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755.H71
Internal
combustion
reference
engines
:a
1924
022
810
224
INTERNAL
COMBUSTION
ENGINES
REFERENCE
BOOK
FOB
DESIGNERS,
OPERATORS,
AND
ENGINEERS,
STUDENTS
BT
WM.
M.
HOGLE,
CONSULTING
ENGINEEK
NEW
YORK
COMPANY
PUBLISHING
MCGRAW
239
B.S.
WEST
39th
1909
1"
STREET
COPTHIGHT,
1909,
BY
ttcGRAW
PUBLISHING
NEW
Stanbope
H.
G1LSON
BOSTON.
COMPANY
YORK
iPrees
COMPANY
U.S.A.
To
all
this
who
book
its
find
may
is
respectfully
contents
useful,
dedicated.
W.M.
iii
H,
PREFACE.
That
this
the
to
treating
are
the
brought
down
this
complete
Works
Machines,"
De
by
and
to
and
applied
the
confine
phase
relation
the
these
formulas,
in
general
operation,
but
formula
derived
in
following
this
aim
have
the
the
formula
used
in
chapter
on
invaluable
bustion
internal-comthis
on
In
subject
Refrigerating
the
and
"The
to
C, by
actual
Indicator
used
bearing,
the
is
and
tant
impor-
most
is taken
Card."
except
design
actual
far
to
efficiency;
thermal
designing,
its discussion
pression"
"Com-
on
been
have
the
of
practical
chapter
the
as
formulas
more
immediate
no
eliminate,
to
the
formulas
problems
PV
work
to
compression
on
chapter,
Donkin
mathematical
subject.
however,
way,
of
and
this
of
contained
the
of the
subject
and
is
theory
involved
more
matter
of
the
gas
lines.
Motors
thermodynamic
several
prove
the
the
the
the
on
of
text-books
best
practice
Wood.
been
practicable,
as
the
Heat
Volson
it has
However,
works
side
these
of
the
"Thermodynamics,
being
several
nents
expo-
as
supplement
to
thermodynamics
of
of
one
of present
well
been
not
Clerk, Hutton,
by
along
knowledge
have
matter
mathematical
the
largely
internal-combustion
reproach
of
treat
deal
beyond
be
one
available
engines,
far
would
perfect understanding
the
for
books
which
and
however,
in the
any
that
cipally
prin-
reference
reference
of the
books,
It
with
particularly
are
all is due
at
standpoint
and, while
slighted.
be
not
may
these
date
order
of
development
of
book
in
engine,
and
design.
modern
of
books
theoretical
market
question.
of
use
in
excellent
to
the
on
satisfactory, compact
subject
growth
Many
placed
of
from
engine.
and
lack
many
subject
with
is
the
on
There
the
work
and
found
up
in
the
vi
PREFACE
For
the
information
practical
author
is
indebted,
who
disposal.
have
It
the
the
in
to
different
of
intention
this
contained
extent,
result
practical
to
reliable
most
while
closely
in
The
the
taken
engine
every
design,
of
matter
be
means
work
facturers
manu-
tests
in
his
at
that
mation
infor-
keeping
with
only
use
and
the
and
engine
practice
the
should
be
is
the
find
(they
that
will
each
the
designer
compiled
be
they
contained
found
be
may
should
or
the
fill
any
found
for
standard
here
all
operator,
especially
in
of
place
the
for
author
itself
in
and
issuing
fulfill,
WILLIAM
Ohio,
and
results
insure
gas-
book),
handassembled
in
this
part
book
at
that
least,
intentions.
Toledo,
any
advantage.
desire
for
nor
may
with
sidered,
con-
by
not
keeping
use
been
average.
herein
original
fact
of
the
either
neither
in
their
formulas
requirements,
while
results
has
should
given
market,
with
keeping
practice
average
formulas
give
to
on
tables
average
may
large
the
appeared
and
It
been
data
practice.
In
and
to
placed
has
which
actual
and
December,
1908.
M.
HOGLE.
it
his
CONTENTS.
Introductory.
PAGE
History
of
internal
combustion
Development
of internal
Fundamental
working
of
motive
combustion
as
power
motive
power
conditions
Chapter
Sequence
as
I.
"
The
Beau
de
Rochas
Cycle.
cycle
Description
of
Relation
card
of
Discussion
cycle
cycle
to
of card
Chapter
of
Description
Clerk
and
Clerk
"
The
Clerk
Cycle.
principle
theories
Day
II.
11
compared
11
The
Robson
The
Stockport
The
Day
engine
12
The
Day
cycle
13
engine
Discussion
engine
the
of
Description
12
of the
12
Day
Day
cycle
card
Chapter
Fuel
Temperature
Period
of fuel
Compression
Fuel
The
in Diesel
admission
14
:
III.
"
The
Relation
Motor.
17
motors
of combustion
17
injection
18
18
space
18
economy
Diesel
Diesel
15
cycle
of card
of
operations
19
to
cycle
19
vii
CONTENTS
Viu
IV.
Chapter
Comparison
"
of
the
Cycles.
PAGE
The
Automobile
Marine
20
motors
21
motors
Comparative
development of
power
Comparative fuel
The
20
four-cycleprinciple
and
two
four
cycle engines.
21
...
22
economy
Diesel motor
22
Chapter
V.
Practical
"
Operation.
23
Stopping
24
stationary engine
automobile
Starting an
Stopping
automobile
an
marine
or
marine
or
Care
engine
engine
25
26
of Engine.
27
Ignition point
28
The
bearings
29
The
valves
29
The
circulatingwater
30
Proper
of governor
care
Proper mixture
30
for successful
operation
Troubles
Failure
to
and
Remedies.
31
start
Cylinder flooded
Carburettor
out
Spark weak
or
32
of
adjustment
32
wanting
32
33
Engine stops
cold
Ignitiontube
Mixture
too
31
rich
"
34
Back
firingin
exhaust
34
34
Engine smokes
36
Back
Valves
Engine
leak
races
35
36
,
',
36
CONTENTS.
Chapter
VI.
XX
Starting
"
Devices.
PAGE
Methods
starting
of
37
Starting cams
40
Chapter
Methods
The
VII.
of
Carburettors,
"
Vaporizers,
and
Injectors.
securingexplosive mixture
42
carburettor
42
for successful
Requirements
carburettingof fuel
42
'.
Carburetting alcohol
43
Carburetting petroleums
43
The
vaporizer
43
The
injectorprinciple
44
The
Hornsby-Akroid
method
of fuel
The
Meitz
and
method
of fuel
The
Diesel
The
Daimler
valves
Mechanical
Surface
Weiss
method
and
44
carburettor
45
45
47
The
Holley
Alcohol
48
valves
Schebler
49
carburettor
52
carburettor
53
carburettors
56
design
57
Carburettor
Chapter
Pressure
available for
"
Producers.
58
in pressure
use
producers
60
61
of gas
from
distilling
producer
producers
Combustion
Quantity
VIII.
producers
producers
Distilling
Quantity and heating value
and
suction
heating value
of gas
from
combustion
producers
producer
of steam
analysisfrom
62
62
of the suction
Comparison
61
62
Operation
Gas
injection
ebullition
The
Fuels
44
carburettor
Mixing
The
of fuel
44
carburettor
Spray
Fuels
injection
injection
producers
producer
suction
62
producer
63
plants
64
65
CONTENTS.
IX.
Chapter
Fuels
"
Combustion.
and
PAGE
Gaseous
66
fuels
Advantages
of gaseous
Natural
compared
Blast
gas
furnace
Heating
fuels
with
66
producer
67
gas
of fuels
values
(tabulated)
68
Volumetric
analysisof Pennsylvania
Analysis of
gases
gases
(tabulated)
68
69
fuels
Liquid
71
distillates
Petroleum
71
Propertiesof petroleum
Composition
Gas
66
gas
of crude
distillates (tabulated)
oils
72
(tabulated)
72
oil
73
Gasoline
73
Kerosene
74
of combustion
Heat
75
Measurement
of heat
Air necessary
for combustion
Air
75
76
of different fuels
77
Vaporization
78
for
Requirements
for
Laws
Vapor
complete vaporization
78
perfectgases
pressure
Avogadro's
law
Temperature
Acetylene
78
of saturation
as
78
applied to
for
necessary
pressure
80
perfectmixture
81
vapor
82
Alcohol
82
heating values
Relative
derived
Power
from
of
gasolineand
alcohol
alcohol
compared
as
with
82
that
gasoline
Cost
of alcohol
to
which
as
compared
with
compression
X.
may
gasoline
"
83
Compression.
be carried
84
of the formula
theoretical
from
83
Chapter
Limits
derived
card
85
86
card
86
87
CONTENTS
Chapter
XI.
XI
The
"
Indicator
Card.
PAGE
What
constitutes
perfectcycle in any
given cylinder
"
How
puted
com-
89
The
cams
Values
The
related
as
general
in
for
use
ideal indicator
of values
Determination
of the
of
Chart
engine
for
91
for the ideal card
related
as
ideal card
to
XII.
of
95
pressure
General
"
Dimensions.
97
97
mean
of bore
and
98
stroke
98
98
efficiencyof
Location
of the
of
Transmission
with
Cams
multiple cylinderengine
XIII.
"
The
Cam
102
to valves
motion
cam
102
lever transmission
103
bring startingcams
into
operation
classified
Method
of
double
laying
of
Material
singlecam
105
107
cam
to vertical
cam
double
laying out
necessary
for
gearing in
Types
of
Speed
ratio in skew
gear
gearing
engine
109
110
cam
Ill
cams
The
Adjustable
104
105
out
Application of double
Method
101
Mechanism.
cams
Shiftingof lever to
Cams
93
94
effective pressures
Chapter
Fiber
curve
fuel factor
Mechanical
The
expansion
pressure
values
Determination
The
for the
constant
92
efficiency
effective
Average
91
determining compression
mechanical
Mean
89
Chapter
The
card
card
Computation
Design
the
to
use
gearing
Reduction
Gearing.
Ill
113
113
114
xil
CONTENTS
XIV.
Chapter
"
The
Valves
and
Ports.
PAGE
Mushroom
Effective
valve
valve
The
of
in
121
121
inlet valve
124
two-cycle design
125
The
exhaust
The
third port
of
two-cycle ports
126
port lead
127
128
XV.
Chapter
The
119
opening
settingvalves
The
117
passages
dimensions
suction
Ports
exhaust
of effective valve
Determination
Methods
117
opening
of inlet and
Design
Minor
115
valves
The
"
Cylinder.
air-cooled
cylinder
water-cooled
cylinder
Thickness
Depth
of
129
cylinderwall
130
jacket
131
of water
Thickness
129
of outer
water
jacket wall
132
jackets
Copper
water
Length
of water
132
jacket
133
133
Grinding of cylinder
134
Bolts
135
Material
cylindercastings
for
Chapter
Function
Table
of
of
The
"
Flywheel.
of
137
weight of wheel
138
flywheel
140
keys
141
Chapter
Purpose
XVI.
136
flywheel
of
Calculation
Design
133
of frame
Advantage
of
heavy
for horizontal
Frame
for vertical
crank-case
The
sub-base
"
The
Frame.
143
Frame
The
XVII.
frame
engine
engine
engine
143
143
144
145
146
xiii
CONTENTS
Chapter
XVIII.
"
Engine
Foundations.
PAGE
Drawings
for foundations
Advantage
Material
Design
of
XIX.
of shaft
Oil
shaft
The
"
and
Reciprocating
and
151
length
of
bearing
152
153
of necessary
bearings and
weights
155
brasses
156
rings
156
connecting
rod
157
wrist-pinbearing
The
outer
diameter
Design and
and
Piston
159
of
piston
160
of
160
construction
Chapter
ring
of
161
XX.
Governing
"
Devices.
162
governing
controllingmechanism
governor
163
Design of centrifugalgovernor
The simple fly-ball
governor
The
loaded
Devices
The
Rings.
Methods
for
164
166
governor
166
throttling
167
168
inertia governor
Chapter
Methods
Parts.
151
The
The
Shaft
shaft
The
The
Crank
150
weights
Determination
The
149
foundation
out
balance
Crank
148
bolts
Style of piston
Strength of crank
Design
147
of foundation
Chapter
The
147
for foundation
Foundation
Laying
good
147
foundation
of
XXI.
170
Jump-spark ignition
system
Ignition.
170
ignitingcharge
Make-and-break
"
of
ignition
171
xiv
CONTENTS
PAGE
Non-inductive
Connections
commutator
how
"
igniters
175
constructed
179
179
of commutators
spark plug
174
174
of make-and-break
Types
The
173,
four-cylinderengine
for
173
coil
Ruhmkorff
of commutator
Types
The
172
condenser
singlecylinderwith
for
Wiring diagram
Use
and
resistance
181
Insulation,etc
"
spark plugs
182
ignition
183
The
Apple igniter
183
The
Bosch
The
Motsinger sparker
187
The
Remy
187
of
Types
Dynamo
Flame
185
dynamo
magneto
igniters
Barnett
The
of
type
189
ignitioncock
189
hot-tube
igniter
Auto-ignition
190
Time
194
of
191
ignition
Firing order
for
multiple cylinders
Chapteh
Methods
The
of
196
belt
196
of brake
formula
Prony brake
197
(tabulated)
200
brake
202
of test
204
Testing of gasoline,alcohol,and
Chapter
and
"
engines
Report
206
of
Tests.
207
heat
specific
of gases
209
planimeter
Determination
The
XXIII.
oil
of report
Weight
The
200
dynamometer
Form
Testing.
testing
for
Factors
Log
Engine
"
Prony brake
Derivation
The
XXII.
195
heat
of the
211
mean
effective pressure
balance
Determination
of brake
212
212,
horsepower
213
214
INTEKNAL
COMBUSTION
ENGINES.
INTRODUCTORY.
The
is
internal-combustion
the
result
of
years
than
more
experiment,
however,
no
produced
in
used
of
the
In
force
his
in
work
the
the
exactly
the
de
as
same
cooling of
of heated
Two
work
and
became
which,
after
cool
atmosphere,
and
results
were
of
gunpowder,
His
condensation
Huygens
in
the
of
the
motor,
operation
Shortly
after
Papin
to
operation
of
seemed
show
steam
required
vacuum
and
of
the
pumping
this
time
that
down
the
no
gas
of the
the
by
well
as
as
flattering
very
process
continued
find
which
the
was
powder
gun-
use.
1690,
to
forced
and
of
closed, the
apparatus
crude
arranged
air into
less than
be
to
attempting
Huygens,
experiments
producing
year
having
The
its
heated
of
pressure
piston
from
the
the
explosion
pressure.
obtained
Later, about
which
the
lished
pub-
savant,
suitably
exceedingly
was
subsequent
apparatus,
valve
a
Dutch
volume
the
the
causing
operation
an
fell to
soon
atmospheric
excess
1680, Huygens,
force
to
and
modern
gas.
valves, in
made
cylinder,
in
describing
cylinder
was
the
later,
years
a
with
volume
power,
the
as
way
time,
Hautefeuille
motive
internal-combustion
a
which
original device
Abb6
gunpowder
to-day,
use
twenty-five
of
part
over
year
of
it in
and
greater
made
that
have
we
hundred
the
was
1678.
as
two
during
advance
explosive
deriving
engine,
very
was
was
substitute
ments
experifor
suitable
the
used
the
method
operation
to
the
uncertain.
very
conclusively that
most
for
the
some
of
of
the
extent
engines.
discoveries
the
1
of
Watt
turning
INTERNAL
the attention
COMBUSTION
of the
public
not
was
made
which
John
In
1794
of
air.
This
named
In
out
This
1799
year
of
operated
the
The
by
this
closed
of
the
covering
of
liquid and
English inventor
an
principle as
well
took
the
of
coal
for
the
motive
as
gas
on
for
the
machine,
of
production
of
power.
pump
and
mixture
explosive
construction
the
as
patents
out
engine,
electric
an
career
after
by
of
also
compression
for
mixture
one
means
out
Philip Lebon,
the
on
inventor
spark
by
by
vapor
an
of
use
name
Street.
patent
followed
was
also taken
was
the
on
de
Abb6
of
engine
were
"exploder."
an
explosive
patent
the
air in
suggestions
English inventor, by
an
it
ceased, and
any
the
on
patent
patent
an
Robert
that
ment
develop-
the
engine,
combustion
1791
year
out
and
gas
this
production
this
took
hydrocarbon
internal
improvements
In
Barber,
the steam
to
the year
were
Hautefeuille.
of
ENGINES
time, and
what
this inventor
might
had
he
before
been
have
an
period
in
gas-engine development.
From
successful
engine
schemes
1833
was
standpoint,
mixture
of
and
devised
for
former
in its
which
on
formed,
it
the
to
of
use
had
have
been
being
cooled
unbalanced
acting during
the
was
and
return
to
the
vary
work
being
charge.
by
Johnston,
two
oxygen,
been
in the
theoretical
the
of the
cost
and
parts
somewhat
for the
of
unique
of the
fuel
used
with
oxygen
precipitated and
force
different
to
latter,was
it not
several
in connection
produced
of the
part
one
practically
from
proportional
hydrogen
first
by Wright
out
developed
built,
the
year
brought
being used
make
to
doubtless
hydrogen
well
governor
gas
which
One
very
operation, and
would
then
in
designed and
was
double-acting
the
to
1860,
advanced.
were
year
done
until
1799
of the
stroke
water
partialvacuum
atmospheric
of the
vapor
piston.
pressure
INTRODUCTORY
In
the
to
them
took
ground
same
used
into
so-called
of
use
sparking
In
current
with
rack
meshing
the
and
the
The
explosion
rack
internal
the
on
the
equal
vacuum
piston
In
1858
gases
were
forced
was
engine
an
with
in
difficulties it did
idea
although the
was
in the
and
sequence
con-
of
the
result that
the
force.
in which
of
success,
any
the
of
engine
the
the
because
with
meet
in
cooling of
with
forerunner
revolve.
to
cylinder, but
not
the rack
the
by Degrand
the
was
point where
considerable
devised
was
shaft
The
pawl engaged
atmosphere
formed.
down
the
the
this vacuum,
compressed
mechanical
the
which
to
piston upwards
it to pass
to
was
the
motor
fly-wheel shaft
and
gear
charge drove
was
piston
stroke
spur
the
1850.
pawl allowed
return
in
devised
the
on
gear
force
producing
for
Matteucci
explosion stroke
of the
pressure
then
produced by
was
by Stephard
and
spur
caused
cylinder,and
air and
medium
as
being
pumps
Barsanti
with
two
and
gas
suggested
was
freely, but
run
Lebon,
explosion
Barnett
magneto
1857
very
attached.
to
of
"Ignition."
on
the
the year
that
cylinder. The
Chapter XXIII
The
separately the
the
of the
out
did
as
compress
means
in
Barnett
1838
present day.
