(rales Edexcel AS Physics SaHow to use this book This book contains a number of great features that will help you find your way around your AS Physics course and support your learning. Introductory pages Each topic has two intvaductery pages to help you Hentify haw the main text is arranged to cover al that you need to learn. The left-hand page gives 4 brie! surimary of the topic, inking the content 10 thee key areas of How Science Woke ‘What are the theories? What is the evidence? What are the implications? ‘The right-hand page ofthe introduction corssts ofa tonic map that shows you how all the required content of the Edexcel specification fo: that topic is covered in the chapters, and how thot content all intern. Links to other topes ae aso shown, including where previous knawledge i built en within the topic. Main text The main part of the book cavers all you need ta learn for your course. 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You can use these questions to tast how fully you have understood the topic, as wel 3s to help you practise for your exams. ‘The contents ist shows you that there are two units and five topics inthe bok, matching the Edexcel AS specification for physics. Page numbering in the contents Ist, and in the index at the back of the book, will helo you find what you are looking for.How to use your ActiveBook === Click on this tab to see menus The ActiveBook is an electronic capy of the book, which you can use on a compatible computer. The CD-ROM will only play while the disc in the computer. The ActiveBook has these features: | Click this tab atthe top of the screen to access the electronic version of the book | Click on any of the words in bold to see « box with the word land what it means, Click play’ to listen to someone read it out for you to help you pronounce it. Click this button to see all the icons on the page that link to electronic files, such as documents and spreadsheets. 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This also means that you can look closely at photos and diograms.Unit 1 Physics on the go TOPIC 1 Mechanics 1.1 Motion Describing motion HW Straightline graphs Distance and displacement HSW Units "More information from graphs of motion Equations of motion Moving in mare than one direction — Using vectors 12 Fores Causes of motion Newton's fist law of mation Drag forces: Newton's second law of moon Inertia, mass and weight HSW Measuring g Statics Projectiles 1.3 Energy and power ‘The concept of energy HSW Laws and theories Energy transformations Energy and efficiency Power HSW The mechanics of hockey Examzone: Topic 1 practice questions 10 10 " 2 B “4 16 TOPIC2 Materials 2.1. Fluid flow Fluids Eureka! HSWThe Plimsoll ine Fluid rrovement Drag act Terminal velocity HSW Stokes’ Law 2.2 Strength of materials, ‘The physical properties of solids HSW Plotting graphs Stress, strain and the Young modulus HSW Climbing ropes HSW Uncertainties In measurements Cheracteristics of solids HSW The Mohs hardness scale HSW Materials selection charts Materials in the real world HSW Reel world materials Examzone: Topic 2 practice questionsMol oe Sees cs TOPIC 3 Waves 7 TOPIC 4 DC cleetricity 6 3.1. The language of waves 78 41 Electrical quantities 18 Types of wave we Introducing electricity 18 The vita statistics ofa wove 81 Electric current 120 An introduction to the behaviour of waves 84 Energy and electricity rez Retlection atthe end ofa string 88 HSWThe flow mocelforelectrcity 123 pare a en 2 Resisting current flow tes Models of waves and theirpropertics 92 42 Complete electrical circuits 18 Diffraction and interference 96 Power and work in electric cicuits 18 HSW The nature of electrons 97 Circuits containing resistors 19 HSW Radio inteferometers 9 SW Solving problems in muttioop creults 132 Polarisation 100 The potential dvider 14 ; Sources of emfinternal resistance 136 see we Undecided ts HSW Maxwells work on electromagnetic Fea eee ia HSW Automation uz waves 103 Applicators of electromagnetic waves 105 Examzone: Topic 4 practice questions 144 HSW Astronomy and the electromagnetic spectrum 107 The Doppler effect 108 Ultrasound m ee ad HSW How sefe is antenatal scanning? 113 Examzone: Topic 3 practice questions 4 TOPIC 5 Nature of light 146 5.1. What Is ight? 148 Abiet history of light us Wave or particle? 150 HSW Black body radiation 150 The photoelectric effect 152 HSW Remote sensing 155 5.2 Spectra and energy levelsin atoms 156 “Types of spectra 156 ‘Atomic election energies 158 HSW Franck and Hertz’ experiment 160, Solar cells to light the wrld? 162 SW Photovoltaic technology forthe fut 163 Examzone: Topic 5 practice questions 164 Index 166RR ard Topic 1 Mechanics This topic explains the movements of objects. TL looks at how movernent can he described end recorded, and then moves on to exphining why movement happens. Tt covers velocity and acceleration, including how to calculate these in giffereat siazaions. Additionally, dhe effect of gravity fon the movement of an object leads into consideration of the encagy a body may possess or transfer What are the theories? We only comsiger objects moving at speeds that could bbe encountered in everyday life, At these speeds (much less than the speecl of light) Sir Issac Newton succinetly described three laws of motion, With a knowledge of | besic geometry, we can identify aspects of movement in each dimension, Those thres laws then allow us ©) caleulate accurstely the motion of any object over time and in three dimensions. ‘There are also equations for cafeulating Kinetic energy and gravitational potential energy, and the tanster of cenergy when a force is used to cause the transfer. These formulae and Newton's laws can be used together t9 work out everything we might wish co know sbout the movement of any everyday object in eny everyday situation, What is the evidence? Newton's laws of metion have been constantly under west by scientists ever since he published them in 1687, Within constraints established by Finstein in the early twentieth century, Newton's laws have always correctiv described the relationships between dats collected, You may have a chance to confirm Neviton's law in experiments of your own, With modem ICT recording of data, the reishility of such experiments is now much improved over wacitionsl methods, While it i difficult for scientists to describe or identify the exact nature of energy, the equations that describe ‘energy relationships have also consistently held up to experimental scrutiny. What are the implications? (Combining the mathematical rules presented in this topic allows us to describe and predict the motion of all things. This statement must akways he tempored hy the limitations thet the objects involved must be macroscopic (everyday sizes) and must be moving at reasonable speeds, Above about 10% of the speed of light, Newton's Jaws loge their sccuracy snd it hecomes clear that they are, in fact, only an approximation of Binstein’s more complete explanations of moxion, Furthermore, if we consider subatomic particles, of which Newton knew nothing, we ciscover that quantum mechanics throws a probability spanner in the works, Ache end of the chapier we sce the power of the ‘equations in action as they describe the motion of the ball in @ game of hockey. ‘The map opposite shows you all the knowlege and sills you need to have by the end of this topic. The colour in each box shows which chapter they are covered in and the numbers refer to the sections in the Edexcel specification,identify and ue the physical quarts derived itinguish beewees combire tw coplanar trom the slopes anc aren of dsplacement-time scalar and vector vecters at any arg 10 and velociyetime graphs, including caes on ‘uantiies and ve ‘ach other by drawing ‘on-unform acceleration (2) cpamples of exch (5) [porot7) ‘endestand how ICT can be sed 10 callect data Use the equations of for.and dspay dsplacerent-tire and velocty- rift accelerated time graphs or unilormy accelerated mation ad ‘mation incre compare this with vaditoral metred is tees of version (1) relablty and vay of data (2) we « ma Instustlons vere raw and itepret free body combine two coplanar vectors 1m corstant (Newtoris ist wr force diagrams to represent at any angle 1 each other by ‘ef matin (2 =0) ard second aw forces ona patie oon an ‘rawing, and at right anges by of mation) (9) cexcended rigid body, using the concept of centr of ere (8) caleslation (7) identity pars of se the xoresions recognise and make resolve a vector into forces cnatvting for gravitational Feld tse o! the ‘hwo components at an imencion strength 9 =J/m Incependence of right anges to each between two bodies and weight = ng vertial and ho‘antal ther by caning {Neos thir aw (10) motion ofa projectie snd calculation (6) «f mation (11) roving teely under sraaiy (4) 1. Acari tievelling along ¢ road et 30ms"" when a pedestrian steps into the road 55m ahead, The river of the car applies the brakes after a reaction tire of 055 and the car lows éown at a rate of 1Oms~2 Whet hoppens? 2 The cheetah is the fastest lan animal in the ‘world It can accelerate from rest to 20s" in 25, ‘and has 2 top speed of about 30.ms"1 although it ‘can only maintain this fora distance of about 4450 m before it has to stop to rest n contest, an ‘ontelope can run at around 22msé" for long periods 2 What isa chestah’s average acceleration between rest ard 20ms-'? Assume that 2 cheetah accelerates up to its top speed with the acceleration in your answer toa, 1 How farwil the cheetah travel when it ‘accelerates from rest Up to its top speed? How lorg does this acceleration take? € Ifthe cheetah continues at top speed, how {ong will it be before it has to stop to rest? _Ifan antelope starts from rest and accelerates to Its top speed at the same rate asa cheetah, how farwillt travel inthe time obtained in your answer to d? {© Ifa cheetah chases on antelope ond both start from rest, what is the maximum head stat the cheetah can allow the antelope?RC Red a Moving in more than one direction — using vectors So far we have confined ourselves to situations which are real enough, but which do not necessarily cover every type of motion found in our everyday lives. Think carefully about all the examples of motion you have seen so far and you will realise that they have all been concemed with things moving in a straight line, Whilst motion in a straight line does happen, itis usually more complex than that, Vectors give us a a straight line. Vectors can be represented by arrows drawn to scale. ‘The Tengu: of the arrow represents the magnitude of the vector, while the inseton of the arrow represents the direction of the vector. ly simple way of handling motion when it is not in Combining vectors - the triangle rule ‘The triangle rule can be applied whenever one vector acts followed by another. For example, suppose you gavel 30m due south, and dren 40m, duc cast ~ what is your displacement from your starting position? as 2s as w_se™e ‘ (9. 1.1.12 Adding dsplacoment vectors txng teal diagram. Tem reprecents 10m, ‘You can find your final displacement by making a scale diagram of the vectors involved. The diagrams in fig. 1.1.12 illustrate the process: 1 Draw an arrow 3cm long from starsing point So show 9 displacement of 30m south, 2. Draw an arrow 4om long at right angles ro the first arrow to show a displacement of 40m east. 3. Join the starting point S to the end of the second arrow. This vector is your displacernent from your starting point. ‘You can then measure the distance and direction of the your scale diagram. Aliematively you can use trigonometry to calculate it. Tr the example in fig. 1.1.12, the final displacement is 50m at an angle of 33° feast of the first displacement, jacement from ‘The sum of two or mere vector guantities is called cheir resultant.{14.12.93 Getting nontee fst Ygoman* Yay = 2 Combining vectors - the parallelogram rule ‘The parallelogram rule can be applied whenever vectors act at the same time or from the same point. If you have ever walked or run up a down escalator, you wil have some ides of what relative motion is, Whon an cbject is moving, itis often very important to give some sort of information about what its motion is relative to. For example, someone running along a moving walkway may have & velocity of 2ms"! relative to the walkway — but if the walkway has a velocity of -2ms- (note the negative sign, showing that the walkway is moving in the opposite direction to the person), the person will remain in the same posidion relative to the ground. motion! man SEL hr TSTSTET fesbve wo gip. Ne iMacs FPOD RON a ns asm resultant Asrlacement ‘terse ester Sapocerent am Resucan velocity is epresered by this vecor =the resultant dplacernent per uni time om ie fig 10.14 dling velety vecton to fed the resstant veloc. ‘The resultant velocity of the wornan in fig. 1.1.18 is the sum of the vectors for her velo relative to the walkway and the velocity of the walkway relative 10 the ground, Adding vectors in this type of situation, when both vectors fact along the same line ic easy — but a slightly cifferent method is needed when they act along: cifferent lines ‘Think about a man on a ship walking from cone side of the ship (0 the other. If the ship is steaming forwards with a speed of Sms and the man walks from one side to the other with a speed of 3ms7!, what will be the man’s movement relative to the Farth’s surface? ‘As the man walks across the ship in fig. 1.1.14, the ship carvies him co the right, In 1's the man moves 3m across the boat, and in this time the ship carries him Sim to the right. The vector ciagram shows his displacement 1s and 5s after starting co walk, ‘The man’s resultant velocity relative to the Farth is the vector shown, This is the resultant of the ship’s velocity relative t the Earth's surface and the man’s velocity relative (o the ship. The resultant velocity is 3.8ms~! in a direction making an angle of 31° with the velocity of the ship, 11 Why do aircrat take off and land into the wind? 2. Aballon 2 snooker table is Fit by another ball and travels a distance of SO.cm cue ‘west Its then hit again and travels 2 distance of 30cm due north. Using a scale drawing, or by calculation, work out the srooker bal’ displacement from its starting position. 3. Astipis travelling at Sms” with 2 bearing of 20° east of north. There isa current of ‘1ms~ flowing from the west. Wht is the resultant velocity of the ship?RR ard 1.2 Forces Causes of motion Tlaving looked at ways of describing motion, let us look at what causes motion. ‘The Greek philosopher Aristotle, who lived from 384 to 3221, said that the answer to this question was simple ~ motion was maintained by forces. When the force which made something move stopped acting, the object came to a standstill. In modern contexts, this idea seems quite reasonable when you think about pulling a heavy box along the floor, or pushing a car along a flat road. ‘But what about the situation when you kick a football, for example? Once {your foot ceases to be in contact with the ball, it can no longer exert a force ‘on it, and yet the tall carries on moving for some considerable time before it ‘eventually comes to rest. ‘The Italian scientist Galileo Galilei thought about problems like this, neariy 2000 years after Arisiode (Galileo was born in 1564), Galileo understood that the idea of force is central to the understanding of motion, but realised that Aristotle's explanarion was incomplere. According to one story, Galileo's interest in moving objects began as a result of attending a mass in the cathedral at Pisa, During the sermon, he noticed that a cathedral lantern suspended from the roof by a long chain always took the same time to swing, whether it was stinging through 2 large are or a small one. (Not having a clock, he used his own heartbeat (o time the swings) Carving out farther experiments with a pendulum, Galileo noticed that a pendulum bob always rose (o very nearly the same height as it had been released from on. the opposite side of its swing. Carrying this investigation further, he fixed a ppin below the point of support of a simple pendulum. He raised the bob to ‘one side and released it. The bob still rose to the height from whieh it was released. pin a | @---- \e ig. 1.2.1 Calleo's pandulum experiment, whch catered Wis ideas on forces and motion,CR a The ball and the pendulum Galileo extended his experiment with the pendulum by carrying out a “thought experiment’, that is, one which he carried out in his head. He reasoned that if a all rolls down a slope onto an infinitely long flat surface, by simple analogy with the pendulum experiment it will continue moving: uniil something else causes it 1 stop. Fig, 1.22 outlines Galileo's thought experiment. ‘ig. 1.2.2 The diagrams show Galleos thought experiment. The track and bal ere pertecly smooth, 0 that thee are no fictional forces between them By careful analogy with his pendulum experiment, Galileo reasoned ‘that the ball would always tend to rise to the same height as it had been released from, even if it had to travel a greater horizontal distance to da so. = diagrams (a) and (b) in fig. 1.2.2 show this happening. When the rising tack on the righthand side is replaced by a flat rack (€), the ball carries on moving indefinitely in an attempt to rise to its original height. ‘This is in direct conflict with Aristotle’s explanation of the motion of ‘objects ~ although i took the work of Newton to carry forward Galileo's explanation and put it on a basis chat we would today recognise as being ‘scientific’. Galileo had realised the importance of distinguishing between ‘motion horizontally and vertically in a gravitational field, and had laid the foundations of the joumey to the Moon, over 300 years later. Oa 1 Aristotle argued that a force was needed in arder to keep an abject moving. Describe some everyday situations that are consistent with this argument. ‘Suggest @ more scertiic explanation for each case thet you describe, 2 ‘Galles had laid the fourdetions of the journey to the Moon” Write a short plece for a newspaper simied at @ non-scientific audience showing why Galileo's work was so important.RC Red y Newton's first law of motion Forces and changing motion “The key to understanding motion is to understand forces and their imeeractions. The reason why we appear to need to push something to keep it moving steadily is because the motion of any object kere on Fasth is opposed by friction forces and in many cases these are quite considerable. If there were no friction forces, then one push would cause an object to ‘move indefinitely along @ flat surface at a steady speed. Galileo had noticed. that the concept of force was important when thinking about chonging ‘motion rather than motion in its own right. Galileo’s work was taken up and developed by Isaac Newton, born in Lincolnshire, England in 1642, the year of Galilo’s death, Building on Galileo's work, Newton framed three simple rrules governing the metion of objects, which he set out ae his three laws of ‘motion in his work the Principia, published in 1687. Although we now know that Newton's kaws of motion break down under certain conditions (in particular, as the velocity of an object approaches the velocity of light), the laws are very nearly correct under all common ircumstances. ‘The Principia was writen in Latin, the language of scholarship of the time, ‘Translated into modern English, the first law can be stated as: Every object continues in its state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line unless made to change by the total force acting on it. Tn other words, an object has a constant velocity (which may be zero) until a force acts on it. So the first law of motion defines for us what a force ii, or rather what it does ~ a force is something which can cause acceleration. Newton's first law in mathematical terms Since Newton's fret law expresses motion in terms of the total force acting con a body, it can be written down involving mathematical terms. If we wish to write down “the sum of all the forces acting cn a body" we can use the ‘mathematical expression EF (sigma F) w do this. So co stare Newion’s first law we can say: Ifa body has a number of forces F,. F remain in a state of constant motion only 2F=0 (Ghat is, the sum of all the forces from F, to F,, is equal to zero). F, acting on it, it will ‘This can be calculated separately for horizontal and vertical forces. The effects of all horizontally acting forces are completely independent of those fr all vertically acting forces, You will see later that this is also ue for horizontal and vertical velocities, and for any pair of vectors at right angles to each other.Free-body diagrams Before considering the frst law further, itis worth looking at how we can represent clearly the forces acting on a body. Because a force can cause acceleration, itis 2 vector quantity, with both magnitude and direction, Te therefore requires a way of representing both magnitude and direction on a diagram. A diagram which shows all che forces acting on a body in a certain situation is called a free-body diagram. A free-body diagram does not show forces acting on chjects other than the one being considered. Reaction force of arth en wheelbare This aes aright angles (or mrmally) 9 the pmement=itioften terme toa ‘the normatresction force hog forces ong, foxwerd fore of woman fonwhnelberron ‘on wheebarow Y puller Earth onvnestbarcw (ts weight) (ig. 1.23 Asimplifed fee-bdy dlagram of @ wheelbarrow beng pushed at a steady speed along a lt surface Notice how each force cing i canclled out by 3 fore exactly equal n sian but oposite in ‘dection tot Tis is what Newtons tat iv els us = the estan force acting. something with constant velocity i eo. Centre of gravity and centre of mass In problems involving solid ebjects, we often draw the weight of an object as acting through a single point ‘This point is called the centre of gravity, and the Justification for doing this is quite straightforward, If we think of a ruler balanced at its midpoint, we would draw a free-body diggram of the forces acting con the ruler like that shown in fig 1.2.4 finger fig. 1.24 Abalanced rte ‘This diagram assumes that we can think of the weight of the ruler as acting at its midpoint. We ccan justify this is by thinking of the Farch pulling vertically downwards on each particle of the ruler. As each particle on one side of the ruler has a similar particle on the other side of the ruler exactly the same dliseance away from the ruler’s centre, the ruler will balance when it is suspended at its midpoint. eb®e + conte of gravity ip 125 The cnte of gravity of seme uniform abject The centre of gravity of an object is the point at which the weight of the object appears to act. An, object's cemtre of mass has a similar definition ~ ic Js the point at which all the object's mass may be considered to be concentrated, Th most common circumstances (in a uniform gravitational field) an are ac the object's centre of mass and centre of gravi same place, although this is not always so. For uniform objects, the centre of mass will be at the intersection of all lines of symmetry, essentially in the micldlle of the object. OED 1 Draw free-body diagram showing the forces acting on a racing car moving st constant velocity along 2 track. Explain haw Newtons fist law is satisfied for this racing cat 2 Draw a free-body diagram of a wooden block balanced on a person's finger. Label the forces acting ‘on the block end its centre of gravity.serene Drag forces ‘Once We sce the situation represented in a