref1ected in the attitude to
emphasize systems of agglomerations, group of settlements,
settlements' communities (several tns are used), mostly
because of joint development, or some economic or social
activity, and rarely fo common resolving of problerns
connected with infrastructure. Obviously the approach is onesided, for it is concemed with only one activity, and analyses
and assumptions about the total functioning of the system or
group of settlements.
Speaking about settlements' systems or groups of settlements
in town planning, or physical planning, the literature insists
quite often the form as the essential aspect. The name
mistake in repeated in practice too. Although it
important [ro the l standpoint of planner whether
the system will of linear, star, any other [r, the
essence is not the form of crystallization of the system of
settlements and further development of the presently relatively
undefined network, but the possibility for constitution of the
system, which is not exclusively resulting [ro the distribution
and mutual relations of settlements in given system,
expressed as spatial distribution.

14

Under the term position we do not understand the spatial

location and regional option of given system of settlements
only position is taken as variable, historical category, fo
relations among individual entities and objects, their
constellation, have to studied in t11e light of socio-historical
processes. Such study should show the relative and variable
l of natural conditions, .. the variability of their effect
upon the modification of socioeconomic effects, as well as the
various utilization of physical and geographical advantages in
different stages of socioeconomic development. Of primary
importance for the establishment of system, larger or smaller
degree of independence in functioning, are the physical,
transportation economic, and other factors for comparing this
system with other ones of greater or smaller significance. It is
particularly important to deternine and foecast prospects in
relations among systems, whereby various changes are
possible, ranging from the loss of identity and purpose of
certain smaller systerns and their integration into larger ones,
to changes accoding to which individual settlement
(particularly peripheral ones) attracted to some other
system. In other words, relations among systerns, the
extemal factors of development of agglomeration systems, are
110t constant, but represent time variable category.
As the of settlement changeswith time, although much
slower than chal1ges in relations among settlements, which
are more or less invisible general settlements' maps, so the
or assumption of agglomeration systems is submitted to
occasional and dynamic changes, being therefore conditional
from the standpoint of time and duration.

the extemal factors we could add the belonging of the

observed system to regional entity, regardless whether this
entity is more or less differentiated from others its physical,
economic, social, or cultural and historical peculiarities. These
peculiarities of regional belonging are individually or in
mutual constellation ref1ected upon settlements, relations
among settlements, and systems of settlements.

i
~

Planning and
Physical Development
of Large Lignite Basins

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t:

, pu , i !( iIillziIiLr 11 zu iIi z

~ iIi yza iIi iiIiu .f mi. r/ uii !L

uUG .
i

.. ..... ........ .... .. ..... , UDC: 711:622.3

..........................................:.;.;.;.;.;.:.:.:.:.;.:.:::.:::.:::;::::::::.::::::::::::::::::::;::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::.::::::::.:.:.;.; ........ .

Lar'ge lignite basins lblve been f0l111ed depositiol1 al1d

car-bol1isation of large -sss in sws and lakes of tl1
Teltiary, exist today in lal'ge, stl flat s of alluvial
valleys and plateaus, Chal'3ctel1sed agl1cultul'31 higl1 quality
soils al1d gricult as basis activity, ltivl blgl1
population densities, and l'elatively hig11 tl'3ti of
activities, These sis do not l'sl1t sepal'3te entities in the
physical, geogl'3pblcal, funcional , spatial, dmiistl'3tiv, and
eveI1 dvlmtal ss . \Xhat makes these al'eas palticulal'
in lti to otl1eI flat ZOI1es is theiI specific 1'ductiI1
function - exploitatioI1 aI1d 1'ssig of ligl1ite aI1d otl1eJ'
minel'3l l'ss i tl1e deposit - as well as tl1e 1l.1I1t,
dYl1amics, al1d f0I1115 of tl'3I1sfl111ti 1'sss and
vi1't degl'3datioI1 l'esulting f1'111 this 1'dl.lctiv
function.
1

Kolubal'3 - 111v aI1d the Kosovo-Metol1ija ligI1ite

basins encompass in theiI geological fOJ11bltioI1s an l' of
sevel'31 tlusds of squaJ'e kilometIes, wl1ile their 1'ductiv
PaJt, namely the area fs for exploitation, cover nel'3rly
1.000 k1112 of mostly gl1cultl ld. Tl1is area cOI1taiI1s 175
sttlts with xitl 220.000 iltI1ts, .. 45.000
households, dig to tl1e 1981 censl.1s. Considel1ng the
fact tl1at tl1e l.1m of populatioI1, ., lushlds iI1sd
20 t between two censuses 0971-1981), as well as
the tl'end of fth population increase i these aIeas,
palticulal'ly i tl1e Kosovo basin, witl1 tl'eI1d twds fU!thel'
incIease. the gud, above tl1ese 1'ductiv reselves,
tllere iltt tl'3ffic thughfs , industl1al and otl1er
facilities, expected increase of l 1'ducti the year
2000 would equire the occupation of anotl1er 100-150 square
kilts of agricultural and forest ld, vig of 20-30
sttlts with 1'xitl 20-30.000 ihtl1ts , lgs
in some th1'ughf31's d water ss. Although it is difficult
to fs tl1e time of lt exlblustiol1 of these two basins
(s fcasts 50-70 yeaJ's), it is obvious that tl1is would
lead to gl'eat changes in tl1e ligI1ite exploitatioI1 zone, affecting
directly the ! populatioI1 and vi1'nt,
Besides these one could ti other forms of gtiv
effects of lignite exploitation Upol1 the vi1'nmt , like

Cl13I1ges in tl1e egi111e of l1vs and g1'ud wate (due to

cl1al1ges of watel' ss aI1d decl'ease of tl1e level of g1'ud
wate I1 tl1e mil1iI1g zones),settling of gUI1d in tlle dil'ect
viciI1ity of pits, 110ise aI1d dust emissions CiI1cll.1ding shocks
f1'm mi lsis) , wateJ' pollutioI1 esulting f wasl1ing
l aI1d disslvig salts, etc. T11el11131 power plal1ts d otl1er
facilities fo l tsfI111tiI1, 1'ssig al1d kig,
cOI1sidel'ed as gtst hllm l1vi1'mt llutts today.
l1 ld 1'dllctiI1 is

and ! siI1g will

sel10us vi111t pollutio l1 tl1e viciI1ity of
powe plants (l1 sil.1ltiI1, 111ade f tl1e pU!pose of tl1e
Spatial l of Selia, has s110wI1 tlblt tl1el111al powel' plaI1ts in
tl1e Koll.1bara basiI1 will emit about 112 tl1 ts of S02 l'
h aI1d 22 tOI1S of flyiI1g asl1 hou to tl1e distaI1ce of
30-60 kilometres in tl1e l' 2000). l1 st sigI1ificant
llutats S02' 0 2 , aI1d the flying asl1 fm cl1i11111eys as
well as eI1011110US quaI1tities of asl1 and slag f ' places,
waste wts with I1U1111'US aggl'esive ageI1ts, tl1el111alloadiI1g
of tl1e I1vi111t, etc. Negative effects of exploitatiol1 of
large ligit asis obviol.1sly lg d diverse.
Possibilities f gl'3dual decIease of tl1ese advel'Se effects are
real, ltlugl1 l'3dical imvt sll.1ld lt expected
f tl1e I1ext centu!y, l1 spite of i111ltt endeavoU!'S in
developil1g w tllgis.
l'esult

intel1sive dvlt of open pit exploitation, as well as

of facilities for lignite tl'311sf0I111atioI1, dYI1amic spatioal
l13gs d the large vlu of degl'3dation of natU!'3l and
m-md vit, give specific fts to the total
dvlt and l1'3I1gt d restol'3tion of space in
lal'ge ligit sis. It is difficult to fil1d i peaceful times
similar where physical spatial itlvl1tis l' so l
and so dynamic, socio- economic changes so delicate, and the
intel1sity aI1d divel'sity of vi1'mt degl'3dation so gt,
hf dvlt plaI1ning, physical planning and
spatial restol'3tion i laIge lignite basins have specific fts,
l'equiring necessary adaptation in institutional organization,
legislti, h, thdlgy, tl1t, dynamics and
othe plal1ning aspects. These specific fts of planning in
large lignite basins are l1ril likd to the plannil1g object,

15

.. guiding of the total future development, physical lig

and spatial restoration. Planning charaderistics, la1'ge ligit
sis could recognized withi tl1e fI'3mew01'k of sOl11e
1110St sigifit aspects, like: strudU!'31 spatial hgs as
lig subjed, itgral and gil appoach, ifI111ti
d
lytil
bases, dvlmt flicts, physical
revitalization, time h1izos d spatial volume of lig,
long-tem1
f01'ecasts, strati d physical lig,
istitutil gizati, legal d legislative planning
frameworks .
cuti of large as, dg1'3dti of the ecosystem, d
sttlig of ulti, mig l1gs i tl1e sttlmt
twk, 1til tl1e most sigifit aspects of strudU!'31
hgs i large ligit sis, vkd litti of
l deposits. this should add l'elatively high dg
of vimt lluti (1', wate1', soil, d the livig W01'ld)
xius missis fm the idustril l. l'elatively
high ll of capital ivstmts i l11iig d g
dUdi , d its trati sl11all space leads too to
some udsirabl squs like: - sided stUdur of
mi dvlmt, uqul dvlmt of the tel11t01Y,
as well as td towards tl'3ti of adivities ,
ulti d capital ivstmts i relatively small .

of tl1e complete d,
as well as lg l of mostly
rural sttl1;l1ts fm the miig zones, accelerate the
sci-mi
t1'3sfm1tis
withi
the asi
(urizati, dgrarizati), d mts l1gs i the
strudure of sttlmt ts. of the most sigifit
features of the mtid sss and changes is
their time d space dmics,
fllwig didl tl1e
dmics of dvlmt pits.
Fill, the
dvlmt pit miig, stdi d fldiig
the1mal power lts d other fa<..ilities f01' l ssig ,
st sigifit part of strudU!'31 hgs t11utig
to the specific features of lig i large ligit sis.
The

itsiv

cuti

dvll11t

of arable

ld,

dvlmt i

these sis is ud the

of thil d thlgil possibilities
d ditis, spatial vis d limittis, d
ecological fad01's. It could argued that these two fad01's
have itg1'3til il11pad, d tl1at tl1ey t1ibut mostly
to tl1e d of ml1siv l1 to total
dvlmt d to the liti of itgl lig
l11ds. hlgil d ecological forecasts rep1'esent
il11rtt sttig it gizig lg-t1m development
(new tl1l0gis for lignite litti d ssig,
10g-t1111
ecological squs of vimt
dgradti, etc.). The itg1'31 l1 is t w thig,
ith tl1eory, i p1'3dice of lig. I1 specific
feature of this situtilis i t11e fad tl1at, besides 110,
social, d spatial aspeds, thlgil d ecological
aspeds of lig l sigifit l too.
Effects of dvlmt of the miig d g supply
d are relatively small i 1ti aspeds d limited to
tl1e z of dired itrvti (capital ivstmts, ld
cuti), while i some other aspeds l11ucl1 wider than
the limits of the ligit si (vimt dgradti,
l of sttlmts, si-mi t1'3sf1111tis), d
are v of stilllarger imrta i gil aspects
(g sumti d positive ml effeds). The
majority of dvlmtl blms i large ligit asis,
ig mifstd 10g-t1111 basis (strudural l1gs,

The accelerated

stg influ

-sidd

mi

dvlmt,

blm

degradation, etc.), could

dvlmt,

of

uqul

trati,

understood

titril

vimt

d slvd i

! fra111eW01'ks, bllt witl1i total dvlmt of wider

te111torial titis , .. witl1i tl1e fI'3mew01'k of gil
dvll11t. Tl1us, lg-tl1 dvll11t lig, spatial
gizati d st1'3ti i lg ligit sis sluld

based

U1'gil l1.

of the basic features of tl1e

sis is its tiulit

ligit

lig ss i lg
d

dl11is ,

Dl11i

l1gs i lg ligit asis vk (11 dvlmt

of dudiv fudis of tl1e syste111 could guided l

the dvl111t of dmi d lk ss of
lig d sl1 . l11'f , (11 lig ss 11as (
gizd 1'dig to VaJ10tlS (l11 cycles: 10g-tl111,
mdi11-t1m, d Sho1t-tel111 s. specific feature of
dl11i lig lg ligit sis lies i the fad tl1at,
besides tl1e 1ml lig time 11011ZOS, it is ss1 to
seCU1'e f1'stig [01' the ftlt afteI' tl1e [ll xl1usti of
lignite deposits, whicl1 t easily dt1id, btlt
wrucl1 is idissbl [01' tl1e t of strudi d
space 1'gizati i the ligit si (!ti of Hew
sttll11ts , ds , w, idtlstJ1l d otl1er facilities), d
g1'3l111ig [ sh01te1' time inte1vals of zones
witl1 pit exploitation Cld occuti , l'! of
sttl111ts 01' s0111e of tl1ei1' pa1ts, etc.). lig dmics i
la1'ge ligit asis is fldd also i tl1e ssit of
dtl1ig it11dit stages of dvlmt witl1i
idividul lig 011ZOS (!g-t1m h011Z0S 10 5 s ,
111edill111-te1m 1 to 2 years, d sl1t-t1 s 1 to 31110t11S).
Besides til11e

dmics,

spatial

dvll11t d1is

exists

i lg ligit sis, ig ditid 1mt

spatial

1110vl11t

lgss

total

sis,

dvl111t

xist

of

of ligit

of seve1'31

as

pits.
"ll

l'gil

lig

(11 t1' 11d,

as

(11 d

of

fI'3111wks,

levels:

the

sid11g
qui

gil ll,

tl1e
sl11aller

spatial d dtldi titis (gtl of pits, or idividul

pits, powe1' gtig-idtlst11l l11l), tl1 sttll11t
ll, and tl1e ll of 1ti pa1t of sttlt 01' PaJt of (l1
poweJ' gratig-idtlst11l l. Skig abol.lt
lig at tl1e ll of idividl.ll pits, 01' gu of pits Cif tlle
l'st dlldi tit) , tl1e objed of lig cOl.lld
both t existing d the Bew, future pits. diff is
obviol.ls, because i the first case (11 lig task is (
alleviate the gtiv (xistig) effects of exploitation, d i
(11 sd it is possible to dt i dv (l1
exploitation t, wl1icl1 l11s ( ds sigifitl
the total gtiv effeds of litti d to st d
vitliz tl1e affeded soil ffiitl. It is obvious tl1at
ig lg ligit basins witl1 sucl1 d1S, as well as
witl1 tl1e ss1 if1111ti basis d l of researcl1,
quis ql.lite itsit !' researcl1, 1'gizati, d otl1eJ'
adivities.
lig

of fl.lt

dvll11t

of powe1' gratig is based

today, botl1 i tl1e W01'ld d i '
count1y. Possibilities of exallstion !' classical ss d
the d of fidig w lttiv 1'g soU!'ces point to
the necessity !' long-te1111 t'orecasts d development !' Hew
technologies the 10g 111 . ligit sis , lig
of t'tlture dtldi is 111ade lg-t1m bases today: oew
pits ld d dsigd [01' pe110d !' 25-30
s, sdig to the aVe1'3ge life s !' tllel111al
powe1' lt , l11ig that tl1e wl10le ss of 1''3ti,
illldig design, l'ql.lis abotlt 10 yea1's, Altlllgl1 the
dvl111t il1'g ligit sis is dmi , quiIig
rresdig lig, t 1110St i111rtt St111 dll l
hgs d tl1e so-called gtiv xtl enects !' the
system dvll11t (squs !' uqul d uv
10g-tl111 ssutis

