LE The Wore Equation fo Fig. 24.1 Displaced element of = membrane 21 The Wave Equation for a Stretched Membrane Ached flexible membrane is the two-dimensional counterpart of the In the absence of a wave, the H surface tension fo per wni linear tension existing in the string. As of the membrane to ensure that fe remains con: mn and time. The membrane has a mass de: two We neglect the effect of gravity and the loading effect of the ‘adopted for the string in See. 1.1. Let us focus ‘on a square element Ax Ay of the membrane, a 1, When the membrane is displaced, there arises a net force in thes i Waves on a Membrane ‘a hypothetical string cons dh Az extending in the 9 dire , as the case may be. For the first strip, the net force in the pe [0),. Qa ‘without the mathematical and geometrical complexity ystems. For instance, we here introduce such topics as Bessel fun wave numbers, and cutoff wavelengths and evanescent modes in waveguides. ‘an obvious common example of waves on a two-dimensi given by water waves, particularly under co Important. However, since the wave motion is not confined st air interface, the formal treatment of water waves requires a basic kn hydrodynamics. We return to this question in Chap. 6. In the present chapter attention is confined to an idealized membrane, exemplified by a soap film or drumbead. . -as for the second strip, the net force is 8) ) ay -@)]- so Zu —$2 ever on a Membrane 21 The Wave Equation fora Stretched Membrane $2 where for the sake of symmetry we have introduced 1,4, related to the two separation constants by the equation ‘These forces correspond to (1 the derivation of the wave equation on a string. Their sum must equal the mass ¢e Ax Ay of the element times its acceler- ation, that is, fon the membrane, let us first consider for detailed study the particular solution, se, which we suspect should represent a traveling wave of frequency w. The con- stants «and 4 are related to w by To discover the significance : ‘we examine loci of constant displacement f. Denote the phase of the wave by = Adena, 19) 1¢ method of separation of vari- nd f, we assume that OS tt Ky — ot (21.10) H,Then at some instant ified by a particular locus ot wavefront ie phase. The points on this locus are all those with eat BX 5 coh AY xe tye coordinates 21, 9 antsfying the equation Since the two sides a ohne ables, we equate them to a constant, —o', as before. We then find that nea ras te e119 .. at is, the wavetront is a straight line in the ay plane of the membrane. Terao (as) ‘Equation (2.1.9) may be said to represent a (two-dimensional) plane wave. The geometry involved, as shown in Fig. 2.1.2, is made clearer by ig (2.4.11) in and thatthe other equation may be cearranged to read sor fore, Tha tthe Le toto eo kes beeen tanta tex er we, e198 : Oe 119 call the second separation constant —e, This equa 0 the two equations where we have chos tion thus separates ox perpendicular to the constant S* tp aik = 0 ast aun Fk ady*E of a wave is evidently svnta(t) Band the potential energy density per unit area is @)+@)] vad ened banter a il (gy + Gy ] dedy. 4.2 Esiice the work done in stretching the surface is fe AS, (21.19) isthe work done The localization of potential energy density on the membrane, of cours, the membrane be idealized so that the surface tension fe rem retched. A similar requirement was dis with regard to the potential energy density of the dis- placed fesibe string in Sec. 1.8. A soap film possesses the property ofa constant face tension. Membranes of thin layers of fsiny flexible oid materials do not is property exactly, so thatthe theory ofthe idealized membrane can be dered only « good approximation for them. The expression for energy flow across a line of unit width has a number of terest. Consider an clement Gr Ay of the membrane, as shown in ‘Therate at which energy passes into the element inthe positive = dire s the edge Ay is the force component —fa Ay(9f/@s) times the displacement af /at, Hence the energy flow per unit time in the positive = istance in the y direction, is ; Fig. 21.2 Wavelronts on a membeane. ‘The wavelength 2 is the perpendicular separation of the two pa fronts; hence, subtracting the equations for the two wavefronts, we have ea where by cable Geant e& ‘Thus « = 2r/h is the wave number of the plane wave (2.1.9). ern we let # be the perpendicular distance from the origin to front defined by (2.1.12), then, since sis along the line indicated by « vee P= fos ag (2.1.22) Ttis w, not the wave velocity Guy that is vector character which specifies the ‘The kinetic energy density per unit area of the membrane in the presence "expression is the membrane counter 8.13) for waves on imilar expression holds for the powerow component in thei two dimensions) for Giecion ip This achere spray wat in le Py nee (2123) problems, whee the displacement f represents the estes potential V. More ay feof erections in vacuum tubes can be pte by alg smal all beings Now a/x and 3f/2y axe the components of the two-dimensional gradient vector %2.1.6 Show that wi yh 2.1.24) vars Hd5, 21.29 a so that the vector fen eof Oat = oP 129 isthe momentum density atociated with stranaveree wave ona membrane, in: Generalize = 72 (2.1.25) pa ae et srs ihe esl of Sec... expresses both the ditection in which the energy flow is taking place and the energy per unit