free-body diagram like that for the wheelbarrow in fig. 1.2.3 it becomes quite obvious why an object stops moving: when you stop pushing it, Remove the forward force acting on it and the forces on an abject are no longer balanced, The resultant force now acts backwards, se the wheelbarrow accelerates backwards ~ that is, it slows down and eventually stops, So why doesn’t an object start moving backwards once it has stopped if there is now a resultant force acting on i? The answer fo this question is heeause of the way that drag forces work, Drag forces in an example like the wheelbarrow are made up of wo types of force — friction and air resistance ~ both due to matter in contact with other matter Where tvo solid surfaces rub on each other (for example in a wheel bearing or axle) frietion always occurs. Even though they may appear perfecdy smooth, the surfaces in contact are slightly rough (Fi 1.2.6). Tis this roughness that is the cause of friction, as the «wo surfaces rub over one another (fig. 1.2.7) fig. 1.26 Even thesmoathest of surfaces Is ough af this igh ‘magnification photograph of ametal surface shows. — 1127 When two aufoces move over cach ether, thls roughness makes & more diet to move the surfaces ~ tis Is whar we ‘experience a friction Ol between the surfaces pushes them apart and soveduce: the fictonal free between them. ‘This frictional force acts simply to oppove any motion that takes place ~ ic cannot actually ezuse motion, as you will see if you think about the cause of the force. When an abject comes to rest, the frictional force stops acting = it will only become important again when the abject Ddegins 10 move again. Experiments between surfaces rubbing over each other show that there ere two stuatlons when fiction is acting, depending on whether the surfaces are sliding ‘over one another oF not. Consider the situation shown in fig. 1.2.8, n which a block is dragged along a fat surface whist @ forcemeter shows the force needed to eep it roving at constant velocity fig. 12.8 Ateonstant velocity, the net force Is 240, Newton's first law tells us that, for an object whichis not accelerating, SF = . This means that the fictional force resisting the motion of the box must be exactly balanced by the pulling force from the hand.Air resistance “The other drag force which acs in this example is not important ~ bat it is very important in many other examples. Air resistance or aerodynamic drag is caused when a body moves through air. In the example with the wheelbarrow, this is so small as «0 be insignificanc. Aerodynamic drag is caused by the fact that an obiect bas to push air out of the way in order to move through it ~ and this requires @ force. The force that is exerted by two surfaces rubbing together does not depend on the speed at which the two surfaces move lover each other, However, the aeroclynamic drag caused Wy an object moving through air does depend ton speed! ~ the faster the object moves, the greater the aerodynamic drag. You will learn more about this in chapter 2. fig. 1.29 Airresstance becames mare important the faster you wart to i Careful detign con reduce aerodynamic dag, by producing hzpes that ‘cut though the ar and cause as ite dsterbarce to It as posible Because aerodynamic drag increases as an object's velocity increases, objects with a constant driving force tend (0 reach 2 maximum velocity when they accelerate ‘whether they are a parachutist falling through air or a car aavelling along a rave wack. Free fall and terminal velocity Someone who jumps out of a tethered balloon some way above the ground accelerates towards the ground. under the inluence of their own weight. They will, suffer sir resistance which i not insignificantly small = ask any skydiver! The acceleration with which they start (0 fall is called the aceeleration of free fall or the aceeleration due to gravity. At the surface of the Barth the value of this acceleration is 9.81 ms7? ‘The acceleration of stich a falling object is not uniform, as fig. 1.2.10 shows, Atthe top of the jump, the man 'sinstentansously stationary, 39 his air esiseance is zer0. The resultant force acting o him _eatest at this paint, se his Acceleration 3t thir point hae ts maximum value A ite late the ran is moving ire reply ands a resance ‘Snow sgnbcart. The mgritude athis weght stil geter han hie ar ronstance, co e et setlerating owned but rot { SS qulely wo fine Laer still volecty has ached | port where hie sir reviatonce it equal to his weight. Now the resultant force acting on him ero and he isnalonger accelerating Te velocity t which this happens is called the terminal velocity. Fora human being vthout parachute, terminal velocity is about Séms (On opening the parachute, the at resistance Increases dramatically due to the parachutes large surface area Now thea resistance ie greater than the weight 0 the resuitent force on the man Upwards. The man accelerates upwares and Fis velocity decrees Eventually the man's velocity decreases 10 anew terminal velocity. This terminal vetoaty ismuch lower than the previous terminal velocity about 1 m= Hitting the ground at this speed stil requires somecere it's tke Jumping ofa wall Sm night 1 Drew a free-body diagram showing the forces acting on a skydiver at the instant they jump from aplane 2. Describe ard explain how the resultant force on a skydiver varies from the moment they jump from aplane.RC Red Newton's second law of motion Having established a connection between force and acceleration which is qualitative, Newton went on (© find 2 quantitative connection between these two. He claimed that: =F Investigating the relationship between F,m anda date ogger ‘woley in motion fig. 21) Experimenta atup for investigating the relationship between Fm and Using the setup shown in fig, 1.2.11, the acceleration can be measured for various values of the resultant force acting on the trolley while its mass is kept constant (table 1.2.1). By plotting a graph of acceleration against resultant force, a straight line will show that acceleration is proportional to the resultant force, A graph gould also be plocted for varying masses of irolley while the resultant force is kept constant (table 1.2.2). Force F/N eo on 020 02 040 03 0.60 | 080 oOo | 100 0 120 able 12:1 Value of aceeration fr diferent forces aeting on» lider of mas: 05k. Massike os os 083 or o7t os 063 03 055 10 050 ‘able 122 Values of acceleration resulting from an aplied fore of (O.SNwhen the ase af the gliders varied Tris clear from table 1.2.1 that there is a direct relationship between F and a, and that a is proportional to F (ie. as F increases by a factor x, $0 does «). This ean be represented as Fs a. ‘The results in table 1.2.2 show that there is a different relationship between a and m. Here ¢ % Lin (Ge. as mr increases by a factor x, a changes by a factor of Ux). We say that a is inversely proportional to ». ‘These two relationships can now be combined: axF ae lim ax Fim or Fx ma Another way to express this is: F= kn where # is a constant. By using SI units For our measurements of mass and acceleration, the units of foree become kyms- (che units of mass and accsleration mukiplied together). IF wwe define the unit of force in such 8 way that one anit of force accelerates a mass of one kilogram at a rate of one metre per second per second, then the constant in ‘he equation must also have @ value of one, and so: Fema ‘The unit of force in this system i of course better mown as the mewton. This equation defines the newton as being the resultant force which produces an acceleration of one metre per second per second when it acts on a mass of one kilogram, ‘The mathematical statement F = na is sometimes referred to as ‘Newton’s second law of motion.CRs Example 1 Example 2 ‘runner ina sprit race reaches Sms in 3s from the | An aevoplane lands witha velocity of S5ms~ "Reverse thrust” stertof the race. If her mass i SO what force must from the engines is used to slow it toa velocity of 25ms~1 in she exert in order to do this? a distance of 240m. Ifthe mass of the aetoplane is 3 x 104g, eee What the size of the reverse thrust supplies by the engines? ueomst ve9mst Information krowr: 2 teas a=ssms1 ve2smst ga? =? te? Use equation 1 s=24om veusat Use equation 4 Substitute values vest 4225 92040x3 Substitute values: (257? = (65)? +2 xax240 se (625-3025 2x 240 Now apply F= ma Fa 503 = 150N So the athlete needs to exert a force of 1SON in order Now apply. to accelerate at this rate (Will she ever this force F 23x 108x-5 constantty over the first 35 of the race? Why?) =-15% 1050 The reverse thrust ofthe engines is 1SOQ00N (or 150KN). (Wty was the answer obtained from the equations negative?) SNE a 1 a. Use the results in table 1.2.1 to plot a graph of acceleration against force. 1b Calculate the value of 1/mess for each entry In the fist colurmn of table 1.2.2, and plot ecceleretion egeinst (1/mess) for this set of results © Calculate the gradient of the best fit line for each graph. 1d Whet conclusions can you draw from your graphs? 2. Arailway locomotive with a mass of 70 tonnes accelerates ata rate of ‘Lms, What force does the locomotive exert? 3. A60kz woman involved in a car accident is eccelerated by her seatbelt from ‘14ms to rest in 0.155. ‘a What isthe average horizontal force acting on her? b How does this force compare with her weight? ——————_$_Inertia, mass and weight Newton's first law of motion is useful in considering what we mean by the tert foree ~ but it can do more too. ‘The tendency of an object fo stay in its scare of rest oF uniform motion is called its inertia. Inertia is something that we all experience in our everyday lives. + A large, massive object like a car is harder to get moving than a relatively small, ight one like a bicyde. + Without the help of a seatbelt, it can be hard for someone siting in a moving car to stop moving when the driver of the car applies the brakes sharply, Both of these are examples of inertia, An object’s inertia depends only on its mass. The definition of mass is very difficult, and you will probably have met the idea that ‘mass is a measure Of the amount of matter in a body’. While this statement is not fase, itis rng the whok: ruth elther, The mest sausfactory definition of mass uses the idea of inertia, So if wwo objects A and B have the same acveleration, but the resultant force on object A is 2F while that on object B is F, then object A must have twice the mass of object B. Mass has only size, with no direction; i isa sealar quantity N- fig. L212 Newton's fist law in action tis important to know about changes in body mass happening to artronauts ring lang period in arbit Obviously bathroom scaler ae years in th situation. This deve uses the ier ef the astronau's body to aect the way In whieh oselltions happen ~the oscillations are then timed and used to calculate the mass ofthe astronaut.We often use the term weight in everyday life — sometimes we mean mass, rather than weight, at other times we really do mean weight. An object’s weight is a force acting on it, Following Galileo's work, in Book Il of the Principia Newton set out his theory on how masses attract one another in a process termed gravitation. Newton argued that it was this attractive force that we call weight. Our modern interpretation of this theory says that all masses have a gravitational field around them. A field is a modal which physicists use to explain ‘action at a distance’ the way in which ‘ovo objects not in contact exert a force on each other. Using this model, a mass is said to have a gravitational field around it which causes the mass to attract another ‘mass which is clase to it. The size of the field around a particular mass depends on the size of the mass and whereabouts in the field you are If another mass is brought into this fiel, it experiences a force which pulls it towards the first mass. Weight is dius the force which is caused by gravitation = the process which occurs when one mass is brought up to another mass, The size of this force varies with the strength of the gravitational field ~ and as we shall see lacer, this varies with the position of the mass in. the field, So while mass is constant no matter where itis measured, weight varies according to the strength of the gravitational field an object is in. Because weight is a force, it has both magniude and direction ~ itis @ vector quantity Gravitational field strength g and weight ocause che weight of an object varies according to the strength of the gravitational field iti i, this enables us {0 define the serength of a gravitational field. Gravitational field strength ¢ at a point in a gravitational fold is dofined asthe forse per anit mass acting at that point. In mathematical tems: F Where F is the force acting on the object with mass m. Gravitational field strength has ST units of Nig“, and is a vector quantity, ‘The weight of an abject may be calculated from this relationship, giving an expression {hat you will czrainly have used before: W= me Measuring mass and weight ‘ig. 12.13 You might think that both these objects are being weighed sre cae you would be wrong, ‘The digital balance in fig, 1.2.13 relies on a piece of conducting material being compressed or deformed by a force which changes its shape and hence its clecsrical resistance. The reading given therefore depends on the force an object exerts on the pan of the balance, and will be diferent on dhe Barth, from the reading on the Moon — in other words, it measures the object's weight. ‘The beam balance compares the force exerted by the object on one side of the beam with the force exerted by an object of known mass on the other side of the beam. This comparison does not depend on the strength ef the gravitational field that the balance is in, and the balance will give the same reading whether it fs used on Farth or on the Moon — so this instrament measures the object's mass.Thisis one way of measuring g, by enelysing the fre fall of snbroll gn chjec. The ren bl is released by operating the such, which also starts the timer. The time taken for the ball to fall the vertical distance sis measured as It passes through ironboll the timing get. Since: +a? and u=0 wwe can write s= that? {ig 12.14 Appartas fr mensring.g by freefall (ig 12:15 Fre al era This equation canbe used to calculate g cect from one measuremert of the fang ball Honever. itis better to tke several readings ofthe time ofl take the most consistent ones, average these and then use te average to Calculate g, since this should lad to a move rable suk (fig 1.2.15). Evan beter isto notice that so 12. \F we vay and plat ‘the values of t? we obtain agairst s, the slope of the graph wil be Ag s= hat? Compare this with y = mx + c (the equation for a straight line graph). The graph ill be a straightne through she origin with a gradient equal to Yeg. ‘ig ate ey ED ‘Assumeg = 981ms*. 1A person standing ona bus is thrown towards the rer of the bus asit starts to more forward, and to the front sit slows cov. Why? ‘person standing on the side of a ship drops a coin and sees it splash into the water 2s later. How far above the water Is the person standing? ‘an astronaut on the Moon has a weight of 128N and a mass of &kg. What 's the gravitational feld strength on the Moon? In 2002 the Canary Whart tower in London was scaled by Fench urban climber, Alain Robert, using no safety devices of eny kind. The top of the tower is 235m above street level If Robert had dropped on apple as he reached the tep ofthe tower: 3 how long would it have taken the apple to fall to street leva, assuring that air esstance is neglected? 1b assuming thet he coulé shout loudly enough, would it be any use f Robert had shouted to warn people below? (Speed of scund in air= 340m" YFForces come in pairs (Our everyday experience tells us that forces come in pairs, Push a laden supermarket trolley and you can feel ic pushing backwards against you. Lift a heavy bag and you can feel it palling down on you, Newton realised this, and stated it in his third Inw of motion. This is probably the most widely known and quoted of his laws ~ and it is also the ‘most widely misunderstood! Nowadays, the law is stated as: Ifbody A exerts a force on body B, then body B exerts a force of the same size on body A, but in the opposite direction. Teis vital to realise that these third law pairs of forces act on different bodies, so that a tree-body diagram wil only ever contain one of a given pair. @ o ‘ip. 2.16 Think about the forces acting as you do the weeey shopping. Diagram shows the free-body diagram for you a= yeu start the trlley moving, while diagram e shou the free: bed eagram forthe ley. Only tose forces whlch act ina herzontal rection have been shown, CRs Newton's third law of motion In the situation shown in fig. 1.2.16, only the forces Fy and Fey (cepresenting the force of the trolley on the person and the force of the person on the «olley, respectively) are a third law pair. The ‘missing force’ is the other member Of the pair to Which Fp (the force of the ground on the person) belongs, This would be shown on a free-body diagram for the Farth, as in fig. 1.2.17 ~ and would be represented by Fg, using this terminology. ig. 1217 These dagrams show the vertical eres acting on someone standing, onthe Eorth It is tempting to assume that the push of the groand upwards on our feet is the other member of the thied law pair involving the pull of the Earth downwards on us ~ bat the free-body diagrams show’ that this is not so. law pairs in this case are different types of force pairs. One is @ gravitational pair, the other is a pair caused by contact, benween two surfaces, If you jump in the air, the contact pair cease to exist while you are airbome ~ but the gravitational pair continue to exist, to bring you (literally) back to Earth. Third law pairs of forces are always of the sume pe ~ gravitational, electrostatic, contact, ete. aD 1. Acar is being towed by means of a rope connected to another car Draw free-body diagrams showing the horizontal forces acting on: 2 the car being towed b the car doing the towing © the rope. Notice that the ewo thirdRC Red Statics ‘So far we have looked at motion and the way in which forces cause it. There are muny situations where motion and force: are connected in another way too ~ thot is, ‘where forces cancel each other out and the object on which they act is stationary or, more correctly, is in equilibrium. This sicuatio physics sometimes referred to as staties ~ the study of bodies which are nor moving. deale with in a branch of Statics is obviow important (0 civil engineers designing 1 structure (for example, a large bridge), but surprisingly, it is also important to zeronautical engineers ens stability of a new design of aircraft in light. In boch cases there needs to be a good undersianding of the forces acting in order to ensure the strength and stability of the object being designed 1a the Adding forces Since force is a vector quantity, when we acid forces together te must be careful to take into account both their magnitude and their direction. To do this easily we draw vector diagrams, like those used when dealing with velocities. When adding ewo forces together the parallelogram, rule is used, ar the vectors act at the same point ~ like the example of adding two velocities in chapter 1. Tn this ‘We use a parallelogram of forces. Fig. 1.2.18 shows a ball which has two forces acting om it at right angles to cach other (the forces are not balanced, co the bal is accelerating). aN w fig, 2.18 Gxample of «parallelogram of forces ‘The sum of the 4N force acting horizontally and the 3N’ force acting vertically is the resultant force acting on the ball - in this case 5 at an angle of 37° to the horizontal ‘You ean find the resulrant force hy a carefully constructed scale drawing, from which the size of the resultant and its direction can be measured, or you can use tigonomerry. Work it out! In the example above, itis not too difficult to work out the resultant force, because the two forces acting are at right angles to cach other and are simple numbers t0 use. We can find out the size and direction of the resaltant Jorce by using a scale drawing. A scale drawing with LN ‘Jem shows thac the Jengih of the line representing the rovultant force is 2.5m, giving a resultant force of SN. ‘The angle 6 can be measured as 37". BN aN “ig. 12.19 Seale drawing to find the resultant of tw frees. Alternatively, we can use trigonometry. Pythagoras” sheorem relates the length of the hypotenuse to the length ofthe other two sides in a right-angled triangles, In this case it tells us that: (roouleane force)? = (3)? + (4)? = 92 4 162 = 25N2 so that: N resukant force = V(252) To ind out the angle O we can wwe the fact that: tan 0 = 3/4 (fiom the property of the right-angled triangle) = tan! 0.75) = 37° Although it is not always as easy as this, the principle of adding two forces (or any other vector quantity) is always, the same: + draw the two forces acting at the same point + construct the parallelogram + draw in che diagonal from the point st which the forces act to the opposite corner of the parallelogram: + measure or calculate the size and direction of the resultant,Where owo forves actin the same direction, the parallelogram of forces ‘collapses’ to become a straight line, and the resultant force is simply the size of the two forces added together, acting in the same direction as it wat in the case of the two velocities acting ia the same direction on page 19, Fig. 7.2.20 shows this happening. fig. .220 The eeltant of two forces sctigin the sme drection ie simply the sum ofthe forces. Resolving forces “There are times when itis necessary to exaraine the way in which a force acts on something in a particular direction or pair of directions. ‘Side view forcect burtirg —Tapview forceotbunting or ple gnpae force cf becing _forceof repeon pole bracing pear pole fig. 1.22) Forces acting ena pole Fig. 1.2.21 shows a pole with a line of bunting artached to it, together with a bracing rope. For simplicity we shall assume that the bunting is horizontal, even though this js actually impossible. The bunting and the rope pull on. the pole as a result of being pulled tight. The bunting pulls the pole horizontally ro the lef, while the bracing, rope pulls it downwards and to the right. This becomes obvious if we resolve the forces into theie components acting at right angles to cach other. In this case we shall ‘ace components which act horiznntally and vertically (fig. 1.2.22), Fr this ore pulls the paleherinrtaly tothe left Fron iene) ~ tis component pus the pole Raraontally tothe right Fete ti component pls the pole vertealy dewmwacde 1222 The force i sshed into its component by deawing 8 peraeoyran of forces which the angles between the sides ar ll 50" ~ In other wards, eccangl, [By resolving the force: in this way it becomes clear that the tension in the bunting and the rope has ‘wo clfects: 1 pulling the pole sideways. 