16

and
monofunctional
m,
land
resettlement of population, changes the
wate1' regime, environment degradation, etc.), are expressed
long-term basis. could say that the most significant
aspects of total development large lignite basins are of
long-term characte1'. Therefore the
aspect of long-term
planning these basins is extremely important. It is quite
certain that the most significant features of future
development, spatial organization and restoration, have to
based upon long-term fo1'ecasts and assumptions. Thus, the
long- term horizon ss the conceptual planning level,
while other time horizons and stages serve , for
operationalization of this basic planning level lal'ge lignite
basins.
.
development

tid

If we take together the basic features of planning large

lignite basins, we would able to understand its global
conceptual framewo1'ks. The object of planning large lignite
basins would the total development, encompassing
i, social, spatial, technological, ecological, and other
aspects. Spatial and ecological aspects include the robl
area of space organization and restoration. The basic
conceptual Cstrategic) planning level large lignite basins
should based upon long- term forecasts Cand research),
within the framework of integral and regional approaches. We
have called this level 1'hsiv planning. The long-term
ti horizons of forecasting ass:
hypothetical
perspective of total exhaustion of the lignite deposit Cwhich is
certainly 10nge1' than 30 years, but not precisely
determined), and the standard long-term planning horizon
which is this case 25-30 years. The need fo1' continual and
dynamic planning determines the time interphase forecasts,
being 10 years for the hypothetical h011zon, and 5 years [or the
long- term planning horizon. This planning level s
operational through plans of smaller territorial entities, as well
as through diu-trm and short-term plans and programs
adopted within the framework of developmental planning of
the whole system. Comprehensive planning has double
character: developmental Csocio-economic) planning, and
territorial Cspatial) planning, to which should add the
aspect of technological and ll forecasting. Thus,
hsiv Cregional) planning has the rol of integral
planning. The integral approach has to applied other
planning levels large lignite basins too, but tlley are not
obliged to have foral features of integral planning. All
planning levels ust synchronized certainly, and the
system [ rehnsiv l will affect certain aspects
dvlt of the sstd its conflicts with the
environment) the standard forms of social, spatial and
plans, assig regions of large lignite basins at the level
of socio-political communities and inte1'-communal regional
associations,
slf-mgt
inte1'est
mmutJs
o1'ganizations of associated l, as well as other social
o1'ganizations.

comprehensive planning large lignit basins has its specific

goals and tasks too, like: tl<lnsfer of fundamental scientific
1'esults and new technologies, and their conversion into the
dvlt concept, review of characteristic features of
changes within the basin and theil' effects, optinlization of the
process of population resettling and vl of settlements
and other facilities, guidance of the urbanization process,
determination of the acceptable building regime above lignite
deposits, optimization of transpolt lignite basins, utilization
[ water resources,
griltural
land, etc., fixing of
technological, ecological and spatial conditions for
l'evitalization of degraded soil, protection and restoration of
natural values and ltural heritage , etc. These goals could
furthel' operationalized other l levels the lignite
basin.
Restoration and spatial organization represent the l, very
significant phase within tlle l of activities, assig:
informatics, research, planning, rogramig, space
organization and restoration. This is robl the most
significant feature of large lignite basins m l.
The ll' vlu, intensity, and degree of virot
degradation requil'es corresponding planning activities for
l'est01<ltion. This 1'estoration and revitalization of soil degraded
pit exploitation, could divided th1'ee phases:
technical or mg soil preparation rphlgil
Itivation) , ll ltivti Crest01<ltion of feltility) ,
and land use Croad construction, Water gmt,
organization of individual sites). Important results have
achieved the world today restoration of degraded SOili.
Restored areas obtain smtis g1'eater m value
than before exploitation. However, certain reselves have to
expressed mig the possibility of restoration, as
dgradti does t affect soil l, but the
ll
sst, wate1' courses, and geological composition too.
Besides the restoration of soil degraded pit
litati the fllwig types of space strati d
gizati appear i large ligit basins: ) construction
d ld use above the ligit stratum the zone of interest
for exploitation Cconditions for these activities are fixed
depending of the expected time of starting miig pits
- 1' Stl1ct regi is itrodud if the ig ti is the
near future, and vice versa); ) organization of the working
virot of roducti structures of the sst z of
pits d the power gratig d idustril l)
and ) construction of new sttlts for the moved
population, building of new roads, infrastructure, industrial
and service facilities - outside the productive area of the basin
as rule. The o1'ganization and restoration of degraded soil in
large lignite asis is dynamic process dictated the lignite
production, i.e. the development of pit exploitation
d other production processes within the asi. Restoration
d
vitlizati are udrtk

the bases of
rrsdig spatial and physical plans.

This concept of comprehensive l at 1'egional level

could accept, with sll or larger additions, the ral
general goals of regional planning, including: uniform
territorial development, elimination of disproportions the
structure of i dvlt, hivt [
efficiency, neutralization of developmental conflicts and
negative extemal effects, 1'eaching of acceptable level of
environment and living qualities, as well as the srig of
necessary deg1'ee of safety from destructive effects. However,

17

r~

\1",,-1'--1

,., . ('1'1 ",

\1

--,
'1 --- .~.
1 L~~id
~l(~ "--'~

,
,

....

"

--

/;l;..1teI/1I--1-1f;''-

....

~)

,~/IV<C. .

 m m

set

central area is
tUl

planning

( )

possibilities Jor

to

integral consideration and

core wider area, tbls being

Jorward in relation
smaller areas.

Zoning Ordinance Plan oJthe NiS

en

c!Jaracteristic Jor master plans.

central area is devided into

tul

area

un~ts

Jor wblclJ

Ordinance Plan

offers

long-term planning and defining

area comprises

space entities

step

so- Jar partial concepts

Zoning

essential Jactors without excessive limitations

Zoning Ordinance Plan

total

49 blocks representing

!Jave

NiS'

basic

regulation rules are determined and space concepts and urban

parameters defined.
Planning concepts and JurtIJer elaboration

the space tlJrougb

arcbltectural and artistic planning the central town area

tUl,

urban design

is again

smaller entities

i"

create preconditions Jor

precondition Jor tbe use " potentials

urban,

central area !Jas as center

region and wider gravitional area.

:711.643:711.5 49711)

rm

" " II

55,40 ha,

ry II

ry

,
,

5.

, ,

rm

II

1993.

II

1878.

12800

rm

(II

19,40

II

rm

rm

15.036,OOha

9.742,56ha

100
64,79

100,00

55,40ha

0,37

0,57

1991 . .

247.898

100,00

2010..

288.500

214.673

86,60

269.000

9.621

3,88

9.387

rm

19

%
100.0

rm ,

II

35,02%

II

297 ~

( . h)

rm

ha,

rm,

1991.

II ~

23,83%

II :

13,20 ha,

).

. .

II

41,15%

ha,

(II

22,80

),

rm .

(II

( . h)

89,77
3,25

~1,t'
, ...... ',._-

u ,

1878.

I Il'lI<.'IL'( ,

1990. ,
-

, - .

.



u, 1

hx
, .

1. ll

49

h ( l
).

hx

( )

49

55.40 ha

100,00 %

15,11 %
7,18 %
41,91 %
31,86 %
3,93 %

8,37 ha
3,98 ha
23,22 ha
17,65 ha
2,18 ha

6
3
20
17
3

cr

1 <J<J..f..

15% )
. - u (15% - 30% )
- . (30% - 60% )
u (60% - 99% .)
(100% )

6
13
14
10

8,37 ha
0,00 ha
6,14 ha
17,76 ha
16,17 ha
6,96 ha

49

55.40

20

15,11
0,00
11,08
32,06
29,19
12,56

%
%
%
%
%

100,00 %

1ry

1 :

rp, 1

-, ,

- If

................................................ 55,40
.... .............. .. .. ..................... 20'46
.......................... ............. 34,94
......................................................... 9387 '
.. ' ..... "' .. .. ..'." .. '.' .. ' ......... '.' .. ' ..... ""."" .. ... 3129
.. ...... ,.. ,........ ,.......... ,.... .. ..... 37 %
- ................ ,.. ,... 1,21
.... ,.. .... .................. 169 ./

rp ,

rp .

1, , 1 , 1 ,
1

- , ...... ,........ ,...... ,.... ,669,850 2

- .......... 206,514 2

- , ........ .463,336

................................ 30'83 %

............................... 9,17 %
2

11,36 ha,

, 1
,

: rp

, 1,

860 .

1 :

, - ,

. -

3.515

20,51 %

. ,

5. KOHrpeca

, 1

rp, rp,

, 1ry
1ry .

. .

ry

ry

ry,

rp

3r
ry

ry, :

30,83%.

rp

69,17% .

rp

1,

ry , -

ry

-
.

ry

(2)

ry

) ), )
ry

(1

),

).
ry

79

rp ry,

XIX

If.
1

ry

ry

rp

(1)

ry- (

ry

),

48,50%

46

51,60%

rp,

. ry

1()()() ,

850 ,

21

 .'

h 11l 11I

rp

rp, II

II

22

rp,

rp

ct:

()

:s:
tn

,....
'(\

:2:...'

~~

Sca

IQ.

~~

.
1:;

, ro

::; ~
s >cnL!J

ro~ ~')

1Vorld ~r7ar , and ! 0/ m !s ji/11!Jer

exJxmded space assigned 10 un
proleclioll IImlmenl. Delailed pla11S,
JJt/1'SUalll 10 tlJese gelleral pla1lS, !! served as
basis / realizalioll, preservert, tIJeir
regulaliol1S (/'I1d n msu1~ olcl city
t/11der cOlldiliol1S !Ji! provided proleclioll /tlJ
minor jXl11 0/ buildings. Dt.ie 10 l!Jis, ! /l
l urbal1izali<Y11 fiued tlrban dellelopmel1l

val
and
l/'I1rter'developed
sjXlce,
c!Jamclerislic / 1l Yugoslav cilies, tIJis tlrlxm
preserved /m un rnaln:>:. Beside mil and relalively limited inlerverlfions n field 0/
ilifraslruclure and residenlial and cOllllllercial developmenl, IIJis sjXlce lacked mnnl proleclion, nll
and nelli developmenl, as well as cOlllinua[ relalion 10 cultural, IJislonc and IIll !Jerilage. 17Jerqfoe iI
lagged be!Jind, Im 10/uljill its / nd developmenl ji.mclion.

~~;::::~~::{:;~ j;!;~~ts~1a~~O:nCO:::;
,') general plan !Ji/; !Jas n prepared ajier

<

1ld l proleclion !s n

broug!J1 n/tlS ll1l / lw Culltlml MOlll/'lllents (Official Gazelle o/SR5, . 6190) lV!Jen campelenl

~ ~ 111S1itt.ll/ Proleclion o/Culltlm[ Monumel11s 0/ Novi Sad, in cO'n/onnilY l l!Jis [ pllllmrter elimi proleclion sigl1ijicanl1Ul.1/lber 0/ bttildings.
:: ~ > iIlegal cOl1Slruclion un alld larger :; m alarmil1g, ndngig its cenlral parts, Municipal Assembly lulized tlJ roblll 0/ city

. ?:; prolec1ion l end 0/1992, jXlSsing dnl !, in filCl, delermined l1([ proclaimed policy

0/preservalioll ,.v/JiC!J s!JOuld l11! developed a11d

sludied l cenain dynamics. cO'l1/ormily lviIIJ ,". docll1l1enl, n Planning, Developmenl (/11d Researc!J Cel1ler Noui Sarl 11(1 jXll Jnslilllle/or
~ ct: Proleclion 0/ Cullural Monulllents Noui Sad, carned, applying specijic metlJodology, uolumil1ous researc!Jes and jXll sludy l 0/ clelennining l
~
basis / proleclion 0/ arc!Jilecluml !Jenlage in oldesl jXl11 0/ cily. l:; slucly is based [ Cu/lllral Herilage, l iI also delenllilles alld
~ ~ il1COrpDra.tes componellts 0/ un developmenl ! bl, respecling proleclion, l, revilalizalion, reconslmclion d l developmenl '!
0/ in!Jeriled ln:>: 0/ old city . II is quile valllable/or preparati011 0/ mIl:; Iypes 0/ / documen.lalioll, ul il does nl 1IIn end 0/
reieae!J work n tlJefield 0/arc!Jileclura[ !Jelilage proleclion in old cily 0/Noui Snd.
1bls work !JC/s n l multidisciplinary 'm composerJ 0/ C/ssociales 0/ tIJ IIlSlilules, tmde,. expel1 guida1lce 0/ !. Dragan lukovic, !.
Rodoljub Rdosuljeui and Donka. Slanac, !Jislonan 0/11.
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.From Metaphorical
to Ecological Functionalism
Juhani Pallaslnaa

72 "19"