The
capable
of
machine
constructed
engine, the
spark, and
as
engine
per
of
in the
oil.
was
gas
in
Ruhmkorff
was
view
coil
engines
to
up
steam
four
times
of these
as
engine of like
several
the
engine
that
much
by
of
means
time.
piston be kept
difficulties the
the
But
for
The
all
over
100
water
jump
advance
power.
The
double-acting
producing
decided
very
first
an
efficient work.
obtained
was
cylinderrequired that
In
and
the
was
hp.-hr.and
used
was
ignition
altogether it
existing forms
Lenoir
it
marked
1860
and
battery
primary
in
motor
comparatively regular
was
steam
Lenoir
gas-engine construction, as
in
epoch
of gas
of the
appearance
cu.
ft.
cooling
great heat
flooded
Lenoir
with
engine
in
disappeared
stirred the
the
the
which
attempted
cylinder by
This
engine
of
means
was
than
of
temperature
80
the
exhaust
of the
of
spray
hp.-hr.,and
per
appreciably
was
gases
water.
of gas,
consumption
ft. of gas
cu.
in
motor
temperature
in the
economical
more
the
injection of
the,
introduced
keep down
to
activity along
engine.
1860, Hugon
year,
it had
before
not
renewed
to
internal-combustion
same
he
time, but
inventors
of the
lines of the
In
short
very
minds
ENGINES
COMBUSTION
INTERNAL
diminished.
Several
them
other
ideas
being either
advanced
were
of
minor
previous attempts.
In
took
patent
out
best
His
in
method
the present
at
use
The
the
working conditions
cycle of operations
The
in
was
in the so-called
Greatest
possible expansion.
4.
Greatest
pressure
forth any
set
in
honor
of
to
means
patent became
was
filed,but
it.
In
that
not
year
now
appears,
this
time, about
Langen,
engine,
was
placed
of
they
the
the
smallest
theory belongs,
for
Rochas, he did
until
the
1878
was
Otto
first
placed
that
its
to
it
attention
his patent
proposition
proceedings,
after the
soon
on
the
application
again called
market.
1872, Otto,
market
to
in
engine, substantially
gas
year
the
not
irregularity in the
to
public property
enabled
fact
the
de
the
on
promulgating
M.
which, due
were
that
at
his
as
piston speed.
doubt,
same
surface.
3.
beyond
engine.
in his patent:
with
capacity
Maximum
the
Rochas
Otto-cycle engines.
embodied
were
2.
While
de
internal-combustion
an
largest cylinder
circumferential
Beau
for
day
repetitions of
or
M.
1862
year
following propositions
1.
importance
time, all of
this
about
the
in
so-called
Previous
connection
Otto
and
comparatively economical
sell
was
the
gas
it
as
to
with
Langen
tion,
opera-
standing
notwith-
free-piston type
Its
to
and
consumption
INTRODUCTORY
about
was
26
produced
ft.
cu.
somewhat
was
and
hp.-hr.,
per
less
than
the
with
of
cost
energy
existing
the
steam
engines.
Continuing
placed
on
the
on
the
Otto
his
Beau
the
de
This
of
In
1879
Dugald
engine
have
the
and
and
been
formed
In
the
adopted
exploded
once
every
of
designers.
produced
was
by
present-day
for
engine
the
the
two-
charge
revolution,
in
revolutions
the
motor,
engine
Clerk
the
as
immediately
basis
the
two
known
problem
this
and
operating
engine
commonly
but
the
of
every
four-cycle
internal-combustion
modification
explosion
as
was
against
of
engines
the
type.
Since
have
has
produced
1878,
almost
was
of
practice.
compressed
Otto
engine
which
Clerk
cycle
first
cycle
type
in
Otto,
the
Rochas
standard
perfection
one
market
cycle.
as
experiment,
the
been
placed
on
modifications,
the
and
disappeared,
four-cycle
several
1880
year
market,
at
the
two-cycle
and
hold
motors
the
field.
but
present
types,
of
greater
without
time
with
or
value
less
they
exception
the
greater
engines
or
of
less
CHAPTER
THE
BEAU
Reference
cycle, the
Otto
or
ROCHAS
DE
1 will
Fig.
to
I.
four
CYCLE.
fully the
explain
strokes
of
which
Beau
de
Rochas
designated
are
as
follows:
Suction;
1.
The
the
four
2.
Compression;
strokes
above
as
"four-cycle"
term
enumerated
applied
as
4.
Explosion;
3.
to
form
Exhaust.
basis
the
gas-engine
for
practice.
Hr%W-
Fig.
the
In
the
inlet
card
has
figure,
comprising
the
path
of the
has
points
drawn.
also
crank
the
ordinates
On
the
the
Principle.
the
cylinder,
exhaust
valve.
directly above
piston
of
Four-Cycle
The
represents
placed
explanation
the
as
and
valve,
been
1.
cycle of
the
pin
path
have
has
of
the
been
indicator
piston.
erected
card
G
in
part
into
From
and
reference
the
piston,
ideal
indicator
of
the
order
to
The
operations.
divided
been
An
that
displacement,
this
the
cylinder
facilitate
projected
equal
ten
latter
indicator
points
have
spaces,
set
of
card
been
INTERNAL
it is obvious
to
maximum
dead
at
pressure
d, Fig. 2, it would
at
as
igniterlead
charge sufficient
the
give
the
that
is not
center.
The
of
indicate
reached
line
correspondingly higher,
line,but
that
the
in
piston is
diminished
affect the
a'
value
V
,
e, and
at which
curve,
nearly
to
point
which
different
showing
The
adiabatic,a loss
that
in full
to
crank
circle the
the exhaust
In
port
that
to
to
ordinates,
of
indicator
pin
opens,
of the
from
moves
diagram, from
from
moves
to
ec,
exhaust
to
takes
release, e, varies
engines, the
that
highest, they
Thurston, is
in
most.
point, according
effect, then,
location
is
piston again
the
fact
as
pressure
ordinate
on
the
Ignition.
developed
the
is
the
of
shown
decreased, owing
Late
release
at
comparison
with
the
stroke
not
the maximum
an
stroke, and
mean
shown
as
or,
up
makes
ignition was
pressure
by
is not
where
the
adiabatic,
an
/.
of
the
on
atmosphere.
e
Card
expansion
toward
The
is
stroke
shape
the
the
d to
being nearly
ordinate
working
its
Fig.
pressure
the
in
of
portion
On
mean
maximum
the
of
curve
the
reach
shows
of which
shown
as
card
that
until the
expansion
expansion
If
and
burn
to
center.
necessarily results.
energy
dotted
time
in order
increased
be
must
in consequence
advanced,
sufficiently
pressure
ENGINES
COMBUSTION
nearly
to
place from
considerablyin
theoretically correct
point
THE
being
dead
located
so
nearly
to
of back
that
on
the
other
in
the
expansion
the
as
the
Changing
the
If
heat
expulsion stroke, as
the
line of the
a', the
to
all the
the
completes
This
much
distorted,owing
which
take
higher in
the
This
a
heavier
be
may
be
Spring.
made
the
basis
is not
and
from
moves
tend
to
phere
atmos-
cycle of
sudden
due
be
spring.
When
the
in
to
guard
inertia
part
in
be
of
found
the
remedied
is
in pressure
theoretical
the
the
operations
variations
maximum
to
but
gas-engine card
effects
practice the
the
on
b' back
slightlyabove
it necessary
theoretical
to
of
amply
atmosphere,
appreciable extent,
makes
In
early
too
engine.
valve
to
may
may
trouble
place
of Governor
down
an
would
than
gases,
the
piston again
to
The
cases
some
burning
parts.
of
place.
amount
four-cycleengines.
the
great
seriouslyimpair the
would
exhaust
occurrence
that
against conditions
fall very
be
the
In
possibilityof their
no
take
not
Effect
the
not
encountered
seldom
are
use
must
Inertia
card, fa,
way.
be
of
efficiency
of
point,/, will
large,then
should
point of release
area
would
pressure
this
as
showing
effective
CYCLE
one
of
there
stroke,
Card
3.
Fig.
the
the
as
well
as
that
at
ROCHAS
cylinder
just
in order
pressure
DE
the
atmosphere
center
power
BEAU
to
run
pressure
indicator
by
explosion pressure
the
as
10
indicated
appearance
stroke.
the
by
ragged
spring
COMBUSTION
INTERNAL
in
card
outline,
the
overcoming
may
is
continue
ENGINES
the
too
high,
due
to
the
effect
of
until
well
expansion
harmonic
the
into
motion
inertia.
the
line
next
This
will
of
sume
as-
the
ragged
compression
CHAPTER
THE
The
Clerk
two-cycle
of
the
compression
revolution.
the
into
in the
present
his
modern
piston
compressed
two-cycle
used
its
on
expelling
charge
practically the
same
later
engines.
two-cycle
cylinders,
of two
primary
compression
in
which
in
line
exhaust
The
Day
the
with
addition
this
of
type
in
added
the
weight
of
its
all
against
the
two-cycle
stroke
impracticable
light
principle
practical improvements
is
motor
must
and
the
the
be
is
for
Day
honor
application
11
with
that
the
of
under
the
feature
the
pression),
com-
consequent
which
general
and
as
type,
the
to
type,
piston.
with
to
the
nearly
very
charge
accorded
municated
com-
present
as
of
the
the
of
top
port
same
required;
the
over
Nevertheless
the
a
in
cylinder
of the
of parts
complexity
construction,
it.
of
in
other
uncovered,
is the
engine
number
and
engine
especially where
gained,
downward
the
the
from
the
composed
was
at
through
(i.e. introduction
two-cycle
but
differed
of
combustion
primary
port; it being
Clerk
the
of
theory
cylinder
is introduced
the
port, by
of
motor
explosion
herein
uncovered
inrush
cylinder and
power
exhaust
the
of
type
exhaust
accomplished
The
and
charge
is
cylinder.
the
space,
This
the
one
this
is the
as
The
the
products
as
manner
compression
with
the
of obtaining
case,
pump.
stroke,
downward
every
is done
as
wall, being
cylinder
first
introduced
Instead
crank
auxiliary
the
impulse
compression,
the
the
was
inventor
engines.
in
an
in
its
under
compression
arranged
were
the
by
of
types
and
an
the
as
first introduced
was
1879,
year
motor
cylinder
practice, he
ports
the
Clerk
the
primary
mentioned,
built, receiving
motors
the
In
charge
about
known
commonly
more
previously
as
Clerk
by Dugald
CYCLE.
CLERK
engine,
cycle
engine,
II.
first
Clerk
later
made
use,
more
nothing
is
balance
is
describing
and
the
inventors.
12
INTERNAL
The
A
Robson
of the
forerunner
Day
engine, manufactured
In
patent.
and
used
used
was
in
into
the
in
necessary
admitting
the
and
one
The
engine
charge
of
was
engine
present
market
either too
use,
the
the
of
Day
engine
originalClerk
the
cylinder
for
cylinder.
not
nearly
as
idea.
for
were
the
has
proper
motors
primary
most
to
was
of the
pression,
com-
cylinder.
power
evolved
the
engine
and
of
placed
them
with
meet
almost, if not
on
were
eral
gen-
quite,
types.
Day
is the
be
cycle
for the
utilized
not
was
The
complicated
too
cycle
engine
it will
used
time, but
earlier
and
valves
valve
power
design and
engines
or
Day
Otto
description of
of
was
of
this
engine
the
piston and
Two
two-cylinder opposed
other
types
the
Day
the
compression.
The
As
charge
production.
end
cumbersome
displaced these
of the
was
Stockport Engine.
the
to
about
and
This
an
compression chamber
into
neat
thus
gas
piston
automatic
other
the
motors.
an
space
the
open.
primary
this
primary
one
while
the
cylinder
design
day,
Several
ends
both
at
compressed during
stroke
engine,
Clerk
was
the
in
wide
return
the
the forward
obtain
similar
the
to
The
to
Robson's
of the
when
operated
rather
the
as
engine, but
Robson
cylinder through
power
valve
this
opening from
cumbersome
This
end
ordinary two-cycle
in the
as
closed
and
stroke
the
exhaust
compressed by
exploded
were
forced
and
then
was
under
out
the
was
Tangye
forward
the suction
on
was
automatic
fully
The
part of the
compressed
motor
for
greater
of
type
by Messrs.
piston rod.
being drawn
the
Engine.
this
ENGINES
COMBUSTION
we
Engine.
analogue, in two-cycle
in
four-cycle design,
given.
are
In
the
tion,
construc-
complete
description of the
a
describing,in principle,the
CLERK
THE
CYCLE
inlet
the
this
in
case,
valve, and
the power
instance
cylinder.
directly above
the
the
connection
cycle
of
of
part
the
of
have
divided
erected
card
indicator
into
by the
crank
same
circle
letter
another
with
Directly above
indicator
crank-case
of
reference
suitable
the
card
has
is
crank
c.
the
crank
of
path
On
the
referred
are
Outside
the
which
the
on
on
still larger
is shown.
case
crank
constructed, the
letters
the
small
by
circle
shown;
the
been
by
of the
indicated
crank
projected path
being indicated
subscripts.
in
the
explanation
also the
cycle of operations
placed
drawn.
subscript
been
points ordinates
card
are
the
the
and
space,
the
has
of
set
points
on
as
spaces,
indicator
reference
crank
Principle.
latter
letters;corresponding points
to
the
has
projected path
equal
the
and
card
facilitate
Two-Cycle
the
From
piston.
been
The
4.
between
cylinder comprising
to
The
operations.
Fig.
the piston,
primary compression
cylinder,B
ideal indicator
An
that
the
13
and
pin
the
points
y
with
14
INTERNAL
On
shown
as
or,
suction
the
Just
y.
the
the
as
inlet
stroke
forward
valve, C,
in the
produced
the
starts
carburettor, F,
in the
the
crank
stroke
return
the
crank-case
opening
indicator
the
piston
the
by
crank
head
compressed charge
its pressure
of
the
down
crank
the
crank-case
pressure
falls,until, when
uncovers
port, C,
has
vacuum
port, C,
in
the
the
C, is
the
should
in.,in
port
of
equalized
its return
case
both
stroke
the indicator
Since
the
back
card
the
of
card,
rise
to
be the
rise
less than
the
continues
sides
D.
From
of
should
5 lb. per
to
the
do
to
at
until
or
port,
y2 will
the
lb. per
this
At
card
pressure
10
to
the
the
the
on
point,
line
pressure
piston,
If
when
xt
xl
from
so
should
point
x1
sq. in.
piston,
stroke,
y2.
at
the
pressure
necessarily affect
y2
be
through
card
the
will
which
regularly until
which
by
but
compression
port,
in
the
at
the
piston
forward
as
case,
the
considerable
as
the
on
will
stroke
enlarged,
charge rushing
when,
crank-case
fall,and
on
the
end
atmosphere
will not
being opened
the
the
of
enough
being
crank-case
that
to
cylinder to bring
on
forward
The
about
maximum,
no
Then
on
tend
stroke,
should
to
or,, on
line of
uncovers
pressure
be
the
slight vacuum,
maximum
piston head
on
is
small, this
still show
the
on
produced.
pressure
too
of
the
space
the
is increased, and
port, C,
a
at
the
causes
case
show
sq.
been
to
case
on
cylinder, when
the
passage
atmosphere.
to
piston,
the
At
fact
the
to
its forward
on
piston
the
line would
and
case
vacuum
port, C.
the
due
atmosphere,
in from
rushes
until
or
suction
the
piston
when
until the
flow
to
covers
card
the
point, by
of gas
entirelybalanced
between
uncovered
continues
been
has
in consequence
charge
open
point P,
vacuum
this
to
up
completely
slightly above
be
open.
a',
toward
piston passes
cylinder,and
and
is
case
of the
case
to
commences
card, from
indicator
to
in the
b' toward
end
crank
traveling upwards
this port
the
the crank-case
on
ENGINES
COMBUSTION
mences
com-
pressure
until
(shown
is
the
piston
at
point,
card).
is the
same
on
the
16
INTERNAL
been
exploded,
to
commences
the
such
B,
the
on
the
point
at
in
indicator
the
card
cylinder commences
that
the
should
of
fallen
is known
that
this very
For
the
exhaust
of
the
the
varying
the
to deflect the
it may
that
the
from
place and
In
for:
two-cycle
1.
Unrestricted
inlet
to
as
expansion line
sacrificed,to
The
others.
several
the
As
5.
to
of
or
little
these
a.
be
must
a
points will be
taken
of
must
the
the
large
and
card
will
necessarilybe
attain
to
shortened
the
in order
shortening of
later in the
port.
compression
the
of
satisfactory arrangement
up
striven
As
4.
opens.
corresponding shortening
most
be
compression
period, and
speeds by
greater than
study
points
point of
large exhaust
pressure
long
exhaust
explosion takes
/back
inlet port
expansion line
The
the
to
Crank-case
3.
possible. A
greater
produces
line.
the
some
gases
The
different
consequent
primary
possible.
as
to
from
port.
the
with
when
that
show
to
make
for
cylinder,
commences.
up
fill
piston
burned
exhaust
pressure
ports
the
work
exhaust,
Quick
cylinder
From
expansion follows
the
high enough
serve
is varied
course
spark-timing device.
the
2.
of
point, d,
to
the
on
point, d, the
cylinder compression
charge is compressed
ignition,which
At
itself.
indicator
of the
the
over
two-cycle
port, D,
top
out
cause
lead
the
on
plate,G, is placed
to the
the
loss of power.
given
through
effectivelyforce
more
and
case
cylinder
otherwise
in different
b to
incoming charge
being exhausted
without
From
baffle
is
port
charge rushes
cylinder space.
head
so
crank-case
the
crank
cylinder
the
case,
extent
some
into
case
the
consequent
exhaust
to
in
make
to
as
the
point,
At
point, b, it is obvious
crank
into
point, then,
crank
gases
extent
an
the
at this
firing,with
reason
inlet port,
head
piston
is indicated.
as
open;
back
back
as
the
At this
E.
port from
the
card
port,
the
such
to
less than
pressure
the
on
card
to
pressure
have
ENGINES
break
exhaust
uncover
of the
pressure
some
COMBUSTION
design.
to
sion
expan-
the
pression
com-
of these
CHAPTER
THE
While
the
the
DIESEL
all
sense,
internal-combustion
has
the
This
outward
of
air
following
and
the
of
refined
petroleum.
When
of
the
compression
stroke
of
vaporized
of
means
but
cooled
to
fuel
air
the
temperature,
or,
as
nearly
curve
of
maximum
It
of
fuel
rise
the
to
about
fuel
above
the
by
to
running
that
of
of
It
per
sq.
in.,
is the
intention
constant
at
the
to
pressure
at
make
combustion
the
this
constant
being
the
internal-combustion
to
obtain
very
this
in
result
nearly normal
and
governor,
compression,
17
top
charge
expansion
under
the
or
cylinder
the
is overloaded
engine
the
and
lb.