2 pulling the pole downwards. ‘The example of the bunting provides us with a good opportunity to gain an understanding of the idea of static equilibrium, Look again at fig. 1221 and fig. 1.2.22. As the pole is at rest, Newton's first law of motion tells us chat the forces acting on it must be ‘vero, that is 3F-0 If this were not the case, for example if one of the ropes atiached to the pole were to snap, then the pole would be pulled to one side and would fall over. This means that Foaming = —Frope charizenea) 84 that Prope cvericad ‘must also be balanced by an equal and opposite force = supplied by the ground pushing upwards on the base of the pole. ‘This simple example illustrates the important physical ‘dea of equilibrium, when an object has balanced forces acting on it (the word equilibrium comes from to Latin words meaning ‘even balance’) and ie in a state of rest as a result OED 1 Ifthe bunting support rope from fig 1.2.21 isat 30° to the vertical and its tension free is 400/N, shat is vertical comporent of the tension, ané ‘what isthe horizontal pull from the bunting?”Projectiles fig. 1.222 Galileo's famous experiment Inwhich he dropped wo unequal masses from the top ofthe learieg tower of isa. The independence ofan objects mass and ts acceercion in tee tll was fst deduced by Simen Stevinu In 1896, although thi aberration weually atrbuced to Gallo, Honever,Galieo ‘was the Frs to ceary state the need for the objeesin question tobe falling ina ‘ecuum fer ths tobe te ether thn on approxmatin, etic oper or id lacy mess g ( a fig. 1.225 Vera projection. RC Red y Acceleration in the Earth's gravitational field A projectile is an object which is projectecl ~ dba is 10 say a force acts on it to ssact it moving and itis then subjected to a constant force while it moves, In most ‘cues this will mean that the object isin free fall in the Earth's gravitational field. An object which is dropped fiom rest a small distance above the surface of the Earth accelerates vertically downwards under the influence of its weight. ‘Theoretically the acceleration of an object in fre fal is independent ofits mass, although thi of objects unequally, according to their cross-sectional ares, stricdly true only in a vacuum — aie resistance affects the motion Ache surface of the Earth, the rae at which an object accelerates under the influence of the Earth’s gravitational field i usually Imown as the ‘acceleration due to gravity”, The Farh’s gravitational field strength and the acceleration due to gravity are usually both represented by the symbol g, slthough the units of the ‘ovo constants are dilferent ~ kg"? and my, sexpectivey, ‘he adusof the Earth is eater athe equator, Und issmater here Above dense mineral epost g greater (Ghee fecomotines seed by goslogte Prospecting rier). 5g. 1.2.24 g's generally talento be about 9.01 m3, although it varie at , UNIT 1 Topic 1 Mechanics Energy transformations The ideas behind the concept of energy represent a mode for understanding the way the world (and the whole Universe) behaves. We talk about chemical energy being transferred to kinetic energy by a petrol engine. This way of talking is a quick way of saying that the petrol ~ because of the way the bonds in its molecules are arranged ~ may be burned in an engine to produce movernent, and that in doing this there is a relationship between the amount of petrol used and the movement prexluced. We do not mean that the engine literally, as if by magic, takes something out of the petrol and uses it to tum the wheels, fig. 13.3 Winding a grandfather deck, Consider the example of winding a grandfather clock shown in fig. 133. The clock is driven by a falling Weight. This Weight can be regarded as a source of ccnergy, in just the same way as de spring in an old- fashioned watch or the battery in a modern digital watch. Where does this energy come from in the case of the grandfather clock? A scientific understanding of the situation (that is, one that fits with physicists’ current understanding of the Universe) is chat once the weight has been raised the person’s muscles contain less of the chemicals that can be used! to do something useful (like raise a weight) ‘The raised weight, however, now has something which wil let it do more than it could before. Fnergy is simply the ‘accounting system’ which we use to keep track of a system’s ability © do something useful ~ rather like we tase money to keep track of our ability to buy things. An aliemative explanation says that chemical potential energy in the person’s muscles has been used (0 lift the weight and that, as a result, the chemical energy has been transformed into gravitational potential energy stored in the raised ‘weight. This implies that something has gone from the person's muscles into dhe weight and has changed in ‘chemical energy has beon transformed into potential energy’. Whilst this might sean to be a satisfactory explanation, itis not, because of the idea of energy cransformacion that it uses ~ a much better ter to use is energy transfer. Fig. 1.3.4 shows how energy transfers can be compared to transferring money. “ig, 13.4 When you pay cheque into the bank you increase your ability toby thing by transferring money ito your account! When you pay ‘or something using your detit card Laer, you decrease It agaln- but ne actual money changes hands in the transfer. Inthe same way’ enery may be transferred. The enorgy ina system can be changed without anything scwaly flowing int or aut of Ths why Is Beter to talk about nergy being transfered rather than to say that is transformed,Transferring energy - heating and working ‘Transferring energy is compared to transferring money in fig. 1.3.4. There are many ways of transferring money (cash, cheque, credit card, postal order, direct debit ...), Duc far fewer way's of transferring energy. In this section of the book we are concerned only with «vo of these ~ the ways Which physicists call heating and working. ‘The difference between heating and working lies in the way that energy is transferred. If we heat an object, we transfer energy to i using @ temperature difference - perhaps by means of a flame, If we wish te wansfer energy without making use of a temperature difference, we do it by doing work — for example, by lifting an object off the floor onto a table, ‘The terms heat’ and ‘work’ therefore describe energy which has been transferred in a particular way — by means of a temperature gradient or by means of moving a force. fig, 13.5 inary cases ts much easer to say heat energy than ‘energy transfered by means ofa temperature difference’ cr ‘Work done! rather that energy tanslered by means of moving afore Work and the units of energy As Wwe have just seen, when energy is transferred it may be transferred by doing work, for example when you push a stipermarket «rolley across a car park. The amount of work done is calculated simply’ as: work done = force X distance moved in direction, of force ‘This simple relationship leads to the definition of the sunit of energy, Jaw of motion led to the definition of the unit of force. Im this case, the SI unit of energy, the joule (J), is defined as being the energy transferred when a force the same way as Newton’s second of 1 newton is displaced a distance of 1 metre, that is, 1J=1Nm Although in calculating work we are muluiplying wo vectors together (force and displacement), the result is a scalar. Energy has ugninade only If the force and the displacement are in different directions, the force must be resolved in order 10 calealate the work done. Fig. 1.3.6 shows how this is done, Th this figure the force is resolved so that one component (Fcos6) lies in the same direction as the displacement. This is che component of the force that js involved in ransferring energy. The component of, the force perpendicular to the displacement does > work, as it does not move in the direction in which it is acting, Fino k Fee ‘ig. 130 Resolving force to calculate work done this case, work done = Fost 1 OED 1. Give an exemple of a transfer of energy which could be classified ae: 2 heating b working 2. A delivery driver Lifts a carton with a mass of 65kg onto the back of the lorry, ¢ height of 1.5m from the ground. How much work fs done inthis energy transfer?Pen en ——— y . Energy and efficiency Kinetic and potential energy ‘We are used to saving that an object has gravitational potential energy when ic is raised dhrough a distance Ah Tn this case we write: Bacar ne gx Ah where nris the object's mass and g i the gravitational field strength of the Farth. (Strictly, mmgAh is the change in something's potential energy.) Tn the same way, we talk about a moving object possessing kinetic energy, and write the amount of this energy as: ann where mis the object's mass and v its velocity ‘The idea of wark ac & means of transferring energy by ‘moving @ force lies behind both of these expressions for the energy an object has in a particular sicuation, ‘The grandfather clock example (see fig.7.3.3.0n page 40) can show us this. When the weight in the clock is raised, a force equal and opposite t9 the gravitadonal force of autraction on the weight is applied to it. Therefore, the work done on it Che energy transferred by means of moving force’ is equal fo the weight 17” of the weight multiplied by the distance itis raised. work done = 177% at sgh = gravitational potential energy stoced in Wweitht (Align,) ‘This potential energy may be released slowly as the weight does work on the clock mechanism (wansfers energy to the mechanism by means of 2 moving force’), driving the hands round, If the wire supporting the weight breaks, the weight will fall, Instead of doing work on the clack mechanism, the weight now does work on itself (because the weight is not connected to anything, the energy transferred by the moving force has only one place to go ~ it stays with che weight), and its potential energy will be transferred to kinetic energy. In this case: 2 = 2 + Jax = 2adh 1 = 0, and it falls a distance 4) isthe weight falls from rest, wee a Now: ineiie energy gained = work done on falling weight = Fx ab 2 =Fxe ta Since F-= ma, we have: 2 ineie energy gained = ma x 2 wee la ame? Ds eet cil ils Galileo's pendulum experiment in which he determined that the pendulury would always retum to the serme height ilusretes the conservation of gravitational and potential ene-gy nicely. Ran atone eee areata ‘pendulum in a schoel laboratory. ly careful measurement af the height @ pendulum tees and fal through its ewig, we can determine the sravitationl potential every it loses and gains throughout one esllaton. Ths can then be compared withthe kinetic every it hes a it passes trough the lowest pint. This experiment wil show that he energy is constantly being transted for kinetic to sevatlonal potential end tack agarEfficiency ‘The idea of efficieney is u useful one when we are considering energy transfers. With some thought it comes as little surprise m find thar it is often impossible eo take all the energy in an energy store (for example a litre of petrol) andl transfer it so that it does something useful, 1.3.8 shows the energy transfers in this situation. is converted into abeut £5 of thermal energy 100jot energy inthe pcr and in onygen tem he i and about 25) GF nbc onary. fig. 1.20 Enemy trarfer in car, Cleary this process is not 100% efficient, since in burning petrol in a car engine we want (@ end up with as much kinetic energy as possible ~ we certainly do not want thermal energy. The efficiency’ of this process can be calculated as usefil energy gor our (the kinetic energy) energy put in efficiency = 3 x r00% 100 = 35% If we think of a machine or @ process as a box Which bas energy going into it and energy coming out of it, ac in fig. 13.9, then we define efficiency in the way we have just seen, that is useful energy Outpt ogy, efficiency Funwarted) ue een En fig. 13.9 Enemy transfer by a mec CRs Since efficiency is caleulared by dividing one quantity in joules by another also in joule, it hits no units — it is simply a ratio. Tt may, of course, be expressed as a percentage by multiplying the ratio by 100%. D) hat water flowing through the boiles. In order to supply Se ees ve nee yg — 250» 103 400 x 10? aD 1. Legend has it that Galileo was only 17 years old when he started thinking about pendulum movements, whilet watching ¢ lamp hanging on @ long cable in the cathecral in Pisa Italy If the lamp had amass of 1.2kg and a creught imperted 10) Of kinetic energy to It: ‘a how fast would the lamp move intially? bb how high could the lamp rise in a swing? 2 Acicketer hits a ball straight up in the air It leaves the bat at 16.8ms~ and has a mass of 1608, ‘a What isthe kinetic energy of the ball as it leaves the bat? b Assuming air resistance s negligble, whet is the maximum height the ball reeches above the point it left the bot? € Ihin reality, lying up in the air ané back down again ea process with an efficiency of 88%, then how fast will the ball be travelling when it returns to the start point? ffciency = 100%RC Red Power In physics, the definition of power relates enengy transferred (0 the time taken to do it Se: er ~ £2579 tansfored m ‘time taken In symbols: pe Power may be measured in joules per second (Js!) in the ST system. The unit Js“! is also known as the wate (W). Since we offen refer to the power developed when work is done, power may also be defined as: = Work done power time taken Ta force is being moved at a steady rate, provided we know the velocity at which the force is moving and the size of the fig. 1.3.10 Which carhas more power? The idea of power is commen in everyday ie, Physics use the od pew te teen ch the same thing es we understand wen omnpeing the performance ot ears, pe force, we can calculate the power: work done = force x distance moved in direction of force and soyper = Work done ‘ime taken so Gistance moved in direction of force over = force * » time taken force * velocity at which force is moving Tn symbols: Example 1 An athlete of mass 75kg runs up a steep slope, rsing a vertical distance of 30m in 50s. Neglecting the effect of any drag forces acting on the athlete, what power must his leg muscles develop in erder to éo this? (Assume 9 = 981Nkg) The athlete's muscles must supply a force to lit the athlete ‘through a vertical éistance of 30m. Assuring that this is done at a steady rate, then the force exerted wll be equal in size to the athiete’s weight So ‘work done by athiete = welght x vertical distance raised = 75 x981%30 = 22100) (sf) This work was dene in atime of 505, 0: 22100 50 = 42W power developed = Example 2 ‘car towing a caravan travels along ata steady speed of 20ms". Ifthe Fores exerted by the engine is 2kN, what is the power output ofthe engine? power = force x velocity 2000 x 20 40000 The power output of the engine is 40 kW.CR a Horsepower ‘The power ourput of car engines is offen expressed in horsepower ~ a method ‘of measuring the rate of doing work dating from before the industrial revolution. LHP ~ 7501W, so the power output of the car engine in Example 2 shove is about 53HP. In Example 1, what is the power output of the athlete's leg muscles in HP? = eee ney You could mvestigate your own power by ‘uring up ail of known height tke the athlete in our example. bit les tring would be a lab investigation in which a brick is pulled up a ramp (fig. 1.3.11). By pulling the brick up at a constant velocity, and using corstant force, you could caculte the power from P= FI you also measured the time taken and the height the rick sas vertically, the efficiency of the process could be calculated 1g.13.11 Eaperiental setup fr vestgtng power and effec. Relating power and efficiency We saw previously that: ‘This means that in a given dime, comparing the energy ouxput with the energy input would be the same as comparing the power ouput with the power input, Thus: (osofal eneray outputs) (energy inputitime) efficiency = x 100% ‘Note that mathematically these two equations sre the same ~ dividing the first ‘equation by time/time (which is the same as dividing by one) gives us the second equation. As Bie=P. efficiency = Useful energy ouspuvitime 99, power input 1 What is the power of aketile which transfers 264k] of energy in two minutes? 2 What isthe power of « lncury motorboat which is moving at a constant 22m" the total drag forces on it are 123KN? 3. Acrane lifts 9 steel girder with a mass of 800kg. The gitder ries 21 metres Jn 6 5. What is the power of the crane?Hockey is the second most pepuler sport on Earth in terms of numbers of people playing. It isa fast-moving skilful sport in which the ball may fly at 100 miles per hour. Here we will consider how the mechanics covered In Unit 1 can apply to events in hockey. ig 15:12 Great Brains, Meneo The shot at goal if we want te caleuiate haw fast 2 hockey ball would be moving after beinghit hard at goal frem rest, we reed te think about its acceleration through Newton's second law A standard hockey ball has a mass of 0:14kg. If the sick apples a force of| TON for a twentieth of a second, we can work out the answer Fema soa =! 70 aw = 500ms* veu-tar (the ballis initially stationary, sou = Dms"a = SODms®, 1 = Q05s) = 04 500x005 = 25mst {A goal only counts ifthe bali hit rom inside the shooting circle, This means the ball must be ro more than about 14 ‘metres from the goal. Assurning zero crag forces, what would be the longest time the goalkeeper has to react to this shot? fig, 13:13 Thegeabeeper har to esctqulely to save the goal We know the start velocity and the distance, so this @ straightforward question 8 7s =107s The protective padding that goalkeepers wear has developed raplly with impraved materials technology. leis now much lighter ané yet provides better protection than eve before. If the goalkeeper reacts ‘Quickly enough to get a leg pad in the way, how ‘deeply wil this stot squash into the foam padding which s normally around cm thick? The maximum decelerating force the foam can provide to slow the ball is 1000N. “To answer this we should considor the removal ofall. the bal’ kinetic energy as work being done, 438 00 = 438% 102mSo the pad depresses by just aver 4em. The goalkeeper is likely to feel this but it should not be painful According to Newton's thid law, when the pad exerts a force of 10CON, ‘on the ball, the ball exets « force of 1OCON on the pad. Ifthe goalkeepers leg were not protected, this force could cause a serious injury. The aerial ball A madern development hockey isthe serial ball along ‘pass in which a player flicks the ball high in the air in order 10 avoid it being nercepted. success the ball may ty forfour seconds and and 50 metres further downed To mavimioe the range the player wil tirptto sed the ball up at an angle of 45° to the pitch surface, With His information, we can calculate many things about ‘the flight of this long pass. What is the initial velocity the player geste bal: and how high does the bal vel vertically opwerds? enge.2= 50 fig 13.14 Tojctary ofthe soil ba. ‘The hertiontal velocity is ees found from the éistance and time ee = 125ms4 alg cle As the angle of flight ie 445° from the ground, this ‘means the overall initia, ete 7 oes inthis ces: ws ® Cee . tal we tine! rey Fig. 1.515 Firing the horizon A component of the velocity. wes an = 175m" ‘ith ¢ 45° inital fight ange, the vertical velocity stats the seme es the horizontal velocity: vy = 12.5 ms~.If we consider only the vertical motion, we can find the kinetic energy due to Wy Bg = Yar = Ax 014 1252 = 109) All the kinetic energy due tothe vertical velocity ofthe ball is transferred into gravitational potential energy at the highest point init flight. Remember the horizontal velocity ‘remains constant throughout, so its contribution to the ‘otal netic energy ts lays present as kinetic energy and can be ignored in this calculation. Aya, = -mgah Fer oh = = _ 109 014x881 = 796m Mewes 1 A hockey player passes the ball at 15ms~" toa team rate win stops i completely in 05. What force does the receiver's stick heve to apply tothe ball? 2 A penalty stroke is fickec froma distance of 6.40™m ‘rom the goal lin. The stiker scoops itso thatthe ball leaves the ground at a 45° angle and 2 speed of ms“! How long does the goakeeper have to make 2 save before the ball crosses the goal line? 3. The study of mechanics in sport is @ popular and often profitable new area of scientific study. Describe how a sports scientist could use ICT to collect dete to study ‘the movernent of players and equipment over time. Explain why technological developments have made the data collected more valid and rellable than with traditional methods of studying mechanics.RR ard Examzone: Topic 1 Mechanics 1. Arman is pushing = shopping trolley at a speed of 1.10 ms“! along a horizontal surface. There is 2 constant frictional force opposing the motion. The man stops suddenly, letting go of the eolley, which rolls on for a distance of 1.96 m before coming to rest. Show that the deceleration of the walle is approximately 0.3. ms, ©) ‘The total mass of the trolley an its contents is 28.0 kg, Caleulate the frictional force opposing its motion, @ Caleulate the power needed to push the trolley at 2 steady speed of 1.10 ms“! @) ‘The man catches up with the trolley. Calewiate the steady force he must now apply to it to aecelorate it Grom rest to 1.10 ms"! in 0.900 «, @) (Total 10 merks) 2 A caupult Gres an 80 g stone horizonually. The graph shows how the force on the stone varies with distance through which the stone is being accelerated horizontally from rest, 100 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 Distancelem Use the graph to estimate the work done on the stone by the catipult. O) Calaulate the speed with which the stone Tesves the catapult @ (Total 6 marks) 3. Two cats, A and B, are travelling along the outside lane of a motorway at a specd of 30.0 ms". They are a distance d apart Bons" 30mst i x — ‘The driver of car A sees a slower vehicle move out in leone of im, and brakes hard undi his speed has fallen vo 22.0 msl, The driver of car B sees car A brake ang, after 2 reaction time of 0.000s, hrakes with the same constant deceleration as A. Velocity/ms* 30 2s. 20 15 10 6 Tine/s ‘The diagram above shows velocity-time graphs for car A (solid fine) and car B (broken line) [Find the deceleration of the eats whilst they are braking, 6) What does the area under # velocity-time graph represent? o Determine the shaded area. @ ‘Suppose that, instead of only slowing down w 22.0 ms, the cars had to stop. Copy the graph above and ada lines to the grid hove to show the velocity-time graphs in this cease. (Assume that the cars come to rest with the seme ‘constant develeration as befove.) «) Explain why a collision is now more like. @ (Total 9 marks)CR 4 Explain how a body moving at comtant sped can be accclraing, (3) “The Mocm moves in a circular orbit around the Barth, ‘The Earth provides the force which causes the Moon to acecleratz, In what direction docs this force act? O) “There is a force which forms a Newton's thd law puis with this force on the Moo, ‘On what body does this force act and in what direction? @) (Total marks) 15) The disgram shows part of «roller coaster ride, Tn practice, freien and sir resistance will have © significant effect en the motion of the vehicle, but you ‘should ignore them throvighout this question. ‘The vehicle starts trom rest at A and fs hauled up co B by a mow, Te takes 15.0 5 to reach Bi, at which point its speed is negligible. Copy and complete the hox in the disgrem helow, which expresses the conservation of energy’ for the journey from A 10 B. O} Useful work done by motor “The mass of the vehicle and the passengers is 3400 lig, Calaulate (@ The useful work done by the motor (fi) The power output of the moter. “ At point B the motor is switched off and the vehisle moves under gravity fer the rest ofthe ride. Describe the overall energy conversion which occurs 2 it ave [rom B to C. o Calculme the speed of the vehicle at point C. ° (On snether occasion there sre Fewer passengers in the vehick hence its totsl sma is less than before. Is speed is again nextigible at B. State with a reeson Inow, iat all, you would expect the speed at C to difer