time passing across a line of unit width perpendicular to the direction of flow. The application of these results to the plane wave (2.1.9) is made in Prob. 2.1.1 22 Standing Waves on a Rectangular Membrane “The vibrations that can exist on a membrane having a rectangular shape afford E-simple introduction to normal-mode, or eigenvalue, problems in a space of than one dimension. We suppose that the membrane is attached to fixed pports along the x and y coordinate axes and along the lines x = cand y = b cordingly, we need 2 solution of (2.1.5) and (21.7) that vanishes on the four Straight boundaries. The tentative solution Problems 21 Compute the total energy density By = Ky + Vs for the wave (2:19). Show that the magnitude of the rate of energy flow (2125) i the total energy density times the wave ve- locity en Slay) = A sinege singyy cosut e2y yted force per nit aren Psy) acts on ato is surface Show how to modify the wave equation (211) to include the pre ence ofthis force density thes the condition of no displacement at the edges along the coordinate axes, Bi, in addition, wanle shame m= 1,2,3,-.., ithe condition of no displacement is also satisfied along the other two edges. iew of (2.1.8), the frequencies of the various normal-mode vibrations are gm [OG))" “a2 Sie ratio of two integers), the frequencies are all distinct. Otherwise there can Wtwo or more identical frequencies for different pairs of mode numbers J, m. ode vibrations are said to be degenerate. Bit For 2 particular normal-mode vibration, the nodal lines on the membrane gist of two sets of straight lines parallel to the coordinate axes. They evi- jembrane into 1 by m small rectangles, Except (2.2.2) 21.3. Find the form ofthe wave equation (21.1) with respect to new axes «andy, ae rotated an angle @ wi yout espect tothe xy ante, int: 2! = 2 cos8 + ysn® 9! = 2 244 Prove that the two-dimensional gradient Vat(sg) of the surface ¢ = §(«9) at asx paint has a magnitude givfog the maximum slope of the surface at that point and x directo ving the direction ia which the maximum slope occur 2.1.5 From the arguments leading to the wave equation (211), show that in stati tibia the displacement t(23) ofan elastic membrane obeys the two-dimensional Lsrin of the vi Find expressions for the average tal, and total 2.3 Standing Waves on a Circular Membrane Chap. 1, the normal-mode vibrations of a string seg lar membrane We have investigated, ment with fixed ends and, in the preceding section, of a rect 8 of position and of, ble to construct an infinity of normal-mode functions | boundary conditions of the problem, with sinusoidal e factors that can be adjusted to satiaty i ns. In particular, we ly lead to a discrete set of ing us the wave numbers stoon = 5 § sin sin ™ cond + Ba snond, 228) 3d the frequencies of the normal-mode vil In the case of the two-dimensional rectangular membrane, we are able to isfy the boundary condition of no displacement on all four edges of the rec- FE langle because the edges coincide with the lines of constant 2, of of constant y. the method of variable separation, using cartesian coordinates, auto- gives functions that are suited to Sitting boundary conditions along hese coordinate lines. To fit the boundary condition of no displacement on other than rectangular Boundaries requires the use of an appropriate two-dimensional orthogonal curv: jrear coordinate system such that the boundary of the membrane coincides with dinate lines in this system. Furthermore, it is necessary that the variables the wave equation be separable in the new system. Tt turns out that the where the sin ate given by (2.2.3). The amplitude coefiients Aig and Bia can be found from the lacement {= f(z) and the initial vel 2f/a1 = foley) of the membrane by an extension of the procedure described in Sec. 1.6 for the one-dimensional case of the string. Here we find that membrane ‘Assuine that mn of one of, ly to introduce ions on a circular first task is to change the wave equation (2.1.1) from xy coordinates to the origin at the center of a cireular membrane the wave equation then becomes Find several ofthe lowest normalmode frequencies and the corespondng nodal pattern int: Make wae ofthe results of Prob, 2.2.1. 2.2.3. Establish the expeesons (22. 1 amplitude coeficents for the most genta (23)(8 Waves ono Membrane 23 Standing Woves on a Cteular Membrane 61 solutions of (2.3.7) are normally designated by J_(w) and 1Vq(u). They are tabu- lated functions, just as cos@ and sind are two independent tabulated functions. ‘The solution Ja(u) is called the Bessel function (of the first kind) of order ‘m, and it remains finite over the entire range of « from 0 to ©. The other solu- tion, Na(w), iscalled the Neumann function (or the Bessel function of the second kind) of order m, and it becomes inf finite elsewhere, Since Na(u) cannot represent a pos need only examine the properties of the functions J(u), Neumann func- wns, however, are needed in discussing problems with other boundary con- ons, such as the vibrations of an annular membrane. ‘The function Jz can be expressed by the infinite series We next assume that (2.3.1) hasa solution of the form HO) = RG) OT, 23.2) plication through by c,!