800
an
impossible
crude
incandescent
isothermal,
an
for
means
the
pressure
of
opens
allowing
words,
possible
is
first
on
reached
combustion
for
as
engine
two
charge
and
form
has
valve.
laws
other
is increased
will
into
economy
the
the
which
at
any
valve
thus
in
When
conditions.
fuel
of
the
obviously
is
when
except
the
compression,
curve
engine.
injected
with
Diesel,
cylinder
in.,
sq.
piston
the
compressed
accordance
fuel
cycle requires
the
ignite
to
temperature
of
temperature
it
its
Rudolph
mixture,
per
the
before it reaches
maintain
fall in
is
while
completion;
into
has
lb.
500
engine
obtaining
of
its
of
its construction,
for
The
for
line
the
which,
for
combustible
is sufficient
its temperature
basis
draws
of the
about
market
in
cover,
other
invention
shaft
of
stroke
return
as
Clerk
along
one
method
piston
instead
pressure
by
the
on
inventor.
crank
of the
least
at
the
was
and
practice
different
engine
stroke
pure
placed
scientist
revolutions
to
of
use
German
of
and
Rochas
modern
four-cycle principle
made
charge.
de
engines,
produced
utilizes
MOTOR.
cycles of Beau
broadest
been
III.
the
the
order
amount
ture
temperathat
the
18
COMBUSTION
INTERNAL
effective
mean
load
the
10
valve
of
of the
closes
the
claim
for
The
which
the
the
in
of
the
nearly all
almost
cycle there
of
conditions
the
the
burned.
air
to
to
seem
compression.
cylinder
not
are
doubtful
if
harmful
than
will
lower
be
to
about
possible
secure
with
the
by
tear
the
for
the
that
any
the
suddenly
on
the
Otto
actual
is
some
resultingfrom
the
long-sustained high
the temperature
much
longer period
this temperature
as
of
internal-combustion
parts subjected
to
the
theoretical
There
causes
in most
eject
to
during
7 per
charge of
case.
and
wear
than
damaged
high compression
combustion
combustion, but
true
engines operating
5
to
high compression
probably
the
the
approximate
of
the exhaust
injected until
space,
it
and
necessary
to
stroke
the
to
is much
is
with
The
economy,
this to
as
This
temperature
Fig.
load
over-
expulsion
is not
fuel
make
gases
fuel
prove
made
parts
engines, it
the
compression
support
The
question,however,
heat
at
opportunity whatsoever
no
working stroke.
attained, would
combustion
is
explosion, since
stroke.
working
the
creased
in-
charge.
cylinder volume,
pure
the
sq. in.
lb. per
operated
was
cycle is the
the
correspondingly small
heavy
pressure
necessarily be
would
engine
point
manufacturers
35
beginning of
results
be about
to
for premature
in
commences.
cent
per
the
relieve
to
90
which
at
The
pressure
as
stroke
Diesel
the
cent
order
exhaust
at
diminished
open,
In
and
stroke
load, which
fourth
valve
in
completed,
fuel
the
stroke, is completed,
been
about
running light.
or
during
has
opens
their pressure
or
the
stroke
expulsion
normal
the
to
comprises
valve
exhaust
the
working
the
and
working
before
fall,due
cent
the
will
pressure
light
being less.
fuel
the
per
and
with
higher, while
be
may
temperature
quantity of
After
pressure
ENGINES
pressure
be
induced
this
it is
more
in
principle.
of
operations taking
THE
place
in
the
diagram
xa
Diesel
has
described
DIESEL
been
19
MOTOR
engine.
followed
The
in
this
of
arrangement
same
in
as
previously
the
cycles.
the
represents
clearance.
stroke
shown.
as
is divided
In
the
the
inlet,exhaust
ward
stroke
pure
air, valve,
be
the
on
of the
forward
v3
5.
The
vlt
being
air
is
of the
occurs,
as
80
per
takes
At
e, the
place.
pressure
falls and
cent
of
cd
On
the
on
valve,
the
curve
second
curve
from
at
as
d to e,
a
or
stroke, expansion
6; and
second
of combustion
the
isothermal;
v2,
at
of
stroke
following the
working
atmosphere
piston,the products
first for-
backward
injected. The
the
exhaust
reaches
the
is closed ; and
On
approximate
an
the
tively
respec-
the suction
being closed.
during about
On
b, occurs
compressed,
is
are
r3
0-10,
Principle.
to
open.
fuel
previously described, h
break
Diesel
ordinates
v.,, and
vu
piston, from
opening, the
the
fuel valves.
valve,
and
piston, from
piston the
the
parts by
engine diagram
Fig.
of
into ten
from
backward
are
6 to
stroke
discharged.
CHAPTER
IV.
COMPARISON
The
general
and
public,
manufactured.
in
almost
In
There
gaining
of
general
tending
within
reasonable
valves
of
fuel
universally
that
of
all
in
is insured
important
with
with
by
with
the
all
quality
resulting
the
unvarying,
as
fuel
parts reduced
working
on
is
which
engine
of
operations,
depended
inducement,
no
three
type
the
weight,
economical
These
parts,
part,
controlled,
most
and
of
stability and
is
not
four-cycle.
important
readily
and
ignition
is
somewhat
greatest
and
the
they
engine
the
basis, when,
engines
have
use
that
lightness
weight
four-cycle
be
adopted,
in
but
as
the
may
manufacturers
low
two-cycle
seems
as
no
the
most
cycle
automobile
to
is
design
of
means
vided,
pro-
perfect
device.
sparking
try
As
mechanical
the
of course,
cases,
this
two-cycle
of
toward
controlled
and
delivered,
In
plays
precedence.
in
the
question
operation,
gains
known,
power
the
be
can
in
scientific
it
and
the
widely
most
some
are
readily
strongly
mechanically
to
there
for
as
bounds.
found
are
been
practice
work,
reasons
engine,
more
consumption,
points
of
popularity
which
certain
most
class
good
complete
engine
although
engines,
design
the
this
several
the
has
engine
with
favor
most
headway.
stationary
or
found
consequence
use,
some
are
has
stationary
for
use
gaining
For
in
universal
in
engines
are
engine
four-cycle
CYCLES.
THE
OF
power
make
the
possible.
suction
the
used
the
weight
inlet
in
the
modified
striven
To
four-cycle
to
least
of
form.
weight;
the
20
Here
in
this
not
to
per
many
as
the
other
not
of
majority
machine
engine
accomplish
valve, but
large
very
create
while
type,
different
with
words,
horsepower
the
they
as
manufacturers
large
an
extent
as
OF
COMPARISON
being looked
due
the
to
that
fact
the
and
two
cycle engines
four
other
any
is
water
it
While
in the
the
for the
power
if the
bore
being the
gas
speed of
for
the
and
as
the
and
sec.
admit
full
for the
In
stroke.
made
the
full
nominal
than
speed, with
increased
where
enter
the
charge
it is
increased,
than
even
to
of
the
the
no
work
for
reason
for
ft. per
90
must
800
at
sec.
necessarily
rev.
per
min.
is, with
the
properly adjusted
crank
result
very
that
half
less
that
case
the
on
the
that
motor
as
amount.
the
does
are
their
speed
At
full
to
suction
for
even
when
obtain
charge, and
than
be,
greatly diminished.
two-cycle
they should
the
charge is
probable
more
found
much
as
conditions, that
the
and
smaller
much
all
ports
sufficientlylarge and
to
twice
inlet and
the
favorable
charge
more
work
that
the
to
will be
four-cycle engine.
finds
most
carburettor
allow
impulse,
the
more
This
produce
more
up
are
tries to
one
to
produce
reason.
ft. per
100
exhaust
under
tion,
revolu-
every
hotter, due
of revolutions, at
when
quite large
two-cycle type
cylinder heats
grows
built could
ever
same,
this is found
same
ports
number
same
cooling
cool.
two-cycle engine
the
than
other
every
sold.
use
of
at
occurs
the
marine
in the
Since
that
two-cycle engine
case,
factory
unsatis-
and
amount
necessary
explosions, it should
steadier
cases,
equal number
an
once
to
the
frequent
much
quite
was
manufactured
explosion
or
naturally follows
chance
more
the
as
impulse
an
occurring only
gas
fact
are
readily available.
rapidly than
be
in
time,
present
not, in all
satisfactoryfor
more
purpose,
more
motor,
for
inlet has
exhaust
instances.
two-cycle type is
The
be
suction
and
the
at
In
for
inlet
favor
more
satisfaction, and
in many
of
with
upon
given universal
of
controlled
mechanically
formerly, the
21
CYCLES
THE
is
speeds
charge of
not
obtain
speed is further
It
is
doubtful
22
if the
two-cycle
average
work
more
than
The
type, and
due
to
the
crank-case
large
inlet
by
measure,
the
miner's
The
in
of
Diesel
its
efficiency of
for
Its
from
and
the
extraordinary
an
serious
most
from
reports
inlet
Davy
that
so
passage,
be
may
actual
fuel
as
in
equal
prime
far
known,
as
accompanied
by
horsepower-hour,
The
question
are,
rule, the
general
purchasers.
too
none
are
high
are
tend
operation
is
mover
exceptionally
per
prospective
to
their
in
fit,however,
of installation.
wear,
guarantee
claim
the
engines
date
of
in
close
the
consumption
amount
plants
as
necessarily heavy
manufacturer's
operators
The
the
obstacles
of
favor
some
claiming
fuel
to
as
principle
passes,
performances,
cent.
per
year
of first cost
the
38
one
gaining
manufacturers
guarantee,
good
is
motor
the
sure
pres-
itself.
port
plants.
power
excellent,
the
gas
when
case
in
in
inclined
frequent,
plate
be
must
the
is
cycle
four-
obviated,
be
may
the
plate
which
both
cylinder
the
baffle
on
be
size,
the
crank
the
than
screen
acts
must
into
This
cent
than
explosions
lower
opens.
baffle
through
that
to
area
The
effective, and
meshes,
the
is
placing
same
fuel
of
crank-case
following back
screening
lamp.
be
wasteful
with
port
the
of
per
30
conditions.
more
compression
the
passage;
to
trouble
explosion
the
as
is
motor
than
more
motor
favorable
most
two-cycle
does
motor
four-cycle
under
operating
ENGINES
COMBUSTION
INTERNAL
high.
to
show
In
the
waterworks
plant
of
have
not
to
that
fact,
below
consumption
be
However,
some
facturer's
manu-
guarantee.
The
municipal
Ohio,
from
of
runs
that
report
trouble
*The
information
in
their
at
regard
to
or
time
is indebted
to
the
and
motors
regulation
month
author
lighting
and
wear,
without
Mr.
S.
practical
given
that
the
they
Bryan,
slightest
have
made
stopping.*
L.
Folk
operation
of
Bryan,
of
the
Ohio,Diesel
for
motor.
the
24
INTERNAL
If
hot
in
valve
possibly
is
to
get
too
much
the
down
the
on
and
the
discharge
running
stop.
While
mechanism
may
closed,
and
igniter mechanism
is used.
turned
is at
water
into
the
thrown
being
of
out
governor
be
thrown
until
jacket
the
deg. fahr.
160
of low
engine
ignition
may
of from
regular
is
or
unless
For
be
spark
engine
mixture;
valve
water
temperature
the
the
the
position,
water
its
at
rich
too
running
to
open
impulse,
an
rapidly, or
too
180
to
is
and
the
When
on
cam,
full,or
until the
in consequence
and
relief cock
engine
continue
valve
and
gas,
advanced
and
supply
open
slow
the
or
acting
the
valve
gas
its maximum
not
its
begins
the
open
soon
device
If
the
of
on
relief
one-quarter
give the
Now
as
proper
more.
it
as
Do
speed.
it will
acting
cam
gas
little
getting
will
the
soon
as
slowly
temperature.
purpose
same
cherry-
starting position.
into
igniter to the
the
and,
(a double
serving the
thrown
this
maintain
to
to
cock.
the
the
and
provided with
is
Set
flame
starting cam
be
it should
engine
open
has
valve
exhaust
cock),
the
adjust
engine
If the
the
tube
and
heat
red
ENGINES
COMBUSTION
compression.
lower
temperature
is necessary.
If the
several
make
revolutions
and
soon
make
as
the
sure
Stopping.
"
To
friction
press
or
Turn
the
brake,
against
other
hot
in
tube
the
opening
gas
valve.
gas
the
engine
turn
of
momentum
shape
of
plank,
the
may
valve, and
flywheel, a
be
made
oil and
and
fulcrum,
water
igniter,if
one
cups
feeding properly.
are
stop the
to
available
off the
they
stop
its
is
engine
if it is desirable
before
to
"Starters.")
on
that
startingdevice, allow it
supply and
be
used,
or
turn
off the
if electrical
to
floor
rim.
flame
in
ignition
PRACTICAL
is
used,
of the
turn
jacket
length
of
time, drain
Starting
the
prevent
crack
Automobile
an
starting of
nearly all
jacket.
If there
due
by
over
in their
the
to
carburettor.
mixture,
conditions, varies
machine
day,
or
even
started
with
the
carburettor:
connection
be
personally the
than
more
50
of course,
author
skin
from
that, where
the
the
day
one
another
on
adjustment
same
all.
at
always be due
not
be
may
the
or
be
may
batteries
encountered
to the
battery
poor,
has
of
out
be
may
grade;
poor
gasoline containing
although
this condition
gasoline passes
be
to
atmospheric
infrequently, is of
lined, this
cycle of
obtained
not
By
funnel, chamois
as
start
in
are,
stationary engine,
single cranking,
of water,
cent
per
the
in
as
they
different
points corroded,
extreme.
obviated,
mixtures
starting may
gasoline,
The
the
under
same
always found
the
or
than
wiring connections
may
adjustment
weak.
in
trouble
course
The
"
machines
until
are
later,with
jacket.
However,
extent
an
minutes
few
such
to
be
may
action
varying
This
they
in this direction
Engine.
hand
be left any
to
care
starting of these
turned
cases,
largely
slightestdanger
water
stationary engine.
erratic
more
little
Marine
or
the
in the
is the
water
will often
25
OPERATION
latter
through
the
be
difficultymay
and
through
was,
does
water
not.
In
carried
out.
beyond
dead
open
Retard
See
or
if the
four
that
procedure should
spark advancing
which
if
it is thrown
out
the
machine
is
lever
the
to
engine
point
runs,
arrangement
an
supplied with
is
give
pump,
clutch
a
foot
or
transmission
clutch
mechanism
lever
is in
is used,
neutral
see
that
of gear.
by throwing
be
strokes.
the
position,or,
Close
of
the
it three
the
provided, or,
or
following mode
starting, the
the switch.
plug
26
Now
oil
give
the
engine
if it fails to
and,
few
start
at
usually solve
will
this
supply valves.
the
Open
ENGINES
COMBUSTION
INTERNAL
with
turns
is sufficient.
drops
shows
attempts,
rich
gas,
order.
in
to
Failure
that
the
is flooded,
or
two
are
the
way,
its
up
flywheel back
with
and
the
the
until it
The
operation.
forth
to
When
to
of
difficulties in
in
the
the
running
be
the oil
too
in
later
is
and
the
and
way,
the
work
is to
against the
it
dead
over
found
one
the
cylinder,
in
is
which
reversible),
compression,
center.
in the
two-cycle
spark, and
a
be
To
apply
an
in
these
given, but do
not
open
to
"catch
up."
is good
the
transmission
oil
is not
time,
remove
automobile
oil is
engine, throw
gas
quantity
and
bad,
worse.
stop
the
the throttle to
open
variable
can
marine, is well
or
engine circulation
supply is working
close
or
four-cycle
direction
the
automobile
the
this
as
that
sure
"
as
engines,
startingare
fixed rule
little oil is
Stopping.
the
of
out
engine.
back
engine, either
position;
Always
neutral
get
same
other
too
spark
too
four-cycle type.
types of engines, no
but
The
turning
started,gradually advance
that
getting
part is
(a two-cycle engine
run
sparks, instead
as
the
in small
flywheel sharply
same
engine
out
is
these
fullydiscussed
more
over
sjDark retarded
engine is
turn
after
once,
other
some
are
is turned
frequently employed
then
at
of
ways
engine
until it takes
most
start
few
gasoline; a
cylinder either
that
or
much
usually
cup
chapter.)
There
the
to
priming
the
too
use
this
One
not
care
carburettor;
if it still fails to
difficulty;but
provided, using
the
try priming
once,
the
starting crank,
the
transmission
brake.
supply valves, if
machine
plug from
is to
the
be
coil
off
After
a
force
into
stopping
lubricator
left any
or
the
length of
throw
off
the
switch.
In
stopping
marine
as
brake,
PRACTICAL
and
it is
only
supply.
gas
valves
and
throw
to
necessary
The
off the
spark
same
to
the
close the
or
engine ready
to
again.
start
Care
As
of
matter
gas-engine
statement,
Engine.
plant of
steam
owner
engine requires no
the
into
statements,
attention
size.
same
should
operator
or
similar
or
of
by far, than
the
27
OPERATION
and
However,
this
confuse
not
that
meaning
will
tion,
atten-
gas
itself"
"run
after
starting.
A
be
condition.
well
oiled
as
of
of from
temperature
jacket
water
uniform
to
the
head
This
circulatingpump.
first to
the water
from
there
to
an
be
may
elevated
tank
engine and
the
then
of the
pressure
One
the
lowered
be
to
use
three
by which
device
the
as
rapidly
cooling
the
as
water
and
to
of the
water
circulations through
the
and
readily
tain
main-
to
water
best
or
other
ways
of
from
the
allowing it to circulate
the
pump,
which
for
cooling
means
of
cooling
of the
It is
over,
from
always
tower
water
may
advisable
since, after
two
or
that
at
pressure
pressure
temperature
possible.
over
kept
accomplished by pumping
Suitable
again pumped to the tank.
should
be provided, either in the shape
other
It is of
be
In order
it is
or
uniform
may
of direct
instead
of water
always have
cylinder be
engine.
the
temperature,
as
be kept constant.
jacket must
accomplish this is to depend on
uniform
the
in temperature
operation of
in the
detected
the
variations
as
of
and
deg. fahr.
180
to
engine,
clean
as
maintain
to
deg. fahr.
170
the
to
it should
regular attendant,
always be
engine, and
steam
that it is
see
engine should
supply
sufficient
to
on
gas
its
not
depended
have
"
been
will
28
INTERNAL
quickly
lodge
cause
at
crust
to
form
point,
at
which
some
COMBUSTION
ENGINES
in the
jacket
place
sediment
or
to
"hot-spot"
will be
is
provided
produced.