from your previous answer ® (otal 11 marks)RRC eee Topic2 Materials ‘This topic deals with some of the macroscopic (li size) scale properties of solids, liquids and gases, and how these properties make them interact with the rest of the world around us. This is important if you want to build structures and machines that are strong enough to do their jobs. What are the theories? ‘The strength of a material ean be defined in many eifferent ways, and we will Took at several of these, There is a difference in the strongrh of a material when being crushed, compared to it being stretched to breaking point. And how does a relucsance to hend compare with a reluctance to he dented? The propertis of 8 particular material make it suitable for some applications, but act others ~ 50 Inowledge of these propertis is essential for designers. “The movement of liquids and gases (fluids) is different in different conditions. Tactors such as the temperature and speed of movernent have a huge impact on the way that 2 fluid will move, What is the evidence? ‘Materials testing can be done on a small scale in a school laboratory. Many of these experiments ate reproduced on a larger scale for industrial applications. ‘You will cary oust some investigations of materisle strength and leam how 0 describe the behaviour of materials, Vou may alsa heve apporsunities to chserve the movement of fluids in simple laboratory situations. What are the implications? ‘You may be able to make some strength messurements of your own ~ you will cotainly have to make some calculations of strengrhs for different materials ‘Under various circumstances, these values can affect the design of things from lennis balls w prams w muctear power stations, How fluids flow is a resuk of properti of the liquid or ges in question. We will consider the flow of a fluid over 2 solid, as well as of ¢ Muid flowing through nother fluid or through tsell: Understanding ffuic flow is cleatiy important in the design of aircraft, but you may never have reslised that aeronauticsl engineers are also employed by manufacturers of tomato ketchup. ‘The map opposite shows vou all the knowledge and skils vou need to have by the end of this topic. The colour in cach box shows which chapter they are ‘onered in and the numbers refer to the sections in the Ecexcel specification.Toe ean Lendestand and we the tems density laminar fiow,stremntne few, termna welt, turbulent {Foow. uptrast and wscous dg (18) recall ard use pray or secondary dat 0 show that te rate of low of aliquid is elated to its viscosity (13) recogrite and use the expresion for Stokes lw, = our anc uptrrust= welght of fie splaced (20) Inventigate, using primary ot secondary dato, ond recall tha the vseastes of mos: fulds charge with temperature. Sekain the importance of this for industrial applications (21) Investigate and use Hook's aw, = FA, one ‘ow tacit apples ory to some materials (3) caleulate the elastic stain enerey yin a deformed material, simple, using the expression = Yo, ad from the area née its foree-extension graph (er ‘explain the mearing and use of and Example 2 ‘A. 20°C,@ chit’ balloon filed with helium is a sphere with eras of 20¢rm. The moss of helium in the balloon is 6 grams What i the density of helium at this temperature? density. p= ae volume, ¥ = [413}x (0.20 179 = 0.18kgm> p es Densitykgi ar zs 6a eel 20°C] 12 Prrewater | gid (°C) 1000 ~Sufuc acid | qu (20°) 1638 (05% one) ne) 20 Te | sora a3 | Window iss Sold 278 Tre) so 750 a sel 9x0 ‘able 2.1 amples of density values fr solids, quid and gases,Rea a a Eureka! When an object is submerged in a fluid, it feels jan upwards force caused by the fluid pressure = the upthrust. It tums out that the size of this force is equal to the weight of the fluid that has been displaced by the object. This is known as Archimedes’ Principle, Thus, if the object is completely submerged, the mass of fluid displaced is equal to the volume of the object multiplied by the density of the fluid: m=Vp ‘The weight of fluid displaced (i.e. upthmst) is then’ found using the relationship: W'= mg fig. 2.12 Seuba diving equipment includes a buoyancy contol device which can change volume to deplace more or lesz water Tie varies the ‘upttrus and 30 helps the diver move up or down. ‘This principle gets its name from the famons legend of the ancient Greek scientist Archimedes running naked. from his bath through the streets of Syracuse in about 265 UG, shouting 'Furckal” (‘T've found it”). According to this story, the king of Syracuse thought that his goldsmith may have stolen some gold, by creating a crown out of gold and silver mixed cogether andl claiming it was pure gold, The king asked Archimedes to work out if this suspicion was true, without damaging the intricate wreath-style crown, When Archimedes climbed into his bath, puzzling over the problem, the water overflowed. Observing this overflow, Archimedes realised that if the crown were submerged, it would displace its own volume of water and would experience an upwards force, or upthrust Using a balance to weigh the crown when it was suspended in water, Archimedes could find the upthrust, and therefore the weight of water displaced and the volume of the crown, He could then calculate the density of the metal in the crown and compare it with the standard density for gold. He had solved the problem! Why does a brick sink? If the house brick from the example calculation of density on p. $2 were dropped in a pond, it would experience an upthrust equal to the weight of the volume of water displaced by the brick. As the densi of water is 1000kem™, the mass of water displaced. by the brick would be: 1000 « 1.61 x 107 61 KE ‘This has a weight of 1.61 * 9,81 = 15.8N so there is an upward force on the brick of 15.8N. If we compare the Weight of the brick with the upthrust when it is submerged, the resultant force wil be downwards: weight = 3.38 x 9.81 = 33.2N downwards upthrust = 15,8N upwards resultant force = 33.2 ~ 15, 7.6N downwards So, the brick will accelerate downwards within the ‘water until it reaches the bottom of the pond, which then exers an extra upwards force to balance the ‘weight so the brick rests on the bottom. uv wor ‘ig. 219 2 the upthrston an object elas than Re weght then the object wit sink trough Mud. b An object wil remain at rest when balanced forces acton itFloating Imagine an object falling into # Muid. When the object is ar the surface there is no upthrust, because no fluid has been displaced. As the object sinks deeper into the fluid, 1 displaces a greater volume of the fluid, se inereasing the upthrust acting upon it, When the tupthrust and weight are balanced exactly, the object will float. So for an object to float, it will have to sink until it has displaced its own weight of sud. ’ giant garbage baige on New York's Hudson River is 60m long and 10m wide. What depth ofthe hull will be Under water if t and its cargo have a combined mass of 115 x 108 kg? (Assume density of Hudson river water = 1000kgm-3 Tofloet: Uupthiust = weight mg =15 x 108x981 = AT x 10'N AT x 107N uptheust The upthrust is equal te the weight of the volume of water displaced by the hull upthast = px Veg where: volume, /= length of hull, (x wicth of hull w- % dopth of hull under water,d Se 1000 x 60 x 10x dx 981 = 589% 105 xd 1aT x 10! 5B9 x1 d= 2497=25m upthuust ‘The hull will be 25m uncer water Cxx== ED During the 1870s the MP Semel Plimsoll fought a long struggle to pass a law in the English parliament to protect sallo's. Merchant seamen had long known that ovettoaded ships were dangerous ard prone to sinking in high 2e0s Inthe yeer 1873-1874 mare than 400 ships were lost in the water around the United Kingdom, with a loss of over 500 lives. So-called ‘coffin ships’ became notorious. n sore cases ships ‘were so overloaded and in such a poor state of repair that sailors refused to put to sea in them and were imprisoned for desertion. Ship owners made huge Profits from selling goods overseas, and if ships were lost at sea they would rot lose money because they could claim cn their insurance Plimsoll was determined to improve safety at sea, Mftar many defeats a law was passed in 1876 making it ‘compulsory for every stip registered in Englanc to be palnted with aPUirscll Liné.The mark shows the safe ‘waterline on the hull ofa loaded ship ard its corect position is worked out using dersity calculations. fig 2°14 The Fimsoll Line on ashipinicates the sae lowing love. The water surface must nt be above the tne ndieating the temperature an lcition of the seas tobe cossed (for ‘example TF refer to tropical fresh water). cargos loded ‘the ship wllsnk ower to dapace a greater weight of water and thus Balance the new heavier overall weight ofthe sipThe hydrometer ‘The idea of Doating at diferent depths is the principle behind the hydrometes, used to determine the density of a fluid, The device has a constant weight, so it will sink lower in fluids of lesser density. This is because a greater volume of a less dense Nuidl must be displaced to balance the weight of the hydrometer. Scale markings om the narrow stem of the hydromerer indicate the density of liquid. (Comparing the density of alcoholic drinks with that of water gives an indication of the proportion of alcohol they contain. The lower the density, the greater the alcohol content, as alcohol has a lower density than the water it is mixed with, This has long been the basis for the taxation of loool, ‘ig. 2.15 A hydrometer floats iver Inthe lover density (more aleoholc) red wine than in the whit wire. ena Alcohol content/aby (alcohol by volume, given Taxation rate/£ per hectolitre as the percentage proportion of alcohol) (1001) of product sillier and gery 12K inkgme 3 Estimate the mass of airin this room, (Assume censity of air kgm) 4 A golf balthas a diameter of 4.72cm. Ifa goer hits it into a stream, what upthrust does the bell experience when is completely submerged? (Assume density of woter = 1000kg m3} 5 Explain why a ship's Plimsoll Line has 2 mark for fresh water which i higher ‘on the hull than the mark for salt water. (Assume density of salt water = 1100kgm"4) {6 A ball bearing of mass 180g is hung on a thread in oil of density BOOK? Calculate the tension in the string ifthe density ofthe ball bearing is coo kg?RC ato Fluid movement If you ski down a hill, you can go faster by tucking your boy into a crouching position, By presenting a smaller area to alr resistance, you reduce the force slowing yo down. However, speed skiers chasing world record speeds go further in their efforts to increase their speeds. (ig. 2.18 Why does this skier have such an eddy shaped helmet and adaptations te thet sits lower gs? When a fluid moves, there are twe ways this can happen: Iaminar flow (also called streamline flow) and turbulent flow. In general, laminar flow occurs at lower speeds, and will change to turbulent flow as the uid velocity increases past a certain value. ‘The velocity at Which this changeover occurs will vary depending upon the fluid in question and the shape of the area through which it is flowing, If We take a simple example like water flowing slowly’ through water in the pipe as several concentric eylinders from the pipe, it will be laminar flow. Think of the central axis outwards to the layer of water in contact with the pipe itself (fig. 2.1.7). Friction between the outermost layer and the pipe wall means this layer will only be able to move slowly. The next layer in will experience friction with the slow-moving outermost layer, but this will be less than the friction between the outermost layer and the pipe. ‘Thus this inner layer will move faster than the outermost layer. The next layer in moves faster again, with the velocity of each layer increasing nearer the centre, where the very central cylinder of warer fs moving the fastest. As with most areas of scientific investigation, Isaac Newton produced much work on the subject of Mid flow. In particular, he is credited with the development of equations to describe the frictional force between the layers in strcarnline flow. If a liquid follows his formulae, a most common liquids do, it is known as a Newtonian liquid. fig.2°.7 Laminar flow in «pipe shows streslines of ferent but ‘nchanging veloc, ‘The laminar flow of water in a pipe continues uniformly over time. ‘The defining property of laminar fluid flow is that in the same place within the uid, the velocity of the flow is constant ever time, Remember that velocity is a veetor, so this means that the water at any point in the pipe will always move in the same direction and at the same speed. The direction and/or speed may be eiflerent in different places, bust at any given place direction and speed must stay constant, ‘The lines of laminar fluid flow are called streamlines. At any point on any one of these streamiines, the velocity of the flow will be constant over time. In the wind tunnel in fig. 2.1.8, the smoke would flow over the ear in exactly che same pattem forever if all the wind tunnel factors changing the speed of the airflow in the tunnel allows designers to test how the prototype would bebave at faster speeds, and at were kept constant what point laminar flow changes to tarbilent flow. In turbulent flow the fluid velocity in any given place changes over time. The flow becomes chaotic and eddies form, causing unpredictable higher and lower pressure areas. A pooely designed car would cause turbulent flow of air over it, In the wind tunnel the smoke tails ever the ear would be seen to swirl in ever-changing patterns, Turbulent flow increases the drag on a vehicle and so increases fuel consumption,UNIT 1 Topic 2 Materials Fig. 2.1.8 Smoke srenlines shaw lain flaw of sr ovr wale designed ca, Streamline flow prosiuces much lower air resistance than turbulent flow. Thus by altering the aerodynamics of their suits, skiers can raise the velocity at which the air movement past their body will change from laminar flow to turbulent flow. This {ig 2.1.10 Increased speeds change streamine fon to turbulent lov. is the principle behind all ‘streamlined’ designs, such == Se to reduce the amount of turbulent flow of air or Turbulent flaw was frst demonstrated by Osborne water over therm Reynolds in 1883 in an experiment showing colourec 2 water flowing in a gless tube. similar experiment can be set up in a school laboratory to show turbulence caused by faster fluid flow, orby different shapes of ‘obstaces (Fig. 2.1.9).At most speeds, a smcoth, curved cobstacie will procuce less turbulence than a squerer ono. In the gentle time of alate summer, 8 creek over boulder flowed smooth. Draw diagrams to ilurtrate the basic definitions of streamline flow and turbulent flow. Exolain how ‘your dlagrarns show each type of flow. 3 Explain these poetic observations of the flow of a Lake District stream: ‘As autumn fel floating leaf after leaf skipped round tire rock, chasing like giddy schoolgirls playing ‘Follow the leader. = In winter's depth, li frozen stood, ice on stone, ee stone on ice. The bright thaw springs © maelstrom, water currents = churning and swirling as drunken Maypolers fig. 219 Atew aysttool peterson mengenatVi) wll reduce purple tals nthe water flaw which can then be made ‘pms around objects made fom Blu-tack®. You can ate the ioe rte end the chet shepes in onter o ex how the flow changes.anced Drag act fig. 21.11 Ashley Calles attributes core of his evecess tothe super lw ecousoragof the 'arkki material ofthe swimsuit When you wade through a swimming pool, you find it much harder than walking through air. The friction acting against you (called viscous drag) is greater in ‘water than it isin ait, This frictional force in fluids is due to Viscosity. IF the frictional force caused by movement through the fluid is small, we say the viscosity is low Newton developed a formula for the friction in liquids Which includes several factors. One of these factors relates to the particular liquid in question, Clearly, i¢ would be even harder to wade through a swimming pool of treacle than one full of water. This fluid- dependent factor is called the coefficient of viscosity and has the symbol, 7, the Gresk: letter eta AS viscosity determines the friction force acting within a ‘uid, it has a direct effect on the rate of ow of the fluid. Consider the differing rates of flow of a river of ay (see table 2.1.3) compared with the viscosity’ of the lava DS oe Ere e end ea Rhye ‘oble 213 How iethe rate of flow ented tothe vtcasity of the fd? ‘The rate of low of a fluid through a pipe is inversely proportional to the viscosity of the fluid, In 1838, Jean Poiseuille, a French doctor and physiologist, investigated the flow of fluids in pipes and proved the connection benveen flow rate and viseosity. Poiseuille was interested in blocd flow chrough the bedy, but his law is immensely important in industrial design. For example, the rate of flow of liquid chocolate through pipes in the manufacture of sweets will vary with the chocolate’s viscosity, which will vary depending on the exact recipe tased fo prociice it. More stigar may ‘mean greater viscosity, and thus slower flow through the pipes, and thus less chocolate per sweet a STE IIIS ETS viscosity by doing an experiment very similar to thase carted out by Poisei in the mid-nineteenth century. Using @ constant presture, water forced through 2 narrow pipe wil flaw at a certain ate, inversely Proportional to its viscosity. By varying the height of the water tark, you can record measurements of this ‘head of pressure’, against the flow rate and the gradient of the best fit line wil allow you to calculate the viscosity of the water. plan tbe _J contart had fl a Sppsrtee i 1.2.12 apeimena sep ondsample outs for an Investigations Pasi awe Using the students results shown in fig. 2.1.12, you can plot a graph of the flaw rate (V) against height (#) and hence calculate the viscosity of water (1)). Poseuil’s equations tll us thatthe gradient ofthe zea" ei ‘where rs the internal radius ofthe capltay tube, pis ‘the density of water end g = 9.51 Nkg™* ‘Compare the resuit fom ths experiment with the figuresin table 2.13, rephCORR a a ‘An even greater variation in viscosity of Iguid chocolate is caused by changes in iza temperature. If sweet manufacturer wants to account for variation in a recipe (which might come fiom something 2s minor 2s a change in supplier of cocoa. beans), they can adjust the flow rate by altering the temperature. Viscosity is directly related to fluid temperature (table 2.1.4). In general, liquids have a lower coefficient of viscosity at higher temperatures. For gases, viscosity increases with temperature Fluid fe Ree cued Fluid fea [Pas Ae ° 0.000017 Gycerine 40 6700 Ae 20 ‘000018 Gycerine | 20 15 ae 100 ‘oope0ez Gycerine 30 063 Water ° 00078 Chocclaie 30 700 Water 20 oco10 Chocolate | 50 60 Water 100 00003 ‘The change in viscosity ofa liquid with temperature canbe The temperature ofthe liquid is varies using a water bath. observed in « school laboratory using 2 resealable tin or The viscosity of the liqui will affect the rate et which the bottle half fll of atest fluid (ike golden syrup). ‘or bottle rolls dawn a fixed ramp. / / fig. 21.13 How docs the Veconty of goldon syrup change with Bs tamporstirn? 1. Whyis the world record for 100m swimming slower 3 How and why would holding a swimming competition in ‘than for 100m sprinting? warmer pool affect the times achieved by swimmers? 2. Describe how temperature affects viscosity for Uquids 4 Why might a chocolate manufacturer elter their and gases. ‘machinery soit functioned at a higher temperature?PCa Terminal velocity ‘You have previously learned that the acceleration due to gravity, near the surface of the Earth, is 9.81 ms An object falling in a vacuum does indeed accelerate at this rate, However, it is unusual for objects to be dropped near the surface of the Earth in a vacuum (Ga nearly all such eases a physics teacher is likely to he demonstrating fo a class!), In reality, in order to calculate an object's actual acceleration when falling, we need 10 go back to Newton's second law. We know that a= Fin, Ifwe can take account of all the forees acting fon an abject, and combine these to find a resultant force, we can calcalate the resulting acceleration, "ig 2114 A akyver wf a constant spesdif the forces acting onthem ae balanced or a filing object like a skyuliver, we need to include the weight, the upthrust caused by the ebject being in the fluid si, and the viscous drag force by the movement. ‘The tricky partis that the viscous drag varies with speed through the fluid, and that is constantly changing a a result of the acceleration. used Usually, we consider the equilibrium situation, in which the weight exactly balances the sum of upthrust, and drag, meaning dhat the falling velocity remains constant. This constant velocity is the terminal velocity. Viscous drag You would find it difficult to wade through a swimming poel filled with treacle because of the treacle’s viseaus drag. This is the friction force between a sclid and a fluid, Calculating this uid friction force can be relatively simple. On the other hand, it can be very complicated for large objects, fast objects, and iregularly shaped objects, as the turbulent flow creates an unpredictable situation, Car In the mid-nineteerth century. Sir Geerge Gabvit ‘Stokes, an ish mathematician an¢ physicist at Cambridge Univesity, investigated fid dynamics end arivd an equstion forthe viscous érag (Fon a small ‘phere at ow speecs. Ths ferrula is now called Stokes lave Fe Guy where ris the radius of sphere (mvs the velocity of sphere (ms), ae 1s the coeficent of scosity of the flu (as) ‘Thus in such a simple situation, the drag force is ‘iecly proportional to the rads ofthe sphere, and irectly proportional to the velocity, neither of which is necessarily an obvious cutcome. ‘Stokes’ publication of this law was delayed slightly while he considored the news that similar conclusions tad previously been made by scientists in other parts ‘of Europe, notably Naver and Potsson.At thet sie, communication between scientists was much sower and mote limited than i is now, and it was commen for the sere results tobe discovered independertly and simuiteneousy. In this case, Stokes decided that his werk wos sffcenty diferent from that ofthe others to justify publishing it Por simplicity, we will only consider simple situations, like a solid sphere moving slowly in a fluid, Imagine a ball bearing dropping through a column of oil for example, ‘ig. 2.1.15 Along with Lord Kelvin and Jomes Clerk Manwell i George Gabriel Stokes helped to build the reputation of Cambridge Univer inmany aeas of mathematical ysis.If you comider the terminal velocity of che ball bearing in terms of the forves in detail, chen: weight ~ upthrust + Stokes force ing = weight of id displaced + 6m yy wvnere nis the mace of the sphere and gam i ts terminal velocity For the sphere, the mass, is given by: am, = volume X density of sphere = $:° * p, 0 the weight of the sphere Wi given by: W,=me= dare For the sphere, the upthrast is equal to the weight of fluid displaced. ‘The mass 1; of fuid cisplaced is given by: lume % density of fluid = $x? x py so the weight of Muid displaced IV, is given by: Wem me = FP as Overall ten: Faas — Fares + 6xmMP cm We can rearrange the equation to find the terminal velocity: team = E8PE (0, = 0) ary Canceling the a and dhe sais term: erm = 278 (A - A) on So terminal velocity is proportional o the square of the radius. This means that 2 larger sphere falls faster. ‘And because the radius is squared, it falls much faster! Don’t forget that this is hased on a slow-moving small sphere ~ more complex situations have more comple eauations. Te must be remembered that the simple slow-falling sphere is not a common situation and in most real applications the terminal velocity value is a result of more complex calculations. However, the principle that larger objects generally fall faster holds ue for most objects without a parachute Falling object Senet Slyciver o “Golfo | 32 Hailstore (05cm radus) 4 Raindrop (02cm radius) | 8 table 27.5 Some typical el terminal velocities i a Pea A) Worked examples o work out the terminal vlocty of two different sins of stal bal beating falirg through glycerine ina rmeasuting cider, we neec to know the cersiies of steel and glycerine, alorg withthe vscosty of pycerine end the rai ofthe two ball becrngs. The viscosity of glycerine is highly temperature dependert:at 20°C we can take = 15Pas Density of steel = 7800kgr-> Density of glycerine = 1200kgm? = 9.81ms? 2 Fora 1mmratius ball beating: em = 2G = 6) 94 Vem a2 (1x107)2 981 x (7800 — 1200) “m 8x15 =95%« 103ms* b> Fora 2mmradius ball bearing: Nem =274(0.