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,

Closing of ntry
The approaching turn of the is already colouring
horizon, We are accustomed to view history terms
of narrative of decades and centuries and,
consequently, expect something dramatic to take place
at this symbolically charged date, But
whereas the fin-de-siecle spirit
hundred years ago, epitomized the
optimistic notions of the Gay Nineties, La
Belle Epoque, l'Art Nouveau and
Jugendstil was, eagerly waiting for the
opening of the new , we seem to
view the approaching date as the closing
of century. The Gay Nineties awaited
quick materialization of the budding
promises of exciting new future. But
we, t later, simply do ! know what [ !
and what to hope, We have lost sight of the horizon and.
curiosity about the future. Instead of being excited,
we are worried.
During the past two decades the themes of closing and
coming [ end have emerged remarkably frequently
fields from philosophy and historiography [
the arts,
he

theme of the end

he American philosopher Arthur Danto has
announced the "end of art"l, while Hans Belting, the
German art historian, has assumed "the end of art
history,,2. Alvin rn, the American professor of the
humanities, has recently published book the "end of
the age of the book" with the gloomy title he Death
Literatun!. Certain genres of music have also
judged [ have reached their end: the symphony and
opera, particular, "Blow opera houses." advised
Pierre Boulez, the French composer and conductor,
already 1967. In his view Alban Berg's Wozzeck was
the ultimate achievement of the art of opera and,
consequently, the conclusion of its history,4
wo years ago the American political historian Francis
Fukuyama brought the notion of end into wider
context his controversial essay entitled he End
History, 5 Fukuyama's view, based Hegel and his
commentator Alexander , is that the worldwide
victory of economic liberalism has exhausted the
dialectical forces of the historical narrative and brought
history to its end,

39

some earlier occasions,

have questioned the
feasibility of architecture consumer society which
tends to detach architecture from its existential base and
[ ! into disposable commodity and entertainment. 6

Peter Eisenman brought the discussion of end

ultimate topiC: "the end ofthe end"?

its

heendofart

I do not wish to begin the Symposium

apocalyptic tone, but I feel that the notion
of Utopia topic provokes the issues
of narrative and end, Taking somewhat closer look at the line of reasoning
Arthur CDanto, particular, casts light
the currently confusing and contradictory
scene of architecture. Recent developments
art seem to bring forth the central issues of culture
which also reflected architecture.
Before speculating the future of functionalism we had
better make sure that ! has ! already ended for good,
he

idea of art form coming to end is ! the

product of neurosis of the [ of the millennium,
Aristotle assumed that the art form of tragedy had
reached its ultimate expression his time: "Arising from
n improvisatory beginning", tragedy grew little little,
as poets developed whatever n it had
appeared, and passing through man changes, tragedy
to halt, since it had attained its m nature',
Aristotle wrote. 8
The expression "attaining its own nature" seems [ imply

exhaustion of its essence vg !

self-knowledge, [ use Hgelian notion. Hegel, who
introduced the idea of history coming to end,
reasoned that the historical process terminates the
consciousness of its own process, that is, its
self-knowledge.
Giorgio Vasari, who shaped the narrative of Renaissance
art his Lives Most Eminent Italian Painters,
Sculptors and Architects saw that art had reached its
ultimate rf and limit the work of the masters
of igh Renaissance, could not see way that art
could ro from Michelangelo , Vasari, of course,
rounded off the narrative of art conveniently with his
own biography.9

Exhausting style
1t is obvious to us retrospect that the art of tragedy
continued after the Greek poets and that there has
art, even the great art, since the of Vasari. What the
views of alt to end really impove is that
certain historical narrative, as improved from inside that
particular narrative comes to end. Every stylistic
matrix has limited filed of variations and style dried
since the potential expression has exhausted. 1
Danto's view "coming to n end is almost logical
necessity, since narratives cannot endlesS'.lO
,
he question that concerns us here is whether the
or more specifically
narrative of nlOdernity,
functionalism, has to end, whether its
unconscious motifs and forces have already surfaced and
turned into external mannerism. Therefore we
l view modernity as outsiders and creative
attempts flatten to mere repetition and mimicry.
Are we, perhaps, obliged to follow Leon i's
command:" Vorwans, Kameraden, i ussen ZU1UC!i,ll
art of appropriation
he g of rtit painting is usually ffd as
l of art fm that has already exhausted its
potential field of ssi. he urtl popular art of
roiti is given as anothel' proof of art having lost
its foward rogssi and repetitive because
its l [ option is the l of viusl
created imagery. "No matter look, it is
becoming increasingly dif.ficult to recognize n 'original'
ro , ro . Mimicry has
reJiaced innovation as value, We t-ecycle
verythit', wits Thomas Lawson his article.
Nostalgia as Resistance book entitled Modem
Dreams. 12
he art of roiti is exemplified the Picassos
and Morandis painted Mike idl, Shi Levine's
htghd
htghs
of Walkel' Evans's
photographs from the 1930s, Malcolm Morley's painted
of postcard of Vermeer's Artist's Studio,
Richard Prince's htghd details of the
meaningless images magazine advertisements and
Russel Connor's collage roitis of histil
masterpieces.
he

Growing distance
These examples of new art Clast art) ('eveal growing
distance between the artist and his subject.
he sensory and emotional f of modernist alt sought
to eliminate all distance between subject and object, it
embodied, incorporated, the object the subject's
. Today's art signals dis of
empathy, shared and responsibility, the
itgtig function of art. artist has
outsider who observes his own condition and his very
mlSS
from fzig distance. Photo-and
hyper-realism exemplify this lli emotional distance.
he architectural magazines of the past two decades also

abound documents of frozen and

calculated [l of images. 1 addition narcissistic
tones, today's architecture often reveals l and
necrophilic tendencies. This is result of architecture
having alienated from its "lif-wld", use the
ll notion of Edmund Husserl.
t of li all distance, populist
si of art and everyday life was ssd the
ideology of Claes Oldenburg 25 s : "1 t
tlJat is pt and taken !, like pant~~ develops
lls, like socks, is eaten, like ,
abandoned i gl"eat contempt, like sblt". 1
,. 1 )u n sit . 1 ,. 1 u n pick )U1"
nose i ' stub U1' toes ... 1 " n 1 tlJat tells
u time day, 01" l" such and such street
is. 1 ,. n 1 tlJat helps old ladies across
stl"eet... ,,13
Art turns into its own plosophy

Danto makes it l that what means art mig

to end is "n! so l loss energy,
tlJouglJ tlJat might (also) true, as tlJat 1 was mising
ro witbln the question its philosopblcal identity, was doing pbllosoplJY, so to speak, in medium
... ,,14 1 Danto's view, alt has turned into its own
philosophy and works of art exist l i coexistence
with thei!' own theory. Since the cave paintings of
Lascaux, works of art have touched us directly through
their l of evoking experiences of timeless
humanity without needing explicit theoretical frame
or t even ("equiring knowledge of artist's
conscious intention. ut today would impossible
recognize certain wks as works of art without ig
aware of their respective philosophical foundations.
l of philosophical formulations d
respective hitturl works is equally evident today. 1t
often seems that intellectually qualified stance is more
essential than its sensory embodiment the mtil
lg of building.
avant garde architecture today presents itself as
fm of ultul itiqu, than ('esponse
social mmissi. ut itiqu implies distance d
outsideness. This attitude is ssd i theme of
t symposium the Uivsit of California:
Postmodemism and Beyond: An;bltectu,.e as the C!itical
Alt Contemp:)1"ary CultU1"e. 15
he r

dilemma
Danto considers point at which Andy Whl
exhibited his ill boxes at Stable Gallery New
York 1964 as the philosophical turning
history of art. "(Wa,.hol) bmught histy to n end
demonstrating tlJat visual criterion could serve
s defining l1 ... l?hy wee tlJese boxes 1 en
,. iginals wee just boxes; ... 1he meaning 'U1"k
t' could longer taught ,. understood
thmugh precedent. ,,16 1ndeed, foundations of
institution of art were shaken so forcefully the 1960's
that the art historian Hans ltig felt compelled to state:

40

"There will have to eithel' discipline 1' l' 1960

and discipline Jor after, or history that has stopped
nr years ago to Jollowed IJistorical
happenings. ,,17
As the
forms of painting and sculpture have so
clearly arrived at decisive limit and an unavoidable
paradigm shift:, is it reasonable [ expect architecture [
continue unaffected its mdist and functionalist
path without its foundations being shaken and
questioned in an equally fundamental way?
It is evident [ that architecture has entered the same
syndrome of self-definition and philosophizing its
essence. Characteristically, recent theorizing in
architecture has not so much aimed at comprehensive
analysis of the itl structure and elements of
architecture as defining its mere existence, its xtl
boundary, its perimeter, as it were. The architectural
discussion has not been d with what is good
architecture as much as with what architecture is in
general. The criterion of authentic architectural quality
as lived in its totality has clearly been replaced the
photographed image in the architectural press. This 10ss
of responsibility is exemplified Robelt Stern, who
recently told his students at Columbia University not [
w about their building aft:er the day they had
18
photographed it. .
Self-referentiality h1 arcbltecture
The architecture and of the closing decade of the
second millennium have so self-referentia1, so
d with their OWI1 existence and self-defil1itiol1
that today aJt seems [ about works of art il1stead of
beil1g about the world, and architecture about bui1dil1gS,
110t about . Both dea1 more with the philosophica1
issues of representation than with their cOl1tel1ts. ll
functiona1 and utilitarian dimel1sion of architecture has
been pushed aside.
This se1f-referentia1ity is exemplified Peter Eisel1mal1's
isomorphic distortion of one of his houses l1 the
exhibition The Idea as Mode. The axol1ometric of the
three-dimel1sional mode1 cou1d perceived correct1y
from one viewpoint 0111, like the stral1ge anamorphic
scull l1 Hans Holbeil1'S The Ambassad01'S. This
architecture is solely interested in representation al1d has
abandol1ed life comp1etely.
Se1f-centeredness implies the val1ishil1g of the socia1
perspective. It is difficult, indeed, [ experience the
scope in today's architecture or the desire [ r the
wor1d, aspiratiol1s that rooted mdist architecture so
vivid1y in its cultural cOl1text and made it radial1t with
optimism.

impossibility of utopia
The current conditiol1 a1so imp1ies the disappearal1ce of
the Utopian and visionary perspective. It is sigl1ifical1t,
il1deed, that during the past two decades the
architectural profession at large has 110t l1 l1d
with the socia1 dimel1sion of architecture, . . housing,
refinement of industria1 meal1S for mass productiol1 01'

41

issues of p1al1nil1g, which were r l1s of the

mdist project. 01', can l1l1 l1 significal1t
architectura1 Utopia, l1 visiol1, town plan 01' serious
attempt at industrializatiol1 sil1ce the 1960s? Japal1ese
metabolism, Yona Friedman's superstructure cities, the
l1 projects of Candilis, Josic and Woods 01' the
graphic Utopias of the Archigram Group l1 the 1960s
r naive [ today's disillusioned eyes, but,
l1evelthe1ess, they revea1 the existel1ce of visiol1ary
horizOI1. We seem [ have 10st the l1aivete and innocence
which wou1d l1 us [ project Utopia.
C0l1sequel1t1y, we do 110t project our hope il1tO the
hJturej melal1cholic Utopia is l1 the past. It resides l1
the unfu1filled promise of mdit, which has acquired
mythica1, if 110t erotic 1 for us.
he

anti-utopian age
[ is an al1ti-Utopial1 age. [ has l1
disillusioned [l1 Fall of the t that inspired the
piol1eers of 111dit. It has failed 011 all frol1tS, the
tech11010gical al1d cultural as well as social. The
justificatiol1 of [ll aesthetic Utopia was severly
questiol1ed a1ready l1 the 1ate 60s, al1d the recel1t
bankrupt failure of [ll great socia1 experimel1t
comp1eted the fall of ideals. But beyond this, the
techl1o-scientific deve10pment that was expected [
provide tools for the materializatiol1 of the Utopia 11as
deprived reality of its poetic dimension. This is expressed
in Normal1 Mailer's Fire the n wblch p011rays
man's first landing the n in 1964 ''as n assault
science IJumanistic litet'ature and the at1s,
preempting God paetJy, Apallo, 1' the
mission, and transJorming the tmditioal sybol the
1Vmantic imagination, the n, into lifeless scientific
object,.19 Whereas the Futurists' cry "Down
moonshine." 0111 four decades earlier was poetic
evocation, the Apollo mission marked the end of
exp1oration and curiosity.
Art critique

Recel1t structuralit al1d deconstructivist critique has

further cOl1tributed [ this feeling of disillusionment and
10ss of horizon through questioning the mora1 authority
of great alt.
"The traditioal 1Vmantic and modernist litet'CI1Y values
have en completely l'eve1'Sed. The author, whose
creative imagiation had n said to source
literature, was declamd dead or the mere assetnbler
various bits language and culture into writings that
er longer works art but simply cultural collages
or 'texts'. .. flhat er n lnasterpieces litet"tu
the plays Shakespeare or novels Flaube11, 1'
n devoid meaning, or what comes to the
thing, filled with n infinity meanings ... Rather than
being neat'-sacj'ed mytlJs human en
wond and self, the most prized passession culture,
univ~l statements about n unchanging and essential
human ature, literatum is increasingly treated as

ts igs

that evoke i of patticula!"

of life. "(n;') 'makes UXJ1{d' does
not determine but does allow us to live and think
differently n if it did not exist', writes Stfd
Ands about the ill Savoye 23 . Yes, experience
of the scope of life i the drn world would idd
sigifitl dwafed if we could t i it
through the ill Savoye, the Glass House, the
Flligwt House d the ill . This is what
lti Heidegger t his notion "Vrv
stadish", udstadig, as the basis of hu
diti i xisttil philosophy. We [
iv l what uiqu life diti at lg
ks possible d hittur provides of the
st irtt hizs of d ud

uth1itian nd destructive / mn /reedom ... '~

2
writes Alvin rn .
The questioning of the l hit of the architect, if
not his entire social dt, already gd in the
Marxist-Leninist critique at the end of the 1960s.
Finland this ideological doctrine was particularly strong
and severely shook the traditionally idealist self-identity
of the architectural profession.

logic of functionalism
1 have d rathel' lengthy excursion [ urt
philosophical issues i the arts. But 1 thik that it is
ss [ udstd why future ss [ have
dd.

so deeply inspired d vd igs of

futilist architecture d the poetics of drnity i
general that idit response to the qusti
posed i the th of ssiu was ffitiv:
yes, the futilist dl not l provides way
fwd but it is l way out. The drnist
dialectical siti reality, ilig tl
qustiig of its dig d ittti of reality is
l survival fro uivsl kitsch, 1 thought. But
w 1 [ealize that lusi was bit hasty
sidig what has said t the t
diti of alt.
ft hvig paused [ thik about the ss of
futilis, 1 have realized the xt vguss of
the ti, theoretical as well as historical. Futilis
does not s to stitut operative theoy
thd beyond slgs, eith does it provide
basis [ the classification of architectural works d
external stylistic htizti. Besides, the tis of
drnis,

futilis

tilis

vl

fqutl

both t d later witigs.