If,as is sometimes
with
for
means
The
drilled
be
to insure
order
their
remaining
starting,the engineer
of
out
adjustment,
point
engine
is
latter
its
to
where
center
engine,
in
are
This
is,it
the
explosion
and
we
all
are
valve,
raise the
engine
the
we
over
set
to
is
suction
which
at
distance
from
be
sure
suction
we
stroke.
inspecting the
valves
closed,
are
just commencing
stroke
and
until
must
the
to
turn
reference
may
snap.
their
marks,
engines, when
and
valve
together
with
spark
they leave
the
shop, should
positions marked;
and
mechanic
average
any
in the
by
cam
be
igniter is
the
the
both
possible.
time,
any
must
complete revolution
one
All first-class
have
are
if the inlet
again correspond,
marks
be
right; but
then
down,
are
cams
if
piston
cycle
here, in the four-
we
in
not
sponding
corre-
the
on
at
readily determined
most
If both
cams.
and
stroke
or
but
us:
the
turn
part, make
the exact
ignitionoccurs;
it for
though
to
become
slowly
may,
even
sion;
explo-
remove
desirable
most
the
ignition system,
frame
engine
be turned
the
to
any
and
that, in
so
reason,
which
at
difficultyconfronts
be
may
the
may
some
follows:
being
sparking point,
that
removed;
expect
electrical
moving
way
to
necessary
flywheel
turned
dead
the
on
known,
be
ignitersnaps,
in
week
be
for
as
without
Now,
once
water
circulation.
when
determined
until the
over
cylinder,the
is
to
as
may,
it may
or
be
may
points
It
open
make-and-break
produced.
and
often
know
may
sparking device
the
repairs. With
this
as
out
valve
water
exact
also
the exhaust
case,
circulatingthe
should
passages
the
to
reset
the
valve
or
these
enable
igniter
mechanism.
The
part in
if
care
the
properly
of
the
ignition mechanism
operation of
cared
gas
is
engine.
an
all-important
Electrical
devices,
satisfaction,while
if
allowed
very
poor
clean
and
allowed
satisfaction.
close and
to
be
may
If
the
last
into
action
a
care,
good.
too
none
replaced
of
the
tube
of
few
every
another
may
be
kept
the
very
at
practice,some
than
others
lubricated
ignition and
should
producing
should
valves
they
may
strength.
the
reverse
should
so
The
that
few
The
always
seat
small
for
in the
suction-inlet
so
to
in with
ground
if
The
valve-
they become
increase
the suction
the
case
valve
spring
valve,
the
cylinder,will
open
it
must
their
inlet observe
seat
valve
thus
The
power.
little.
strong;
possible
area,
of
and
oil
valves
properly
to
the
passages
any
effective
in their
strong enough
vacuum,
use
be
premature
cause
the exhaust
stretched
engines that
the
prevent
necessary
and
oil, but
prevent
ever
In
readily
more
carbonized
reduction
and
stiff
only be
a
be
removed
be
the
their
it is not
weakened
to
will
gas
frequently examined
should
springs
stem
the
be
engine should
gas
event
any
and
pressure
be
and
flour,emery
incandescent,
reducing
back
In
one,
cherry-red.
passages,
occasionally
from
accumulation
to
poorer.
otherwise
the
firing.
cleaned
be
which
inflame
or
with
or
choke
soon
back
richer
always
should
tube
seating,and, becoming
from
The
to
needs
of accident
at
will
tube
should
tubes
case
running parts of
a
iron
than
found
lubricated
be
will
in
be
can
substances
an
Several
hotter
be
produced
these
while
that
gases
of
that,
will be
with
cylinder should
of
and
either
quality is
the
as
either
stands
porcelain with-
alloy or
temperature
never
bearings and
The
well
heat
so
material
Nickel
days.
lowest
gases
of
sets
of which
means
quickly substituted.
should
ignite and
two
not
circuit.
be
switch, by
are
used, is
be
one
be
to
with
up
if
battery,
purchased is
ordinary
the
connections
the
that
sure
It is
thrown
tube
that
of
out
Be
down.
run
cells connected
set
dirty or
become
to
29
OPERATION
PRACTICAL
quickly.
always be perfect,
30
since the
ENGINES
COMBUSTION
INTERNAL
spring is
of the
pressure
sufficient to exert
not
any
sudden
the
rapidly, or
the
that
result
the
of
its
until the
cylinder,
the
engine is ruined
of the
is
cylinder
surface
inner
in
started
once
compression
When
gone.
power
ring cut,
expanded, with
the
cuts
too
them
cause
may
and
is still hot
piston
cylinder
hot
walls
of the
the
cylinder.
will grow
cooling
the
contract, while
to
into
circulatingwater
the
turn
badly it
cut
providing
and
be
can
piston and
new
rings.
The
governing device
its
prevent
to
and
becoming
of
in
this
For
it would
reason
in
governor
act
governors
closing a
it and
releases
until
the
it to
allows
engine slows
to
is not
enough,
open
connect
the
slow
until
allow
long enough
to
hit-and-miss
governor,
of the
opening
gas
again.
If
the
engine
will
not
the
a
charge
gas
get
connects,
aperture
to
opens
valve,
govern
a
or
closed
the
valve
supply
valve
charge and
and
the
wide
the
enter
properly adjusted,
valve, should
the
allow
to
and
speed beyond
it will remain
enough
it
hit-and-
opening
closes
close,and
the governor
The
to.
and
they
leave
to
by
the
place the
to
even
engine increases
down
in
dirty grease.
design
supply
catches
governor
mechanism
will
the
as
of
amount
itself,or
gas
grease
where
case,
easily attended
the
on
valve;
gas
limit, the
certain
be
crank
better
by
with
up
especially true
great
be much
it may
is
the
apartment
an
exposed where
miss
in
positionto accumulate
gummed
or
This
contained
governors
frequent attention
receive
clogged
case
are
should
engine
enough
or
cylinder.
and
with
the
engine
proper
very
closely.
There
of
are
different
general
With
of the
number
design
principleof
on
due
governor
to
the
called hit-and-miss
market,
the hit-and-miss
after the
the
so
governor,
all
gas
acting
governors
the
on
supply.
that
all the
hot
same
exhaust
received,
the
gases
mal,
nor-
have
32
much
too
wide, allowing
and
until
or
engine
the
turn
used,
Weak
engine
the
surplus
all
running,
but
batteries
the
it may
be
to
certain
insulated
If the
"
the
the
spark plug
if there
see
spark is
If the
air, it
will
is
weak
spark
When
are
set
to
batteries, but
and
clean
should
If
be
an
all between
the
some
1/32
free
cleaned,
extra
set
the
spark plug
the proper
will vary,
are
at
be
distance
extent,
cylinder; then
uncertain
see
age
or
Be
sure
right.
from
soot;
from
time
of cells is
the
to
to
of
insure
time,
with
carried, throw
the
exposed
under
there
these
that the
this
that
the
will
tions.
condi-
points
spark
strength
this
the
between
probability that
out,
means
turn
when
points under
be
may
when
weaker
much
is taken
in. is about
spark
closer
holding it,by
and
and
the
no
may
set much
be
open
trouble
The
strong.
are
very
be
any
is not
weak, the
grows
This
points should
be
the
engine
the
spark
old.
or
to
over
points.
to
attempt
to
approximate adjustment,
its
to
produces, on
it
adjustment
with
himself
familiarize
while
is
carburettor
every
batteries
by removing
engine
cylinder.
It is useless
poor
batteries
the
when
the
set
probably
coil;for weak
of
As
"
carburettor
Wanting.
or
are
remedied,
tested
of the
must
results.
of
Weak
Spark
than
igniter is
is known.
that
once
fails,go over
under
heading
to
out
find in what
best
adjustment
fine
starting
to
tube
hot
to
times
of Adjustment.
the
average,
cylinder,
If this
if the
worked
been
and
clear the
the valve
enough
engine operator
special one
entirely
described
as
or,
enough
over
out
different,the
the
to
the valve
"
has
gas
Carburettor
his
open
is hot
the tube
Cylinder Flooded.
turn
then
Wanting,"
or
that
see
occurs;
thoroughly,
ignition system
"Spark
twice,
position and
the
or
once
over
explosion
an
be true, close
to
of
If either
taken.
be
to
charge
is found
conditions
these
full
too
too
if it is open
cylinder, or
the
into
leak
to
gas
ENGINES
COMBUSTION
INTERNAL
of
gap
the
points
condition, they
gasoline.
them
into
the
PRACTICAL
circuit and
if the
see
spark is improved.
not
through
make
that
sure
well-insulated
and
grease,
clean
as
the
reason
neither
the
all found
of batteries
set
high-tension wire
of
required of
common
Stops.
has
If
it slows
overheated, the
revolution.
charge
there
or
of the
result.
open,
or
the
cylinder oil.
The
The
The
stops, the
too
to
may
be
of friction
lack
to
or
inlet
in
weak
engine
bearing
The
of poor
or
amount
unable,
stems
relief cock
starting cam
is
exhaust
or
the
if any
power
sticking,with
the
wholly
may
be
If the
pump.
to
consequence,
partially or
be
of
be in gear.
be
to
be
may
may
may
good; there
line to
see
and
valve
engine is found
circulation
spark is
abnormal
an
and
wiring
same
If the
the
overheated
an
obstructed
be
engine.
suction
to
suitable
or
be
may
point, due
itself
rapid work
gasoline low
every
seat
for the
down
explode the
may
this
but
down,
suitable
not
right,or
valve
tion
the insula-
that
or
is
There
Open-circuit cells,or
is not
sufficient
dition
con-
broken
some
good
is broken.
overloaded,
in
of renewal.
occurrence.
If
"
cylinder is either
at
always be kept
sparking battery.
connection
gives
in need
polarizerapidly, are
Engine
oil and
with
to be
that
course,
is not
cells that
if covered
wiring should
are
probability, both
possibility,of
of
broken.
contact
or
tions,
connec-
circuit,to
the
complete
ground
wiring connections
in all
trouble
will often
wiring
the
is
good spark
possible.
and
are,
wire
If
over
is grounded
wire
no
for this
as
If the
batteries,and
the
33
OPERATION
obstruction
an
water
seems
to
if the
in
be
hotter
the
lating,
circu-
than
the
from
the
same
the
that
point, and
If the
water.
the
If
"
be
found
at
the
bottom,
for the
to
34
the
of
presence
removed.
be
deposit
must
into
the
deposit; and
jacket
the
the
then, with
bent
If
drill and
to
necessary
such
no
provided, and
overheating, it
from
tap
through the
water
is
plug
remove
deposit and
the
up
hole
to
necessary,
equipped,
so
closed, force
give trouble
to
is
engine
wire, break
outlet
water
when
removed,
be
ing
open-
an
opening with
fit the
points and
If the
a
engines provide
Many
may
jacket.
the
out
to
these
at
flush
ENGINES
COMBUSTION
INTERNAL
for
be
may
1-in.
the
pipe
plug.
Cold.
Ignition Tube
charge, then
every
into
the
does
not
exhaust
If the
"
unburned
some
and
passages
fire the
ignitiontube
too Rich.
in the
back,
in
which
the
passages,
When
"
number
speeds,
as
on
of dead
is
its maximum
to
reached; it is doubtful
reached.
There
gasoline
the
cylinder becoming
the inside of the
their
the
the
spark
may
of low
firingmay
overheated,
from
one
or
become
be
too
engine is running.
ignited
the
to
mally
abnor-
point
of the
dition
con-
ignitiontemperature,
also be
charge.
far advanced
siderably
con-
center
caused
by the
fins, on
by projections,or
incandescent
low
gas
dead
with
for the
holding
and
partially compressed
next
likelihood
more
to
at
this critical
heat, derived
oil may
The
ignite before
in
be too
were
pressure
fires
due
may
allow
to
if,unless
Back
vapor.
be
be
by the time
in gases
engine.
firing,except
in order
be
sions
explo-
direction
compression
pressure
would
being encountered
as
the
in
the
firing may
result in back
Back
center
the
up
exists,the charge
ahead
expand
not
of
of causes;
stopping
this condition
engine is running.
a
usually results
in
or
keep
tube
stop.
condition
compression
the
of
one
any
exhaust
Firing.
Back
This
"
If the
to
fire
to
discharged
there.
explode
will
cold
will be
gas
is too
to
ignite
particle of
the
result.
same
speed
bonized
car-
at
which
PRACTICAL
In the
has
as
two-cycle type
in the
occur
crank
been
of
motor, premature
due
case,
35
its
to
explosions may
compression being
poor,
previously explained.
Premature
the
OPERATION
explosions are
accompanied
necessarily
indicate
place, as
bolt
that
nut
or
pounding
bearing pounding
explosions
premature
be
may
by
loose
and
does
of
not
taking
are
produce the
same
result.
Water
in the
introduced
"
in the
mixture,
the
engine is made
the
The
is
condition
usually the
case,
mechanism,
if
is to
remedy
wrong
way
should
be
those
and
gasket
Cut
all
openings
head
insert
position and
cold, draw
using
for 3
the
or
min.,
rubber,
allow
position.
will
or
Failure
mean
to
all the
to take
cracks
so
up
as
to
only
done
the
to the
to
others
any
place when
be
sure
through
pass
as
them
freely,
they
are
size
exact
With
they will
and
jacket dry,
good and
on
be
material
last
takes
go,
as
the
in
engine
of
course
twisting
not
the
engine
in
tightened
this
the
run
warm;
the
perform
the
that
and
judgment
cementing
to
The
packing, which
bolts.
or
of
with
screws
igniter
holes, making
nearly
as
tight
as
until it is
other
or
bolts
the
or
The
is
as
amount
Now,
off.
or,
asbestos, should
to
of
out
screws
bolts
reasonable
heads
the
the
up
the
space.
is most
cylinder, as
or
the
place
possible. Now
The
spaces
bolt
the
up.
engine.
all bolt
cut
drawing
power,
grounded.
water
the
permit
to
water
the
Carefully
when
case
operation often
an
the
for
of
wire-woven
fitted to
openings
large enough
screwed
by loss
inexperienced.
of
the
accompanied
being
water
by stopping of the
occur.
without
the
good grade
detachable
electrical, becomes
by
provide the
may
with
from
is sometimes
as
or,
result
may
carefully cut
that
This
Cylinder.
the
up
gasket, and
to
their final
tightening
tion
opera-
three-quarters of
turn
the
on
into
gasket and squeeze the cement
produce an absolutelytight joint.
the
36
INTERNAL
Engine
Smokes.
rich
the
front
due
mixture
of
the
to
the
being
be
has
Valves
worn
or
running
already
been
Leak.
much
indicates
cylinder,
may
issuing
too
or
rings
engine
the
Smoke,
"
too
ENGINES
COMBUSTION
See
crusted
previously
been
faster
that
the
give
If
if
if
the
the
be
can
is
spark
to
Smoke,
the
hot.
cylinder
The
is
piston
the
from
issuing
of
out
round,
for
remedy
leaking,
or
these
ditions
con-
the
stems
sticking,
are
is
spring
The
weak.
if
or
the
seat
has
remedy
suggested.
it
fed
oil.
indicates
exhaust,
mentioned.
"
than
being
or
Races.
Engine
or
cut,
or
the
that
"
is
from
the
engine
engine,
supplied
far
advanced
cylinder.
The
too
more
mixture.
running
with
light,
it
gas,
for
remedy
the
is
races,
an
to
retard
runs
indication
of
amount
is
or
mixture
the
spark
CHAPTER
VI.
STARTING
There
are
starting
of
that
exploded,
results
dangerous
started
throw-out
automatic
the
clutch
the
engine
have
placed
the
starting
2.
even
It
is sometimes
at
times
igniting
the
before
the
3.
The
cycle
Electric
the
of
of
the
which
the
containing
stopped.
was
the
large engine
less
of
which
turned
operator.
by
often
may
this
used
be
to
37
with
apparatus
spark
it takes
and
up
of
for
a
in
drawn
tight cylinder.
source
advantage
provided
start, after
successfully
the
until
external
some
to
charge
with
starts
engines, and
sparking
do
over
is to
the
To
of
efficiency,
to
to
out
engine
of
an
when
the
part
stopped
with
as
the
be
to
are
crank
or
be
may
operations
are
be
engine
maturely
pre-
which,
cylinder,
one
be
operator
but
object
stop, by retarding
cylinder
engine
but
taken
be
accompanying
the
greater
immunity
of
engines
piston rings be
motors
throws
disengage
insuring
engine
that
demands
that
crank,
engine
not
possible in multi-cylinder
short
moderately
and
or
in
starting
Hand
starting
provided
enables
to
will
Engines
market,
crank
fires, thus
back
or
the
less
the
must
charge
which
devices,
on
or
starting
or
firing, with
automatically
Several
been
cause
the
the
that
care
generally
collar
starts,
connection.
the
are
with
shaft
for
1.
cocks
starting,
back
in
requires
operator.
method
use
more
follows:
as
relief
that
set
the
used,
extensively
of
causing
to
this
by
about
method
so
in
demand.
compression
ignition is
the
methods
are
size, and
this
using
In
which
most
moderate
with
provided
cams.
is' used
which
of
of
enumerated
be
engines
be
all
different
requirements
as
may
starting,
of
engines,
extensively,
They
number
gas
DEVICES.
this
its
energy.
purpose,
starting
engine
38
COMBUSTION
INTERNAL
small
enough
power,
when
An
4.
be
to
turned
running,
by hand
over
explosive mixture
of gas
auxiliary air-tightchamber.
an
by
the
On
stopped.
into the
is admitted
supply pipe.
its
up
5.
air may
to
The
the
and
dead
center
in the
valve
of this
it take
make
to
cycle of operations.
The
last-named
air pump,
method
into
the
to
either
In
methods
if the
be
the
electrical
an
starter;
by
or
The
of
ignition
match
the
in
been
used
charge
7.
in
6.
cylinder, and
the
in
a
treatise
his
on
The
Gas
the
auxiliary chamber,
closed, passes
As
the
long
pressure
into
in
to
chamber
is
in
valve
the
explosion chamber
as
soon
the
the
flame
as
gradually
the
the
shown
to
Hutton,
in
such
Fig.
7.
gas
prevent
it; but
is
valve, C,
poppet
and
illustrates
the
on
out
the
as
high
back
the
and,
pipe, B,
exploded
cylinder.
Engine,"
operation of which
enters
be
conveyed
pressure
engine
starter, the
Gas
the
"
extent.
some
may
means,
auxiliary chamber
an
resulting
Igniter.