~ 6) “ a veg, _ 22% 10°37 x 9581 x (7800 ~ 1200] sm * Ox15 = 38x 10?ms* Comparing the values. we see that doubling the balls ‘acius makes its terminal velocity four times as great $$ __ Use Stokes’ Law to calculate the viscous drag on a ball bearing with a adivs of trem falling at ‘Imms™ through liquid chocolate at 30°C. 2 Whyisit dificult to calculate the terminal velocity for a cat falling trom a high roottop? 3 Aspherical meteorite of radius 2m ard made of pure iron falls towards Earth. ‘a. Forits fall through the air, calculate the rmeteorite's terminal velocity. 1b Itlands in a tropical freshwater lake at 20°C and continues sinkirg underweter. Calculate its new terminal velocity. ‘© What assumptions have you made in order to make these coleulotions? (Gee table 2.1.1 for density data and table 21.4 for viscosity data.) eeRR 2.2 Strength of materials The physical properties of solids Hooke's Law ‘There is a direct relationship benween stretching a spring and the force it exerts. ‘This relationship was first discovered by Robert Hooke in 1676 and is known as Hooke’s Law, Hooke’s Law states that the force F exerted by a spring is proportional ro its extension Ax, This is usually. written as: B= -khx where & is a constant for a particular spring called the constant of proportionality, oF spring constant. The negative sign shows that the force exerted by the spring is in the ‘opposite direction to the extension (fig. 2.2.7). By using the foree exerted by the spring rather than the force exerted ow the spring, we ensure that we are always focusing on two properties concerned with the spring itself, rather chan one property of the spring (its extension) and a property of something eke (the size of the load used 1 extend the spring). loa fig. 2.21 Fore and extersion for a spring, Tnvestigations show this law applies only for a load up to a certain limit. Up to this limit, the spring regains its original shape when the load is removed. Beyond this limit the extension increases more rapidly than expected, and the spring remains permanently deformed when the load is removed. The lead at ‘which this happens is called the elastic limit. ‘The spring constant is different for different springs and different materials ~ the larger the value of hi the stiffer the spring (fig. 2.2.2), Although we do not usually make use of ‘Hooke’s Law when considering the stiffness of a particular material, solids do show very similar behavicur ro springs. This provides evidence for a model of solids in which the atractive and repulsive forces between the particles behave a litle like springs. Beyond the elastic limit, materials no longer obey Hooke’s Law ‘and may be permanently deformed if stretched any further. ‘This is known as plastic deformation. Some materials have 4 very low elastic limic and do not obey Hooke’s Law at all Plasticine is an example of such @ material. destin, Te slope ofthe graph is, hich Fas Sluis cf Nm Force ° xeric "ig. 22.2 Graphs offorce against extension fr two difornt springs Spring A siifer than spring B~ the curve has the greater slope, and soa greater value cf JPod ng graphs Axes Inplouting a graph we represent the way in which one variable changes with respect to anethet variable. This is done by changing one vatiable (the independent variable) whilst keeping all other conditions corstant, and making observations of the variable in which we are interested (the dependent variable). When these variables are plotted ‘on agraph, the convention is ta plot the Independent variable on the x-axis, and the dependent variable on the _yraxs. In the case ofthe force-extension graph for Hooke’s| Law, the dependent variable isthe force exerted by the spring, which is measured for different extensions — hence ths variable is plotted on the y-axis. Note: in school lb it soften easier to vary the force by loading a spring with an increasing numberof siotted ‘masses In industlel materials testing labs, the extension '5 varied uniformly asthe independent variable with the restoring force procuced by the material being measured, So you may tind that the graphs explained here seem ‘beckwards! compared with your own experiments! Elastic strain energy Errors Ary investigation will involve uncertainty in measurements These uncertainties ase in cfferent ways (see HSW: Uncertainties in measurements on page 67). When potting voribleson a graph its gooe practice to estimate the likoly uncertairty in the measurement of the dependent varieble, and to show this as @ vertical error bar (see fig. 2.2.2) This can ther be used when drawing. line though the points Lines Aline drawn through the points on a graph may be straight ‘or curved, and it may pass through the origin or through | some point on the y-axis. Before drawing a line through the ponts of a graph its usually possibe to have an inteligent idea about the litely shape and intercept of the line, particularly whether it should pass through the origin for not. Using the errer bars, a line through the points can then be drawn, from which gracients and intercepts can be calculated, ‘The energy involved in stretching a spring can be calculated if Hooke’s Law is obeyed. For a given extension Ax, the force exerted by the spring is F. The energy stored in the stretched spring is equal to the work done om ie as ic is suetched — which is a result of | the average force used to stretch it to the extension Ar. Since the force increases linearly from zero to Fas the spring is stretched, the average force used to stretch itis given by: O+FL 2 ‘AE So the work done on the spring is “FAs, Since F= hax, we can substitute foe F in this relationship. This gives: work done = Vékds? ‘This is expressed in terms of the extension of the spring snl the force exerted by i - in other words, itis the work done by she spring. As this is negative, it means thatthe spring guns energy —s0 Yoke? represents the eneray stored inthe spring ~ its potential energy. This potential energy is often called the elastic strain energy, H,. VFA = Ved? By ‘When we calculate the work done in stretching a spring, we are in effect calculating the arca under the force-extension graph (fig. 22.3). Force Extension Force Q oy ‘ig, 2.2.9 The shaded aes in each graph represents the work done instretcing a spring rom zero extersion to an extension afPy eos a 6 adm ‘The force-extersion graph is not a straight line, so we can't simply multiply the fina force by the final extersion to find the work done in stretching the spring, We must find the ares under the graph by estimating. ‘One way 10 do this is to-convert the shape into a rectangle. The blue line is drawn so that the ‘two shaded arees above ard below the curve. ‘ate approximately equal. Then the area below the line represents the work dene in stretching the spring In fig. 2.2.4 the blue line represents a force of 14N, so the work done in stretching, be blo the springs 4x 0.1= 14Nm= 14) ‘This is the elastic strain energy stored in the Fig. 2.24 shows a force-extension graph for a spring, spring. $$ — Tom In an experiment to find the spring ‘constant for a certain spring, it was {found to pull back with a force of 8N, towards its original length of “Bem, when stretched toa new length of 28cm. Calculate the spring constant. 55 shows the result of an ‘experiment in which the force ‘exerted by 2 spring was measured {for different extensions of the spring. Explain how the graph shows that the spring obeys Hooke's Lowe Calculate the spring constant for this spring. Calculate what the extension ‘would be ifthe spring were ‘exerting a force of 115N Calculate the elastic potential ‘energy stored by the spring, when itis extended by 5.5mm. 3. An activity calleg ‘Bungee Run’ allows players ta run along the ground \whilst attache¢ to an anchored bungee coré which has a spring constant of 25Ninr*. fits ratural length is 30mm en a runner manages to stretch it to total length of 38m, how much elastic potential energy is stored inthe cord? vn ° 5 70 * 2 2 Eterson/10%m ‘ie 225 Ferce-extension graph for a spring,Stress, strain and the Young modulus In stretching a spring we are applying a tensile Fores to it (a temsile force is one which puts something in tension, ic. tends to pull t apart). A simple investigation shows that a metal wire behaves in a similar way 1 @ spring when a tensile foree is applied, initially obeying Hoooke's Law. fig, 226 The cables ona suspension bridge ae under tension. asc ted if» manufactrer of climbing rope is to sect 3 materia for a rew rope they wish to make what properties woud they want the materalto have? Apart ‘ror low cost they will need to consider whether twill safely held climbers, especially when they fall andthe rope has to save thern. Knowing the amount of extension for a hen force woule be 4 useful start, end it could be helpful to know something about the force required to actualy pull the material apart ~ its tensile strength {abo called the breaking streze). Both of these will require us ta know something about the sive of the sample of material used, especialy its area of cross-section since this will have a great effect cn its stretching behaviour and its strength. ina similar way, Information about the length of the sample used is necessary ifthe information about the amount of stretch for a given force fs to make any sense at all. Fig. 227 Rapes can save ves, Ircan be easier to solect the right materials if two new properties are defined so that the information about Jength and cross-sectional area can be included in the data relating co the samples. + If we consider tensile force per unit area rather than tensile force alone, this takes into account the sample's area of erors-section. + Ewe consider extension por unit length rather than extension alone, this takes into account the length of the sample. ‘Tensile force per unit area is called tensile stress, tensile force tensile stress = Tensile force _ area of cross-section ‘The SI units oftensile stress are Nir, che same as those for pressure (so tensile stress is sometimes given in pascals). The tensile strength of a material is the tensile stress at which che material breaks. Extension per unit length is called tensile strain, & extension sense sain = Sginal length ax ‘Tensile strain has no unite, as itis the ratio of 0 lengths. Samples of many matetils, particularly metals, are found 10 obey Hooke’s Law for small tensile strains. Under these circumstances, the quantity: tensile stress tensile sain Js constant, This quantity is called the Young modulus, E, Ee ‘The Young modulus has the same units as tensile stress, i.e, Nav, This is the same unit as pressure too, so you can quote both tensile stress and the Young modulus with the units of pressure ~ PsCRC rac Fig. 2.2.8 shows graphs of stress against strain for materials ‘with different Young moduli, The stiffer o material, the greater its Young mostulus, Table 2.2.1 lists the value of the Young modulus for diferent materials. The materials, A.and B, shown on the graph in fig.22.8 han nly beer, tested here within their elastic limits. In the next section wwe will see how their behaviour changes, so that stress and strain are no longer proportional, when the elasti limic is exceeded st 1g, 2.20 The oung mela of « mates is menue of how tt |s.Mateia sstifer than material B asa higher sess 5 needed to pradice the sae strain Midstest 2x 1017 cables ‘Aluminium | 7 x 107° Aria Softwood | 1.5 x 107° Construction (parla ro grain) Brick 7x10 Construction concrete 4x 1010 Construction be 22:1 The Young modulus of a rater is one piece of Iniormation sed by engineers in selecting materials for particular uses ) PB Finding the Young modulus by peeanrs Stress-stiain curves can be produced fiom simple ‘experiments in a school laboratory ane also allow us to find the Yeung rroduius for common materials like copper. Hanging weights can be used to apply a tension force on a wite, Careful maasurement of the extension can be used with measurements of the original length to find the strain, micrometer screw gauge will measure the wire diameter, fom which you can cakculate the cross-sectional rea 4ig.229 Seart’s apparatus canbe wed to tne the voung, modulus By plotting the stiess-strain curves fiom experiments, Uke these. you can investigate the elastic and plastic deformation of a material and cistinguish between them,Tormeasue theYoung modulus To find Ea graphical method is usually usec Since allthat is necessary in principle Js tomeasure the extersion of a sample fora given force and then then to calculate the tensile stress and tensile strain, from which € can be calculated, Inpractice such a methoc Is E = tensile strain It follows that « graph of tensile stess plotted against tensile stain wil have slope E (compare a = Eewithy =mx-+cl. eta ‘To plot the graph you will need to make a numberof measurements. Table 2.2.2 rebable results suggests possible uncertainties in these measurements when using simple equipment, Possible aed ed Foren 22% Siotted masses may have very variable uncertainties in their mass It carefully selected, (ifusingsloved they areunlicely to have an uncertainty of mare than 42g, The ras used will need rrasses) to be converted to weight wsing an approprate value of g the approximation of gto “DAI Ig woul lsd to an ancestsin'y of rave than + 1% 22% ‘A mirometer should be cpsble of measuring wite Tren in dameter o within (wsingrricometer)_30.02mm i use careful ths an uncertainty of #2%, which wil aso be the Uuneararnty of herds 2) Cross 124% (Jeperdson Since the cross-sectional area of the wire depenus on ks rauus?, the uncerainty of the sectional radius!) cross-sectional aes will be vce the uncertainty of the racus. (Where two cuentities arealr ‘ore multiplied zogether or one is divided by the other their uncertainties are added 20 fine the uncertainty of the result. Where "wo quartities area added or subtracted the'r Uncaraintos are averaged to find the uncertainty ofthe recut) Origine ergth £1.59 (using metre Ie picce of wie 2 mlong is used its length ean be rieesure to within eround 31mm ofwireim re] Using a metre cule = an uncertainty of 1.5%. Bacension of| The extension ofthe wire depends on many factor tei length, cross-sectional ares viele 210% and the material it is mad off extensions of the onder of Sm ate measured to “within OSmmm, the uncertainty is +10%. Tensile stress 25% This is the cum of the unceraintes for F ard 4 FA Tenslestran £115% This is the sum ofthe uncertainties for Ax and x = she ‘able 222 Measurements fer nding E, together with posse uncertainties ‘The largest uncertainty in any measurement of E comes error in Measurement = + 0.5mm bn the meenurenet of extension. Accarete metho for vue of meesrement » Sri measuring thie concentrate on measuring Ax with seercr » 95 100K as great a precision as possible. The percentage errors s are cakeuated by fining wat fraction cf the value = 10% the ero represents. for exemple for the errarin the ‘The overall uncertainty in Eisley tobe 46% + 215%, ection ofthe wie eeerenCRC rac Characteristics of solids The behaviour of materials which ate subject to stress is often represented by means of stress-strain curves. Fig.2.2.10 shows a typical stress-strain curve for 2 metal. As the stress increases, the sample begins to narrow at one point. This is called pecking’ (fig. 2.2.17 antic egion- the exenson increases rapidly for aml ineeare in force nhs region. Sods which hore nth ey oe called doce he tes sirengshof the materia as this value the actual street the point. of beabage = ~\ Ifthe averse tess ifthe stress a the song the materalis pent whee the \, pled the gph mate rorting Fellewrthietnas ie pleted, tho graph \ Folows this tne propertonaiy — tine stiess Viel pinta thispoine the materi shows lage increaseinstiein ra tmallincreace sree Elastic timit at hsp the materiel stops Lechevingelatcaly ond bea to beeve panel When te siessistemoved the mater dees net \ Fetum to is og enh LUnear region ~excersion = force The pint which thisbehaviousops scaled the proportionality Ut fig. 2.10 Stress-strain curve for a metal fig. 2217 Macking in wire under tose, Bacau the crete proportionate 1! the stress lenge at ths pon en a other polnts along the sample, Once necking has occured the samele wil bgin to alt thispoint Deforming solids So far we have looked at the ability of a material to resist a ensile force, which is called ils stiffmess, and he censile stress at which a material fails ~ its tensile strength. Both of these terms consider only situations in which the sample of material is under tension (ie. being pulled apart), without thinking about any other siuiation, In many situations, the force on a material will he tending to reduce the volume co squash the material ‘This is Inown as a compressive force and pists the material under compression, | | ‘ sheerstes ig, 22.12 im practclstuttons, materials reed 0 be able to reset these sorts of deformations a wellas tense ‘etermations ‘Compressive force per unit area is called. compressive stress. compressive force compressive stress = —Somprestve force m area of cross-section ‘The ST units of compressive stress are Nim, the same as those for pressure (30 compressive siress is sometimes given in pascals) ‘The compressive strength of a matcrial is the compressive stress at which the material breaks, Extension per unit length is called, compressive strain: compressive strain = —2*tension _ mr onginal length ‘Compressive strain has no units, as itis the ratio of two lengths, ‘Some materials have very low tensile strength, but are strong when they are subjected to compressive stress ~ brick and concrete are two very common examples of such materials. The strength of a material under shear stress is related (© some extent to its tensile strength. In general, the strength of a material refers 10 its ability (o Withstand stress, Whether tensile, compressive or shear.lifts designed to hold a maximum of 12 people. The lift cage tas amass of 500kg, and the distance from the top {loor ofthe building to the groune flor is 50m. 42 What minimum cross-sectional area should the cable ave? Estimate how much the steel it cable wil stretch i 19 people get into the lift at the groune oor, assuming, ‘thatthe lift cable has four times the atea of cross- section calculated in a (Young modulus of steel = 20x 10" Nir, tensile strength of steel = 4.0.x 10°Nm®,g = 9.81Nkg') a Assume the mass of an average person = 7Okst load on catte = [(12 x TOkg) + ScOkg] x 981Nkg * = 13000 tensile strength = 40% 102Nmr-? _ 13000N aiea Rearanging: 13000N - Fe cig BI Tin? Minimurn eres of cross-section of cable is 0.33er?, Assume the mass of an average person = 70k. ‘extra load on cable = 10 x TOkg x 981 Nkg* = 5900 cross-sectional area of cable = 4x 33x 10-5 13 104m? tensile ferce/area tensile stress Tensile strain extensionfonignal length ° @90DN/1.3 x 104m? ‘x/50m 2x10" Nmv? ax = S003 10" 2x 10750 = 13% 102m The lft cable stretches by about en ackltional Tem. (Note that the lift cage will akeady have stretched the cable by a little under Tem) ee Mowe 1 Explain why the units of the Young modulus eauld be Pascals. 2 The wre In a new guitar'string Is made of a 900m steel wire of dlameter ‘1mm. When the string is fitted to the guite, the sting is put under a tension of 75N by winding it round « peg and this alzo stretches it by 0.5mm. a What isthe stress in the wire? What i the wite’s strain? © What isthe Yourg modulus for this kind of stee!? 3 a ‘nan experiment to fird the Young modulus, the strain should rot be 1000). Explain what this statement means. Describe an experiment to determine the Young modulus for the metal ina wire. Taking into account the possible errors in measurements, ‘explain why the limitation ina isnecessary. ¢_ Insuch en experiment, a brass wire of diameter 950 x 10~tmis used. If the Young modulus for brass is 9.86 x 10'°Ni, find the greatest force which could be used to keep within the limitation in part a. ————————— more thenCenc Duralrinalioy—2 tough Imateralwhich sleet s0x10) Stes sian ° 10x10 E i Covance ae itl, but tox es ae eee pe ape re cae ea mat ig. 2.213 The aefulnes of amaterial depends on ts strest-stran behaviut Ductile materials are those which show plastic deformation ~ metals usually behave like this (tig. 2.2.10). Materials which break or erack with litle deformation are called brittle. It is important to understand that brittle does not mean weak ~ although giass is a brite material, its tensile strength ccan be as great as that of aluminium. Some ceramics (materials generally made of clay) actually have @ greater tensile strength than most metals! ‘Tough materials are able to withstand impact forces without breaking and require a large force t@ produce a small plastic deformation, Tough materials are therefore not brittle. Composite materials, which are combinations of mere than ene material, often gain the best propertics of both. Living wood is an example of a composite material which is tough ~ the combination of materials within the wood allow i be both strong and elastic, which makes it very tough. A lot of energy’ is required to break wood from a live ree, Once dead, wood dries out and this removes the flexibility, making it more brittle ~ and less tough, Sports equipment is often made from carbon fibre (another composite material), as this i also tough and will survive the rigours of the sport without breaking Hard materials are those which resist plastic deformation ~ usually by denting, but you can alse consider it in terms of scratching or cutting. There are various standard techniques far measuring this, most of which involve measuring the size of a dent 10! Rubber icity eluctantte cet, but ‘hon oxtenes coll unt troschee 3 point vince becomes har o stretch agai Tshhghly ease behaviour makesit deal Terseintyresanastock absorber Rubber sabletodspeteenerythrouch 2 process called hysteresis Thisis tapi in section 25, poor 188 Steet? 