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1. Some hormones such as steroid hormones are lipid-soluble so they can enter
easily through the phospholipid layer of the cell.
2. In the cytoplasm, the hormone binds to its receptor to form a hormone-receptor
complex.
3. The hormone-receptor complex then enters nucleoplasm and binds to a specific
section of DNA which functions as a gene.
4. The complex stimulates the gene to transcribe messenger RNA (mRNA).
5. The mRNA moves to the cytoplasm and directs the synthesis of proteins that alter
the activity of the cell.
Mechanism of action via cAMP (signal transduction mechanism)
1. Peptide and amino-based hormone serves as the first messenger binds to the
receptor (G protein-coupled receptor) in the plasma membrane and forms
hormone-receptor complex.
2. The hormone-receptor complex binds to and activates G-protein in the membrane.
3. The activated G-protein then binds to the enzyme adenylyl cyclase and activates
it.
4. The activated adenylyl cyclase catalyses the conversion of ATP to cAMP.
5. cAMP acts as the second messenger which initiates a complex chain reaction.
6. cAMP activates the inactive enzyme protein kinase which in turn activates
inactive enzyme phosphorylase kinase.
7. Active phosphorylase kinase then activates the inactive enzyme glycogen
phosphorylase that catalyses the breakedown of glycogen to glucose phosphate.
8. This results in a cascade where the action of an enzyme in turn activates another
enzymatic reaction producing many product molecules. This brings about an
amplified and rapid response to the non-steroid hormone.
Menstrual cycle
1. The cycle begins with the release from the hypothalamus of GnRH
2. Which stimulates the anterior pituitary gland to secrete small amounts of FSH and
LH.
Follicular phase
3. FSH stimulate follicle growth, aided by LH
4. The cell of growing follicle starts to make oestrogen. The low level of oestrogen
inhibits secretion of the pituitary hormones, keeping the levels of FSH and LH
relatively low.
5. When oestrogen secretion by the growing follicle begins to rise steeply,
6. The FSH and LH levels increase markedly. Whereas a low level of oestrogen
inhibits the secretion of pituitary gonadotrophins, a high concentration has the
opposite effect. It stimulates gonadotrophins secretion by acting on the
hypothalamus to increase its output of GnRH. The effect is greater for LH
because high concentration of oestrogen increases the GnRH sensitivity to LH-
releasing cell in the pituitary gland. In addition, follicle responds more strongly to
LH at this stage because more of their cells have receptor for LH. The increase in
LH concentration by increased oestrogen secretion from the growing follicle is an
example of positive feedback. The result is final maturation of the follicle.
Ovulation
7. The maturing follicle, which contains an internal fluid-filled cavity, grows very
large, forming a bulge near the surface of the ovary. The follicular phase ends at
ovulation, about a day after the LH surge. In response to the peak in LH levels,
the follicle and adjacent wall of the ovary rupture, releasing secondary oocyte.
Luteal phase
8. LH stimulates the follicular tissue left behind the ovary to transform into the
corpus luteum. Under continued stimulation of LH, the corpus luteum secretes
oestrogen and progesterone. As the oestrogen and progesterone levels rise, the
combination of these hormones exerts a negative feedback to the hypothalamus
and pituitary, reducing the secretion of LH and FSH to very low levels.
Menstruation
Near the end of the luteal phase, low gonadotrophins levels cause the corpus
luteum to disintegrate, triggering a sharp decrease in oestrogen and progesterone
concentration. The decreasing levels of ovarian steroid hormones liberate the
hypothalamus and pituitary gland from the negative-feedback effect of these
hormones. The new cycle begins with the secretion of FSH and LH by pituitary
gland.
Role of hormones during pregnancy
Plant hormone
Auxin
Cytokinins
Gibberellins
1. Stem elongation
– Stimulate stem and leaves growth but have little effect on foots.
– In stem, it stimulates cell elongation and cell division.
– Act in concert with auxin to promote cell elongation.
1. Fruit growth
– Auxin and gibberellins must be present in order for fruit to develop.
1. Germination
– Gibberellins signal the seed to break dormancy and germinate.
Abscisic acid
1. Seed dormancy
– Inhibits seed dormancy during seed maturation and induce the production of
certain proteins that helps the seed withstand dehydration.
1. Drought tolerance
– Accumulate in leaves and causes stomata to close rapidly.
– Cause potassium channel of the guard cell to open, leading to a massive loss of
calcium ion and is followed by osmotic pressure.
Ethylene
Phytochrome
1. Photoperiod is the relative lengths of daylight and darkness that a plant is exposed
in a 24-hour cycle.
2. Photoperiodism is the physiological response to photoperiod, such as flowering.
Short-day plant
– Plants that require a light period shorter than a critical length to flower.
– Example: chrysanthemums, poinsettias and some soybean.
Long-day plant
– Plants that require light period longer than a certain number of hours to flower
– Example: spinach, radishes, lettuce, irises and many cereal varieties.
– Plants that are not affected by photoperiod and flower regardless of day length.