Match
to
tube,
exploding it by mechanical
has
spark,
inserting an
explosive cartridge
into
may
6.
method
opening
of
of
means
Fig.
see
an
last two
charge
electrical system
used,
6.
of these
named,
exploded by
by using
charge of explosive
compress
cylinder.
be
varied
be
may
operated by hand,
mixture
Fig.
it is
ture
explosive mix-
cylinder by opening
explosion
accomplished
over
the
charge of
in
stored
receptacle before
this
be
be
may
explosion stroke,
sufficient to
and
This
sufficient
of
and
large engine.
the
start
to
ENGINES
engine
it is
ignited.
the
is maintained
jet,D, from
supply is
consumed
at
cut
the
being
open,
ciently
suffi-
running
off,the
gas
in
40
INTERNAL
operate
intermediate
an
matter
to
make
to
lever
in turn, operates
mechanism,
shaft, which
on
rod, it is
valve
which
the levers
an
easy
mounted,
are
to
as
way
mounted
the
shaft,on
the
shift in such
ENGINES
COMBUSTION
into gear.
Such
is shown
arrangement
an
figures show
the
in
the
of
arrangement
Figs.
9, which
and
for
cams
three-
"toite=^
Fig.
Compressed
8.
In the illustrations
cylinder,four-cycle engine.
the
are
three
exhaust
all mounted
cams,
levers,H,
On
the
the
9.
Detail
on
the
which
the
valve
double
eccentric
made
with
while
to
starting
one-half
the
once
open
other
and
the
are
shifter
inlet
The
G.
hardened
the
Starting
Cam
Cam
shown,
every
the
shown
impinge.
stems
cams.
of it with
the
on
A,
mission
trans-
shaft,7.
steel contacts,
X-X
of
portions, as
shaft,
cam
are
and
D,
mounted
levers
Section
J,
one
shown
are
transmission
Fig.
and
cams,
on
Starting Cams.
Air
so
A
that
in
Cams
is
half is concentric
the
of the
to
the
8.
and
are
provided with
exhaust
revolution, while
outline
Fig.
valve
D
cam
at
is
is made
regular inlet
shaft
two
all
cam,
points,
STARTING
it
will
closed.
the
double
some
manufacturers
This,
however,
economical
exhaust
With
is
air,
of
stroke
the
to
the
maintained
not
it
the
of
is
and
and
close
absolute
shuts
lever,
in
the
necessity,
off
piston,
the
the
when
air
the
shifter
direction
is
of
opened.
provided
by
poppet
valve.
although
more
supply
the
in
the
cock
air
until
is
K,
air
an
will
over
control,
shaft,
cam
valve
turned
D,
the
portion
inlet
is
moved
the
open
an
as
and
position
on
to
the
H,
concentric
engine
means
levers,
is
of
by
mounted
cam,
the
cams,
starting
the
to
arrow
open
then,
the
on
consequence,
the
the
carrying
shaft
which
stroke;
explosion
acts
starting,
In
cylinder,
the
H,
in
and,
raise,
not
remain
lever,
the
when
that
so
41
DEVICES
exhaust
during
valve
the
is
atmosphere.
air-starting
in
the
system
storage
tank.
pressure
of
from
200-300
lb.
CHAPTER
CARBURETTORS,
The
general
same
fuel
requisite
types.
Thus,
operate
on
are
form
some
for
to
engines
the
operating
solid
gas
is
producer
on
of
available
from
for
different
the
in
steps
fuel
from
fuel,
in
although,
the
use
which
engines
the
known
apparatus,
an
gas,
the
intermediate
no
form,
distill
to
gas,
fuel,
gaseous
or
necessary
state,
as
is
power
several
is, the
transformation
vaporous
producer,
a
of
the
that
engine,
gas
of
the
on
obtaining
for
with
vary
operate
generation
the
pursued
form
the
engines
oil
as
methods
gaseous
in
necessary
liquid
in
the
in
and
far
as
INJECTORS.
AND
alcohol,
principle,
but
concerned,
VAPORIZERS
gasoline,
gas,
VII.
as
it appears
as
internal-combustion
engines.
different
The
devices
alcohol,
gasoline,
which
after
will
taken
be
There
three
mixture
The
carburettor,
and
supply
To
air,
up
and
on
the
in
bustible
com-
be
cussed,
dis-
producer
gas
the
for
is
or
of
into
a
an
manifold
from
or
42
on
the
of
the
form.
gasoline,
engine
"hot-box,"
the
by
vapor
especially
find
device
vapor
necessary,
warm,
we
suction
carburetting
be
reason
portion
in
liquid
absolutely
not
is
forms,
across
the
when
gasoline,
this
exhaust
securing
(3) Injecting.
transformed
particles
their
for
use
its many
through,
although
as
of
one
operation,
the
leading
either
first
suction
methods
fuel
taking
well
weather;
will
the
liquid fuels:
any
over,
better,
as
in
either
facilitate
much
of
(2) Vaporizing,
liquid
the
air
passing
of
production
mixture
operation
from
Carburetting,
which
oil
or
general
(1)
by
is
the
the
for
up.
are
explosive
used
cylinder
that
in
it
the
cold
facturers
manu-
located
base,
or
where
the
circulate
water, from
warm
carburetting alcohol
circumstances, that
is
liquidin
and
fuel
the
that
In
air to
proper
it is
heat
residual
of
another
it
method
and
has
sufficient
pressure
oil to
chamber
to
with
other
types,
the
cylinder,and
the
same
Still
satisfactorymanner.
of the
where
explosive
by causing the
hot
its heat,
to
proper
is also obtained
on
gases,
air nozzle
an
produce the
it to
exhaust
which, due
it past
carry
time,
or
mixed
In
the
to
oily vapor
an
result
at
less
the
to
with
same
fall,a drop
heated
vaporized and
direct
in
consists
mixture.
to
the
to
oil is thus
the
general results,although in
pulverize
or
up
explosive mixture.
the
break
forced
be
pressure
it, in suspension,
of
is carried
coils where
the
for this
reason
especiallywith
engines, after
many
through heated
form
under
it may
portion
mixture
the
up,
the
all
under
necessary,
is necessary,
air
the
order
a
carry
engine cylinder.
broken
to
Chapter IX.
grades, that
the
through
is
warmed;
carburetting petroleums it
heavier
the
it
fuel be
the
in
fully explained
In
made
be
may
it.
around
When
jacket,
the
43
INJECTORS
AND
VAPORIZERS
CARBURETTORS,
to
vaporize.
vaporizer (and it
The
applicable,
always has
supply
required.
as
reality,improved
be said that
of gas
on
hand, while
only enough
gas
amount
necessary
mixture
for the
of which
of them
for each
the
air
quality of the
gasoline
fuel to
supply
latter
the
vaporizer, or
revolution
in
or
in
are,
fact,it
may
are.
gasoline valve, of
being adjusted
required, and
the
that
the
of the
of
only
are
so-called, carburettors
Many,
majority
they
use
in
the carburettor
design, capable of
needle
vary
the
the
to
vaporizer consists,essentially,of
The
means
be said that
ordinarily designed,
as
or
here
may
to
deliver
the
an
may
mixture,
as
be
regulated
so
as
requirements demand.
to
44
INTERNAL
COMBUSTION
gasoline is dropped
The
made
rise in
to
air, which
made
the
on
cylinder,or
fuel mixed
with
with
chamber
ignition of whose
make
Diesel
the
At
is
valve
by
per
the
of
in.
unique; the
the
The
construction
of the
fuel
enters
consists
of
means
as
the
closes
the
of the
oil,as it falls
divided
chapter
spray
on
to
is made
the
suction
stroke
the
into the
valve
the
as
of
fuel
der
cylinlb.
800
is somewhat
pipe,
and
B.
The
at
F.
The
washers,
when,
on
the
oil is carried
"Ignition," the
heated
vaporizes and
of nickel
capillary attraction
it to fillthe
causes
working
with
cylinder where,
the
cylinder completely
stem
the
on
valve, F, is opened,
the
on
are
charge,
pressure
air, through
valve
and
mentioned,
above
valve
governor
and
air
fuel
Fig. 10,
of concentric
shown,
opens
valve
the
forced
a
motor.
to
fuel
working
compressed
proper,
holes,
small
the
tion,"
"Igni-
Diesel
the
cylinder
charge of oil is
auxiliary compressed
valve,
allows
the
enter
The
under
also the
valve, and
the
method
This
Referring
air under
means
sq.
to
the
the
follows.
as
beginning of
opened and
injecting into
later described
air valve
previously described,
stroke.
and
are
exhaust
The
in
the
Meitz
is
are
device.
air.
of
principle,as does
method
plainly marked.
feed
float
oil-engine manufacturers.
charges
of this
use
requisite amount
and
the, so-called,
of
different
Hornsby-Akroid
the
the
produce
throttling device
implies, consists
name
the
the
largely by
the
automatic
an
The
it is
or
spray,
it to
majority
the
to
market
the
Injecting, as
of
fuel with
supplied with
supplied with
the
of the
enough
are
carburettors
not
finely divided
mixture.
Vaporizers
in
of
carries
necessary
and
in the
carried
ENGINES
as
air
the
stroke, the
air in
described
contained
ignites it.
found
holes
The
finely
in
the
in
the
valve
by experi-
CARBURETTORS,
that
ence
moved
to
where
back
be
VAPORIZERS
the
and
packing abrades
forth, it
method,
of fuel
as
and
with
used
could
on
be
probably
as
Fig.
Returning
Fig. 11,
we
is obtained
ebullition.
have
and
worn
in the
the Diesel
applied
it is
requires
to
10.
Diesel
example
In
method
engines of lower
pression
com-
Valves.
and
carburettors
in
is sometimes
the illustration
the
ical
econom-
satisfactoryresults.
subject of
an
motors, is very
which
in
engine; B, the
spoken
of
thence
as
to
air
the
mechanical
referring to
carburetted
the
pipe to
the
the
to
This
engine.
which
spindle, as
replaced.
This
suction
the
becomes
soon
45
INJECTORS
AND
the
the carburetted
ting
tube, terminaair is drawn
4G
D,
shield acting
ENGINES
COMBUSTION
INTERNAL
the
on
principleof
separator and
when
gauge
by which
the
height
gasoline in
of
always
it to
move
of the
the
tube,
and
C,
the
with
mixes
carried to the
This
in at
There
Fig.
Daimler
the
amount
heat
to
the
liquid, from
the
continues,
until
it may
all of its
of this
outside
temperature
become
so
of
cold
in
different
difficultyencountered
Added
to
liquidnaturally rose
to
of the
liquidto
be
As
was
is, the
it will
vaporization
also
in the
fall
nearly
description
the
was
this
to
lost
have
for detailed
of
as
supplied
be
great
type of
burettor.
car-
experienced from
IX
use.
liquid a
any
liquid continues
fluids.) This
this, trouble
that
distillation;
this
that
its
vaporization, is
as
operation
in the
in
very
of
heat
the
Daimler.
heat, known
unless
sources,
condition
fractional
now
was
of
Carburettor.
lost;
is
in the
two
vaporization of
latent
the
however,
disadvantages
certain
11.
used
was
Gottlieb
by
were,
marked
B,
obtained
engines and
Daimler
first devised
the
carburettor
earlier
In
thus
mixture
stroke
through
liquid
the suction
On
the
as
of the
of the surface
changed.
is
tube,
surface
the
down,
or
up
elevation
of
float, E, causing
liquid; the
of the
may
positionas
just below
be
to
end
such
in
and
carburettor
The
C, terminates
vapor
indicator
an
the
determined.
be
the
from
the
causing
carburettor
was
vaporized,or distilled,
of
the heavier
the
of poor
zation,
vapori-
last part
quality,
48
COMBUSTION
INTERNAL
flannel
felt,reaching down
or
capacity of
the
above
of
air currents
surface
evaporates
the
Experience has
results
best
8 in.
wick
full of the
gradually becomes
the air
its functions
perform
To
supply
film
drop
to
the
over
the
Of
on
the
contained
fine wire
very
and
foreign matter,
open
in
in
large majority
method.
These
"spray
type,"
which
which
of
carburettors
and
finelydivided
the
fitted with
have
we
On
engine.
in
nozzle,
is
the suction
fuel, supported
unbalanced
As
must
has
they
are
the
this
use
spoken of
the
as
is
in the
that
of
the
on
air passage
the
the
In
spraying
consequence
and
atmosphere,
nozzle, is thrown
the
to
way
is formed
over
vacuum.
nozzle,
partial vacuum
air, rushing
fill this
follows:
as
it
over
been
cylinder,and
one
in
in
examples;
designs
situated
pass
the
to
by
off into
it
the
by the
pressure.
capacity of but
their
thin
so
stroke,
is less than
its pressure
mist.
valve, is
needle
attempting
is
liquid fuel
fabric,is easily
many
commonly
carburettor
carburettor, and
the
of
use
is carburetted
modern
are
or
spray
entering air
the
that
the
the
of the
the air
the
name
operation of the
The
to
ceases
and, forming
with
gauze,
spaces
gasoline,
fact, the
of
fuel,and
taken
entering air.
the
over
the
is that
carburettor
in the
designed
carburettors,
passing it
the wick
to
are
wires
evaporated by
liquid to be evaporated.
difficultyconnected
wicking, carburettors
is made
this type,
of
properly.
the
overcome
of wick
carburettor, if about
the
clogged with
or
The
air.
the
carburettors
when
part
fuel.
large expanse
saturates
that, in
obtained
are
the
with
this
fuel and
principalobjection
in with
across
shown
deep, is half
The
the
in the
liquid,serves
the
passage
the
into
wick, and, by
ENGINES
are
little
than
one
really improved
distinctive
almost
more
feature
being
carburettors
have
universallyequipped.
float
feed, with
If not
valves,
which
equipped
with
CARBURETTORS,
a
float
feed, an
and
open
Their
VAPORIZERS
aspiratingvalve
close the
49
INJECTORS
is necessary
automatically
to
spraying nozzle.
arises from
greatest difficulty
AND
lodge
to
great
the
tendency of small
in the
in the
care
spraying nozzle,
of the fuel
filling
supply tank.
In
the
valve
carburettors
is used
in
in
which
place of the
encountered, especiallyon
Fig.
the
valve
spring
of
amount
is not
of
power
the
of
number
on
fuel.
flexible
engine is
As
gives, as
For
time,
on
its
every
requisite
of, the
spoken
to
of
increased
the
reason
as
ordinary
difficultywhen
poppet
may
be
restricted
held
to
its seat
the
is shown
James-Lunkenheimer
the
a
which
manufactured,
are
essentiallyof
through
this
of
Valve.
commonly
on
inertia
carburettors
is known
the
secure
proportional
The
to
enough, and,
not
difficultyis
from
Mixing
entering air
impulses 'received.
mixing valve
used
high speeds,
aspirating
some
allowing sufficient
not
vaporous
carburettor
float feed,
James-Lunkenheimer
13a.
suction
automatic
an
by
by the
port, D, and
of the
spring, C.
the
design.
valve, A, the
means
in
It
The
B, and
air
consists
of which
movement
screw,
modern
which
supply
is
enters
50
in the
valve
seat
The
E.
at
needle
of the
means
ENGINES
COMBUSTION
INTERNAL
of which
is shown
f"
Mixing
F, and
by
the
is shown
the amount
of
pointer, G,
and
at / and
the
Fig.
Figs. 14,
15
mixing valves
of
14.
and
opening
The
engine connection
16
Generator
represent
manufactured
Cincinnati, Ohio.
needle valve
of the
Pattern
Fig.
three
is the
is indicated
gasoline connection
at
J.
Valve.
different
by the Lunkenheimer
14
T^S
Valve.
the dial, H.
Plain
at
types
of
Company,
CARBURETTORS,
valve, Fig.
15
opening of the
15.
Fig.
shows
16
is
varying the
tension
of
Generator
16.
valve
air and
the
poppet
Fig.
Fig.
VAPORIZERS
valve
valve
and
with
the
Valve
Generator
with
of the
Adjustable
Valve
with
Air
spring, and
Poppet.
Throttle.
connections,
gasoline supply
51
varying the
for
screws
tension
having throttle
spring.
INJECTORS
AND
and
for
means
for
changing the
52
INTERNAL
These
valves, especiallythe
give excellent
the
With
motor
when
they
is due
in
and,
too
Fig.
is
17
by Wheeler
cut
"
quite dearly in
the
follows:
chamber
the
17.
upwards
of the
trol
con-
valve
best
Schebler
the
air
constant
past the
explosive mixture,
liable
is
mixture
to
passes.
where
thus
It is of the
parts
figures and
shown
are
letters
opening, through
the
P,
to
at
9,
mixing
valve, A, is mixed
formed,
the
are
which
air,entering
The
spraying nozzle
carburettor,
is
freely than
more
working
the
carburetted,
float
lack of the
carburettor, manufactured
Reference
cut.
stove
Carburettor.
Schebler
type, and
results
to
ordinary
on
the
the
more
The
of the
is the
air,to be
passes
into the
run
the
spray-floatfeed
as
fact that
consequence,
rich with
Fig.
operated
are
the
to
the fuel to
necessary,
connection,
is able
operator
allows
become
the
throttle
closely.
very
gasoline. This
feed
with
one
and
satisfaction,
obtained
are
ENGINES
COMBUSTION
is
drawn
with
it,and
into
the
VAPORIZERS
CARBURETTORS,
engine cylinder.
F, J, H, and
air
the
of
feed
mechanism
is shown
shown, which
as
the
H, through
that
'float
consists
supply tube,
such
The
53
INJECTORS
AND
at
constant
valve,
it will
just overflow
carburettor, from
the
the
Gasoline
nozzle, P.
enters
supply
pipe, G.
nozzle, P, is fitted with
The
for
adjusted permanently
knurled
is raised
mechanism
of
the
causes
or
supply
is
by
lever, Q,
of which
and
tension
the
of
is used
by
for
needle
opening
valve
knurled
rich
very
is
which
usually accumulates
it also accumulates
be removed
Fig.
shows
18
sectional
two
manufactured
time
from
incoming air
with
b,
valve
as
fiber valve
openings
constant
The
proper
shown,
adjustment
a,
tension
means
spraying nozzle, D,
of
situated
starting.
pet-cock, at
of
its
gasoline,
gasoline contains
chamber,
of the
tor,
Holley carburet-
Company,
Detroit,
its seat
of
for
through which
to
pin U
time.
BC; situated
is held
the
by
enters
or
producing,
of the float
follows:
If the
views
the
and
grade
poorer
to
Michigan.
by the
the needle
mixture, suitable
in the bottom
ished;
dimin-
or
Push
opens
overflow
there.