3 produced by pressing a diamond into the surface with a certain force. In 1824, the German geologist Friedrich Mohs published a scale for classifying mineral hardness. His principle was that a material that could scratch another material should be higher (or at least the same value) on the seale. He standardised he scale by naming ten types of mineral in order, from tale which is the sofiest mineral, up to diamond, which is the hardest natural material. Tt is for this reason that diamond is used in some hardness testing procedures, and is commonly used for industrial deill bits. ig 2214 Testing » gemstone For hardness value sharp Instruments o various hardnesses are agpled to the lowest part ofthe gem unt a scratch is made hardners. Starting with the lowest‘The seale is effective but, by comparing materials with each other, does not give absolute values and so is Tittle used in engineering. Mohs hardness number Mineral Scientists will often come up with a need for e material with certain properties. In order to mate a good climbing rope, the manufacturers wil want a material 1 Talc ‘which, amongst other properties Is ightwelght, and 2 Gypsum stretches allitle but pot toe much ~ 2 medium Young, 5 eh ‘modulus. In erder to choose an appropriate material to 4 Fluorite solve a problem, they may look at a materials selection Bo) Aa chart This has twa properties plotted as graph aves anc 6 Orthoclace vatious mateias are positioned on the chart deperding Tee upon their values fer those two propetie 8 Topaz 9 Corunéum 10 Diamond foble 229 Marder materi eanscratch softer ones for example, test materal can scratch cate But set seratched by tuo, then It wuld be given a value of 3.5 on the Noks hardness seal ‘Materials whieh show large plastic deformation before cracking or breaking are called malleable, These are therefore not brittle, slthough they are noe necessarily tough. Icis a similar property to ductility, as a malleable ‘material can be reshaped easily without fracturing. The word comes from malleus the Latin word for hammer, as malleable materials can he worked into shape with a hammer. ‘The most malleable material is gold, which can be rolled, pressed or hammered with the greatest of case. Sheets as thin as 0.2m, known as gold leaf, are used artistically in gilding. Ir can also be so thin that the quantity of metal is so small that it is considered safe for human consumption and is used 10 decorate chocolates and desserts, oF even drinks. Also, the minute quantity of gold used means that these uses may not be prohibitively expensive. )) HSW The Mohs hardness scale ooo oor ay} HO ss betsle Tough? tough Vig 2275 Achar of strength against toughness is useful for selecting materals tat arent nly strong (an cary igh static load before deforming) bu als tough can withstand Impact load. ee =D 1. What is meant by a elastic limit plastic behaviour ¢ Hoote's Law d_ breaking stress compressive strain? HMlustrate your answers with appropriate graphs. There is evidence that Mehs tock considerable credit ‘ot work that was rot entirely his wn, A system for comparing the hardness of minerals very similar to Mohs wes published by Abrehara Werrer in 1774, when Werner was 24 years old. Wemer went on to become a professor at Freiburg University, and Mohs’ teacher. Ths system of classifying mineral hardness did not become widely used until Mohs, who had stepped into Werner's job after his death in 1817, published a very similar idea in 1824. 2. The compressive strength for marble is 112MPa. If ‘a marble column holcing up the roof ofa temple Js accylnder ané supports 1.43 x 10"N of the “eight of the roof, what is its minimum diameter? 3. Define the following terms and, for each, give an ‘example of a material which shows the property ‘and a use that this makes it suitable for: ‘a malleable b tough ¢ hard d ductile e brittle 4CRC rac Materials in the real world Asa part of his investigations into viscous drag in the nineteenth century, Beer Stokes developed che falling ball viscometer. This device measares ‘viscosity and can be used in chocolate ‘manufacturing t ensure that the ligui crder 10 produce perfect sweets The measurement of material properties isa vital part ef design and production in every chocolate will Bow correctly in ‘manufacturing industry. To fow ¥ ensure that e centre is correctly coated with an even layer of chocolate the viecosity properties ofthe liquid chocolate used in their marutacture must be well known. How those properties change with a slight change in recipe or temperature ' vital to producing the product fg 2218 vith as little wastage as possible, rg. 2.2.15 the emoting process. Chose ang LL Stokes Law can be observed in action, or vetted, by cropping ball bearings into a thick enue [7 ligule giycerl, and measuring the rte cf ‘inde Lf sey sinking ence terminal velocity hasbeen reached, Sete Semen ein = a — / Yee = 29 (0, =e) ies 20cm 9H \ Ifyou lookat the results gained by students a a Going the experiment shown in fig. 2.2.17, they have measured the reds of several see! ball bearings andthe time each one takes to fall a marked 20cm through a measuring cylinder of slycerol. They have then calctated the squate of the rads and the terinal velcity of each ball bearing If you plot a graph of terminal velocity (y-anis) against r2 (as). then from Stckes! expression forthe terminal velocity, and using the other data the stucents measured, the gadient ofthe best-fit ne on the graph will alow you tocaleulate the coefficient of viscosity. 1, for alerol at the temperature of this experiment 1g. 22.17 Measuring the wscosty of gycerlMind your head Previously we saw how climbing ropes need « be made from a material which is a good compromise between stiffness, breaking stress, cost and density. “There are other materials involved in climbing which must have goed enough properties t keep their users safe. In modem mountaineering or rock climbing, very few climbers would be foolish enough to take to the rocks without a helmet. Should they slip and swing on the safety rope, a head collision with the rock face can easily prove fatal, Climbing helmets have developed from hand hats used for industrial safety, Farly versions wore similar to their industrial counterparts, which often made chem uncomfortable, ‘Also, climbing dangers are more likely to include side impacts. So, helmets for climbing have developed a closer profile and more complete head coverage. Also, ac g personal investment, many climbers are willing to pay a litte mote for a helmet which is lighter and ‘more comfortable during active use. ‘This means that instead of using the traditional polycarbonate or high- density polyethylene (HDPE), newer materials like carbon-fibre reinforced polymer (CFRP) are often used for climbing helmets. These materials are hard and strong, but must be chosen carefully to ensure that they are not too brittle, ‘To ensure that a climbing helmet will provide sufficient protection to its user, helmets undergo strength testing. These tests are cartied oat in different ways, at different temperatures, and on ifferent paris of the helmet, in onder fo test against all likely dangers. Some samples are eeled te ~18 °C for a two-hour period prior to testing and ethers are heated to 49°C for two hours hefore testing. ‘The “standard drop tex’ involves dropping a Sky steel ball from a height of 2m on the top of the helmet as it sits on a dummy head. The compressive stress produced must not be more than the breaking stress of the helmet’s material, or it will fal. In addition, under the no more than 8EN of peak force can be transmitted to the head, European Union climbing helmet standard, ee Breakingsuess | MPa 650 965 Tougheess | ar 90 saa Young modulus | GPa 230 zr Density gem 1 148 “able 22. Some material properties for plyearbonate and CFRP. Note that these are example igre, as the exact properties wil depend on the exact oc sed inthe manafactar of thet pastes Some of the protection provided by a climbing helmet comes from its design. The shell will transfer force to the intemal webbing straps which thus spread the force out evenly over the skull. However, the material from which the helmet: is made must have sulficient strength in itself The toughness of a matcrial shows sts ability co absorb energy during fracture. The Digger the number, the more energy the material can absorb as it becomes damaged. So, the greater the toughness, the better protection this material will provide. Comparing the figures in table 22.4, CFRP hhas a lower toughness value than polycarbonate, and is stiffer, but CFRP is significantly stronger, with a breaking stress of typically, 96.5MPa, OED 1a. How does the terminal velocity of a smell sphere through a liqud give us an indication of the viscosity ofthe liquid? 1b How is this idea used in 2 falling;ball viscometer? © Why's the viscosity of chocolate important in the confectionery industry? 2 Describe, in detail an experiment that could determine how the viscosity of chocolate veries as ite temperature increases, What is the breaking stress of a material? b How would the brecking stress of a meterial to be used in a building site hard hat affect the choice of material used? ‘€ How applicable would each ofthe flowing terms be to the plastic used in building site hard hats? malleable ductile tough brittle strong hard stiff 3RR Examzone: Topic 2 Materials 1. Control of high-whime manufactsring ‘production, such as in the steel industry, is achieved through regular sampling and testing of the product, ‘The pieture shows & machine called a tensile ester. Te is stretching @ semple at a constant rate, The test sample is a rod of steel approximately the size of pencil ‘The results below were from a test on a sample of steel of 1.3% 10-4 m? ‘cross-sectional arez end 6.5 > 10° m length, The teasion T applied to dhe ‘sample and its resulting extension Aw were measured until the sample failed. mon jo |s | w | |e 2 | | 3 adem 0 2 mw 10D Prot a graph of these results @ Tndicate on the graph with the leer P the limit of proportionality. o Calculate the sess applied tothe specimen zt this point @ Calculate the strain in the semple at point P oy Calculate the Young modulus For this steel. Oy A scoond sample of exactly the same size is stiller, weaker and brite. Sketch a fine on your graph predicting the results for the sample. ‘Label this line X. @ (otal 10 marks) 2 Nomias is « new material intended for fishing rods. Copy and complete the table below for the four oxher properties af materiaks listed. Property Desirable forred Not desirable forrod Reason Strong ‘ Needs a large force before it breaks Elasie Bale Hae Tough (Total 8 marks)3. Training shocs (trainers) have changed a lot from the original rubber-scled ‘canves shoss of the 1930s, They now combine the most up-to-date research from the fields of physics and chemistry to cape with high levels of impact. Copy and complete the following table for the material properties listed Property | Desrable for | Not desirable for | Keason v [Nees alge force te produce a smal delomation Plastic Tough Battle ©) Calculate the average compressive stress exerted on the soles of the trainers ‘wom by an 80 ky athlete when the athlete is standing still. ‘Total area of both tainer seles in contact with the groun 42% 107 @ ‘At certin positions during the stlete’s running stide the stress is greater than when the athlete is standing still. Jdenify one such position and explain ‘why the sures is greater @ (Fotat 10 marks) 4- Do not try this at heme! ‘The website ‘urban myths’ claims that « man in California tied s number of balloons filled with helium to his chair in the garden, with a view 10 gently hovering ahove the neighbourhood, “The moment he cut the anchoring cord e shot upwards toa height of about 4000 m, Several ours later he Was rescued by a helicopter after being spotted by an aii pit TW the combined mass of the man and Ue Chee was 70 by, calculate their weight. o ‘What is meant by the term upthrust? 2 Show that the upthrust in newtons irom the balloons is about 13 where 1” in the total volume of the balloons in cubic metres, The density of ait is 1.29 kg mo @ “Write down an expression, ia trms of 1 forthe weight of the helium in the balloons. The density of helium is 0.18 kg m°3. «) Calculate the total volume of the balloons rectired just to lift the man, nd is chair from the grotind. Assume the weight of the halloom fabric is negligible ey Fxplsin why any viscous érsg force can be fgnored in the previens calculation, @ (Total 11 marks)Cae Rr Topic3 Waves ‘This topic covers the properties of different types of waves including standing (suuionary) waves. You will ako explore applications of waves in music, medical physies and astronomy. What are the theories? Before you can make any detailed interpretation of waves, you will need to earn the funcamencals of how to describe them and measure their properties, wavelength, frequency, speed and amplitude, These help us to classy waves ~ in particular the various regions in such 3s the electromagnetic spectrum, There are many interesting wave phenomena. How clfects such a di Traction and polarisation can be explained will be covered in some detail, You will learn how to celeulare che dear using Snell’ law, and how observations oF the Doppler clfect provide evidence for the Big Bang theory and the to which waves are refracted expanding Universe What is the evidence? ‘You will investigate various aspects of waves, including, experiments confizm the relfactive index of materials, and predict whether total internal relection will occur, You will ako undertske investigations into diffraction and polarisation. Scientists have used experimental evidence about waves to confirm many theories sbout the world around tus, and this has led t refinement of the details of our understanding of the nature of the Universe, For example, our explanetion of the nature of the clectron hos been updated after scientists managed to diffract electrons. What are the implications? ‘The differing properties of the different regions of the electromagnetic spectrum make them useful for differing applications, You will get to grips with some applications for each part of this spectrum, For example, the tora) internal reflection of visibe light allows it 1 ‘wavel along an optical fibre, carrying information for twlecommunications, oF as a picture of a place your eve ccoulel not reach, like the inside of 3 patient or the bottom of a narrow ersin ‘The wave explonation of how bets navigate hes led scientists to the development of medical ultrasound dllagnosis techniques. ‘These are now so sophisticated that pregnant mothers can obtain aa ukrasound ‘video? of their unborn child Edwin Hubble’s analysis of the Doppler shift of light rom distant galaxies led to the development of the Big Tang theory end estimations of the age of our Universe, "The man opnosite shows you all the knowlesige and sls vou need to have by the end of this topic, The colour in each box shows which chapter they are covered in and the number refer to the sections in the Feexoel specificationse gaghs to present wanavee ane longtuainal wares, ncuding sanding ves (2), ndestand ané we the terme anpliude, Frequency period, speed and wavelength (28) ‘recognise and use the evpresion Tor eeractveiex ip = AHCI = yl etermine te reactive index ‘or ‘2materal inthe laboratory, and rede wrothe total nerna, Feflecien wil eccurat an Interface using critical angle (36) ‘cal than geal wanes ae Wasmited and flected at 20 incertace between media (44) explain how diferent media ect the tranemisslon/refection cof waves ravling rom ore -mesiuen to another (25) [ar Ore) Identity the diferent regons of the dectromagneticspectum snd dezzribe cere of ‘er spaicrions (23) explain and use sre concepts of waretront, coherence, path difererce, siperpoition nd phase (3) se the wave equation v= f(20) refractive inde (38) Investigate and explain vat is rear by plane Dotansed ight (8) Investigate ani explain how to messre the rotation of the plane of palasstion (40) ‘opin qualitatively haw the moverset of ax0urce ‘of sun or ligt relative to the observer /éetecor ‘hver rca toa cif in fequency (Doppler fect) ‘nd explore appcatiors rat use this effet (47) levesigate and espain haw ta ‘ease reactive ine (27) Gicuce situations that require the accurate ceterminarion of explore and explain how a pulse echo technique can provi detas ofthe postion ard/or speed of an object and describe aplication: of this tecknique (46), recognise an use recall that a sour the elaionship wave fsa orginal, between phase wave leh can be Aifference ard oath ceserbed in teers > OOOO OO00ONNIANINNNINDNNDONOAAO. OO DOdaIONMNOGDDD Momence (7 pegtnedcm |" o Zea | rye AY Ina mares eh sles | | | | Seeigtge tia south as Ina lorgcufial wave, he oxcilations ‘occur paral othe erection of ravel ‘tthe ave A sree, onghudinal wave conait of vrs of ‘Compressons(C) end rrefections (Ri j ea — > LITE AL MUU TEP TAT c c fig. 5.11 The propagation of atansverse wave ard a longhudinal wave along. inky, In bot cares > the wave caries energy from lett right, aay from the scuce of the waves,Waves that are produced on a slinky in this way travel to the other ~ they are example: of from one end o! progressive waves, Waves - circular and plane, continuous, trains and pulse ‘The way in which a wave is described in physics gives some very precise information about it, Seen from above, the waves that result from a stone being dropped into a pond appear as a series of citcles, lke the waves on the ripple tank in fig. 3.1.28, Waves lke this are called eireular waves ‘Waves on the surface of the sea often appear as a series Of parallel lines, like those on the ripple tank in fig. 3.1.2b, ‘These are plane waves. fig. 3.1.20 Choular waves on aripple ark nthe diagram represeringthe waves, the tines represent ORR ‘The waves on the surface of the sea may seem to go on for ever, but of course they do not! Physicists often want to refer to waves that do go con for ever, ie, that have an infinite length, Such waves are the products of your imagination, bur are often used in situations where physicists want to be sure that they are modelling what is happening in the middie of a wave rather than at ce start or end of it, Waves like this are called ‘continuous waves, while waves that do have a beginning and an end are called wave trains, ‘Where we are considering a very short wave motion, the term pulse is used ~ a wave pulse does not contain any repeated up and down motion, the crest of the waves, ard are refered to at wavefronts, Plane waves on «rte tank ard thelr Aiagramatic representation. lane waves can be thought of as a special case of circular waves they tar effectively excelar waves that have ther source very long distance avy. <— evave tala spike B fig. 3.13 continuous wave, 2 wave rain and 2 pulse,aR Wavefronts and rays ‘We have viewed waves ‘sideways on’, and drawn them as we should see thom as if we were looking at them in cross-section. Locking from above ‘would give us a different picture. If we consider a ripple spreading out (on the surface of a pordl after a pebble has been thrown into the water, a ‘snapshot oF the ripple at some instant can be represented as a circle with its ‘contre at the point where the pebble entered the water, The circle is called a wavefront, and passes through every point on the ripple that has the same phase — usually the crest. Straight lines may also be drawn from the point of the disturbance to show how the ripple spreads out in all directions. These lines pass through the ‘wavefronts at 90°, and are called rays. ‘1 Make lists of three examples of each of transverse and longitudinal waves. Start each list with either light or sound. 2 a. Define the word ‘propagation’ when referring to waves. b What isthe difference between a continuous wave and a weve train? 3. How can plane waves be considered to be a special case of circular waves at 2 great distance from thelr source? 4 Draw a diagram ofa light ray reflecting froma flat mirror. Ina ifferent colour, draw wavetronts on the diagram, both before and after the reflection, tollustrate how they relate to rays. 5 Why coulé continuous waves be sald to be a scientific model?The vital statistics of a wave There are a number of essential measurements that are Although this relationship has been derived using associated with any wave. If the wave is a progressive a transverse wave as an example, it also applies «© cone, the speed at which it travels will be one of these. Jongitadinal waves. Note that the frequency of a wave ‘This is linked to two other measurements of the wave, is by definition the same as the frequency of its source, its wavelength and its frequency. The relationship since itis a measure OF the rate at which oscillations between these three quantities is illustrated in fig.3, are occurring in the wave, and these osellations are directly caused by an oscillating source, py Py + Imagine stending on a seeside pier that extends 109 metres ite the water. Wetching waves pass the end of ‘the pier, thay come in ata frequency of 2 every second fig. 9.1.5 The drawings show two"snapshotsof «wave pube traveling, and there is @ 3 metre cistance from one crest to the through polats A Band C.The puis is one wavelength lng. next. How long does i take each wave to get fiom the A oases Now Tris the time taken for a point on the wave to move time = = * =1675 dhrough ene complete ovilation, that is, T's its period. “This is related to the frequency of the oscillation, f, such that: Another important measurement concerned with any oe ped vewve fits ampltade, the eraienum diplacerent of oi r any point onthe wave (ee fig 3.1.6). For a transverse ish meane tha we can write wave the ampliude is the maximum displiceme . Grom the centre (equilibrium) position, not the distance yp between 2 peak and a trough. ‘The amplitude of a th Jongitudinal wave is the maximum displacement of any point on the wave from the equilibrium position, just speed (ms"l) = frequency (Hz) © wavelength (m) as for the transveree wave. transverse wave amplitude \ Suittrir postion longtutraave one WEEE EL AY PEPE EE E> equitrium postion fig. 3.16 Thedefirtion a amplitude fora wave is exactly the same ats definition foranorilationNN Between them, wavelength and amplitude would, appear to give all the information needed to deseribe a wave in non-mathematical terms. This is not quite true, however. As anyone familiar with musical instruments knows, a note of the stme pitch played on different instruments sounds quite different. This is in part due to the way in which the instrament vibrates to produce the note, and gives rise to the idea of the quality or timbre of a sound, Making waves All waves are produced by oscillations of some sort ‘This may be as simple as a drop of rain falling onto the surface of a pond, causing a small volume of water to ofcillate and a circular wave to be propagated ‘outwards from it, it may be a hand oscillating and producing a wave along a slinky, or it may be the more complex process of an electron osellating 1 produce the interlocking electric and magnetic fields that make up an electromagnetic wave Fig. 3.1.7 shows a ‘snapshot’ of a ansverse wave in a slinky. The hand moves from side to side with period 7 and amplitucle A, and the wave travels with vel f. Points that are a whole wavelength apart oscillate im phase, while those that are a distance 42 apart oscillate in antiphase. ord moves with amplitude A and period 7 (ig. 3.17 Trreverta wave showing phase / hand moves with amplitude A and period ig. 3.18 Alongitudinl wave showing phase Fig.3-1.8 shows a ‘snapshot’ of a longitudinal wave in a slinky, The hand mover back end forth with period T and armplitade A, and the wave travels with velocity’ = JA. Again, points that are a distance A apare oscillate in phase, while those that are a distance 22 apart oscillate in antiphase. Point B on the wave is at a point where compression is occurring ~ the points to the left of point B are displaced to the right of their equilibrium position, while those w the right of point B are displaced to the left of their equilibrium position. ‘The reverse is true of point D, which is at a point of rarefaction ~ the points (0 the left of point D are displaced to the left of their equilibriam position, while those to the righr of D are displaced to the right of their equilibrium position, Aaie & Oisplacementy fig. 219 Plat af diplacomant apsnst time far paints 8,C and D along each ware, as well a he had (H)procucing te wave A plot of the displacement from the equilibrium position against time for the different points on each wave produces a graph like that in fig. 3.1.9. In each, case the hand I and point D on the wave move in exactly the same way, as they sre in phase. That is, as the hand moves up (in the transverse wave) or to the right (in the longitudinal wave) D moves with it, Thus point H and point D are one wavelength (A) apart =r one cycle apart, Point A is one-quarter of a cycle behind H, a phase difference of ~80° (see fig. 3.1.10). Point B is half a eyele behind H, so B and Hare in antiphase, with a phase difference of -180°, Point C is three-quarters of a cycle behind H, with a phase difference of -270"ores 6, 3.1.10 Twosne curves 90" epet. ‘The curve of displacement against time for a wave has the same shape as a sine curve. Fig. 3.1.10 shows the sine curves for the angle 6° and the angle 20 + O°. The curve for sin(90 + is a quarter of a cycle ahead of the curve for sin #° ~ there is a phase difference of 90%, So half a cycle corresponds t0 a phase difference of 180°, three-quarters of a cycle corresponds to a phase difference of 270°, and a complete cycle corresponds to a phase difference of 360”. wavelengin +h Dizanca for sours ofartertorce Dasplacomant 1g.5.1.11 A Snapshot of he siplacemen ef he polts along the length ofa answers wave moving from eft to igh. (Phase differences may also be given using angles in radians. A complete cycle of 360° is 2m radians, so one-quarter of a cycle corresponds to /2 radians, half @ cycle to 2 radians, and three-quarters of a cycle to 3n/2 radians.) “The displacement of a wave with distance from the disturbance producing the wave is shown in fig. 3.11. All of the points on this progressive wave hhave the same amplitude and period of oscillation, but the phase of the ‘oscillations varies as the distance from he source of the disturbance vats, Qa 1 Aloudspeaker cone is moving back ard forth to Yellow light from the Sun has a wavelenath of produce a sound wave and tates 12 miliseconds to '850nm and a frequency of 5.45 x 10"4Hz What is complete ene cycle of movement What frequency the speed ofthe light? sound is being produced? 