"Functionalism' is weak concept, inadequate /01'
characterization or analysis / n architectU1t!...
Functionalism is jiction - jiction in sense / r',
writes Stanford Anderson his article 1he tin /
21
Function .
Futi as the focus of sius dsig itti
served as useful lever i iptig architecture
fro its historical urd, but what stituts
futilist theoy is udutdl isittti
v-silifiti of hittur. Having said this 1
have [ repeat that those works of architecture which
their ks explicitly labeled as Futilist
Csurprisingly few, the way) st ft convey
deeply vig i of w world vibt of
thusis, hope and th. Even such xt
reductivist functionalist view as Hannes Meyer's ult
tilist equation ARCURE=FUNN
ECONOICS 22 gave rize [ poetically charged
architectural igs.

stdig.

myth of functionalism
Curtis, who will skig latel" i this
ssiu, gives vey cleal" ssi [ this tt
i the chaptel" dlig with the yth of futilis i
his Mode171 n:hittu since 1900.' ''Even most
higbly dejined set 0/1t!qui1'ements m answe1t!d in
va17:ety / ways, and , images concelning tlJ
eventual appearance / tlJ building will entm' tlJ design
ss at some point. 1JUs jil11ction could only
t1'anslated ;nto J01'lns and spaces hittU1-
tlJ1'vug!J sen style, and in this case it was
style symbolic J01'lnS ! 1t!/en-ed, among other
things, to notion /unctionality' 24.
Achitecture has dual focus; it provides tahil
sss the attistic level at the s ti t11at it
solves til qUits of futi, stutur,
uti, , etc. The ul futilist iti
s [ at theil" strogst i the G and Swedis11
kith sh of the 20s d 30s d the gi
dsig of his. But it is evident that not sigl
uildig has td the histoy of hittu its
futil its. The futilist stylistic ti
nl
udstod

tig
its strogl
tahiltu. This sli stti could
f siultusl to the ihitd lgug of
hittur d [ ig totally outside the tditil
l of hittur, such as usti engines,
lis or ltivs . is of ti, [,

Arcbltecture as picture

This paradox is conceivable because architecture is

iil not about theoy, technique function but
t the world d life. Achitecture creates pictures. It

42

Willi

ts

wig11tlssss

irtt th futil

or

ft

aspects of the

uildig.

"1he mrd's nest is absolute /unctionalism, because

m1'd is n! / its n death", has Sverre Fehn said
tuhigl d poetically.
he machine and the venus of mi10
As Modernity was rn, the stshi replaced the
rth, the hi replaced the Vus of as
the aesthetic idea!. The diti of the hi ft
took fetishistic d erotic traits. Even 's slf-ig
took the shape of the hi. "1 object !Jas to m
l lnain c!Jaracter / modm painting nd il !Jas 10
throw tlJ !Julnan jigure /rom throne. If jJefSOn,

 01'

body turn into objects, gr-eat Jmedom opens u

to modern m1ist... to the n 01' jigum
does not m eaning n n keys 01'
, wrote Fernand Lege?5.

The paradoxical thing is that regardless its aesthetic

admiration of the mechanical, modernist architecture
(and art) radiate human empathy.
Although functionalism is myth as generative theory,
the works guided this myth conceived though its
stylistic matrix continue to inspire us and to provide
horizon of hope.
Regardless of the evasive and mythical nature of the
notion of functionalism 1 would want to continue using
it; we know the timeless life of myths and their power
over our minds. It is the nature of myths to keep
generating responses and new itttis. This, 1
believe, is the usefulness of the myth of functionalism.
The itlti between intellectually fmultd
theoetical stance and its respective artistic embodiment
should, geneal, looked upon cautiously. It
frequently seems that hittur and its explicit
contempoary thtil fmwk offel" two lll
views rathel" than causal interdependence. The sensory
and emotional artistic response is related with deeper
and less difftitd ls of our psyc11e than
intellectual statements wods. Theoretical uttigs do
not often amount to than emotional cL1tches [
crossing the boder between convention and innovation.
It is l our that wok of art and its theoetical
foundation seem to have fused into each othel" and
is, as 1 have gud above.
Psychological functionalism
The dutiv tilist theory of functionalism was
expanded into the psychic l already the 1930s,
most notably Alval" Aalto:
"

itself rationalization was not wrong in jil"St age

architecture, n lefi behind.
Jault is tlJat rationalization has not gone deep
enough. .. Jnstead jighting against the mtionalist
approach, latest phase odern arcbltecture is
tJying to clJannel rational ethods fivm
technical sphere and into that lJUmanism and
26
psychology' .
odern

decade later Lewis Mumfod elaborated the notion of

functionalism very much the same vien as Aalto his
article Function and ssi Achitecture. "This
( self-imposed poveny Junctionalism) does rt
, as some C11tics hastily accerted, tlJat
Junctionalism is doomed: it means rather that time
has to integrate objective Junctions i subjective
Junctions: to balance 01f mechanical Jacilities i
biological needs, social commitments, and pel'Sonal
values. .. the doctrine tlJat Jorm lls Junction was
(n!) misleading n. What was Jalse and mm'etricious
er the narrow applications that eI' made tlJis
Jormula ... When the wll personality is taken into

43

account, expression 01' symbolism becomes n

dominant concel'nS an;bltectUl'e ... ,p .
1 also want [ mention Rihd Nut's suisig notion
of the "list" 28 as anot11e!" l of the scope of
functionalist thinking.
The Modernist position, which continues to strong
the Nodic utis, has widened the functionalist point
of depalture during the last two decades very much
a10ng the 1ines of Aa1to's and Mumfod's views. Even the
st-drn
itiql1
of Modernism has
itd
into
tm
Ndi

functiona1ism.

origins of functionalism

The widening of the notion of functionalism [

wo10gica1, psyc11010gica1 and symbolic dimensions
Aa1to and othel" functionalists the gi inclination
invites us to review the igis of the notion of the
itdd of form and function. In1atel" writings
the functionalist theory has often given purely
mechanistic and dtmiisti [ as if it had divd
so1e1y from the discipline of mechanics ..
of the fist Wl'its to make function the itl'i of
fn was the Am scu1ptor ti Greenough 29 ,
who had studied biology (sic) as well as scu1pture.
published series of s the mid-nineteenth
t which fomu1ated the new aesthetic of the
machine and extended its application to ll foms of
beauty the basis of Lamk's bio10gica1 thm:
[m follows function.
Greenough saw that his
g!izti app!ied to all gi and even man-made
foms. Beauty was seen as "the promise of function".

Disappearance of the socia1 mission

During the 1ast quarter of tbls century hittur has

m alarmingly autistic as consequence of its 10ss of
socia1 mission. In most industria1 societies hittu as
serious artistic endeavol" has mgilizd. he
hitt's c1ient has changed from the \\ e1ite to the
cu1tura1 elite and, finally, today's avant-garde hitt is
his own client. hittur is fortifying itse1f t11e
tit of artistic aUtonomy.
Vincent . , fo , l rejects this position:
" end, tIJese voices (oJtoday's avant-gm'de) testifj! to
notblng less n massive (lmgely male) Jantasy,
ubiquitous l' sociocultuml castl'ation tlJat played
itself out in C11tical lJ:Jet011c n arcbltectU1'al
avant-gm'de and tlJat ha1'dly seems to en
f!v"hausted. ,,30
The 1 social challenge std the fate of
humanity at lg has replaced self-centered
itst the institution of hittur itself as niche
of culture. The to the tifyig quantitative
problems awaitir'tg mankind was mmtil opened at
the end of the 1960s, but the window of consciousness
was hastily c10sed before tota1 could take over.
again
shook the
The energy iss 1973-74
prodigious attitude of tm blttur and

produced experimental models of ecologically

motivated architecture. After the techno-romantic
Archigram visions, the communities, solar heating
experiments, the whole World Catalogue and
dome-cook-books looked like early apocalyptic
nightmare which was quickly forgotten. Buckminster
Fuller's Utopian program and his world resources
inventory were dismissed as groundless idealism,
techno- romanticism and political naivete.

Towaros an ecologica1 functionalism

Today, however, 1 cannot imagine other desirable
view of future than ecologically adapted form of life
where architecture returns to its early functionalist ideals
derived from biology. Architecture will again take root
its cultural and regional soil. This architecture could
called Ecological Functionalism. his is not the l to
attempt description of this future perspective but 1
want to say that understanding this view implies
paradoxical task for architecture to more
primitive and more refined at the same time: more
primitive terms of meeting the most fundamental
human needs with of expression and
mediating man's relation to the world equally
fundamental and literal way, and more sophisticated
the sense of adapting to the cyclic systems of nature
terms of both matter and energy. Ecological architecture
also implies view of building more as process than
product and it suggests w awareness of time terms
of recycling and responsibility exceeding the scope of
individual life. It also seems that the architect's rol
between the polarities of craft and has to
redefined.
Whereas function was dealt with primarily
symbolical level modernism, metaphorical
functionalism wil1 not satisfactory the ecological
imperative of the 21st century. Func-tionalism has to
[l operative functionalism. The current philosophical
testing of the limits of architecture wil1 replaced
authentic experimentation with new techniques
Calternative energies, for instance) and new concepts of
living. he priority of representation wil1 replaced
the priority of performance.
After the decades of affluence and abundance,
architecture is likely to [rn to the aesthetics of
necessity which the elements of metaphorical
expression and practical craft fuse into each other againj
utility and beauty again united. An ecologicallifestyle
brings forth the ethical stance, the aesthetics of
poverty as well as the notion of responsibility all its
philosophical complexity.

Notes
1. Arthur . Danto, Encounters
Reflections: Art in the Historical
Present. Farrar Straus Giroux, New York 1990. Final essayentitled
"Narratives of the End of rt".
2. Has elting, "Das ende der Kunstgeschichte?" Referenced in ibid.,
. 331-338, 44.
3. Alvin Kernan, The Death of Uterature. l University Press, New
and London 1990.
4. alevi Aho, "Taiteilijan tehtava postmodernissa yhtei-skunnassa"
(The aItist's task in the post-modern society) , Synteesi 1-2/1991,
Helsinki, . 59.
5. Francis Fukuyama, "The End of History?" The National Interest,
number 16/summer 1989.
6. For instance: Juhani Pallasmaa, "Architecture and the Reality of
Culture the Feasibility of Architecture in Post-Modern Society",
Arkkitehti 1/1987, Helsinki, . 66-76.
7. Peter Eisenman, "The End of the Classical: the End of the eginning ,
the End ofthe End", Perspecta 21/1985, . 155-172.
8. Arthur . Danto, op.cit., . 309.
9. Ibid., . 6-341
10. Ibid., . 335.
11 . Leon rier, "VorvaIts, ameraden, wir Mussen Zuruck" (Forward,
Comrades, We Must Go Back), Oppositions 24/1981.
12. Thomas l.awson, "Nostalgia as Resistance" . Modern Dreams - The
Rise and Fall and Rise of . The IT Press, Cambridge, Mass.
1988, . 16 .
13. Ibid., . 105. Reprinted [ro Store Days. Something Else Press,
Inc., NewYork 1967.
14. Ibid., . 333.
15. Referred to Diane Ghirardo in Out of Site: social criticism of
architecture (edited Diane Ghirardo). Press, Seattle 1991,
.9.

16. Ibid., . 287-288.

17. Quoted in ibid., . 7.
18. Referred to Glenn Weiss in Modern Dreams, op.cit., . 141.
19. Referred to in rna, op.cit., . 204.
20.Ibid., . 2.
21 . Stanford Anderson, "The Fiction of Function", Assemblage 2, Feb.
1987, . 19-20.
22. Hannes Meyer, "Building" (1928) in Claude Schnaidt, Hannes
Meyer. Buildings, projects and writings. Arthur Niggli, Teufen
1965, . 94.
23. Ibid., . 29.
24. WilliamJ. R. CUItis,Modern Architecture since 1900. Prentice- Hall,
New Jersey 1987 (1983), . 182.
25. Fernand Leger, Maalaustaiteen tehtavat. . . Gummerus, Jyvaskyla
1981, . 63,69.
26. Alvar Aalt, "The Humanizing of Architecture", excerpts in Alvar
Aalto 1898-1976 (edited rn Ruusuvuori). Museum of
Finnish Architecture, Helsinki 1978, . 120.
27. Lewis Mumford, "Function and Expression in Architecture" in
Architecture as for (edited nn . Davern).
Architectural Record ooks, New York 1975, . 155, 158.
28. Referred to Kenneth Frampton in his essay "Reflections the
Autonomy of Architecture: Critique of Contemporary
Production" in Out of Site., op.cit., . 22.
29. As referenced Lewis Mumford, op.cit., . 156.
30. Vincent . Pecora, "Towers of l" in Out of Site, op.cit., . 73.
31. Ibid., . 153.

Lewis Mumford ended his l of 1968 prophetic

tone: "n is maker and older hiself. !
process, architecture has en ne ns ...
transJoring and making visible to later generations
his ideal self ... the tie has Jor architecture to
back to n and to make new Jor
. ,,31

I
44

1 Universal System of Evaluation

:~

~O

~~
U

:~

q
U'(fJ

in Housing, Building and

1
anning - YU.88

i.i i

(ipyuy

i), h . !

i.

'lll.

.-

i, il0-(t, u- ..

ccie. u (. i'l i. i

.,;g Mihailo Canak

~ ~

, .ihu

u 1.uu l .

(I!-,

,(.)

. i cciea .88 ~ . u..i., 1

~j' Moiyhe i i, h iu. u. . .

~:::>

.-

~-

. i1. i, i i, iIiu.i ..ui u1 .

Aspects

Introduction
Aims

evaluation

All struti d ivstmt works, regardless

their volume d sigl1ifi, dd u various
disis. Disis have made i ll phases
durig:

lti
lti
lti

of ivstmt programs,
of sketches d desigl1s,
of master desigl1s,

litti,
struti, .

are always very

imltt d

great ssilit, whethe

social private. They have well
studied d based u sud gumts.
require

sus

All

uildig

lig

vluti cou1d stl1us trolld.

Spol1tal1eous vluti is flat estimate
SI1, based UPOI1 i. It does t have to
wrog but cou1d 110 checked, td,
d thf cou1d t l1sidd as sciel1tifically
based. everyday life is full of such spol1tal1eous
disis mig small daily problems, decisiol1S
which have made fast, but which do t

l1

COl1trolled v1uti is l1 d well groul1ded.

Expressed ituds based UPOI1 facts, al1d l1
checked. Whi1e stus v1uti is authoritary
( l1 0111 accepted fusd), the trolld
is dmtic, fo it allows disussi both
l1mig procedures d obtail1ed su1ts. 1 the
decisiol1 mkig process mil1g 1
problems, tro11d v1uti has l1 abso1ute
ove Sl1tus s.