Z\,
off the
Y,
increased
M.
may
be
screw
to
means
valve
its seat
to
may
when
valve
auxiliary air
increased
held
the
point, T, thus
damper
be
A,
lowers
lowest
and
The
tension
of the
float chamber
water
point.
may
The
the
is
mechanism,
cam
valves,
two
poppet
pin down
momentarily,
of
means
about
the
Pushing
the
the
revolve
to
the
means
by
throttle,the needle
open
spring 0, which
diminished
throttle
actuates
provided with
means
valve, E, which
or
lowering
raising
low
for
lever, P, which
the
and
then
button, /;
needle
the
the
in the
around
air is
by
the valve
is provided
the
are
constantly passed.
of the
means
spring,
path
screw
of the
c.
of
The
incoming air,
54
be
may
The
opened
mixture
may
by
of
means
closed
by
of
by the
is set
18.
openings,
but,
raises
A
carburettor.
as
Fig.
or
partial
and
the
Carburettor.
height
spraying
supply the
to
of the
nozzle.
the
pet-cock
at
formed,
extra
an
is used
On
low
air
constant
openings
the
supply
to
The
liquid such
of
requisite amount
vacuum
allows
drain
to
not
air
auxiliary
enter
the
the carburettor,
already described.
19
is
later
varying mixtures
necessary
less trouble
variation
is
supply, owing
closes
principlehas
or
or
Holley
the
entirelynew
an
opened
is
which
entirely through
the
as
the
BC
Type
maintain
enters
Old
requirements,
the carburettor
enters
H,
needle
overflow
just
a,
the
to
air
valve
Gasoline
suit
to
speeds the
to
closed,
d.
valve,
butterfly throttle,
the
engine past
or
the needle
of
means
gasoline connection,
it will
that
the
opened
means
mechanism
by
lever, F.
the
Fig.
lowered
to
be
the
through
closed
or
passes
E, which
ENGINES
COMBUSTION
INTERNAL
the
is encountered
accomplished
to
been
for the
with
by
derangements
auxiliaryvalve.
made
use
of to
in which
produce the
changing speeds.
carburettors,
means
of the
Frequent
of
an
in which
More
this
auxiliary air
of
this
56
INTERNAL
spring
are
The
have
to
this
overcome
difficultyby
gasoline,
of
amount
method
of
operation is
at A
and
U-shaped tube.
is
gradually constricted
there,
size
the
carburettors, by
through
passes
through
and
the
has
an
At
of
and
the
cork
valve,
area
in
surrounds
float,J, which
engine
the
to
controls
K.
at
most
mixture
The
E.
and
float chamber
possible to maintain
the
as
the
U,
the
needle
The
lower
tube, and
constricted
it
being adjusted,
lever, N, pivoted
the
through
up
of this tube
point
butterfly throttle
The
then
the
orifice
outlet,C.
illustration,
in the
and
of the needle
means
valve, L, through
makes
the lowest
this
annular
follows:
as
downward
passes
very
gasoline orifice B.
The
that
it will
not
operating, this
but
overflow
started,
is
engine
speed increases
velocity of the
the
Drain
orifice.
The
results
condition
will
suction
and
the
air sweeps
of the lever,F,
than
in.
"
to
buretting of alcohol
sufficient
the
lift the
line
gaso-
the
As
away,
to
increased
and
high
on
from
spray
prevent
engine
the
puddle
engine is throttled
of this carburettor
is
as
the
by
shown.
good, and
justifyit.
in
Carburettors.
the
already mentioned,
air shall be
to
opened, the
by the
The
engine is
When
principleof operation
seem
is
provided
the
so
puddle
the
is
have
not
is carburetted
pipe
when
evaporation.
throttle
Alcohol
As
does
is maintained
maintain.
it off the
surface
growing deeper
means
$ in., and
by
about
merely evaporates
carburetted
is
tered
encoun-
The
the
is often
trouble
then
even
speeds.
Holley claims
varying the
thus
and
necessary,
different
at
ENGINES
COMBUSTION
an
ordinary carburettor
of sufficient warmth
quantitiesto produce
to
a
is that
properly saturated
car-
the
in
mixture.
VAPORIZERS
CARBURETTORS,
However,
it has
that
suction
the
alcohol, owing
produce the
In
extent.
sufficient
found
should
the
to
same
Germany
some
been
in many
increased
France
The
engine is started
has
in the
Other
double
been
heat
and
to
state
it is mixed
It is apparent
must
gases
doubtful
for
with
generated
alcohol
air and
that carburettors,
and
there
is
hold
are
more
be
less the
good
no
of
with
are,
is
there
It
was
of
show
valid
an
The
should
be, according
f in. and
be
a
in. of
-J-
about
speed
be, in the
In
use
of
gases
should
be
about
to
for
220
secure
cylinder and
since
government
the
of alcohol
use
complicated.
more
is
alcohol,
on
between
to
operating
on
generally sufficient.
into the
sec.
should
gasoline,
ft. per
have
good spraying
operating
carburettor
alcohol
not
entering
starting,this value
gasoline, about
satisfactorily
spray
in the
authority, equal
in. of mercury
of the
the
should
give satisfaction,
and
a
should
rule
Design.
to
best
to
to
them
carburettor
mercury,
doubled.
of 0.1
vacuum
The
in
vacuum
heated
gasoline carburettors
most
effect.
it is
in their case,
so
same
Moreover,
making
and
conclusively, by
was
temperature
Carburettor
A
the
that
for
reason
the exhaust
vaporous
engine.
range
to
the
to
proven
why
developed.
power
in
as
efficient,
producers of power
as
reason
use
seemed
have
tests
when
perfect
gasolinesupply
less cumbersome
or
temperature.
in the
true
the
through which
high
on
to
use
passes
to
made
the
out
tests
in
are
insure
to
cuts
with
use
the
they would
to
on
at the
as
used
fuel
carburettors
pass,
if
of
alcohol.
carburettors
gases
fact
power.
heat
cuts
the
carburetting
when
amount
and
be
to
cases
increased
be
57
INJECTORS
AND
80
ft. per
sec,
should
while
to
VIII.
CHAPTER
PRODUCERS.
Producer
with
operating
apparatus
The
first
by
producers
almost
and
type
anthracite.
of
due
the
to
pressure,
in
which
the
had
pressure,
to
and
Dowson
producer
gas.
producer
their
be
they
the
of
were
hard
be
to
came
They
grade
quite complicated,
cooling
it
stored
used
were
gas
were
since
gas,
duced
intro-
were
operation
plants
suction.
by
or
marketed
name
for
generated
be
may
Dowson,
required
The
and
made
necessity of scrubbers,
gasometer,
varying
under
the
with
synonymous
pressure
engines,
named
that
extent
an
gas
be
to
Londoner,
such
to
fuel, for
gas
and
apparatus,
somewhat
under
was
being
before
fed
the
to
engine.
There
that
are
than
for
of
through
the
used
connection
piston
the
producer,
the
operate
in
use
suction
be
system
pressure
apparatus
in
however,
cases,
many
in
fact
with
of
pressure
and
to
for
it is necessary
other
any
engine,
gas
the
produces
which
flow
necessary
air is necessary
the
convey
purpose
where
to
gas
the
of
air
in order
the
to
required
point.
Nearly
20
The
retort
grate
scrubber,
represents,
or
arranged
provided
at
or
copies
are
generator
the
blowing
for
Fig.
generators
include
off from
generator;
fire brick
so
and
is driven
apparatus
the
pressure
idea
Dowson
gas
all
fuel;
of
diagrammatically,
producer
consists
of
such
metal
the
the
top.
The
which
the
through
is
producer
bottom
ashes
58
and
steam
purifier, and
gas
of
the
fall,the
original
the
fan
or
air
through
other
gasometer.
plant.
shell, lined
charging
opened
never
the
retort, in which
or
air-compressor
an
mixture
a
of
to
air and
hopper,
the
producer
steam
with
air, is
rests
on
being
59
PRODUCERS
ashes
is
the
provided, in which
air
and
end
open
the
producer,
or
generator sits,and
is introduced
steam
protects the
to
under
of the
pipe from
mixture
the
of
which
hood
conical
seal
water
becoming
clogged
drijtj^
Fig.
with
if
ashes
coal.
The
in
order
that
be lost in
mixture
no
should
walls
the
of
openings
and,
if
should
must
be had
retort;
be
for
Distribution
with
hopper conical
coal
large surface.
air blast
80
be
may
different
direct from
sq.
a
mechanical
fan
compressed
air.
be
must
tight
means
boiler
or
The
to
maintained,
inducer
spreads
producer in
the
pressure
in. pressure;
draft
in form, which
supplied
ways.
steam
lb. per
principle of
provide tuyere
the
the
on
seal, suitable
water
fuel
of the
over
of the
drop grate
of several
formation
the
The
clinker
manufacturers
some
provided
not
is
than
energy
to
superheated
be
heat
more
means
at
Producer.
entering fuel
The
Pressure
and
possible,
necessary
20.
a
or
as
may
be
nearly
as
any
obtained
possible,
blower, operating
injector; by
centrifugal blower;
or
by
on
the
of
means
the
one
use
of
60
INTERNAL
blowing with
When
encountered
be
the
from
for
producer
varying
steam
The
but
gas,
ing
produc-
pressure
blowers
be
may
in connection
with
compressed air
a
good even
quality of
the cost
of production
of
use
results in
likelyto
than
more
engine, if used
engine.
gas
is
Mechanical
gas.
the
directly from
driven
steam, trouble
qualitiesof
different
ENGINES
COMBUSTION
is,necessarily,high.
The
leaving the
gas
the
to
passes
is cleaned
sprays
that
it
coke, calcium
sawdust, placed
or
moss,
the
of
removable
on
which
being filtered
and
beds
hydrate,
Producer.
for
dust
it
by passing through
of water
through
Charging Hopper
21.
Fig.
scrubber, where
of any
contain
may
producer
trays
arranged
so
may
be
cleansed
purifierthe
gas
passes
ready
use.
The
or
renewed.
the
From
it is stored
gasometer, where
in the
acts
sufficient
the
capacity of
capacity
production of
producers
In
combustible
the
combustion
extent
refuse,
"
grades
of
compacted
Since
coal
materials
the
the
are
not
be
may
gas
be
may
used
the
cases
material
for
under
any
produce
to
over
economy
a
boiler
steam
produced from
producing
these
in
the
gas
sawdust,
either
by
form
burning
pressure
is
available
production
of gas
distillation process,
for suction
from
some
distillation
the
rather
required
etc.
or
cheaper
closely
to
drive
exception, these
producers.
wood
the material
to
vary
products and
waste
the
have
system,
pressure
nearly all
considerable
mass,
the
on
same
peat
or
should
possible stopping of
any
being obtained
gas
gasometer
street
used
the
the
to
on
brief time.
material
the
for
regulator and
of
care
in
This
combustion.
In
volatile
of
methods
The
for
gas
marked.
sawmill
pressure
take
to
fuel, and
gaseous
operating
or
the
is very
and
scrubber
is
or
wood
placed in
refuse, by
a
cast-iron
61
PRODUCERS
crucible
which
is
subjected
The
fuel distilled
walls
of
the
Fig.
its diameter
is
22
by Mathot
Gas
from
The
the
through the
into
the
surrounds
retort
and
out
to the
stack
C.
The
with
in
this
and
the
then
be
top closed
of
to
the
raises
and
the
the
top, the
the
to make
way
to
an
From
the
crucible
the
the
to
The
gasometer.
in the
crucible
of
the
distilled
and,
pressure
is
outlet
no
must
gases
cooler
distilled,
purifier and
products being
since there
charged
is led
generated
heat
and
pieces of wood,
case
scrubber
Producer
pass
up
is
fuel to
generated
gas
Engines and
trated
illus-
as
through port,
air-tight joint.
bottom
in.
around
pass
crucible
the
degrees
1700
distilling
producer
Gas
shown;
circulate
the
12
to
B, which
space,
then
and
in the
heated
be
the
opening, A,
the retort,as
the gases
and
heated
furnace
flue
flue
exceed
not
Riche
furnace
should
degrees
in his "Modern
Plants."
gases
the
of
off,leaving charcoal
1600
should
of
cut
heat
crucible
the
to
22.
The
Distilling
Riche
Producer.
the
at
from
pass
the scrubber.
Fig.
This
part of the
has
apparatus
tendency
to burn
on
the
out
the
impurities contained.
Producers
about
and
value
operating
1 lb. of coal
produce from
of about
of coal, whereas
10,000 B.t.u.
340
the
on
to
every
2S
to
B.t.u.
1 lb. of
35
per
2.5
cu.
cu.
distillation
to
principle burn
3 lb. of material
ft. of gas
ft. or
9860
having
distilled,
a
B.t.u. per
heating
pound
62
INTERNAL
The
produced from
gas
composition and
residual
The
the
be
weight of charcoal
is
like elm
containing
Combustion
of
in
combustion
the
of
pound
acid
approximately
Inverted
in
ft. of gas
cu.
The
permanent
The
As
draws
air
the
suction
charge through
type, it is readily
plant takes
up
is much
be
clean
and
more
than
will
less than
small
carry
produce
piston, with
15
an
fuel
for
producer
fuels,as
too
reduced
"
as
per
over
small
cent.
seen,
by
has
can
use
or
less than
and
Undue
these
the cost
The
size
of back
loss of power.
size.
same
coal,
anthracite
and
"
resistance
suction
tion
of installa-
only anthracite
pea
fact,
plants.
the
plant of the
coke.
the
greater elasticity
percentage of ash
of
of this
in
use
producer
means
conditions, but
pressure
amount
consequent
suction
consequence
for
charcoal
not
the
fuel
much
suction
carbonized
not
different
the
meeting
the
The
pressure
from
products,
available
are
down
distilled volatile
mentioned,
only certain
The
heating value
Producer.
fuels
in
reducer,
ft.
of the
coke,
tar, is obtained.
Suction
already been
has
and
reactions.
necessary
steam,
contains
having
cu.
and
the
combustion
ciates
disso-
monoxide,
reducer
of
products
in
carbon
The
B.t.u. per
the
wood
reducer, which
to
gas
waste,
10
115
top, through
when
The
contained
oxygen
wood
wood,
to
by the combustion
gas
produce about
the
in the
water.
to
on
hydrocarbons.
which, when
will
and
the
of
passed
carbonic
depending, however,
of water
presence
hydrogen
one-fifth
large percentage.
very
then
produces the
One
the
are
the
reduces
value.
some
approximately
"
producers produce
fuel
the
the amount
on
The
if wood
quite an
of
the
be
can
charcoal,
residual
ENGINES
COMBUSTION
must
it must
be
possible,not
as
in the
suction
or
on
producer
the
engine
64
INTERNAL
Fig.
D.
R.
an
illustrates
23
Wood
hundred
producer manufactured
suction
Co., of Philadelphia. It is
"
of 15 by 35
area
ENGINES
COMBUSTION
ft.
horsepower,
compact,
very
plant of several
plant, of
smaller
by
requiring
course,
less space.
Fig.
a
24
shows
producer and
gas
Fig.
The
24.
as
plant.
of
steam
The
The
suction
cost
used
is of
man
time
No
indebted
producers, and
closelyin keeping
engine
is
one
of attention
plant.
author
engines and
resultant
marked,
very
with
and
Producer
Plants.
the
of Steam
Efficiencies
horsepower, but
are
of
plant.*
steam
Comparative
first cost
same
very
the
the
to
economies
in fuel and
being able
to
is from
is
R.
results
boilers of the
50
75
to
required, as
D.
Wood
shown
results of modern
"
in
Co.
their
for
care
with
tion
attena
the
the
diagram
practice where
same
large
that
cent
per
for
the
steam
cuts
are
on
very
the steam
65
PRODUCERS
plant,
to
get
for
stopped
shut
head
up
of
of
length
any
time
when
and
steam,
the
engine
the
is
also
producer
may
plant
operating
be
down.
The
obtained
gas
fuel
good
The
has
following
dioxide,
Carbon
monoxide,
Hydrogen,
gas,
Nitrogen,
For
with
equally
cu.
per
approximate
CO;,
0.24
to
0.28
0.16
to
0.20
CH4
0.04
to
0.06
0.45
to
0.49
plants
CO
well.
or
of
less
moderate
floor
for
but
size
space,
and
engines
several
operating
advisable,
is
unit
plants
ft.
composition:
0.9
occupies
as
the
B.t.u.
145
to
single
cheaper,
about
with
0.7
producer
a
gives
of
large
pressure
suction
value
heat
analysis
Carbon
Marsh
from
use
the
serves
in
connection
suction
plant
the
purpose
the
is
CHAPTER
FUELS
the
For
any
which
oil,
or
without
the
is
There
driven
products
gases
obtained
from
in
always
greater
is
This
about
fuel
than
boiler
per
per
and
becomes
than
manufacturers'
engines
1
hp.-hr.
units
cu.
gas
on
that
11
in
ft., according
are
producer
natural
to
.about
gas,
to
the
160
then,
all
of
this
fuel
fired
that
ft. of
gas
units
heat
the
same
66
gas
is from
the
of
per
cu.
engine
the
rized
vapo-
must
be
much
boiler.
will
The
gas
produce
The
gas.
gas,
10
of
stationary
from
is
engine
case
natural
is
engine.
part
engine
range
of
nature
steam
the
under
their
cu.
used
so
then
burned
were
combustible
in
gas
power
and
engine
true
engine,
of
steam
the
of
gas
fuel
drive
their
as
the
cases
accompanying
12
of these
cylinder
into
to
the
when
insures
from
on
contained
there
all of
guarantee
usually
in
of the
especially is
"
economical
more
that
nearly
the
efficiency
heat
it is obvious
"
used
which
efficiency,
amount
same
it into
one
internal-combustion
steam
while
in
gas
its gaseous
have
Any
converted
an
the
As
gas
fuels
the
cent,
cent.
of
if the
because
true
25
12
to
cylinder
the
first
substance
less
that
of
transforming
rather
or
less,
or
true
fuel
any
burned
greater
is furthermore
It
engine.
under
is
efficiency
cylinder
the
of heat.
greater
By
gas.
gasoline, petroleum,
of
or
action
with
into
in
gas,
fuel
other
any
combustible
no
the
off, by
as
as
step
into
used,
be
may
calorific
intermediate
absolutely
such
used
be
may
transformed
be
not
fuel,
any
well
as
transformed
or
engine
internal-combustion
an
available,
mean
which
gas.
may
we
alcohol,
engine
a
fuel
is
vaporized
be
vaporized
in
power
fuel
may
COMBUSTION.
AND
motive
gaseous
IX.
heat
900
to
1100
and
in
producer
ft.
would
'
per
Running
require
FUELS
11 X
of
75
bituminous
coal
used
in
could
we
find
that
would
or
as
gas,
the
and
operation, the
available
surplus of
gasometer
Gas
in
rapidly
getting up
lean
too
with
when
under
Blast-furnace
under
Company,
value
of
largely dependent
it
gas
a
on
used
as
the
considered.
lean
gas
of
gas
different
heat
Natural
on
power.
in
British
burned
value.
is
gasv
shops
York.