3 imagine a wave tran on the surface of the sea. What are 2. In both parts to this question show your working, ‘the phase differences between: Yellow light from the Sun tekes 500 seconds to 2 two wee cmt reach the Earth, which is 1.5 x 107m from the Sun. by ecrestand thervext trons What is the speed of the light? € @ trough and the crest three waves infront?An introduction to the behaviour of waves The principle of superposition (ig. 3.1.12 Waves ca cross cach othe's pts without Starting each other, When two wave pulses are sent from opposit slinky spring, the pulses travel through each other and cn tw the endl of the spring as if die other pulse was not nds of a there at all. IF both pulses have the same phase, at the point where the two cross a large pulse can he seen for a brief instant, before the two pulses continue on their way. (On the ether hand, if dhe ovo pul phase the spring appears undis cross (fig. 3.1.13), s are 180° out of aced while the ewo pulses ‘This behaviour of waves can also be observed using water waves on a ripple tank, although it is not quite so to do. The behaviour is summarised as the pri superposition, which states that: Where two or more waves meet, the total displacement at any point is the eum of the displacements that each individual wave would cause at that point. ‘Since displacement is a vector quanuity, in Uccermnining the total displacement itis important to remember to take into account whether each individual displacement is positive or negative.) ‘The principle of superposition applics to all waves, and depends on the phase difference of the waves involved. ‘This in tam depencis upon the path difference between the waves involved. How far 4 wave has travelled determines its phase pesition, 10 if different waves individually travel different distances, they may he out of phase. We shall return to these ideas in chapter 3.2. Classifying waves ‘Waves can be classified into progressive and stationary waves, Progressive waves are waves in which the positions of its peaks and troughs are moving. These waves are important because of their properties of ‘action at a distance’ ~ in other words, their propert of the way a pebble thrown into the water causes 4 Waler wave lo spread out over the surface of a pond, cs as energy carriers. (Think: ying energy with it as it docs <0.) Stationary waves are also known as stam e waves, The words stationary and standing refer to the fact that the wave is not a progressive one the positions of the peaks and troughs in it are not moving. Their importance lies in escillations that occur in many systems, including stretched strings and in columns of air, and in structures such as bridges and vehicle components. They also provide a vital cool for understanding the behaviour of electrons and other subatomic particles. fig. 3.113 Standing wave ona vibrating srg. staning wave. alo known as astatonary wave is 2 wave that remalneina conrart positon IF the medium [here the ring) isnot moving with respect to the wave, then the standing wave isa esut of Interference between two waves traveling in oppslte ‘et = Othe wove traveling rom lett right) the wove beveling fom Fight oleh — once erat show es —— The sum of these Ingle wave WIth twice the split. Displacement x) Displacement ( > che two progressive waves have movedso that they oinéde The sumof them fre wave which sin phase with the resultant wave produced at» O,but witha smaller ample Displacement i s ieee oft 27, eteritthe me progressions ae agnd cosh thay i <= SF Biman) ete sn remiss wor cow apie ‘ 3 : ss 1= 317 thera pages wars ro loge cnc ost E tut produce swoveunich it antphase wth eet g ‘wove prodice t= 0,but with ¢zmller emplzude 3 A 3 2 At 2th wo rotesse waves coincide ot once i tte tu the wows teas fom seca ante a Capea) ome woaceat = 8 sngh ene A s ; ertt 277 x Dilceent gL = = = 4:1 31/4 thetvoprogesie waves cancel out once more Diplocament) 17 Tihs wares coincide omciysthey att = 0, Displacement ( fig. 3.1.16 Two progressive waves moving in oppesite directions produce a stationary wave,For a string stretched between two fixed points (like the guitar string in fig. 3.1.14), the amplitude of the vibration of the string must be zero at either cend, since it is fixed at these points. Given this restriction, it can be shawn that the only Waves that are possible on the string are those where: a where / = the length of the string and 1 is a whole number 1, 2, 3, etc. ‘This means that nodes will oecur on the string at a distance of €, 2, 4, 34.2 from the end of it, and that neighbouring nodes are separated by a distance of 2/2, as are neighbouring antinodes. Tt also means that the fundamental mode of vibration of a string is an oscillation with a wavelength tovice the length of the string, that is, 4 = 21. These points are shown in fig. 31.17, fundamental raqueey fg id tamonic fg feat 3 ON NN cand harmonic 2 fourth harmon fy wae! cee 1g.3.1.17 The int four modes of vibrtion of a stretched string. Notice thatthe distance between adjacent nodes or artnodes is ays 2/2, nd that thee i always anode at each eadof the sting 1 Sketch diagrams to show how a double bass string could vibrete at its fundamental frequency, and the mode of vibration producig its second harmonic. Label all nodes ond entinodes, and annotate to show how the string length compares with the wavelength of the sounds. 2 a the double bassin question 2 has an £ string with a fundamental frequency of 41 Hz, calculate the frequency of the second and third harmonics. Ifthe double bass € string is 106m long, what is the speed of sound in the string? 3 Certain factors, Ike weather, can cause a bridge to vibrate at its fundamental frequency, ust like a gultar string. Under the right conditions, these vibrations can be very violent. Discuss why civil engineers would need to consider these factors wien designing a bridgerace ny Reflection at the end of a string The formation of a stationary wave on a string relies on the rellection of a progressive wave at the ends of the string. Tt also depends on the fact that such a reflection gives rise to a phase change of 180°. fore of stang > ensuoport <—_ fore af support onstring 5g, 9.1.18 As the pulse reaches the end ofthe string the string verte force onthe suppor. ‘The support exerts a ferce equal in site but opposite in lection on the string an so the pulse is reflected with a phase charge of 180". ‘This phase change on reflecion occurs nly Where a ‘hard’ reflection occurs, ‘where the string is comnected to a massive solid object. Where the string is joined to 2 light object (another, lighter string, for example) reflection also ‘occurs at the boundary between them, but with no phase change, Other waves behave in the same way as waves on a string. F 1 example, light waves are reflected with a phase change of 180° when travelling from a less dense medium to 2 more dense medium, but with no phase change at a ‘more-dense-to-less-clense boundary, e@—-9oe—@ ig 3.1.19 Phases changes reflected ight wave.Harmonics ‘Many systems (not just stretched strings) have a set of natural frequencies of vibration. The set of vibrations associated with a particular gystem (whether it is a string or air colurmn in a musical instrament, a tall skyscraper or the ‘wing of a jet airliner) is called its harmonics, and the second and higher harmonics are sometimes (especially in the case of musical instruments) referred to as overtones. {g.3.1.20 The same note played on a plano and jaxophone will sound very diferent. ‘The note played on a piano is a result of the vibration of a string set int motion by being hit with a soft felt hammer. The way in which any string vibrates is governed by the way itis ser in motion (basically where and how it is hit). This is also true for any other instrument ~ the saxophone, for example, has a vibrating air column instead of a string, The fundamental mode of vibration has the largest amplitude of any mode, and determines the pitch of the note produced. It is the combination of the fundamental mode of vibration coupled with the particular overtones for an instrument that determine dhe Guality or timbre of # note, and dhat results in dhe difference in sound berween two different instruments playing a steady note of the same pitch, ‘The way dhe loudness of the note produced by a musical instrament changes also helps to determine why we hear the notes produced by different musical instraments as being different (fig. 3.1.21) ‘he ete at which the ampude ofthe vbatons increases atthe art ‘The seem decays sometimes used to descibetherate at which the fe notes smretins called the attach. amplitude of the vations ces nay. fig.3.1.2) Attack and decay of a seu.Cae Rey Finding the frequencies of the harmonics “To caleuate the frequencies of the harmonics for & stretched string we can use the fact thatthe speed at Which a ransverse wave § propagated along a sting is given by the relationship: eo fT Vu (equation 1) twhere Tis the tersion in the string andl jis the mass per unit length of the string. We also know that: eof (equation 2) and that 2 equation 3) Substituting into equation 2 the expression for 2 from equation 3 gives: oat foixe Substituting the expression for e from equation 1 then gives: £ Wa where m= 1, 2, 3, ete When a stretched string is set vibrating, all of these possible frequencies will oocur at once, leading to a very complex mode of vibration, The complex: rations produced by the fundamental and overtones of a singer's vocal cords and the air column in a ‘trumpet can be seen clearly on the oscilloscope sercens in fig. 3.1.22, These complex waveforms have been produced by the combination of a series of sinusoidally varying waves. ig. 31.22 Onlloscope trees of vibrations from a singers vocal corde and a wumpet. Reo U ‘A place of copper wire is fixed firmly at one end, and the ‘other en¢ is passed over @ pulley and attached to @ mass Cf Zig, The length of the wire between the fbed support ‘nd the pulley & 1.5m. Separate measurements show that the mass per unit length of the wie is 20gm". What is the fundamental frequency of the wire Fics set in fee oscillation? We row tat: ni ra 4 soforn= 1,2 and 3 we can substitute (= 15m, T= 20x98 = 196N and 1 = 0.07kgr So 1 i fe x 2x15 *Vo02 $x 980 = toateBoth sound waves end microvives (electromagnetic waves with e wareength of eround 3.em—see chapter 3.3) can be used to invastigate stationary waves, as fig. 3.1.23 shows. Sourd woves hard surface to act es efecto: —_ louder ‘gna geecater (oaiput frequency in range 300 Hew 12 Merowaves probe receiver aiatem rmroprove cciloscepe used as volimeter 20 ‘reasite out rem microphone ‘mdhenes tray of snd wane aie apa rm probe receiver and hence Inteeity of mirave ‘ig 31123 Investigating the production of stationary waves sig sourd waves and microwaves. Moving the detector (the microphone in the case of sound waves the probe receiver in the case of microwaves) along the line between the wave source and the reflector, alterating points of high and lew signal strength can be found, These are the antinodes and nodes ofthe stationary wave. The distance between successive nodes or antinodes can be measured. and corresponds to half the wavelength. Ifthe frequency ofthe source Is known or can be measured, this information can be ured to calculate the speed of propagaticn of the two progressive waves that produce the stationary wave, from the relatiorship v= fi. (Note: this isa Suitable methed for determining the velocity of sourd waves Inair but rot the velocity cf microwaves ~ why nct2) 1 Explain how the vibrations of @louespeaker cone show ‘that sound waves are longitudinal and can be described in terms of the displacement of molecuies. 2. In an experiment to set up 2 standing microwave, successive maximum readings (antinodes) were detected by the probe receiver every 14cm, ‘2 What was the wavelength of the microwaves used In this experiment? b_ What was their frecuency? 3 Use the idea that @ hard reflection, such as that at the end of a guitar string, uses a phase change of 120° to ‘explain why all stationary waves procuced on guitar strings must always have a node at both ends. 4. Describe hovr you could set up an experiment to prove that ciferent musical instruments playing the same pitched note are producing souncs with the seme besic frequency, despite the instruments sounding different.AER 3.2 The behaviour of waves Models of waves and their properties Physicists use waves as models, to help them to understand why some things behave as they do. So far we have seen that stationary waves are valuable when we are trying to understand the behaviour Of oscillating systems. In this chapter we shall concentrate on how waves can help us to understand the phenomena of reflection, refraction, diffraction and interference, We shall return to the subject, of waves and models in Topic 5, when we consider the way in which light behaves and the explanations advanced for its behaviour. waveron ew woretont Aa. prints on — wen: secondary wavelets — Dy fig. 3.21 Huygens construction of awavefrent Exch new wavelront has the came speed and wavelength 2: the oignal ware. ‘The Dutch scientist Christiaan Huygens, a contemporary of Newton, used a model of wave behaviour to explain the behaviour of waves. He explained the spreading out of a wave from a point source (like the ripple on the pond at the beginning: of chapter 3.1) by considering each point on a wavefront as the source of a new set of disturbances, ‘This representation of a waveftont is called Huygens? construction (fig. 3.2.1). Huygens’ construction is aan explanation for the way in which a circular wave spreads out, eventually leading to a plane wave as the radius of the circular wave becomes very large. This ‘model of wave behaviour is useful in explaining other properties of waves, Reflection Reflection is the word used to deseribe what happens when a wave arrives at a barrier and changes direction, Experiments show dhat there is # simple relationship between the angles madle with the barrier by the incident and reflected waves (fig. 32.3): ‘angle of incidence = angle of reflection (ig. 222 Reflection at » baie of = water waves and blight. forthe ‘water wanes we see thereilection o wavefronts, while for light we see thenys ‘This result is Inown as the law of reflection. Nosice ‘hat angles are measured berween the rays and the normal ray. which is perpendicular to the surface of the barrier, Teis important w use this convention, since the normal ray provides the only way of ‘measuring angles where the surface is not fat roma ay (veppendcuar totais) tay (at right anges ~~ tawaietons)| Inedent wave angle inscerce? argle ct election (ig, 323 Reflection of wares ata baresURC Refraction Refraction is the change of direction of a wave that occurs when its speed changes. Refraction can be seen when light travels from one medium into another, say from sir into glass or from glass into air (fig. 3.24a). Refraction ‘can also be seen when water waves move from deeper water into shallower water, oF vice versa (fig. 3.2.48). Experiments with light show thot there is a straightforward relationship tpetween the angle made by the incident ray with the normal ray (the angle of incidence #) and the angle made by the refracted ray with the normal ray (the angle of refraction *) (fig. 3.2.5). This relationship is known as Snell’s law, and is expressed as! oma (perpendicular to borer) Incident ay fig, 324 Refraction of ght pasing through» glow Hock and water waves at a change of depth The water waves in part bare moving mere slow on the right of the photo where the water halower, angle ot nccence 1 angle of efacionr refracted ry (ig. 3.2.5 fraction ata beundiry baton twa media, ‘The constant is called the refractive index for the medium and is represented by the symbol 44 the Greck letter mu (although sometimes you will see the letter » used to represent refractive index). Table 32.1 shows values of refractive index for various substances. ‘The actual media involved in carrying the waves before and after refraction are very important. It is common to write the refractive index with subscripts indicating the medtiam in which the wave starts and finishes. In moving from ‘medium 1 into medium 2, Snell's law is written as: Crown gle Diamond | Liquid water Benzene | Air 180 | 10003 ‘able 22:7 Valuer of refnctive Indo fr diferent materia Since refractive index varie wth wavelength for many medi, the value ae quoted fright with a wavelength of S29 x 107m centering the medium fom a vacuum (er it)f= PAC Rd ==> ‘Nay of light enters @ pond at 30° to the horizontal. What is its direction as it travels through the water? ‘ay travelling at en angle of 30° to the horizontal will make an angle of (90 - 30) = 60° to the normal. So: sini _ sin60" sinr sine or sinr = 360° 133 r= sir*(0651) So the ray travels at an angle of 41° to the normal (or (90 41)° = 49° to the honzonta). Wave speed and refraction The change in direction, or refraction, that occurs when a wave enters a different medium is due to a change in the speed of the wave. ‘The amount of refraction depends on the amount the speed changes. You have seen that the refractive index is a measure of how much a ray bends in moving from one medium to another. It is also cqual to the ratio of the speeds in the two media speed in medium 1 Speed in medium 2 “The ratio of wave speeds is the refractive index for medium 2 with respect to medium 1 (i.e. it applies to rays entering medium 2 from medium 1), and is ‘usually written as ;, Por rays entering medium 1 from medium 2 the ratio is reversed, and so’ ed a rs ‘ay of light enters a ciamond. fit travels at x 108ms™ in ait, how fast does the light travel in the diermond? t= From table 3.2.1, we know thatthe refactive index for light entering ciamond from airis 2.42. 3x18 2a 3x18 242 = 124 108mst = Sometimes the refractive index of a material needs to be known very accurately, For examole the glass used te meke spectacle lenses must heve ¢ precisely Inown refractive index if the lens grinder is to match the lens shape to the ecact power needed for «2 person's eye prescription. a semrickeala sas Hock incident) relrectedray fie 326 Experimental setup for rearing active inden The angle of incidence / can be vated trem O° 10 90” end the corresponding angle of refraction r measured, Because the light exits the glass at 90° ‘to the boundary (it comes from the centre of the cle of which the curved edge fsa pat), tere will be ne further bending The results can be analysed by plotting sinr against inj. The straight ine produce¢ will have a gracient equal to Vth t= ad snr He Comparing this with the equation fer all straight Ines: yemere shows that the y-intercept should be 2er9 and that the refractive index wil be given by: 1 gradient aleeTotal internal reflection When a light ray is reftacted as it moves into a less optically dense medium and speeds up, it will be refracted away from the normal, according to Snell's law, You can investigate this by shining a ray of light through # semicircular glass block and taking, measurements of the angles inside and outside the gilass-air boundary as the ray tries to escape from the flat side of the block, As the angle of incidence inside the glass block gradvally increases, the angle of refraction becomes larger and larger, always being greater than the angle inside the block. A time comes when the escaping ray Ieaves at 90° and is effectively passing exactly along the flat face of the glass block. At this point, the internal angle to the normal is called the eritical angle. TE you increase the internal angle any further, the ray nno longer leaves the glass. Te reflects inside, following the law of reflection. In this case there is no refraction = the ray bas been totally internally reflected. ‘This is called weal internal reflection. ere Ree ret eee era of pond at an ane of 20" tothe horuontal Whats eee ee ee eee eee ito a2 What wl happen to thisray from he Fak? eee ee ee fee ele reese Lot eae ee 138 A ray travelling at an angle of 20° to the horizontal will make an angle of (90 — 20) = 70° to the rormal. ‘The critical angle will be when the refracted ray leaves 390° to the vera sinc 5in90 7s We sin90 = 1 20 sinc = 075 C= sir (075) = 408° The erica ange s 48.6" The ray meets the water surface at an angle greater than the critical angle, so the ray will be totelly internally reflected back into the pond water at the same angle of 20° to the horirontal URC Temay not be obvious when you look at yourself in 4 mirror, bat in most cases of reflection, not all the incident light is reflected. Tn general, at any boundary Detween media, some wave energy passes across the Ddoundary ~ itis transmitted — whilst some of the energy is reflected. You may have noticed this when trying (o look under a water surface which is reflecting a lot of ight. OED 1. Use the data in table 3.2.1 toffind the citical ‘angles for diamond, ice and liquid benzene. 