COl1trolled eva1uatio11

the

dsiptiv

of ti
uits: tmts, uildigs, ltis, sett1emel1ts,
lg
spatia1 s, . These ul1its shou1d
sd the ds d aims of ti subjects
fo whom they
itl1dd.
The procedure
dig which is possible check whethe
ti uit satisfies, d i what mut, the l1eeds
of vius subjects is called v1uti.

vluti

struti

vluti

process

is

strutul

gmt

auxi1iary 1

fo

the decisiol1

mkig

i:

se1ectio11
public

tw vius
ivitd

altematives (ith-);
competitiol1s, fo example;

t fus1
);

of proposed solutiol1 (yesl1rol, l1 of

dsig isti,

fil1ished
The

activities

basic

woks, .

goa1

of

evaluation

sius squs.

buildil1g d struti,
t of fiishd works,

111vstmt disis

v1uti

is ti
mhsiv d 1isti picture of the
(objects) studied, so as facilitate the comp1ete
disi mkig which should follow.

45

futhe

divided 011

s.

Dsiptiv

qutittiv

is usually based

ltiI1S

dil11, discete msumt scales, whi1e the

qual1titative 011 is umil d uses itvl
measuremel1t sca1es. Results of qutittiv v1uti
could umill ttd, rovidig the possibility
of sthsizig.
Both dsiptiv d qual1titative evaluatiol1s have
thei paltisal1s d ol1ts. m1its that
dsiptiv v1uti is Ul1is, slizd,
um1td,
d
techl1ically
isuffii11t1
ltd, al1d that the qual1titative is igid,
dogmatic, d that its thi1 isl1ss d
tss does 110 m objectivity .
resolve successfully this I1, d fu1fil1 the
task of evaluatiol1, is l1ecessary establish techl1ical
procedures (vluti models), which would:

st successfu1 mti of both

descriptive d qutittiv vlutis,
have hum itti ig dmi,
flexible,
,
dmti,
d
patjally
listi.

The combination of these two evaluations is acl1ieved

explaining and describing detail quantitative
grading the model. 1 this way, quantitative
evaluation represents superstructure of the
descriptive , and is not contradiction [ it.
Dynamism of the model is acl1ieved its
development and possibility of learning. The model is
not closed ul1chal1geable, but is permal1el1tly
revised al1d imvd. Gdil1g witl1i11 the model
could dynamic too, depel1dil1g of various factos.
The openness of the model is acl1ieved bythe
possibility of its use il1stitutiol1 il1dividual;
although official evaluatiol1s will given
authorized gl1iztiI1S 0111, the l of
stiv clients could much larger.
The flexibility of the model is reflected its:
adaptability to various operators,
alternative techniques and elemel1ts of evaluatiol1,
adaptability to various situatiol1s.
Flexibility is the best guaral1tee that the model could
adapted to possible chal1ges al1d situatiol1s, al1d
that it will survive.
The democratic aspect of the model is reflected the
possibility of participatiol1 of various cliel1ts l1 the:
fomatiol1

of the model,
of evaluatiol1,
mtiI1 al1d development of the model,
decisiol1 makil1g.
l have to trail1ed l1 model USil1g, l1 oder to
to participate actively stages of
evaluation.

ss

Probability is reflected the possibility for repeated

measurements (primarily social ones) to vid
slightly differel1t results. It should 110t forgottel1
that the same operator , changing external and
internal conditions, make different evaluatiol1 of the
same object. Different results way sign of
lack of precision, undecision, uncorrectness; they
show that truth does not have meaning l, but
that it has certain spal1, that it pulsates, is dYl1amic,
and could variable.
Evaluation models differ great deal fm case [
case, both concerning the content and subject matter
treated, and depending applied methodology and
technology of evaluation. The formatiol1 of l
model represents significant research endeavour,
requiring the engagement of l1 interdisci l1 team
of experts. 1t is necessary to understand the goals
sought and [ decide evaluation and analysis
durs. This methodological part of the is
particularly [m consuming and makes the work very
expensive.
eliminate various
methodological
hand, and [ facilitate work
models even [ non-experts, the other, the idea
two-step evaluation was launched. The first step
defines general iils of evaluation, valid for
cases, and the second step consists of the elaboration
Aiming

to

hs,

of l durs evaluation models each of

wl1ich is used for evaluating separate category of
objects: apartments, buildil1gS, settlements, etc. 11
models based upon mm evaluatiol1
pril1ciples (fm the first step), but have specific
criteria lil1ked [ each of [11 objects evaluated.
The Yugoslav universal system of evaluation YU.88,
the basic features of which we presel1ting here, is
based 011 two-step evaluatiol1 l1l too. I1
of tl1is is to il1form those il1terested how the
system is structured, how it is used, al1d how l1ev.'
models could formed, ada pted [ specific
requiremel1ts and l1eeds.

Characteristics of the YU.88 system of

evaluation
Basic principles ! the system
The YU.88 evaluatiol1 system is family of
methodologicaHy akil1 durs
evaluatiol1
models, wl1ich cOl1tinuaHy developil1g al1d
expanding, according to l1eeds. The system is ,
not ttd, and could freely used all
interested institutions and il1dividuals. It has hov.'ever
011 limitation, l1ml, certificates of evaluation,
which could issued authoized al1d registered
institutions l.

The system is flexible, for it vids the foHowil1g

possibilities [ authors:
[ have the participation of clients model
formation and evaluation, to do it l;
[ offer alternative and dynamic grading, to
satisfied with deterministic h and fixed
grades;
to evaluate entity the fields of housing,
building al1d spatial plal1ning (apaltmel1ts,
housing, public and industrial buildings,
settlements, locations, structural systems, spatial
entities, etc.);
to ddss evaluation [ subject fm the
activities
(designers,
enumerated
above
constructors, builders, ivsts, direct clients,
etc.).
Fig. 1 - Structul'e

/ 8

Sustem

YU.88.S
YU.88.Z
1- YU.88.N
I YU.88 ~I- YU.88.K
f- YU.88.L
L
YU.88.M
f-

fU.ee.Mfu.ee.M11

Legend:

- structural systems
S
- flats
Z
- apartment buildings
L
- locations

- uildig material d components

l
- load bearing components
ll
- light concrete

The system is developmental, for it is permanently

verified, expanded, mtd and used. The l1umbe

46

Every individual basic iti has its own specific

measuring scale (1, 2, %, , etc.). Depending
t11e dg of knowledge 1 iti,
msmt scales could dil (discrete) /Fig.
3/ , interval ones / Fig. 4!.

of models constantly grows, they are improved, and

parallel to evaluation various ot11er research is taking
place, contributing ( improved reliability of
evaluation.
The YU.88 evaluation system has hierarchical
structure. The system branches to several subsystems,
each of them being directed to special category of
objects, and develops constantly. These subsystems
are further divided groups of specialized
procedures-models of evaluation, as shown Fig. 1.

Fig. 3
100

f - STEP FUNCTION

80

.Arrangement of criteria

Evaluation models of the YU.88 system consist of

certain number of criteria, arranged according to their
hih (Fig. 2). iti is [atio between
relevant vi of the evaluated object and the goals
of the itstd subject fo whom the evaluation is
made. The strutu and content of iti v from
model ( model, and depend of the aims of the
subject and of the nature of the evaluated object.
iti divided basic (elementary) and derived
ones. Basic iti are msud and analyzed
ditl,
while
divd
iti

graded
mathematically and synthesized from gds of lower

- <;)

60
()

< 1

60:

80:

2 oS:<

1 : )( <

,;

< 2

40
20

ORDINAL SCALE

za~tlte

platnene ,olet . lplastltne rolet.! drvene roletne

Sun P1vtectioll

Fig.4
100

/'"

iti.

Fig. 2

FUNCTION

80

~~.~

60

40

"

I
:/

20

10 <

20 '

~~'l

'

40'

SOm'

60'

70'

Fl001' space for 2 persons

Partial gds have to reduced to unique scale

and to unique iti,S that they could
md. 1 all models of the YU.88 system, the
uifm scale is expressed gds (points) from 100. hf, each individual iti scale has to
reduced ( uifm scale of the model, applying
the tsfmti function, which is expressed
mathematically and graphically / Fig. 5!.

the YU.88 system controlled and

qutittiv-dsiptiv ones meaning that grades are
umil, but followed is explanations
dsitis, ittig the meaning of each gd.
Numil gds could manipulated, ..
certain umil procedures partial gds
summizd as joint, total gd of the evaluated
object. The dg of fulfillment of each iti is
gdd, as well as the significance of that iti
[elation ( the whole.
models

The uniform scale of the model has the following

meanings of numecical gcades:
20>;::::

: very low degree of fulfillment

poor)

40> ;:::20 : low degree of fulfillment (poor)

60> ;:::40 : acceptable dg of fulfillment
(acceptable)

80 > ;:::60 : high degree of fulfillment (good)

100> ;:::80 : very high

47

dg

( good).

of fulfillment of goals

Fig.5

100

11

11
11 .

60

Measurement scale 01 the model {1 )

Critenan measurement scale { . 1.0)

Critenan measure (percentage)

20

If necessalY, tsftis could done th, or

even several times, but it should d that
11 new tsfti makes the evaluation
process complicated. The second tsfti
does not have [ linked [ the depreciation
robl, but could connected [ otheI' aspect
and ft, depending of actual needs.

11

40

ransformation lunction ( = 100)

11

those already built (and which are, besides, partia11y

ditd} 1 models of the .88 system, this is
achieved double tsfti / Fig. 7/.

11

11
V

oV, , , , , , , , , , ,
~,----\~_0.2_.
, 0.6 -------.!
0.8
I.O?

Limg values ()

Fig.7
Ratio oJthe Average Building n the CountlY and tlJe
Offered the Sst per m2 Usable Space

Criteria treated models as alternatives. This

is recommended when the degrees of knowledge
the object (input data) valY from case to case. 1 such
cases criterion is usually technically more
elaborated (with indispensable precise indices), while
the other is more popuJarand based upon simple and
available data. However, it is possible even [ suggest
technically equally elaborated, but conceptua11y
different alternatives of individual criteria, leaving the
final choice [ the client. l of this are three
alternatives of processing of the criterion Percentage
of n[n n the apatenc, based upon th
different assumptions, so that the client chose the
which suits best / Fig. 6/.

-fi ),

40

20

'"

1(,"; - .6)(

O'~O--~C-~~~~~~~~--~
P ERC E N T AGE OF COMMUN ICATION - var. I

,
,,

1(lIi - ')('-:iN(

,,

PERCENTAGE OF COMMUN ICAT laN - var. 11

1("'1_

: ,.;-

:> ...

""

20

60

4L

20

~L__",-A__- L__....!L.__..l-----S"------1_..D~___.

skala krltetlJuma

Synthesiziflg procedure ifl models of the YU.88

system
sftis

have given dgs of fulfillment of

goals elementary iti, ssd uif
way the scale of points from - 100. 1 furthe
synthesizing, these gds suizd gdull,
until the [Otal value of the evaluated is hd.
Models of the . 88 system are based the
principle that never than two gds
suizd at the same time, for simultaneous
synthesizing of more, even simila iti step
makes the result unreliable / Fig. 2/. Besides, the
question asked how dtis whetl1er
two criteria are akin not.
Connections between two criteria could
established various ways, and the . 88 system
uses the simplest . The assumption has that if
the divd iti could precisely defined,
explained and denoted celtain , than lower
criteria of which they consist, must akin [. The
grade of derived criterion could result from the
criteria of lower grade l / Fig. 8-, it
prove necessary [ do some measurements
higher level [, and then specific synthesizing
procedure has [ undertaken /Fig. 8- /.

starts

from the assumption

that there is optimum tg of

communication (pOEoRC E NTAGE OF COMMUNIC;;:~ON _ v. 111
out 100/0 of floor spa), and that functionality decreases with changes of this tg
either direction. Alternative assumes that optimal
solutions exist 11 cases when the percentage of
communication amounts [ 10% of the floor space or
less, while the increase over 10% leads [
progressive decrease of functionality. Certainly, other
approaches are possible too.

skala modl

. Alternative assumes
that communications
are burden and that
the
apartment
is
more functional the
less communication it
has. According [ this
view, the most func[l
apartmerit is
the without
communication.
Alternative

Fig.
10 ..... '

60

Thus, th are three different procedures for

evaluation:

Researchers have faced for years with the

question whether it is possible to use single
model for evaluating both designed buildings and

48

iti

when the grade is obtained direct

measurement (elementary criteria) / Fig. 8-/,
when the grade of criterion of higher orde is
obtained exclusively summarizing grades of
iti of lower d (simple derived iti)
/Fig.8-bI,

Zb = 0,5 + (Qa - Qb)/400,

(Zb being between 0,25-0,75)
Za = significance grade of I criterion
Zb = significance grade of II criterion
Qa = fu1fillment grade of I criterion
Qb = fu1fillment grade of II criterion.

when the grade for criterion of higher order is

obtained partiaHy direct measurement, and
partiaHy summarizing grades of criteria of
lower order (complex derived criteria) / Fig. 8-/.

As seen from Fig. 8, grades of fu1fillment

and significance of criteria are inc1uded, as criteria
princip1e do not have the same significance for the
client. This significance is never re1evant (for that
case criteria should exc1uded from the model) , but
cou1d vary from case [ case. Therefore it is necessary
[ give a1ways significance grades [, both for basic
and for derived criteria.

In the second case, when the significance of the first

criterion is, under the same conditions, larger than
the significapce of the second criterion , but not as
1arge as [ condition the comp1ete failure of
fu1fillment of criterion (Qa = ), complete 10ss
of significance of iti , the following equation is
used:
(2) Za = 0,625 + (Qb - Qa) / 800
(Za being between 0,50-0,75)
Zb = 0,375 + (Qa - Qb) / 800
(Zb being between 0,25-0,50)

Fig.8

[QJ-*DM

) ~[-[QJ
~L~[QJ

SP .

-~[-[Q:]

~[QJ
Iz~ ~IZ~J-DM

- Fulfillment grade of elementary criterion

- Fulfillment grade of simple derived criterion

he

meaning of signs is the same as in the equation (1).

In the third case, when the significance of the first

criterion is, undeI" the same conditions, so greateI"
than the significance of the second , that the
comp1ete failure of fu1fillment of criterion (Qa =0)
provokes comp1ete failure of significance of
iti (Zb = ), the following equation is app1ied:
(3)
Za = 1 - Qa / 200 (1 - QbI 200)
(Za being between 0,50-1.00)
Zb = Qa / 200 (1 - QbI 200)
(Zb being between 0,00-0,50)

SP

0si - Fulfillmel1t grade of ml derived criterion

DM - Direct measurement
SR - Synthesizing procedure
- Fulfillment grade of lower criteria

he

meaning of signs is the same as in the previous equations (1)

and (2).