New
thermal
gas
units
also
must
completely in
to
seen
more
value, is credited
This
fact
rapid
in the
to
with
the
about
rate
gasoline vapor
following table
The
per
be
of gas,
larger amount
consequent
and
the
at
use
two-
gas-engine cylinder is
of
pound
ignite
to
large
Buffalo,
be
heat
is due
be
must
cubic
foot
have
the
for the
greatest
with
its lower
being
fuels.
per
in
of the
high thermal
units
in
above,
richness
may
a
time
gas-engine cylinder.
being
number
in
engine started
of the
of the
The
tion.
atten-
hand,
on
boiler is found
in
this gas
Steel
kept
boiler
requires less
of steam.
example
an
and
the
compression
is
gas
used
be
to
head
in
is used
steam
producer
vaporizing the
in
always be
tank, and
notice, while
consumed
boiler
may
storage
or
moment's
gas
This
As
the steam
of
heat
and
coal,
boiler.
comparison
producer is much
gas
than
apparatus
fuel.
to
expect
lb. of
steam
gas
and
gas-engine cylinder,
require
in the
of
amount
steam
gas
would
we
under
used
in the
contained
in
gas,
water
an
certain
efficiencies of
comparison,
used
be
not
may
heat
coal, as
when
lb.
hp.-hr., it would
trifle more,
comparison
the
1 lb. of
produce
basis of
that
best
very
in
and,
gas
require
The
pound
one
ft. of
cu.
producer.
relative
the
as
where
the
75
Now
hp.-hr. would
hp.-hr. on
use
engine
steam
produce
produce
to
be
approximately.
will
coal
consequence,
of
ft.
cu.
67
COMBUSTION
AND
11
of flame
than
per
cent
more
propagation
in the
use
of
("S
INTERNAL
natural
in the
with
gas,
the
more
COMBUSTION
the
aspect of
that
The
constituent
localities.
Table
VALUES
I.
OF
gives
analyses of Pennsylvania
DIFFERENT
FUELS.
gases
of the
some
in
vary
different
different
volumetric
gases.
TABLE
VOLUMETRIC
corresponding increase
parts of natural
II
assumes
results.
pressure
TABLE
HEATING
combustion
the
explosion.
an
effective
mean
result
ENGINES
ANALYSIS
II.
OF
PENNSYLVANIA
Burn's
GASES.
Harvey's
Leech-
Constituents.
Butler
Co.
Hydrogen,
Ethylene,
Butler
burg.
Well.
"XH4
Marsh
gas, CH4
(unnamed).
Hydrocarbons
Carbonic
acid, C02
Carbonic
oxide, CO
Oxygen
Nitrogen
Heat
value, cu. ft
Pittsburg.
Co.
Well.
22.00
4.79
5.00
4.39
67.00
89.65
1.00
0.34
Trace
0.66
.60
0.60
.66
Trace
0.35
0.26
0.80
3.00
1,151
892
959
1,051
FUELS
natural
Many
have
much
Oil Gas.
plants,is
heat
values
Oil gas,
"
especiallythose
gases,
lower
of the
69
COMBUSTION
AND
than
those
manufactured
as
from
here
tabulated.
municipal lighting
for
following approximate
composition:
Hydrogen,
39.5
Marsh-gas, CH4
Nitrogen, N
Hydrocarbons
Carbonic
The
8.2
(unnamed)
6.6
CO
4.3
1.4
H20
vapor,
heat
units per
37.3
oxide,
Oxygen,
Water
2.7
of this
value
Producer
is
gas
slightlymore
than
Gas.
so-called
compositions,
The
vary.
The
"
volumetric
following
producer
their methods
as
be taken
may
as
Hydrogen,
Marsh
CH,
Carbonic
of
12.0
2.5
57.0
55.3
CO.
27.0
27.0
acid, C02.
2.5
C?H,
0.4
Oxygen,
Heat
value,
0.3
ft.
cu.
0.3
137
156
..
of
presence
the
hydrocarbon
the bituminous
in
2.5
extent
Bituminous.
1.2
.
Ethylene,
The
tion
producvalues:
average
12.0
oxide,
Carbonic
of different
are
gases
Anthracite.
gas,
heat
600
ft.
cu.
Nitrogen,
fields,
western
producer
element
gas
to
makes
greater
its heat
value
correspondingly greater.
Gas.
Water
of
large
play
very
it is
gas
action
of
in the
steam
R.
D.
The
"
of energy
amount
important part
very
jet of
Wood
of water
production of this
rich
and
steam
on
Co.
itself.
and
reason
taken
It
theoretical
the
it does
loss
not
is made
by the
fuel,the hydrogen
up
gas, the
entails
gas-engine field,although
incandescent
being dissociated
"
for this
in the
in energy
gas
by the
on
composition
the
of
gas.
tion
producwhich
is
70
INTERNAL
equal volumes
the gas
ENGINES
COMBUSTION
of
hydrogen
generally contains
and
nitrogen and
some
although
monoxide,
carbon
carbonic
acid:
Pounds.
500
500
cu.
ft. of H
cu.
ft. of CO
Total
Now,
carbon
of gas
16
of
of
is 15.81
is derived
The
the
degrees) is
composed
of
12
weight of carbon
in
36.89
of oxygen
it
When
lb.
21.08
(steam)
liberates,as
developed and
heat
the
lb. C
absorb,
in
to
from
of heat
absorption
develop
15.81
heat
over
4,400
163,370
69,564
ment
develop-
absorption
be
must
made
indirect
the
dioxide
carbon
to
combustion
this amount
double
burned
theoretically,but in practice,owing
and
water
this
lb. of carbon
this heat,
The
to
units.
93,806
in
up
some
other.
or
90 per
1800
Heat
water,
=
to CO
loss due
that
the
say
6.47
these
elevate
to
atmosphere
in dissociation
burned
Excess
way
lb.
26.35
absorbed
2.635X62,000
The
lb.
follows:
as
15.81
parts
this oxygen
above,
required
energy
of
temperature
lb. of H
635
39.525
is
the
oxygen,
(disregarding the
from
ft
cu.
monoxide
water
hydrogen.
coal
1,000
lb. and
from
reactions
of
carbon
to
36.89
weigh
weight
as
2.635
weigh
is
of the
sum
and
required.
Besides
being
following is the
average
fect
imperthan
more
this it is not
and
carbon
supply
the
to
radiation,
monoxide
carbon
would
often
hydrogen exceeds
dioxide
and
volumetric
nitrogen.
analysis of
gas:
Carbonic
oxide, CO
Hydrogen,
Carbonic
Suction
with
.48
acid, C02
Nitrogen,
Heat
.41
.6
.5
value,
cu.
ft
producer plants
the
operation of
291
are
quite largely in
gas
engines.
They
use
are
in
tion
connec-
applicable
72
INTERNAL
considerable
than
flashingpoints. The
variation
and
should
PROPERTIES
are
be taken
subject
as
more
OF
III.
PETROLEUM
TABLE
COMPOSITION
Table
B.t.u.
not
values
averages.
TABLE
The
ENGINES
COMBUSTION
"Oil
heating value
IV.
OF
CRUDE
t Mabery,
Engler.
from
DISTILLATES.
OILS.
Noble
County.
Engines," Goldingham.
of this
20,500
FUELS
Gas
Gas
fuel
or
oil is
the
kerosene
driven
have
engines, but
of
for
fuel
constituent
as
in
use
the
oils
oil is much
heating value
in
slightlylower
than
oil and
units
heat
subject
unless
crude
be
is
pound
per
oil,that
to
being
made
wide
tion
varia-
oil is known
an
engine it should
gas
is little,if any,
oil, both
are
be
may
provided
are
There
gas
parts,
means
oil
in
used
deposit
carbon
suitable
fuel,and
gasoline, and
benzene,
The
fractional
of
process
in their value
suitable
off.
cylinder, unless
between
various
in
products
heavier
the
vaporizing and
difference
up
with
in the
expected
for
been
Oil.
procured,
distillation, after
73
COMBUSTION
AND
is, about
be
to
The
analyzed.
usually taken
as
lb.
18,000 per
Gasoline.
Commercial
to
variation
0.74, the
in
hydrogen
about
its
gasoline varies
160
its
liquid
bulk.
test, of
by
being due
The
gal. or
little
run,
equal
to
composition,
gasoline
alcohol
on
of
1,100 times
than
more
0.65
amounts
is
vapor
tests, recently
government
specific gravity
0.71
varying
the
to
Gasoline
composition.
ft. per
cu.
in
as
and
in
used
gasoline
fuel.
Carbon
85
Hydrogen
14.8
Not
0.2
named
100.0
Table
also
V,
experiments,
Alcohol
of
show
fuel.
"Tests
of
Bulletin
Fuel,"
distillation
taken
sample
from
the
of
results
Internal-Combustion
191,
of
is
the
gasoline.
conclusively the
Engines
result
The
complex
government
of
range
mixture
on
fractional
of
of
peratures
tem-
this
74
INTERNAL
COMBUSTION
ENGINES
TABLE
FRACTIONAL
At
final
the
V.
DISTILLATION
OF
there
temperature
GASOLINE.
still 5
were
cu.
not
cm.
vaporized.
A
lighting gas
gasoline
about
vapor,
gallon of fuel, is
illuminant.
or
carburettor, and
in. to
actuated
by
of
means
mixture
by
illuminating
gas, when
gas
Seventy-one
test
27
units
heat
outdoor
an
is
by
valve
of
balance
of
of the
automatically
obtained
with
wet
trols
con-
between
gasoline vapor
properly mixed
to
The
motor.
inversion
an
due
air pump
an
suitable
mixing
a
that
to
tank
and
air.
air,becomes
gasoline weighs
5.91
is obtainable
pound
per
lb. per
and
gal.; about
"
^"
703
27
ft.
cu.
per
in
is obtained
pump
quite extensively
equivalent
or
from
engines.
cu.
is stored
mixture
the
being obtained
is used
weight
means
and
atmosphere
This
principle.
meter
gas
and
pressure,
in. of water,
1.5
ft.
gasoline
the
about
cu.
explosive
The
an
320
not
as
from
of
composed
Kerosene.
oil has
Kerosene
weighs,
trifle
for
0.80
higher than
lb.
The
oil
and
flashes
specificgravity of from
test, 6.7
that
of
ignites when
at
about
120"
lb. per
gal.
It has
gasoline, about
heated
fahr.
to
0.77 to 0.82
from
heat
value
22,000 B.t.u.
130"
to
and
140"
per
fahr.
FUELS
AND
of
Heat
The
heat
of combustion
of
calorimeter,
means
known
amount
of
water.
The
standard
the
of
countries, where
required
the
in
calories
The
as
liquid
When
that
fuels
has
the
have
heat
an
of
average
from
two-thirds
shown
the
thermal
that
value
of
significantas
efficiencies
the
is converted
quite
are
which
appreciableamount
an
Since
make
the
effective
heat
value
obtained
the
that
of
fuel,when
lower
by calorimeter
test.
For
as
coming
and
the
gasoline,as obtained
fuels.
heat
by
water
value.
of
in
than
this
in the
the
heat
cylinder
theoretical
it is
reason
of
test,was
the
the
consequence,
as
customary
condensation
obtained
calorimeter
perature
tem-
condensation,
resultingvalue
The
at
in
boilingr water,
burned
and
to the
cylinder
heat
and,
value
comparing engine
is known
latent
compute,
vapor.
products of combustion
measures,
of the
engine, is of
an
water
of heat
leave
of the
use
calorimeter
the
into
less
or
engine does
greater
with
calorimeter.
the
in
in
hydrogen
considerably above
of
the
Heat
obtained
two-thirds
relative
burned
fuel is tested
contributes
when
used, heat
approximately
or
about
contain
when
which
in contact
to
is
is
20,000
same
show
to
amount,
of
European
equal.
All
In
of
ethyl alcohol, as
12,700,
fuel
of
temperature
lb. and
per
for pure
value
ethyl alcohol
about
that
is
country
kilogram.
per
of the
serving
fahr.
is five-ninths
of the
B.t.u.
22,000
experiment, is about
that
to raise the
in calories
of combustion
to
value.
given weight of
in this
40"
in B.t.u.
heat
18,000
to
by
generated by
centigrade thermometer
of
The
39"
heat
by
heat
from
fuels is obtained
the
measurement
is measured
combustion
which
is absorbed
of combustion
combustion
in
of
of water
pound
one
Combustion.
of different
fuel
is the
B.t.u.,which
75
COMBUSTION
value
21,000 B.t.u.
76
INTERNAL
COMBUSTION
symbol
6 X
H, by weight, would
with
combustion
and
the
found, from
the
latent
lb. the
21,000
gasoline of
chemical
heat
would
hydrogen
in the
ratio
of
above
be (0.194 X
the
low
actual
heat
amount
0.194
being
and
1680",'
heat
value
for
composition.
Since
the
is
value
subject
wide
such
to
only be obtained
can
determine
analysis, to
in its
hydrogen
965.5"
low
the
composition of gasoline
ranges,
8,
1.746
chemical
8)
atmosphere
at
be
to
B.t.u.,
1 to
of water
be
19,320
the
since
water
tables,
steam
0.194, and
gasolinewould
latent
heat
1680
12
weight of
of 1 lb. of
1.746,
the
produce water,
to
oxygen
by weight, then
be
to
be
14
unites
ENGINES
composition, and
the
by
actual
proceeding
then
above.
as
Air
air
The
definite
for
fuel such
determined
approximately
be
of
fuel of
accurately determined.
be
can
made
be
may
Combustion.
complete combustion
composition
known
only
can
for the
required
calculation
This
for
Necessary
alcohol, but
as
for
the
petroleum
fuels.
For
ethyl alcohol
molecular
weight
have
we
formula
the
C2H5OH.
Its
is:
Carbon
Hydrogen
6X
Oxygen
12
24
1=
1 X
16
G
16
46
For
the
the
of carbon
atoms
two
of
complete combustion
require
three
There
alcohol
and
outside
sources
the
atoms
of 1 lb. of
of
atoms
is
hence
of
atom
one
the
is (3 +
is 6 X
oxygen
16
four
"
C2H-,OH requires:
"
46
of
of
atoms
to
produce
oxygen
in
must
be
2.086
to
hydrogen
H20
(water
molecule
derived
The
complete
lb. of
alcohol,
oxygen
of
the
atoms.
Hence
96.
molecule
which
oxygen
4)
one
of
from
weight of
combustion
oxygen,
and
FUELS
AND
77
COMBUSTION
since in 1 lb. of
2.086
require
lb. of oxygen,
to obtain
2.086
lb. would
lb. of air.
9.06
If the
air is
0.230
quite damp,
hence
air would
more
Assuming
the
of
amount
pound
one
air
determined
would
be
contain
less free
required.
composition
of
gasoline
to
be
C6H14, the
in like
and
oxygen
The
manner.
molecular
would
be
weight is:
Carbon
Hydrogen
14
12
72
14
86
The
14
6 atoms
of
atoms
since
of carbon
hydrogen
all must
of oxygen
of the
require
derived
be
required is
from
12
would
be
pound
of
oxygen
require
7
19
of
atoms
304, and
and
the
amount
molecular
^"=
the
Now
oxygen.
sources
The
19.
of oxygen
atoms
outside
16
12
weight
lb.
3.534
3.534
of oxygen
per
gasoline,and
0.230
required.
Table
VI
of
chemical
gives the
one
of
pound
formulas
be
to
of air
amount
different
COMBUSTION
FOR
REQUIRED
bustion
com-
fuels, assuming
their
correct.
TABLE
AIR
VI.
OF
DIFFERENT
FUELS.
Cu.
Ft.
Pounds
Formula.
Substance.
Air.
Air.
60"
9.06
Fahr.
118.57
Alcohol, ethyl
Alcohol, methyl
C2H"OH
C2H402
4.63
60.60
Gasoline
C0Hl4
15.37
201.17
C2HU
25.91
339.13
Gasoline
vapor
Kerosene
6.52
85.34
174.60
Benzene
CaH"
13.34
Acetylene
C.,H2
C'fL
13.34
174.60
17.39
227.61
C2H4
14.87
194.63
Marsh
Olefiant
gas
gas
(methane)
(ethylene)
78
INTERNAL
The
of water
mixture
of air necessary
ENGINES
COMBUSTION
for
with
alcohol
the
The
complete combustion.
denatured
alcohol
the amount
reduces
ordinary
mercial
com-
generallycarries
Vaporization.
order
In
that
combustion
thus
engine, it
obtained
For
with
the
mixed
heat
fuels with
in
According
hold
is
measured
be
containing
of
mercury,
of
60"
weight of
the
of space
proportionalto
by it.
any
and
maintained
fahr., during
of the
of
mm.
is
saturation
temperature,
at
point the
and,
as
will be
per
of
that
illustration,
of
gasoline, and
mm.
of
to 20
fitted
rise but
with
for any
is
will
there
degree of
every
the
vapor
constant
We
would
the
then
pressure
find that
vapor
vapor
Suppose,
constant.
being compressed
carried
we
this
beyond
will remain
remain
again
vapor
space
that
mercury.
pressure
if this volume
to
mm.
compressed, by
compression is carried
into
for
160
cylinder
originalvolume, the
But
may
temperature
be
now
cubic
and
pressure
to
is
vapor
constant
is further
condensed
foot
given
constant
assume
present in
corresponding
will not
pressure
we
corresponding
and
mercury,
if the
the volume
cubic
half its
pressure
and
at
its vapor
which
gases,
experiment,
the
piston,to
will rise to 40
given temperature.
vapor
pressure
tremely
ex-
which
vapor
Illustratingthis, imagine
at
vapor,
require greater
of their
vapors,
any
oils
boiling
ordinary temperatures
at
perfect
in
ordinary temperatures.
at
at
of these
case
kerosene,
as
Gasoline, being
amount
space
for
laws
in the
true
the
to
vapor
proportion.
the crude
liquefy
given
any
the
to
temperature
foot
limit
definite
exist
may
to
which
the
greater heating
lighter hydrocarbons.
substances
internal-
an
comparatively low
volatile,is easilyvaporized
have
in
vaporized, and
than
All
used
be
may
first be
must
with
vaporizer, than
point.
fuel
their
a
liquid
was
that
that
to
a
of
part of
80
INTERNAL
other, does
not
air
and
in
the
combustion,
the
of
vapor
Avogadro's
law
due
vaporized
the
to
under
when
able to
fuel.
Since
and
of
that
the
mixture.
pressure
temperature
is
the
as
the
is to
That
23.
"
in
confined
given
and
space
of
air
the
at
being
lb.
9.06
necessary
of 9.06
'
-
relative
is 2
density
complete combustion,
then
be
0.0435
as
considered
which
amount,
'
alcohol
The
0.627.
density
have
the
to
air
are
93.5
atmospheric
per
sq.