/ROT, and find, after mi col (@R dR) tO _ AGT, 3 ae dr, Ode ~ T at 2.3.3) ion constant —u*, anu again we find he spatial part of (2.3.3) ‘As before, we have introduced the sep: the differential equation (2.1.5) for the time function, ‘can now be rearranged to read g(Gr+td)+G)e-- sae ™ oe Jule) = mal! Tee Fa) * ae DD } 239) + solution for (23.7) expanded about the origin. The 1is purely conventional. A plot of J(u) for m = 0, Bis ‘where we have chosen to denote the second separation constant by m*. Equation (2.3.4) thus separates into the two ordinary differential equations Found by assuming a se ymerical coefcient 1/2 £24 9-0 35) is ven in Fig, 231. All he Bese functions but Js vanish atthe origi, Fo 8 el acount of Besel fants, eM, L, Bons, “Mathenaal Method nthe oat (2) 2] eo aa i Secs”. 559-57, Jom Wiley Sot Ie, New Yor 1965 ‘The equation for @(#) has the independent complex solutions et'"',or the independent real solutions cosmd and sinm@. We see that the separatic stant m must be either zero, which makes @ a constant, ora (positive) ‘which makes ® a single-valued f boundary condition along a radi the displacement and its @ derivative be continuous functions across this hypo- thetical boundary. For the vibrations of a sector-shaped membrane, m could have other than integral values Bis BA \\ PN uawnss (2.38) is of second order, it Equation (2.3.2) is known as Besse’s equation. Since of the parameter m, ‘must have two linearly independent solutions for each vs ‘which in the present instance we know to be a positive integer ot zero. The two.When m= Oand m = 2, there isa single nodal circle at the radius TABLE 2.1 The nth Roots of Ja() = 0 (23.15) ° 1 2 3 2 | S00 7016 8417 9.261 3 | se ws se 301s | anise i3.s2 14.796 6.225 ‘There are evidently — 1 nodal circles when the nth root of Jo(t) = 0 coin- the fixed boundary. They are at the radi ead (2.3.10) and Jo(0) = 1. Each Bessel function is seen to alternate in sign with increas ‘with its amplitude slowly dropping off specing ofits zeros becoming more nearly uniform (approaching =). The be sencoereminds one of a damped sine wave. A few of the roots of Ja(u) = 0 are listed in Table 2.1, The roots of Bessel functions of adjacent orders interlace each other. ‘The Bessel functions obey recursion relations, such as + Next suppose that m= 1 and that we choose cos8 for the @ function ing ‘A solution of the wave equation is then d) = A Salen) cose cost 23.47 fy the boundary condition at r = o we must now have Geom t EZS ey (23.18) am bi ) = Iai) — Foal) 7 Betas fae Brite wi are the roots of J(u) = 0 appearing in the second column of Table PLO Bs) lds ne frequencies of these normal modes are evidently : 5 Gahan (2.3.19) ‘These relations may be established directly from the infinite se ‘They show that itis necessary to have numerical tables for only Jo and J Tee values of all higher-order Bessel functions, as well as ll frst derivative) ‘can then be calculated {rom the recursion relations. ‘Let us now see shat the normal-mode vibt are like. When m = 0, @ is independent of 8, so that i Bey & ie 220) ameter exists at the angles @ = +/2, 3r/2, as well as nodal Beh = A Toe) cot fecould just as well have used sind for @(0), or any linear combination of tation. To satisfy the boundary conditi Brit sine, That is, the nodal diameter can have any orientation, and its k= u/tm must be chosen to make depends on how she vibration is set up. We thus have a type of iy which can be removed by stabilizing the orientation of the diameter i, constraint to the membrane at some point other than the center. diameter to pass through that point. We lose js a possible solution of the wave equi that {(74) = Oat = 0, the value of eile oe Wider where te is one of the roots of Je(x) = 0, some of which are listed in the, ease ei Table 2.1. The frequencies of these radially symmetric (0) my ra ste eto ‘on of the various normal modes of a circular membrane can be tn 4 'y values of m, with the outer boundary at r =a -e, tina, Where wom is the nth root of Ja(u) = 0. Evidently there ; BG iistoeters, and w — 1 nodal circles. Figure 2.3.2 shows some of the the lowest frequency being co = 2.408(6n/o) ation of the circular membrane for small values of m and m.za sa tntnference Phenomena with Plane Troaing Woven 68 F tn the one-dimensional case of transverse waves on a string, we found that the ‘wo sinusoidal waves of identical frequency and amplitude in opposite directions gives rise to a pattern of standing waves. We fixed boundaries at any pair of nodes and in this way of the vibration of a string segment with fixed ends. In ‘ve-dimensional case of transverse waves on a membrane, the interference ioidal plane waves of the same frequency and amplitude is con~ jomena, since now the waves can travel in different direc~ ‘across the membrane. To avoid the, complicating effect of boundaries, let i; assume, for the time being, that the membrane is of indefinitely great extent, Tet us great distance, a line source of sinusoidal waves requency w produces the plane wave Blea) = 44 erm, = the membrane and continues on toward infinity i ‘At a great distance in some other direction, a second line Problems 42 23.1 Expl wave equa the spatial fu . faves exist independently ‘any way since they are of small amplitude ear equations. The angle a between their ‘equation 0.44) relation for 2.3.5 Show how to find the normal-mode circle with Bred undaris along ite edges bisects the angle « between lated y axis, the vector wave