2. How fast does ight travel in crown glass? (See ‘table 3.2.1) 3 Describe an experiment which could be undertaken, ‘to measure the refrectve index between glass and ater Include details of what measurements would be taten and how the results could be analysed to find @ value for jt.rN PAC Rd fig. 328 Ligke waves are ne appreciably Aifeacted by «person, hence the esp shadow formed ona tun 6ay They are appreciably fected by the point of Pla, however. fig. 3.29 Diftaction of water waves ‘ecu hon the gp is ilar in sine tothe wavelength but not when Is considerably lager. Diffraction and interference Diffraction “The term diffracton is used to describe the interaction between waves andl solid obstacles, When a wave passes through a gap or round an object it may ‘be deviaced from its path, The amount of diffraction chat occurs depends on the relationship between the size of the gap or the object and the wavelength of the wave — when the two are similar in size, substantial diffraction occurs (fig. 3.2.8 and fig.3.29). “The apparatus shown In fig. 3.2.10 may be used to rvestigate the diffraction flight. The ight trom the Laser is cifracted by the slit, wrich should be placed ‘about 11m from the screen (@ piece of thick paper or white card),The width of the slits slowly reduced, starting at about 2mm, until 2 diffraction pattern is seen on the screen. Marks can be made on the screen to record the spacing of the bands Inthe difaction pattern Note that you should never view laser light directly —the diffraction pattern should be viewed by reflection of the light from an opaque screen posable sti This investigation reles on the properties of laser light, end requires modification ian ordinary light source fs used. Ife laser's nct available @ bright lemp ard single elit may be used to ilurinate double slits and a translucent screen must replace the opaque screen. It will also be necessary to work in a darkened room.Following the work on the particle rature of electromagnetic waves, Lous de Broglie suggested that it was possible that particles like electrons might have wave propeities. The wave-lke rature of electrors is fundamental to our present understanding of the behaviour of electrons in atoms, e3 well as the behaviour of al the other ‘particles’ found in nature ~ protons, neutrons, reuttinos and so on. In 1924, de Broglie stated that the wavelength associated with a particle (called the de Broglie wevelength) is inversely proportional tats ‘momentum. For an electron, this means that the faster it ‘moves, the smaller its associated wavelength ‘The wave properties ofthe electron were subsequently confirmed indegendently by the American Clinton Davi and by George Thomson In Ergland in 1927, showlhg the difrection of electrons by crystals (fig. 3.2.11]. For significant diffraction, the wavelength of the wave must be of a similar size to the gap the wave is passing through Thus, 10 achieve electron diffraction by passing ther through the gps between atoms in a crystal, the electron wevelength ‘must be of the order of 10"™ metres. This means the electrons must be travelling at 2—3% of the speed of light. ‘ig. 32.1) Under the righ conditions elecons can exhibit wave properties lke difracien, Three years after de Broglie had come up with his wavelength relationship for particles, the Davisson-Germer experiment aimed a beam of electrons at a crystal of nicks The: difraction pattem procuced matched exactly with similar experiments using X-rays and confirmed the wave nature of electrons. In 1929, de Broglie was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics for his discovery of the wave nature of electrons | 1937, Davisson and Thomson shared the Nobel Prize for Prysics ‘for their experimental discovery of the cifraction of electrons by crystals. George Thomson wes the son of Joseph John Thomson, who had discovered the electron as a charged particle and gained the Nobel Prize for ysis in 1906, fig. 3.212 Two deur waves (produced by dippers) on apple tank overlap to prodice e datintve Interference pter, Interference Inerference eccurs when waves overlap cach other co produce a pattern where the waver reinforce each other in some places and cancel each other ‘out in others (fig. 32.12). ‘The principle of superposition which we met in chapter 3.1, and that We saw explain the behaviour of waves crossing each cexher, also provides ‘an explanation for interfer Interference effeccs using light were first demonstrated at the beginning of the nineteenth century by ‘Thomas Young, Young’s experiment used. ovo narrow slits to produce an interference pattern from light. Although Young's results provided strong evidence for the wave nature of light, physicists did nor accept that light had wave-like properties until much later on, as we shall, see in Topic 5. Fig.32.13 shows how Young's experiment can be repeated. soutlestt anslucent screen Incerterence pater cosened from here t “hn ‘ne sc / coloues Invorfrorce peters” ‘ter of alematingFaht fed dak pater fg. 2.2.13 Veungle ete oxporimantin phase censrvctve interference ™~. N 180° out of phase “Ny dtsrucve ence Similar results can be obtained using sound, which is a longitudinal wave (fig. 3.2.14). In this case two loudspeakers driven by a single signal generator ccan be used, ensuring that the two sources are in phase (i.e. the cones of, ‘both loudspeakers move forwards and backwards together). For a sound with a pitch of 10007, the two loudspeakers should be placed about 2m apart, An observer walking along line AB will hear the intensity of the sound rise and fall, as constructive and destractive interference alternate. signat ener eh = lv a9 . sm ® (5.3.2.4 Demoreteating Intertrance in surd waver. Phase difference and path difference ‘The production of an interference pattern of light and dark bands by ewo parallel slits can be explained by thinking shout the phase of the waves arriving at the screen (fig. 32.15). If two waves arrive in phase they reinforce ‘each other and a bright area is seen. This is constructive interference. If ‘evo waves arrive in antiphase (180° our of phase) they cancel each other out and a dark area is seen. This is destructive interference. Fig, 3.2.16 shows how the pattern of light and dark bands (often referred ro as fringes) arises. In this diagram the distance between the two slits A and B is exaggerated and the distance D from the slits to the screen reduced in ‘order to make the situation clearer, \y 10! Fig 52.15 Superpeaton of waves resulting a ‘ig 32.16 Fath dterences case interference constructive and desvuctve ferenceSince the light passing through the slits is from the same source, the light waves leave slite A and B in phase, Since AP = BP, the waves must arrive at P in phase, so constructive interference occurs here and a bright area is seen, ‘The distance AR is exactly one wavelength more than the distance BR, so the waves also arrive ac R in phase, resulting in a bright area here also. ‘The distance AQ is exactly half a wavelength more than the distance BQ, so the waves arrive at Q in antiphase, resulting in a dark area. ‘The production of an interference pattern by ovo wave sources can only he observed if the sources are coherent. For waves to be coherent there must be a constant phase difference benween the ewe waves. The atmosphere dees not absarb much of the radio wave energy that Pits the Earth from stars that erit radi frequencies, This means that redo telescopes bared on the ground can be used very successfully. The larger a racio telescope can be made, the better its resolution, which is a measure ofthe fine detail it can observe. systern thet uses the idees of interference has been used by radio astronomers to artificially increase the effective size of thelr radio telescopes. (ig. 32.17 The ery Lng Baseine Array consists of ten radio sh telescopes spread over SOOO mies across the USA, With two or more radio telescopes linked together, computer processing of the sigrale they recelve can highlight very slight cifferences in phase at each place ‘These phase dliferences are caused by the vey sight path differences from the source to ezch cf the ratio dish locations. By analysing these interference patterns, the group of dishes can act like one enormous radio telescope, improving the resolution significantly For example, the waves may always be in. phase with each ether, in which case there is @ zero phase difference. Alternatively, one might always be a quarter of a cyele behind the other one, The phase diflerence itself doesn't matter. As long as it remains constant all the time, the waves are coherent and can show us an interference pattern. If the phase difference keeps changing, then the waves are incoherent. Incoherent wave interference will sometimes be constructive, and sometimes destructive, As the frequencies are generally very high ~ yellow light has a frequency of 550 thousand billion hertz ~ the changes in interference atany point we try and observe will be so rapid that we will not be able to see any clear outcome, OED 1 Copy the diagram, which shours wavefronts ‘eppraaching e gop. From the wavefront thet is actually within the gap, use Huygens’ construction to show the secondary wavelets that would be produced from several points on this wavefront. Continue the diagrem to show how Huygens! fraction through P 2. In driving due north along a streight road a driver rotices that the racio station she is listening to ‘gets louder and quieter as she dives along. Explain this, if she can see two seperate redio transmitters corstruction could account for small gap. ig 32.18 in the distance, to the west of her car 3. Why was the independent confirmation by separate experiments such an important part of the development of the idea of the existence of election waves?Cra eR Polarisation main torsmitee ) ))] In contrast to superposition, Which is something that aif waves exhibit, the phenomenon of polarisation is something that only transverse waves show. Fig.3.2:19 shows the some of the planes in which the oscillations in. a transverse wave may occur. A wave in which the oscillations take place in a number of planes is called umpolarised, while a wave in which the covillations occur in one plane only is said to be plane polarised in dat direction. npolarises wave plane polarsed wave ‘ig. 3.2.19 Iman unpolarised wave, osciations may ocur i any plane, while na plane polarised wave they crur in eny one plane. Fleciromagnetic waves are transverse waves, and. so may be polarised. This Property can be very useful. Fig. 3.2.20 shows how polarisation can be used in cransmission of TV signals. ‘The main transmicter has its aerial in the horizontal plane, so signals from here are horizontally polarised. The relay station boosts the signal for areas where reception would otherwise be poor. ‘The acrial of this transmitter is vertical, so signals from here are vertically polarised. This means that these signals cannot interfere with the signals from the main transmitter relay station 1g. 3.2.20 Polarisation ay be used o that signals from ferent television raster at similar frequencies donot Interfere with eachother. Light from the Sun er fiom an electric lament lamp is unpolarised because the waves are emitted at random from the atoms of the ebject. Such light may be plane polarised by passing it through a polarising filter. In polaroid, long molecules of quinine fodosulfate are lined up so that only light waves oscillating in one particular plane can pass through. This property is used in polaroid sunglasses (fig.3.221). Two pieces of polaroid that have the molecules aligned at 90° to each other will not allow any light through.Cra eh polarcing iter ut: eutherizontlly peared light Ugh which isrttected rom the surface ofthe wote i mainly Forizontll policed urodarisd ight femthe an Lp refed om objet tow the surface ‘ofthe waters manly vertically polarised, ‘ands passes thro he polaris ter fig. 3.22) Polaroid sunpasans rede lave tom the water surTace by cutie tt hovizantally plaid light Investigating the polarisation of light oo 3 ligt sensor sefeence mart connected laptop —~ SR polaroid cerdmount rmarkecin depees supa elton - —— & light source ig. 3.223, The tranemisson of ight through polarising fiters can be investigated in the fig. 3.222 The molecules fle elt choc! lab Firstly, the amount of light transmitted through a pair of polaroid ounplee peugea maccaesemnbi ‘sheets held at various angles to cne another will cemonstrate the effects of Shetty these file. You can then extend this to obseive the rotation of the plane of polarisation caused by lfferent concentrations of suger solutions. This called polarimetry and is used in the confectionery industry to measure accurately the Concenvation of solution being usec to menufacture sweets Qa 1 Explain why the orientation ofa television aerial could make a big difference to picture quality. 2. Why car’t sound waves ke used to test the concentration of suger solutions by polarimetry?NEAR ry 3.3 Light and sound lect ale Avection of ‘oel magnetic fig. 33.1 James Clerk Macwetls model ofan electromagnetic wave. Light as a wave So far in this topic we have looked at both stationary and progressive waves and the properties they possess. Tn this chapter we shall concentrate on the ‘vo wave motions that are most directly relevant to the lives of those of us ‘who are blessed with the senses of sight and hearing - light and sound. or the rest of this topic we shall treat light as a wave motion, since itis its wave-like properties that are of interest ta us. However, remember that it does behave differently under different circumstances ~ we shall investigate these in Topic 5, Electromagnetic waves In the 1860s, the Scottish mathematician and physicist James Clerk Maxwell produced a theory co explain light in terms of electric and magnetic fields, using work on magnetism and electricity previously begun by Michael Fanaday. Maxwell reasoned that as a moving magnet could induce a current to flow in a wire and that a current flowing in a wire was also the cause of a ‘magnetic field, it ought to be possible to produce some sort of combination of an electric field and a magnetic field which was ‘self-sustaining’. Using some fair complex mathematics, Maxwell showed that light can be pictured as a combination of a transverse ‘electric wave’ andl a transverse ‘magnetic wave’ moving through space ~ an electromagnetic wave. ‘Muxwell suggested that the electromagnetic (EM) wave is caused by an. cscillating electric charge which sets up an oscillating electric field. This oscillating charge is often an electron, Light waves are the result of elecirons ‘moving within atoms, while radio waves are the result of electrons moving in Wires (transmitting aerials). ‘The oscillating electric field causes an oscillating magnetic field. The two fields are m phase, the electric field oscillating in one plane (vertical in fig. 33.1) while the magnetic field oscillates at right angles to it, The plane ‘of polarisation of the wave is the plane in which the clectric field oscillates. ‘By modelling the way that the electric field and the magnetic field varied ‘with one another according to equations describing electric and magnetic fickls, Maxwell was able to show that light waves + wavel through a vacuum with a velocity of 3 x 10%ms~, agreeing with the measurement of the specd of light made by Finca in 1849) + are part of a larger family of waves with a large cange of wavelengths,‘The lange family of waves predicted by Maxwell forms the electromagnetic spectrum. All the waves in this family travel through a vacuum at ihe same speed, although the family covers the vast range from radio waves with wavelengths of several kilometres to gamma m, As with all rays with wavelengths of as litle as 10” waves, electromagnetic waves can he described by the wave equation: speed = frequency x wavelength ‘The speed of electromagnetic waves takes the symbol «and in a vacuum is ahvays 3 x 108ms"! for all parts of the electromagnetic speciram ‘Thus, in a vacuum: en FA = 3x 108ms 3.3.3 gives some more devas of the family of electromagnetic waves. Maxell used earlier work by two distinguished physicists in his ‘made of light waves — Michael Faraday ard André-Marie Ampare, Faraday and Ampére had set cut lav relating the movement. of elec charge (Inthe form of electric currents) to changes in magnetic folds These laws, when applied to oscillating electric ard ‘magnetic fields showed that: an orcilating electric Field anc an oscilating magnetic field ‘travelling through space can be self-sustaining (le. the ‘oscillating electric Feld produces an oscilating magnetic held end vice verse) ‘the two oscillating fields can be self-sustaining only if they are at right anges to each cther and to the direction of propagation and are in phase + the waves must travel through a vacuum with a fxed speed. media 2 (© plneotoxcitaton Df elect eld \ ardot YS etl bare plene of cee egret ld fig. 35.2 Monel!’ explanations of rellection refraction end olrzaion in electromagnetic waves. ei 7 With such 2 model, explaining the behaviour of clectromagnetic waves auch as light and radio waves becomes a task of explaining the way in which the coscllating eectic and magnetic Flees interact with matter. Masel’s explanation forthe reflection of light is that excillating fields inthe incident wove set up cscllations of electrons in the reflecting surface (tig. 3.3.20) Ths leads to the absorption of the energy of the incident wave by the reflecting surface, hich ro-radiates it. 3 we saw in chapter 3.2, refraction fs explained by ‘a change in speed as 3 viave enters anew medium (fig. 3.3.2b). Experiments with light show that the ‘ave rust slow down on entering a denser medium. Maxwells mathematics about the movernent of the lectiic and magnetic Fields ofthe wave through different media led tothe required decrease in speed. Naswell's e«planation for polarisation is illustrated in fig. 3.3.2c. With the gid in this orientation, the cscllating flelds in the wave can make the elecirons in the metal bars oscilate in a vertical plane. This ‘means that the energy of the wave is absoibed by the grid and re-radated in all rections — that i, the wave cannot effectively pass through the gid, With the bors of the grid rotated through 90°, there is little absorption of the wave energy by the elactrons inthe bars and it passes through the giid unafected. ‘AL intermeciace angles some of the wave's energy will be abscrbed and re-adiated with « plane of polarisation in the same plane as the orientation of the bars in the grid. This means thet the plane of polarisation of an elecvornagnetic wave describes the plane of extillation of the electric field in the wave, 103Ua eR The electromagnetic spectrum Light is a small part of the electromagnetic spectrum, consisting only of the part to which cour eves are sensitive. This is deceptively simple however, for just as within the visible spectrum, colours merge into each other so that it is difficult to tell where yellow finishes and orange begins, the visible spectrum merges at one end into the infrared and at the other into the ultraviolet, with no definite cut-off point. Tis just the same in dhe rest of the electromagnetic spectrum, where the properties of the waves change gradually as their wavelength and frequency change. 1. Coleulete the frequencies of the flowing: 2 anintrered wave with a wavelength of 4 x 105m bb redlight at the long wavelength limit of human sion (700m) © agammasrey photon for which 4 = 6.5 x 10-?m, 2. Explain what previous knowledge James Clerk Maxwell had that he combined to come up with the idea of'self- susteining electromagnetic waves! Applications thenpy Xray radiography photogrophy ie speevoscopy ‘a inks troneny wv eating fig. 333 Theelecvromapnetic spectrum. = veluatty —eatntnin oetty 3 ws 1 w sora ry5—| sionation i ‘Caiger orto | 3g°® 0 xerye—| | sphoreranhic im 10? 10" meet WY tvavter | Ciuowemes” |" sin wsbletyhe seve . ey lensed bombadng metal targets with gh cone eberens Ks tne -oniaon voce wt S| srsonmcein 10 ekerensoxilatng | (ele, ‘une eectical intone el cea wApplications of electromagnetic waves Some of the parts of the electromagnetic spectrum have very familiar uses, such as the microwaves that hheat food in a microwave oven, or radio waves used in broadcasting. ‘The nature of the uses to which humans have put electromagnetic waves depends on the way in which dheir transmission and reflection vary across the spectrum. For example, visible light will pass through glass, hut infrared will not, so glasshouses become warm enough (o help plants to grow. Light energy goes in, ut heat radiation cannot escape. Radio Broadcast communications are the most obvious use for radio waves. These are particularly easy to gerterate as any alternating current sn produce them. By careful arrangement of the acrial and the acy we can produce radio waves of a chosen frequency. Since these will not interfere with those of another frequency, many radio statioas ean broadcast in the samme area. ‘An upper layer in the atmosphere, the ionosphere, is clectrically charged and will reflect and refract radio waves. This can be useful for long-distance broadcasting of radio signals. The waves travel in straight lines and would he lost by the ctsrvature of the Earth, but with ionospheric reflection, radio broadcasts can get everywhere from one transmitter. However, this means that radio communications with satellites is not possible for those frequencies affected, which are generally in the range 3-300 MY. Microwaves [As the froqueney of radio waves increases into the microwave region, they are not reflected by the ionosphere, and thus microwaves are used for communications with satellites. Microwaves have a shorter wavelength soo, so they need a smaller aerial for eransmiting of receiving. This makes them ideal for handheld communication devices such as mobile phones, _gposttlonary stale > 234 As microwaves tli straight lines aed are not affected by the iononphee, they can ony cnmmunicate nari Unes Over Lrg stances, ths needs eiterachain of repeater ters or satelite relays Infrared Beaween microwaves and red visible light is the region called infrared! (IR). These waves travel through lass ina very similar way (o visible light and can use total internal reflection tw be carried along optical fibres. ‘They are used for wired communications (along optical fibres) along with visible light, to increase the umber of available frequencies that can be used, This maximises the amount of data that can be Gansmitted simultaneously. ‘These electromagnetic waves are also the ones responsible for heat radiation, When you feel dhe warmth from @ bonfire at a distance from it, that heat 4s being carried to you primarily by infrared waves Similarly, toasters and grills use infrared to cook food. Visible light Haman eyes can detect electromagnetic wavelengths from about 400nm (violer) to 700mm (red). This ¢ an incredibly small section of the electromagnetic spectrum. However, our eyes are noc as limited as you might think, Apart from a large range of radio wavelengths (which would need 2 metal aerial to detect) virtually the only’ wavelengths that naturally occur at the surface of the Earth are those we can see, Some birds and insects can also sce in a range of ultraviclet wavelengihs that we cannot see. Indeed, some birds have four types of colour receptors (cone cells) in their eves, compared with three in humans, This not only gives birds a wider wavelength range but, when their brains combine the signals from four types of detector, their vision is very much richer than ours. Te