2 n - Significance grade of lower criteria

0si - Fulfillment grade of synthesized lower criteria

The summary of grades of two complementary criteria

is made, princip1e, using the foHowing equation
(aggregate function):
(4) Qc = (Qa Za) + (Qb Zb),

2 s i - Significance grade of synthesized lower criteria

si - Direct measurement grade of ml derived criterion

m
2 s i - Significance grade of ml derived criterion

whereby Qc is the grade of fulfillment of the goal of the

derived criterion of higher order.

As criteria grades are derived pairs, the sum of

significance grades for two criteria synthesized is

a1ways = 1.00.
Significance grades cou1d either dynamic or fixed,
depending what the client wishes. Fixed grades are
determined the model advance, and could
corrected upon request.
Dynamic significance grades vary according [ grades
of fulfiHment of goals of the comp1ementary criterion
(the assumption being that with the increase of the
degree of fulfillment of criterion, the interest for
the other comp1ementary criterion increases [).
the basis of this assumption, formu1ae were derived
for calculating the significance.
In the first case, when the significance of both
compared criteria is approximately same under the
same conditions, the significance of criteria and is
ca1culated the following equations:
(1)

Za = 0,5 + (Qb - Qa) / 400,

(Za being between 0,25-0,75)

Grades are summarized either computer or

manuaHy, applying summary tables, given the 1ast
part of this paper. First, it is necessary [ determine
the fmu1 for summarizing, and then [ d the
horizontal 1 of the [ the grade of
fu1fillment of the criterion , and the c01umn the
grade of fu1fillment for iti . At the cross section
of these two lines appears the direct grade of goa1
fu1fillment of the derived criterion Qc. Thus, step
step, gds of criteria are summarized, until the
fina1 score is obtained /Fig. 9/. Certain1y, other
aggregate functions used, according [
specific needs of the client.

How evaluation models are formed in

the YU.88 system
As emphasized a1ready, eva1uation mode1s the

YU.88 system cou1d formed either within

specialized institutions, or outside. The procedure of
model making is cases the following :

49

Fig.9

21

22

12,57

13,14

13

13,57

()

24

25

26

13,71

14,28

14,84

15,4

14,14

14,71

15 ,28

15,84

23

27

28

29

30

15,96

16,52

17,07

17,62

16,4

16,96

11,52

18,07

13,42

14

14,57

15,14

15 ,71

16,28

16,84

17,4

11 ,96

18,52

3
4

13,84

14,42

15

15,57

16,14

16,71

17,28

17,84

18,4

18,96

14,26

14,84

15,42

16

16,57

17,14

17,71

18,28

18,84

19,4

14,68

15,26

15,84

16,42

17

17,57

18,14

18,71

19,28

19,84

15,09

15,68

16,26

16,84

17,42

18

18,57

19,14

19,71

20,28

5
6

()

15,5

16,09

16,68

17,26

17 ,84

18,42

20,14

20,71

15,91

16,5

17,09

17,68

18 ,26

18,84

19
19,42

19,57

20

20,57

21 ,14

16,32

16,91

17,5

18,09

18 ,68

19,26

19,84

20,42

21

21 ,57

10

16,72

17,32

17,91

18,5

19,09

19,68

20,26

20,84

21 ,42

22

11

17,12

17,72

18,32

18,91

19,5

20,09

20,68

21 ,26

21 ,84

22,42

12

117,52

18,12

18,72

19,32

19,91

20,5

21 ,09

21 ,68

22 ,26

22 ,84

13

17,92

18,52

19,12

19,72

20 ,32

20,91

21 ,5

22,09

22 ,68

23 ,26

14

18,31

18,92

19,52

20,12

20 ,72

21 ,32

21 ,91

22,5

23 ,09

23,48

15

18,7

19,31

19,92

20,52

21 ,12

21 ,72

22 ,32

22,91

23,5

24,09

16

19,09

19,7

20,31

20,92

21,52

22,12

22 ,72

23,32

24 ,5

17

19,48

20,09

20,7

21,31

21,92

22,52

23 ,12

23,72

23,91
24,32

18

19,86 .

20,48

21,09

21,7

22,31

22,92

23,52

24,12

24,72

25,32

19

20,24

20,86

21 ,48

22,09

22 ,7

23 ,31

23,92

24,52

25,12

25,72

20

20,62

21 ,24

21 ,86

22,48

23,09

23 ,7

24,31

24 ,92

25,52

26,12

24,91

future user of the model has to define clearly his

aims, and to decide:

further evaluation, the basis of the process of

preliminary evaluation.

what is being evaluated (objects),

for whom is it evaluated (subjects),
why is it evaluated (aims and reasons of
evaluation).
client should acquainted in detail with the
YU.88 system, he should explained both the
advantages and the shortcomings of the syst~m, what
could expect from the model, and should agree
with the establishment of w model if of the
existing ones suits his requirements

Fixed or partial criteria significance grades should

determined, and both can defined as alternatives
too . advantage in the system is given the
evaluation based upon priority human needs, and
if [ client insist, the following methods m used
as alternative ones:

Evaluation criteria and the hierarchical structure are

defined the basis of the research program.
deductive - inductive approach is suggested - from the
entity towards details, and . ., until an acceptable
structure is reached. model flexibility is greater if
alternative criteria are offered.

Aggregate functions (standard in the system, or

specific upon request) should determined for
de riving tl grade based u:: partial ones.
positive or
Correction coefficients for extreme
negative features should adopted for correctingthe
tl grade.

Each criterion is analyzed in detail and the following

is prepared:

Questionnaires and forms for collecting input data

indispensable for evaluation, should prepared too.

criterion definition,
measurement scale and type,

free estimates experts,

group evaluation,
successive comparisons,
importance matrix, etc.

Application , of the YU.88 system

model in the evaluation process

transformation function (one or more),

additional explanations.
Quality elimination levels are determined, .. when
the building can discarded and eliminated from

The evaluation procedure with models from the

YU.88 system has the following course:

50

The client has to acquainted first with the actual

model, and to decide whethel" it suits his quimts
and needs. If necessary, corrections defined and
applied, under the condition that the model is not
official souce of check-up, for that case changes
made difft way.

Practical application of the YU.88

evaluation system

Subsystem .88. - Constructions

input data needed for evaluation coHected and

They obtained fom design and
technical
documents,
statistical
data,
tests,
observation, etc. These data entered special
fms and presented standardized way,
accordance ( evaluation needs.
pocessed.

Preliminary evaluation, eliminatory , is made

the basis of input data. If certain essential
conditions not satisfied, the object is eliminated
fom furthel" pocedue and is eithe!" sent back fol"
completion, is disdd.
If the object passed the pocess of lm
evaluation, the evaluation pocedues start. Each basic
criterion is found the iti scale, its l is
dtmid, then it passes tl1e transformation pocess,
and its numerical position is defined the scale of
the model.
When grades of elementary criteria obtained,
synthesis starts, with the application of gggt
functions, and the assistance of summary tables, until
the final grade is reached.
The total gd, if necessary, is then multiplied
correction criteria, which applied the case of
some expressed negative positive phenomena, and
so the final grade is obtained. l of these final, total
and partial grades commented and described, and
then the final rt evaluation with the poposed
decision is made. In l, it is possible to have
several final evaluations, which mutually
independent, certain mutual lti. In
this case, the model is boken down to several submodels which mutually independent, kd
according to priorities.
This ends the evaluation pocess, and the results
poceeded to decision makers for further pocedue.
Evaluation results not obligatory, but informative,
although decision makers obliged - the case
that they adopt different decision - to l it
detail and to justify it with arguments. The evaluation
model should not l decision makers, but has to
efficient and convincing instrument for the
decision making pocess. l special cases, when
the client does not have pofessional personnel,
evaluation results m accepted as decisive ones
for the final decision, but such situations should
sidd as extremely exceptional, and not very
recommendable.
This is particularly important at the first use of the
model, when practice usuaHy shows the necessity for
various additions and adjustments, and when the
model has to used as consultative l.

51

The .88 system is constantly being expanded and

developed. Up to now the following dls have
developed:

- Model .88.l - Evaluation of imported building

systems
Subsystem YU.88.S - Flats
- Model YU.88.S1 - Evaluation of flats for removals

lgd tit

- Model YU.88.S2 - Evaluation of flats

apartment buildings

collective

Subsystem YU.88.Z - Apartment buildings

- Model YU.88.Z1 - Evaluation of the YNA housing
fund
Subsystem l'U.88.L - Locations
- Model YU.88.Ll - Evaluations of sites
deposits
Subsystem . 88.
component parts

Building

- Model . 88.ll - Evaluation of

concrete components

fo

solid waste

mtil

and

structual

light

l these models were made the Institute for

Material Testing of Serbia (YU.88.Z1), Institute of
Architectue and Town Planning of Serbia (.88.l,
Sl, S2, ll), and privately (YU.88.L1), showing that
the system is and does not depend m
institution.

Further development

pogram

is directed:

to inform the largest possible number of pospective

clients about the .88 system, both within the
country and aboad,
( continue with sh and development,
( expand the application of existing dls,
( continue work w models, according to
requirements of new clients.
It is interesting to note that some pospective clients
willing to new models, and to l them
later. The s for this is the shortage of
housing Yugoslavia, so that everything ffd is
accepted, and quality contol is not of m
importance. wv, with further increase of prices,
the apartment becomes treasure, so that pospective
buyers would expect satisfactory quality. Furthel"
impoverishment>could lead to greater supply and
smaller demand, when quality would
to the fore again, and evaluation would m
mandatory du. Therefore, it is necessary to
advance ll necessary instruments.

Of particular importance for the future could the

wide application of the YU.88 system in individual
housing. Thus, this system should available to
those who are building individuaHy, and would like
to verify the quality of offered designs. Besides, the
wide application of evaluation is connected to wide
actions for the promotion of housing culture, which is
becoming indispensable today.
We believe that further work this system and its
development and expansion will help to overcome
present barriers and dilemmas, and that it will '
included in the so-called third generation of
evaluation procedures, the basic aim of which is to
satisfy human needs and goals to the maximum.

BILIOGRAPHY
Canak, M.et.al.: VALUN OF IPORTED BUILDING SYSTEMS MODEL .88.1 IDraft/, Institute of Atchitecture and Town Planning
of Serbia, Beograd, January, 1987.
Canak, . ; Petovar, : MODEL VREDNOVANJA INDIVIDUALNIH
STAENI ZGRADA YU. 88. Zl CModel for evaluation of individual
housing YU.88.Z1), Institut za arhitekturu i urbanizam Srbije, Beograd
1987-88
Canak, ; Petovar, : MODEL VREDNOVANJA STANOVA YU.88 .S1
CModel for evaluation of apartments YU.88.S1), Institut za arhitekturu i
urbanizam Srbije, Beograd 1987-88.
Canak, : UNIVERSAL SYSTE FOR VALUN IN FIELD
OF HOUSING, BUILDING AND PLANNING YU.88, Institute of
architecture and town planning of Serbia, Beograd, 1988.
Canak, . : UNIVERZALNI SISTE VREDNOVANJA U STAMENO
KOMUNALNOJ OBLASTI .88, CUniversal evaluation system in
housing and utilities area YU. 88. ), NauCno-struCni skup "Iskustva u
stanovanju 10 - Nova saznanja", Beograd, 29-30.10.1987.
Canak, .: UNIVERZALNI SISTE VREDNOVANJA U STANOVANJU,
GRADJEVlNARSVU 1 PLANIRANJU YU.88, CThe universal system for
evaluation in the field housing, building and planning YU.88), Institut za
arhitekturu i urbanizam Srbije, Beograd, 1988.
Canak, . i dr.: VREDNOVANJE UVOZNI KONSTRUIVNI
SISTEA - MODEL YU.88.K1, CEvaluation of imported building systems
- Model U.88.1), Institut za arhitekturu i urbanizam Srtije, Beograd,
1987.
Canak, .: VREDNOVANJE UVOZNI SISTEA GRADJENJA
CEvaluation of imported building systems), Jugoslovensko savetovanje:
"Sistemi industrijalizovanog gradjenja u visokogradnji", , 1987. ZGR
- Zavrsni radovi u gradjevinarstvu, ZAVRAJ, 4-5/87.
ISTR.AZIVANJE LOACIJA DEPONIJE KOMUNALNIH
ZA GRAD LESKOVAC (I i 11 faza) CResearch for
solid waste deposit of Leskovac 1 and 11 phase), Skupstina opstine
Leskovac, eograd, 1987, 1988.

Canak,

N.:

CVRSTI OTPADAA

52

basic

!," n

.~

1985.

/n1n

! particular

slress is l

residen1al

e.ffects

0/ purchasing 0/ 1n1l btlYers.

'"

,.

building

socially owned

and

cons1ruc!ion
ln

period

indus1ry
1960 and

value 0/ dlling

brie/ su relales 10

,"10

n1

discussed, taking In10

10tal

lack o/IJOusing

0/

in1errelalions

cons1ruction In

'" n

presenlday

~ construction technology used uilders {n closed . 0/ ci1y 0/ Belgrade and in this respect o.ffers n analysls 0/ and
:S;

actually employed IJOusing conslruction capacilies .

With respecl 10 described IJOusing siluallon in Ihe locally nrr 0/ Belgrade 10Wn, dejined objeclives I n proposed as ll ,"

8 imporlant crileria and pararnelers / ralional designing and if.[icient building 0/jla1S. Some 0/ tIJese parame1ers used {n preceding fimC1ional

~ analyses 0/ geomelrical relalions 0/ dlling lJOuses slruc1ures ," slandard / de1ermlning rationalilY n regulari1y noled n geome1rical
relations buildings in nn ! function-structure~technology n transport n .

Theorelical

,"

prediclion 0/ if.[iciency o/lasks

n

complemen1ary researc!Jes
solulion 10

0/ rational designing

mellJOdical procedures, suilable /

.!f

1n,

no1ed de/aults.

," n

n10 ,"'

Irans/ormed

1asked design solulion. Finally,

aullJOr proposes

purpose 0/objec1ive cognizance 0/ presen1 housing cons1ruction silualion / jinding

1bls end

aUllJOr poin1s to

lJOusing construction, pleading/or pedagogical direc1ing

nm er

Ihe ajJicienl c01lslruclion activilies

concrele

buildi11g praclice rela1ing 10: eslima1e 0/ allalned resulls, evalualion 0/ conceplual designs,

selec1ion 0/ optimum 1eclmology /

tIJis sp!Jere

nn1n i

in

application {n

/I!

modes1

n1n

0/ presen1ed

coming generalions 0/ builders towards

k /

solving

linl

series 0/

1m

conceived 0/

designing

n /n1n

0/

0/ social communily.
UDC: 728:69

2 ,

. ! ~ ~,

, ,

, ,

.
,
.

,
,

-,

-,

-.

1980.

.
1985.

, .

-
:

53

/ NS -->

, ns- ,

l) (

),

/ NS

/ ns

l) ,

, ,

l)
/

'

, .

6.

l)

.)

, :

Pkr / ns
:

( , , ,

( )

Il

l)

. ,

Pkr -

;
;

l1.

KR / NS -->

KR / NS -

Pl1s

ns =

Pbr /
:

Pbr -

)
,

""

""

"" .

: ,

Pkr = Pkh + Pkvg + Pkvo

, .

""

, l)

l)

BR / NS -

, :

l) ; ns

BR / NS -->

. .

( )
:

'

Pkh / Pns

54

= -

/ NS --> l1.

Pkh - ; 5
, / NS -

"" :

Pkvg /

5 =

KVG / NS -->

-
-

Pkv

; ?5

KVG / NS

""

""

" "

5 =

Pkvo /
:

Pkvo -

; 5

/ NS -

/ NS

""

"

Vab -

5=

-,

.
1

Pfo / 5

FO / NS --> il1.

V ae / 5

/ NS --> il1.

,
:

P pz / 5
: pz

PZ / NS

) . ,

L5p / 5
:

L5p -

PZ / NS

II-

55

SP / NS -> il1.

; 115

SP / NS -

,
.

-->i.

; 5 -

/ NS -

Vae -

FO / NS -

1.

: Pfo - ; 115 -

Pf5 - ; 115 -

""

t (): 5

FS / NS --> il1.

/ NS --> i.

Pf5 / 5

( ); 5 -
, / NS

-->i.

Vab /

i.

 ns =

Nel /

NEL / NS -> min.

Nel -

ns

: -)

Nel
ELhk -

ELykg -
ELyko -
; ELfs -

""
;

ELgl -

ELpz -

.

, ,

()

,
,
,

Qel

/ -)

QEI.

-->.

-) -

""

-)

Qel

Nel / NS

Qel

/ P ns

/ NS -> min.

, ,

P ns -

/ NS -

. :

l -) / -) =

-)

; l

(
,

, .,
, ,

.12.

Ht

/ Hns = HP / NS -> min;

Ht / P ns = / NS -> min;
/ ns = / NS -> min.
: HP / NS -
;
/ NS

; / NS -

)13.

+ Ht +

PEL --> .

; -) -

56

""

, ,

, ,

14 .

12%

4%

'

. , '

""

1960.

1980.

108%.

36%,

""

" " .

""

" "

.
,

; (

),

,
, . :

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""

15

, .

"

" .

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u,

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, 1 2

3,000.000

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1982.

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+ . -

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1975.

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60

1981..

1,

bls

article

characteristics

indicates
! air

pollution in

commercial buildings.

sources,

types

and

residential and
!

characteristics

particulate

and vapour pollutants and tlJeir possible impacts to

mn

indoor and outdoor pollution

!

tn

relationsblp

estimated

blh

experimental data and matlJematical model

behavior ! air pollutant in

!JealtlJ were analyzed.

basis

desC1-ibs

confined space.
,

words: building, dwelUng, l'esidential

l'

commercial space,

polltants

2u

1,2,3

, h ,

6,7

h..

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,

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15
50 m . h ,
,

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14 J..lg/m 3

h ,

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Ra-226, Th-232,

. .

36.2 mg
. 0,1-2.5 mg . 0.23 mg . 20-60 mg
0 2 1-20 mg . <1,4 mg . 0.65 mg
. 0.43 mg HCN. .15.
2000
. ,
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17

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- 87 mg/ . 193 mg/

3
9/10 84 mg/M white spirit-a 108 mg/ 21.

....

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(1)

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Rn-222 3.8
2
- 238.

2 - 82
238 17
<

- :lj~
- 234

- 234

1993 .

81 %

150

1991 .- 92.

.
,

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4,4"

/3
/3

24,1

245.000

2
- 234

57.4 Bq / 3 45 .7 Bq / 3 35.
23
200
q/ .

-232.
,

1991.

( 2 ) Rn-220,

-238

41, 20 25 Bq / 34.
1993. - 94.

: (1) Rn-222,

5
155 Bq / 3 ,

yp~eHO

30
F.
.

(22

Bq/M 3, 94% 400 Bq/M3 , 6 %

400 Bq/M333 .

50

29

32

.
.
.
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20 50 Bq/M .
)

,.

1,17

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- 230

8000

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1600

3,823

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/3
/3

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13
14

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0,5 50 f.!M 500 f.!M .

. 30.

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1. 1991.-1992.

, , ,

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buildi11g si11dm)
41
, :

-~

.
l5

,
4-
02 / 3 37, NIOSH 0,1
,

338

50%

4,4

4 .

, ~
,

0.13 0.06 mg / 2 / 1 - 3

0.03

5.

41.000

0,062 40,
17 Quebec-u
f

4,81

12,01

0,08

28.

0,1

21

56

40

.
28
.

1 mg/M 3,

, ,

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, :

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?
. , , MO~y

"sick buildi11g

si11dm"

43

(NIOSH)

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1000

1985.

80%

1986.
4373 46

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.:

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1970.

, ,

1Q80..

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, ,

2.4

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(WHO)

64

2000

1987.

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+ LG1 - k Q')
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2,24
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2,95
1,85

14

1.

. ..44/1989

,
.

2.

. . .

3.

. .31/1993

4. Spengler,KSexton,Indoor Air Pollution

Science, 1983,221(4605)9-17

5.

- . ,

66/1991

N.Esmen,The status of
Perspectives, 1985 ,62,259-265

indoor

Health Perspective,

pollution,Environ.Health

6 ].Stolwijk,Total exposure assessment and indoor air quality,8-th World

Clean Air Congress,Luxemburg, 1991

( ,

7.J.Malchaire, Critere optimaux de ventilation, d'eclairage et de conditions

thermiques de l'habit at dans t1: des economies d'energie,UN
Bureau Regional de L'Europe, Copenhagen,1982

),

8.

, .

.,

, . . ,

9.

1983,34(2)157-182

. ,
,V

', ,

10.

14000.

12.

13.

. ,

the

'

'94,

1994, 565-568
-1

'

', .193, , ,1993

. , ,.

, - ,

, ,

14.

., . ,

Ecologica,1994,l.2,9-11.

11. Fiksel ]., Quantitative Risk Analysis for Toxic Chemical

Environment, ]l Hazard.Mat, 1985,No. 10.227-240

.,

'

17-24, 1990

, ,

'

'94',

1994, 592

15. Wadden R., P.Scheff, Zagrjaznenie vozduha v Zilnyh i obScestvennyh

zdanijah, Moskva,Stroyizdat, 1987
16. Qin et l., Indoor air pollution
Biomed.Environ.Sci., 1991,4(4)366-372

four cities in China,

17. WO,Regonal f for Europe , Health aspects of indor climate,Report

study, ICP/MSIy! 002(3),Copenhagen,june 1982,
18. P.McNall, Indoor Air Quality,
19. Stankevich
20.

66

SRAEl,

1986,

, 39-48

et l., Hygiene of the use of polymers,iev,Health,1976

.

.,

4.62-65

.I.

, 1994,48,3-

21. . Mehta,501vent & water-bome interior building paints, The safety &
health practitioner,1992,10,2,23-27
, , ,

22. UN Environment Programme,

, , 1986
23.

.h,

l)

, ,1995, . 7

24. Reynolds 5., et al ., Elevated Airbome Concentrations of Fungi

Residential
and

Buildings,
Amer.1nd.Hyg.Assoc.].,
1990,51(11)601-604
25. ]ilto . et 1., Bacteria d Indoor Odor Problems, Three Case
5tudies, Am.1d . g.Ass.].,l990,51(10)545-549
26.

Go

N.

Chemical

Contaminants

Buildings,

Am.1d.g.Ass.]., 1990,51(12)615-619

27.
28.

5,

British Exsposure Limits,l990

,
, ,.54

/ 1992

29. Werd D.C. et al., Characterization of-222 Rn entry to basement

structure
surrounded low permeability soil, Health
Physics,l993,65(1)1-11
30. Lundy ., ., Asbestos Containing materials
buildings, Enro. Res., 58, ( 1 ), 15 - 24, 1992

New York City

31 . l) h
1993. 1994. , ,.51 /
1993
32. h . ., -,:
93 , , 24.-25.11.1993.,
,107 -111
33.

h .

.,

,:

25.11.1993., ,115-119
34.

.,

93
.

, ,

24.-

35. h

92

, ,

19.-20.11 .1992.

. . ,

.h

XXII

94 , . .347-349

36. l J.F., Radon exposure

Int.].Epidemiol.,l993,22( 4) 627

and

1eukemia

adulthood,

37. British Occupationa1 5afery and Health Administration, Asbestos

Regulations, he Control of Asbestos at Work Regulations 1987.5.1. 1987
NO.2115
38. Code of Federa1 Regu1ations ,itle 29, Part 1910.0001,1991
39. Wig1usz R. et al. Hygienic aspects of the use of pressed-wood products
residential buildings.Part 1. The effect of partic1eboards ageing
release of formaldehide, Bull. Ist . t..d.Gdyni,1990,41(1-4)
73-78
40. Walkinshaw, Indoor Air Quality Cold Climates, azadrs and
Abatement Measures 5mm of Intemational 5pecialty
nf, . Air Pollution Control ssociation, 1986, 36,3, 235-241
41. Apter . et 1., Epidemiology of the sick building syndrome, J.Allergy
Clin.1mmuno1,1994,54(2),277
42 :h, , ,1991, ,1991,335
43. Lockey R., Building and home related Complaints and illnesses : 5m
report, J.Allergy Clin.1mmunol, 1994,54(2),423
44. Wilson 5. et al.,5ick buildings, The Architects ]oumal, '87, 185 (20),2225
45. roeling P.,Untersuchungen m "Building illness" - 5yndrom
klimatisiren gebauden, Gesundheits-Ingenieur- austechnick -BauphysikUmweltemik,1987,198,121 -30

46. Wallace L., he tota1 exposure assessment methodology, 5tudy :

5mm and Analysis,vol,I, Washington DC.,U.5.EPA (1987)

ii i ociapeH ii
, l) ', i
ii. ii .

67

. ..:.. .::~

',

Carre d'Art, Nimes

Sir Norman Foster
The Carre d'Art in Nimes is
Public Works Commission
the Vi1le de Nimes. It was won
after limited intemational
competition in 1984. The
building, opened in 1993,
incorporates major art gallery
and library, built spectacular site facing the Maison
Carree, third century Roman
Temple. The building's design
responds to the existence of the
temple as weH as to the traditional fabric of the city, the Nimes
climate and the demands of the
brief.
Half of the nine-storey structure
is built below ground, in order
to respect the surrounding
building
heights.
The
art
gaHeries are located at the top
of the building and are thus
to naturaHy lit, and the
library occupies the floors
immediately above and below
ground level, readily accessible
from the street. The basement
includes cinema, auditorium
and conference facilities but w
largely utilised for storage.

dramatic 5 storey high intemal

courtyard funnels daylight into
the publicly accessible floors.
It contains glass staircase and
glazed hydraulic lifts.
The structure is 7m 5m insite exposed concrete frame
with steel roof. Other key
materials
used
are
ckar
translucent and opaque glass,
stone and stainless steel.
Norman and Sabiha Foster designed the library and f furniture in 1992. The office and
desk systems have completely
con-cealed wiring capacities.

69

- - - - - - - - - - - ------ - - - - - - - - -

Sir Norman Foster

Norman Foster was

rn

in

Manchester 1935. studied

both
Architecture
and
City
Planning at Manchester University.
After graduating 1961 he was
awarded Henry Fellowship to
Yale University where he received
Master's Degree Architecture.
In 1967 Norman and Wendy Foster
established
Foster
Associates.
Norman Foster worked with
Buckminster Fuller number of
projects between 1968 and 1983.
Foster Associates developed into
Sir Norman Foster and Partners,
international practice whose work
has, since its inception, received
over 120 awards and citations for
ll
and
won
21
international competitions.
In 1983 Norman Foster received
the Royal Gold Medal for
Architecture and 1990 he
received nighthood the
Queen's irthday Honours. Since
1991 he has received the Mies van
der Rohe Award for
Architecture, the Gold Medal of the
French Academy of Architecture,
the Arnold W. Brunner Memorial
Prize of the American Academy
and Institute of Arts and Letters
New York, the Officer of the Order
of the Arts and Letters from the
Ministry of Culture France and
has awarded the Order of
North Rhine-Westphalia . In 1994
he received the American Institute
of Architects Gold Medal for
Architecture and 1995 the
practice was awarded the Queen's
Award for Export.
Norman Foster is member of the
Royal Institute of British Architects;

member of the Royal Academy of

Arts, London; Royal West of
England Academician; Honorary
Fellow of the American Institute of
Architects; Royal Designer for
Industry; Fellow of the Chartered
Society of Designers; Honorary
Member of the Bund Deutscher
Architekten; member of the
International Academy of Architecture, Sofia; Council Member of the
Royal ll of Art; Foreign
Member of the Royal Academy of
Arts Sweden ; Honorary
Fellow of the Institution of
Structural Engineers; Honorary
Fellow of The Royal Academy of
Engineering; Honorary Fellow of
the Kent Institute of Design; holds
Honorary Doctorates from the
Royal ll of Art and the
Universities of Bath, East An,
Humberside,
Manchester
and
Valencia and is holder of the
] Design Foundation Award
and the Kunst-preis awarded
the Akademie der st Berlin.
is Associate of the Academie
Royalc de Belgique, member of
the Ordre des Architectes F::is,
member of the Department of
Architecture,
Akademie
der
KUnste.

Norwich, The Hongkong and

Shanghai Bank , The
Sackler Galleries at the Royal
Academy London, Stansted,
London's
Third
International
Airport, the Century Tower
Tokyo, the Torre de Collserola,
communications
tower

Barcelona and the Carre d'Art,

art gallery and cultural centre
Nimes.

Master plans include ing's Cross

and Greenwich, London, Nimes
and Cannes France, Berlin and
Duisburg

Germany
and
Rotterdam Holland.
Most recent projects include w
headquarters for Commerzbank
Frankfurt, w airport at Chek
Lap Kok for covering
area of 1,248 hectares, thus the
largest project the world,
Congress Centre for the city of
Valencia, new German Parliament,
Reichstag, Berlin, the Al Faisaliah
Complex Riyadh and 58 metre
long aluminium hulled
yacht. One-family houses
have built Corsica,
Germany ahd ]. New ranges
of furniture continue to
designed for Milan.
Exhibitions of the work of Sir
Norman Foster has lectured
Norman Foster and Partners have
throughout the world and taught
held Antwerp, Barcelona,
architecture

the
United
Berlin, iao, Bordeaux, London,
ingdom and the United States of
Lyon, Madrid, Milan, Munich, New
America. has
York, Paris, Tokyo, Valencia,
President of the Architectural
Venice, and Zurich. The work of
Association London and
the practice is represented the
Member of the Board of Education
permanent collection of the
and Visiting Examiner for the
Museum of Modern Art New
Royal Institute of British Architects.
York and the Centre Georges
Major buildings include the Willis , Pompidou Paris
Faber Dumas Head Office
Ipswich, England, which has
awarded "listed building" status,
Sainsbury Centre for Visual Arts

70


" "

35

(198/87.

1993.

) W

fl

'

,
,

,
.

,

,
-

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646
3111
+4+

11 .00 2

73

1987. '-

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JaHuh - JaHuh 1990.

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- .

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uha.

1978.

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OSNOVA IPSKOG CEVOROSOBNOG STANA 4

79

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UDC: 72 .033.2(497.111)

1n times when modern S state was being td,

dig second half of 19th t, the siti [
continuity throug11 affirmation of tradition, which was
suppressed [01' tis, appeared to important
motive and vital basis of national identity. This isiti,
closely linked to liberation, permeated 11 spi1'itual activities
of Serbian nation, through fmti of national
language, literature, arts, and architecture. It was the
subject of comp1'ehensive scientific shs, discoveries
and interpretation of history and history of arts. 1n 11
spheres of ultl activities as we11 as life, two m
tendencies, two para11el influences, which itnigld,
although sometimes difft concept, were distitiv .
of them is fo11owing of and itgti
ultl flows and
styles and the ot11er is
aspiration towards ti d definition of drn
til ssi . Romantic enthusiasm, typical of
Serbian sensitivityl, as we11 as the "Art nouveau" climate
which dominated Europe, fvd the t to the
past and desire to giz and understand own
autochthonous ult, history, and mythology. At the
moment when w creative expression was rn, the art
td to the past and found it the rol, connection,
continuity and criteria lti to which it msd its
strength, this being hm d motivating [1'
of historical processes i the development of a1t 2
S altists such creative isitil1 was t of

tiuit with ti l medieval past colO1'ed with spirit

of Romanticism which 11ad SUPP01t Byzantine tmdition
al1d achieved creative accomplishments which the pa1t
of the world ultl he1'itage

This tendency got its institutiol1al frame foundation of

the zti Style i1itt History Drtmt the

Pelar and Branko Krslic, Pavilion n Pblladelpbla, design, 1926

lan

Researches of arcl1itects, wl'itel's al1d altists lgig to

seventies of 19th t wel'e also imp01tal1t and useful
for understanding of motivatiol1 spil'it of hel'itage
S1' hitt .
SeaJ'cl1ing support i til
he1'itage, they analyzed whole series of medieval
monumel1ts of monume ntal architecture. The results of
their wOl'k, sketches, copies, al1d dsitis were 1itd
various publications thus cl'eating basis for tssiti
of Byzantine spirit and its elemel1ts into modern
hittl
ssil1.
1ttti
of zti
hitt, post-studied and analyzed through pl'inciples
of so ca11ed "Hal1zel1 School", w of the same
imp01tance. School, the foul1der of which was
Viennese professor at the Academy of A1ts, Dutch
Hanzen (1813-1891), brought about components of
broadly comprehended zti heritage the modern
European hitt and thuspaved path [ Serbial1
students which, at the end of 19th century, built series of
l11s
and profane structures 11 Se1'bia
postulates of "Hanzen School".

85

Kaperano/Jic:

n ingdom Serbia,

Parts 1900

Technical College of the Great School in Belgrade in

1905. Architects, followers of the Serbian architecture who
did not accept the then eclecticism of the Belgrade
architecture considering it to too Western and
supranational, gathered around the School.Significant
scope in researches of national Serbian-Byzantine style was
achieved in 1900 when Belgrade architect Milan
Kapetanovic designed and then built Pavilion of
ingdom of Serbia for the world exhibition in Paris . It is
easily noted that bui1t recognizable national building
combining Serbia-Byzantine, Secessionist and elements
of Oriental decorativism along with silhouette qnd
spatiality of church-monumental structure. His method was
more copying [ro original and combination and less
essential understanding of tradition, while the next two
pavilions, one in Torino architect Branko Tanazevic
(1911) and the other in Philadelphia architects Petar and
Branko rstic (1926) were authors' attempts to unite
tradition, modern spirit and personal sensibility.
Representative examples of new searches, which contain
vital decorative elements of Serbian national "Moravian
School"3, but expressed in the spirit of the times, are
Telephone Exchange (1908) and the [ of the Ministry of
Education (1912), architect Branko Tanazevic. both
buildings the author showed his knowledge and
comprehension of the essence of traditional decorative
plastics, which he gained during long-year work
restoration of Medieval monasteries. Recognizing vitality of
Moravian style in decorative art, fanciful sash with which
Serbian ethos enriched faces of buildings, architect
TanazeviC created nationally recognizable and modern
structures transposition of Serbian-Byzantine ways of
building; using interwoven ornaments of geometric and
folklore origin, decorative rosettes and square fields
permeated with secessionist masks of women's heads and
striped plaster. Based academic concept, with light
angular transparent dome as accent, the building of
Telephone Exchange , compared to monumental eclecticacademic buildings of Belgrade, vicinity of the National
Assembly and the Post , stands prominent with
its harmonious composition and distinctive long lasting
[, as transposition of national architecture. Originality
of such architectural expression affirm creative principle of
joining the past, present and future which was achieved in
this bui1ding and lasts in time.
The [ of the Ministry of Education makes simi1ar
impression . It is part of row of buildings in Belgrade
street of Srpskih vladara. Full expression of the [ was
achieved through refined interpretation of long-lasting and
plastic national expression which is in harmony with the
surroundings showing that the Serbian-Byzantine style
was skillfully used. Similar characteristics of permeation of
national and European modern tendencies at the level of
decoration and [ elements transposed [ro old
architecture are noted other profane structures while
spatial-plastic and functional concept in this structures is
put into the background. assumption is that through
further researches this style of emphasized decoration
would in time generate autochthonous and original form
4
of national expression had not the First World war, and
especially changes which followed, essentially changed
cultural development and genesis of such searches.
In decade following the War, Serbian-Byzantin style,
thanks to cultural support of the State, experienced
renaissance after which the romantic enthusiasm gave up

86

Tanazevic, Face [ Ministry

[ Edttcation,

Tanazevic, Telepbone Excbange, Belgrade 1908

Belgrade 1912

Milica Krstic, Second Girls' igh School, Belgrade 1932

Rajko Ta tic, Railing [ Novo Groblje ceetey, Belgrade, 1931

om run,

Ministry [ Post Offices, Belgrade 1930

its place to su pranational eclectic, academic and modem

intematio nal style. In spite of the withdrawal in view of
coming times, the structures generating vital possibilities of
tradition both in decorative and in spatial sense were
created in that period. However, there are examples
lacking understanding of essential Byzantine heritage and
formalistic interpretation.
great competition for monumental church (1926)
devoted to the greatest 5erbian educator 5t. 5ava, at the
representative and historically significant location the
Vracar Plateau in Belgrade, gave several extraordinary
designs. The best known architects of the period
understood their participation at the competition as
challenge enabling them to freely express personal
affections and sensibility in interpretation of national
expression, having thus individual attitude towards the
conditions of the competition. Designs architects Mi1an
Zlokovic , brothers Petar and Branko rstic, Dusan ,
are only examples of consecutive analysis of Byzantine
architecture and inner essence of space colored with
expressionistic spirit while the given concepts represent
original and unique inspirations. Among the examples
which interpreted tradition as myth, constant, specimen
to copied, and pleased the ordered, there is the
adopted design architects Aleksandar Deroko and
Bogdan Nestorovic . The design reflects the then need for
clear affirmation of Byzantine architecture in
understandable way.5
The next representative example is 5t. Marko Church
(1931-39) bui1t near the central Belgrade park called
Tasmajdan. The authors were in~ired model of
Medieval monastery of Gracanica ,master of late
Byzantine architecture, which actually was design task.
5everal times bigger than the model, this monumental
church was creative response of architects Petar and
Branko Krstic to strict requirements of the ordered. 5imilar
consistent interpretation of heritage is evident in the
railing of Novo groblje cemetery (1931) architect Rajko
Tatic. Designing administrative bui1ding and chapel in
relation to the railing as uniform while, the author
created recognizable structure in the urban milieu.
Consideration possibilities of using national style in
desire to find new spatial concepts and not only decorative
components of buildings faces, is especially noted
public and profane buildings. combination of decorative
traditional motives and academic concept of spatial scheme
is recognizable the faceof Commercial Academy
architect ]ezdimir Denic (1925) while elements of spatial
framework of church structure, the architect rstic
created in profane structure of the 5econd Girls' igh
5chool (1932), which in town milieu makes impression of
ambient disharmony, is clearly noted .
continuous development of national 5erbian-Byzantine
Romantic style seen through the prism of pluralism
previous original searches, found its full expression in
works of architect Momir KorunoviC. Relying the
tradition as criteria in shape-spatial and decorative sense,
along with the use of materials and respecting modem
functional requirements, Korunovic created works of
expressive poetics and author's architectural expression.
ll elements ! poetics of his building method are
combined in his most important public buildings in
Belgrade: the Post 2 (1929i , built near Railways
5tation, and Ministry of Post Offices (1930) located near
TanazeviC's Telephone Exchange. analytic study of

87

national and decorative sign, pushed the structures in

Byzantine style out of the architectural scene.
Today, questioning of and tuming back to regionalism as
eminent architectural expression, authentic and national,
which is always li in tradition, subject of
analysis and interest. Byzantine tradition, irresistible part
of Serbian cultural heritage, carries in its essence double
code, double relation towards the outer and inner which,
in examples, has given different concepts and
interpretations. Pluralism and polysemi of Byzantine
architecture as model inspiration not yet
exhausted but l enough space for further searches.
Public, profane, sacral structures built in Serbian-Byzantine
style given series of possible answers but also put
question: what is that in Byzantine heritage that
educate us? Styles which built complete systems in
relation to the culture and time in which they
created are not l inspiration and leaming, but also
possibility of free interpretation and searching [
expression of own culture.
Attitude towards the past becomes creative when
creator is bl to understand its inner sense and logics.
Such relation between searching for ideas and critical
questioning of tradition should today as well its
motives. Through understanding of the past as criteria,
through structures of forms, proportions, relations between
elements, messages, radiation, colors, use of materials,
which the heritage presents to us as irresistible part of
overall existence, find motives of creative
principles of joining the past, presence and fu ture , and
perhaps this is that special quality which lasts in time and
space.

Momlr rn, Post Office 2, Belgrade 1929

Petar and Branko Krstii, 51. Marko Church, Belgrade 1931 -1939

NOES:
1. Dr Zoran Manevic wote sensibility of Serbian architects in publication

Byzantine proportions, massive wall, relation of wall and

openings, free use of decorative plastics, enlarging
details in relation to wall screen dimensions, using free
form in searching new spatial relations, created
structures which radiate with spirit of Byzantinearchitecture
and expressive charge in completely new and original
architectural framework. In these buildings, as well as
other structures built ll over Yugoslavia and out of
which few were preserved ,8 the aspirations of the time
were combined with consecutive development of
direction of Serbian architecture. is works represent the
culmination of searching's for national expression in the
architecture of the time the development of which was
definitely discontinued appearance of w generation
of architects who took universal, functional, omamentals,
non-historic structure as model.
Modem times and pressure architecture to express
itself in massive, low-cost, functional , form without

called "RomantiiZna Arhitektura", Belgrade 1990

2. m L. TrifunoviC, Stara i umetnost, Zograf 3, Bgd. 1969
3. "Moravian School", style period the art of Serbia, comprising
period 1371-1459. Autochthonous expression of mixture of Byzantine and
Serbian national architecture is accomplished typical examples of
monasteries of Lazarica, alenic, Ravanica. r and elegance of
structures supplemented with long-lasting face enriched with rich
plastic decoration.
4. L. Trifunovic, Stara i umetnost, Zograf 3, 1969, 46
5. he fact that the building of the Church was discontinued when 2nd
World War broke out and resumed modem times in 1985 according to
the design architect nk Pesic, casts special light this project
raising m questions which the subject separate analysis.
6. Gracanica Monastery (1311-1321), charitable foundation i
ilutin, master of late Byzantine architecture. It is distinguished
harmonious architectural composition of pyramidal structure.
7. Post 2 does >t have its authentic form da. During 2nd World
War the building was partially ruined and its face totally changed later
reconstruction.
8. Numerous buildings architect Momir Korunovic: church
and Celje (Slovenia), monuments Zebmjak and Skopje
(acedonia) and others, were ordered during the war, as well as in the
post-war period.

88

(1905-1961)
/ peculiarity,

its /ull creative er.

l

attractiveness,

/ county

interpretation

his

wn

j1ats,

ideas

concept, Vladisavljevic developed

specijic stylistic expression

/

is marked

decorativeness as its

designss

style

modemistically conceived building type, limiting his inclination to the decorative, and /amily houses, where

decorativeness is displayed
elements

Modemjsm. Within

characteristic. His opus includes multi-storey renting blocks

Vladislav Vladisavljevic are concentrated

complete acceptance and elaboration

h
mn

works

period between 1932 and 1940,

house

ideas and

and elitism,

elements

Vladisavljevic to designing and building /amily hotlses contained

response to

taste and demands

Spanish and Mediterranean popular architecture,

investors. It is almost always

/

manner

so called

''llwod

/ree

style".

This style appeared at that time due to increasing 1en / film industy, first sottnd films and glamour / Hollywood. What distinguis!Jes
Vladisavljevic's solution within this manner, often considered to

excessiveness. Deliberate and measured details, skillfully fitted jnto

verge / kitsc!J, is

wll,

artisty

reveal great

/ detail, !

ric!Jness and variety

and refinement

/ elaboration,

never exceeds to

while pictures queness

represents unquestionable quality / realized compositions.

20.

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