760
cannot
0.065
is
pressure
of 760
vapor
49.
the
mm.
alcohol
which
mm.,
temperature
carrying an
temperature.
the
that
the
vapor,
r
find
trifle
from
more
of
air
case,
71"
air may
is
would
be
the
table
responds
cor-
than
71"
and
a
fahr.
alcohol
fahr.,although
exist
damp
carries
is,14.7 lb.
of air and
of less than
'
ordinary
alcohol
mixture
excess
If
of mercury,
we
of
temperature
Under
0.670, of
dry air.
of
pressure
perfectly combustible
exist at
mixture
lower
is clue to
in., the
to
Hence,
cent
per
as
may
0.670
and
the
pressure
0.627
Then
and
vapor
total vapor
is due
part
hydrogen.
0.0435
to
cent
per
The
same
comparison, then
would
of 1 lb. of
equal
as
6.5
of
the
to
previously determined,
as
of the
pressures
or
"
14.44
basis
same
pressure
in
temperature.
for
'
23
the
on
vapor
equal
pressure
confined
hydrogen
constant
ethyl alcohol
vapor
air, the
of the vapor
of
relative vapor
"
has
of
same
14.44,
lb. of
say,
space
one-twenty-third that
as
to
basis of
weight of hydrogen
is 46, then
maining
re-
proportional
is taken
gas
of
means
vapor
and
gas
portion
46
"
is
for
derive
By
the
Pressure
molecular
ethyl alcohol
air and
compute
weight. Hydrogen
comparison.
dry
product,
pressure,
the
from
of
hydrocarbon
fuel in the
are
mixture
previously determined,
as
pressure
the
we
of
vapor
will,
vapor
Then
action.
proportions,
portion of its
from
or
vapor,
proper
complete
a
affect their
alcohol
ENGINES
COMBUSTION
at
the
certain
much
alcohol,
per
cent
FUELS
of water, then
the
AND
81
COMBUSTION
be
must
temperature
the
to
of
pressure
water
vapor.
All
this shows
from
liquid
of
amount
by direct
for the
result
will
carburettor,
or
in the air
surfaces, or
heat
produce
supplied
rich
too
incomplete combustion,
mixture
humidity
of
gasoline
used
as
previously determined
alcohol
formula
the
and
as
the
is
mixture.
C6H14, and
of air
amount
neces-
(The molecular
decimals
the
of the
weight
1.0873, the
of
is
relation
lb., then
gasoline vapor
the
1 ^
:
"
0.0233
as
due
The
1.064.
equal
as
cent
per
to
the
to
In
*37
:
"
"
14.44
is to that
gasoline is 86.)
considered
being
pressure
is 15.37
43
pressure
vapor
as
air of
combustion
for complete
*
saryJ
well
as
vapor
for the
its chemical
that
consider
have
we
in
relativelylarge
mixing valve
much
changed
be
to
heat
relative
will
the
heated
Too
considering
same
in
alcohol
receive
must
vapor
with
mixture.
Now
as
contact
lowering the
We
to
heat, either
mixture, and
the
conclusivelythat
of air.
of
terms
total vapor
0.0233
gasoline
1.064
is
vapor
0 0233
2.14
"
cent, and
per
the
due
cent
per
to
the
air is
1.0873
97.86
find
Now
cent.
per
from
the
760
0.021
corresponds
table
32"
only be
considered
as
different
compositions of gasoline,but
at
ease
with
This
less than
comparative
fahr.
to
15.96
which
be made
for any
one
because
gasoline may
be
Similar
we
siderably
con-
computation
serves
latter
it
ordinary temperature.
any
of
temperature
approximation
an
which
mm.,
to
can
of
the
show
the
vaporized and
computations
may
in internal-combustion
composition is known.
Acetylene.
Some
from
known
experiments have
the
action
as
lighting gas.
of water
acetylene and
been
on
is
made
calcium
in the
use
carbide.
of gas derived
This
gas
as
is
a
82
COMBUSTION
INTERNAL
Acetylene liquefies,at
ENGINES
atmospheric
higher than
the
by
available
complete combustion
the
One
the
of calcium
pound
gas
One
and
will
pound
lb. of gas
14.5
Acetylene
Results
The
rate
of
cost
process.
ft. of
cu.
pressures
is
consequence,
show
to
seem
acetylene, mixed
that
with
it
air in
hp.-hr.
is
gas
also
the
or
such
an
The
produce
if the
use
of
the
cost
of the
cost
extent
of
the
that
of
liberation
dangerously
acetylene
of
as
production
other
make
to
as
high, but
twice
of work.
general unless
considerably lessened
is
than
more
amount
same
very
to
derived
energy
is doubtful
It
increased
lower
at
and, in
gas,
pressure.
fuels
in the
high-compression engines.
high, and
lb. of
0.35
pressure.
natural
or
for the
a
yield about
ignites spontaneously
production of the
of the gas, in
lb. of air
atmospheric
of flame
is
per
at
5 to
gasolinevapor,
high
will
proportion, to produce
combustion
very
of gas.
pound
one
lb. of water
0.5
18,000 B.t.u.
requires 10.78
foreign experiments
requires from
proper
it
carbide
be
for
of
It is suggested
of
gas
available
not
air.
engines.
of about
of
about
use
gasoline vapor
than
the
heating value
of
that
some
paratively
com-
liquefiesat temperatures
lb. it
700
to
fahr.,while under
"116"
ordinary temperatures
Acetylene has
for
600
at
pressure,
available
its
use
comparatively economical.
Alcohol.
We
its
have
the
already shown
action
vaporizationand combustion,
from
that
alcohol
of
gasoline. The
is about
11,000
their
heating values
are
be
alcohol,in regard
to
considerably different
heat
B.t.u., while
than
gasoline is slightlymore
low
to
of
value
of
that
denatured
of commercial
approximately
as
3,
or, in other
FUELS
words,
the
thermal
two-thirds
that
consider
value
of
that
values
ratio
consumption
under
It
their
the
same
gasoline
the
in
same
with
with
and
more
slightly
other
The
exhaust
of
that
an
Alcohol
Alcohol
organic
The
the
very
unless
the
alcohol
of
will
engine
an
with
than
gasoline.
unmixed
inherent
no
alcohol
with
tendency
to
the
the
hotter
much
than
latter.
stored
both
in
with
the
is
handling,
produced
is
on
its use,
engine
less
of the
matter
much
from
anywhere
much
exhaust
pleasant.
more
the
danger
distillation
of
products.
waste
cost
gasoline
and
be
still
cylinder.
used
can
than
results
best
requirements
alcohol
has
be
in
possible,
burn
composition,
fire in
and
of
and
used
may
arranged
with
operating
and
is
It
the
secure
the
to
from
may
products
to
danger
gasoline,
than
but
water,
the
from
engine
is less
there
and
of
1.00.
practically
is
be
may
and
and
compression
design
chemical
than
interior
higher
the
alcohol
efficiency.
a
that
0.64
as
of
the
on
engine
same
engine
ignition
power
known
the
operation
properly
more
of
being
the
in
shows
approximately
adapted
When
vaporization.
foul
hp.
ordinary
success,
be
tests
we
engine.
of
engine
must
impurities
b.
than
less
significant when
alcohol
and
use
earlier
less
or
carburettor
Alcohol
to
trifle
government
thermal
smooth-running
deliver
the
alcohol,
gasoline
the
regards
gasoline,
produce
that
is
internal-combustion
with
however,
was
is
fact
the
per
conditions
an
as
of
gasoline
of
show
to
seems
alcohol
This
average
comparative
of
of
gasoline.
the
83
COMBUSTION
AND
alcohol
of
the
price of
price of alcohol
rapidly
is still much
into
is
the
latter
decreased,
general
use.
more
than
increases
it is doubtful
that
of
gasoline,
considerably
if it will
come
or
CHAPTER
X.
COMPRESSION.
The
compression
varies
engine
in.
sq.
or
above
of
nearly
by
the
used,
in
from
150
it is
possible
lb. per
the
ignition
this
produces
stroke,
are
for
built
give
speed
the
to
the
with
excellent
of
the
from
engine which
with
min.
and
from
premature
In
speed
the
the
in
question.
satisfaction
800
to
operated
the
900
at
same
as
when
rev.
per
speed
sq.
cylinder
high
compression
ignition.
84
the
operating
min.,
such
while
from
gave
300
in.,
as
in
speed
a
take
not
point
place
compression
engines
lb.
95
low-
engine
automobile
as
fuel
sufficient
to
does
Many
of
the
lb. per
ignition, in
of
previously
as
the
500
compression
of
As
as
motor
of
compression
compression,
lead
the
increased
be
may
of
compression
85
the
charge.
high
as
injection of
exceed
be
producer
type
air, and,
the
entirely
of
use
Diesel
The
in
the
during
pure
not
compression
of
ignition point
is carried
the
by
should
proper
in
high
cylinder.
to
until
temperature
high
that
fact
obtained
ignite
ignition, due
previous
as
in.
compression
the
increases,
high,
temperature
to
cases
some
that
is
gasoline engine
speed
cylinder is
incandescent
this
with
extremely
to
the
sures
pres-
increases
gases
per
increased,
is
pressure
compression
sq.
the
use
in
gas
described,
into
to
in., owing
sq.
stroke
the
lb. per
200
be
may
engines
to
fuel
compression
which
these
engine is governed
of
type
any
If
conditions.
lb.
500
in., both
attains
gas
of
is incandescent.
in
compression
the
gas,
and
the
compressed
lb. the
500
fahr.
1000"
The
of
pressure
the
limit
sq.
As
atmosphere.
temperature
with
lb. per
60
to
more
internal-combustion
an
high
extreme
an
trifle
being
the
from
of
pressure
at
a
to
gage,
an
and
average
two-cylinder
400
constant
rev.
per
trouble
85
COMPRESSION
The
with
natural
not
as
the
of the
of the
a
rule the
that
of
and
which
is not
burns
compression
would
and
temperature
10 to
15 lb.
gas
gasoline vapor
the
engine
ignited at
the
case,
ignition
rapidly would
more
be
gasoline
in consequence,
for
ignites
vapor
it burns
into
Taking
at
rapidly, we
more
engine with
gas
higher than
and,
necessary.
(2) that
from
of
space
lb. gage
120
latter
may
to
if gas
engines operating
60
lower
lower
from
compression
from
However,
gasoline vapor
in gas
use
fuel varies
temperature,
same
point
common
much
vary
speed.
same
as
gas
and
pressure,
does
in
compression
compression
speed.
TABLE
TEMPERATURES.
COMPRESSION
Compression
per
sq.
in., and
depending
used.
oil
ignition devices
electric
gage
in
Several
oil
VIII.
may
be
carried
large
extent
engines,notably
the
85
or
on
the
Mietz
or
90
higher, the
possibly somewhat
to
to
hot-tube
lb.
pression
com-
grade of fuel
"
Weiss
and
86
INTERNAL
the
COMBUSTION
obtain
Hornsby-Akroid,
and
compression
their
residual
their
engines compress
ENGINES
ignition by
heat
charge
in
the
200
lb. per
210
to
high
These
vaporizer.
about
to
of
means
sq. in.
The
with
efficiencyof
its
We
compression,
have
the two
volume
and
Supposing
as
be shown.
may
at
stant
con-
pressure.
dH
Cvdt +
pdv
dH
Cpdl
vdp
"
(1)
the
without
expand
to
gas
absorbed
heat
the
engine increases
internal-combustion
an
of
transmission
heat
dH
.".
=0.
Cvdt
Cpdt
(a)
pdv
"
....(")
vdp
CP
dp
idv_
_
Cv
p
heat
ratio
of
specific
constant
at
the
(y being
to
pressure
the
specificheat
ioge
fey
at
constant
volume).
Integrating
have
we
ioge ei
which
In
px
and
general limits.*
the
are
vx
equals
perfect
the
or
pressure,
will increase
the
as
is
gas
In
an
the pressure.
pressures
end
of the
and
volumes
exhaust
OC
at
stroke.
which
are
the
increase
the
(2)
rate
of
if under
the
expansion
constant
temperature
Then
ty SAUl
diagram
indicator
vy
=C
being constant,
volume
PyVy
*
in
one
of temperature
rate
and
Then
Vfv=V?l
Now
pu
the
limits
px
beginning
of
and
the
vx
correspond
compression
to the
or
the
88
COMBUSTION
INTERNAL
Now
the
as
fraction,
is
compression
will
t-5
ENGINES
since
decrease,
initial
the
value
the
increased,
pressure
of
the
is
p3
that
of
the
then
atmosphere,
and
approach
equal
1, then
value,
which
Equation
application
1,
the
will
limit.
efficiency
value
2
as
is
is
never
that
be
fully
would
even
of
the
discussed
If
be
it"
indicator
ideal
in
the
to
theoretical
maximum
approached
will
for
possible
were
the
of
value
The
increases.
p4
in
heat
card
following
engine.
and
chapter.
its
CHAPTER
THE
As
of
the
of
the
card
operations
arises
cylinder
would
what
constitute,
and,
perfect
the
nearly
that
the
is
the
as
less
means
perfect,
the
cylinder,
cycle in
it
by
or
knowing
cycle,
as
more
within
perfect
obtained
as
record,
place
approximate,
to
engine,
test, is
to
as
CARD.
an
taking
theoretically
designer
of
indicator
question
this
INDICATOR
indicator
actual
an
XI.
particular
operations
of
of
attempt
the
be,
this
any
particular
may
ideal
condition.
The
theoretical
engine
the
by
basis
indicator
the
known
expansion.
By
compute
in
obtained
these
and
in
inlet
valves
the
of
by
I, II
be, and
In
the
possible
the
draw
to
to
pressures
cycle, and
or
points
close
having
the
which
at
have
been
will
operation
the
ten
in
Fig.
"Compression,"
for
the
points
on
curves
the
exhaust
determined
affect
the
the
several
I,
we
relation
exact
the
stroke
clearance,
equal
the
their
26,
piston
indicator
on
III, describing
and
Chapters
into
of
means
the
in
divided
the
and
shown
are
piston.
As
is
or
and,
card
at
point.
cards
ab.
them
plot
cams
open
Chapters
the
the
their
known
In
it
representing
in
its
as
compression
formula
points
has
expansion.
of
consequence,
which
under
gases
values,
to
for
formula,
this
different
or
design
some
of
values,
the
In
of
of
at
compression
of
action
means
cylinder
is obtained
general
one
number
the
of
use
card
II
by
formula,
will
be
curves,
cd
89
able
and
be
the
derived
to
in
compute
ef, intersected
stroke
represented
by
space,
stroke
ordinates
card
the
to
compression
or
III,
and
parts
may
cycles,
is
to
shown
10.
the
By
chapter
the
by
values
these
90
INTERNAL
ordinates.
general
The
pV
In which
p
v
volume
constant
the
above
pressure
all
for
that
we
of the
The
consideration
approximately
value
this
and
stroke
the
If
is the
of
cylinder fitted
at constant
If the
produced
by
this
then
pressure
According
to
of the
the
the
lb.
14.7
and,
into
is
having
formula
for
ke,
expansion
to
were
gases
in
the
release
at
perfectly tight
value
its
and
retained,
of y is the
specificheat
become
all the
then
the
at
1.
heat
value
ratio between
is under
gas
compressed
of y would
value
is
whatever
and
which
explosion
the
rapidly compressed
The
specificheat of air,or
constant
if the
compression
y will increase.
of
of the
of ke takes
throughout
be
to
value
solve
is contained
air is
of
is taken
sidering
Con-
by ke.
g.
temperature,
volume
compression
compression,
may
of
air
with
venience
con-
atmosphere,
pressure
the
constant
stroke,
volume
the
we
value
For
for the
times
remain
the
curve
the
which
and
fact that
four
of the
end
in the
pressure
determined,
will
which
of
pressure
determination
the
will
curve.
for
expansion
which
compression stroke
sq. in.
per
but
same
constant
the
the
be the
to
assume
the
of the
kc will be
conditions
upon
points of the
for
the volume
constant
(5)
p.
will denote
by kc and
is
ef
vacuum.
depending
same
pression
com-
curve
at
we
curve
expansion
the
remain
for
the
for
equation
of
pressure
form
also
and
cd
curve
ENGINES
COMBUSTION
the
compression,
at
volume.
constant
Rankine,
S
T
For
the
engine the
is
curve
heats
to
gases
value
in
of
common
1.408
use
for
the
being
different
from
those
For
for
in
air.
the
cylinder of the
compression
to
the
and
to
gas
expansion
ratio of the
valves
and
specific
the
loss of heat
of f may
INDICATOR
as
taken
be
for the
THE
expansion
produce
results
working
pressures
and
curve,
these
obtained
value
1.3 is very
Fig.
it may
is
said
be
designed
under
ideal
The
Ideal
the
the
value
fact
that
the
between
the
temperature
values
to
by
up
in
Before
as
gas
engine
fuel and
of
results in
acting
of
of
the
the
gases
cylinder and
greater loss of
formulas,
in
curve
greater difference
of the
contents
the
points
expansion
higher temperature
just how
means
we
compression
the
heat.
card
will
in
be
may
the
compute
and
expansion
Fig. 26.
laying
it is necessary
or
compression
one
so
Card.
for the
consequent
show
for several
curves
gas;
internal-combustion
is taken
=1-35
built
efficient
on
samples of natural
of natural
stroke
In order
actual
of results obtained
average
Indicator
average
basis
to
engines.
nearly the
26.
found
the
tests
1.35
conditions.
of the
view
that
on
keeping with
of y for different
by computation
and
curve
will be
values
by indicator
types of internal-combustion
The
compression
closely in
very
91
CARD
out
to
to
decide
assume
space
stroke, and
the
diagram
to
that
to solve
some
upon
some
for
or
ratio
computing
pressure
for
the
displaced by the
the
any
values,
for the
volume
pression
com-
of
the
piston during
compression pressure.
In
92
INTERNAL
this model
card
which
result
will
The
will
we
in
total volume
stroke
then
will
For
compression
using
Now
formula
the
14
14.7
or
k,
have
we
the
of
cylinder
the
of
we
of
v.
0.21261-3
is
"
"
pvV3
piston
percentage
0.2126, which
"
The
volume
total
suction
computations
the
unity.
as
the
to
in
pressure.
the
times
1.27
convenience
space
0 27
"
0.27
1 +
0.27:1,
as
of the
this volume
assume
then
be
be
to
high compression
rather
ratio
the
assume
of the
will
displacement.
ENGINES
COMBUSTION
"
"
(0.2126)1-3
to solve
In order
the
equation it is
above
to
necessary
use
logarithms.
1.167317.
Log
14.7
Log
0.21261'3
in
the
is obtained
of
table
logarithms
Since
1.327563.
the
(number
1.327563
may
Then
may
we
right
to
be
found
as
the
tabular
log), is
negative
teristic,*
charac-
has
log
true
of decimal
written
Log 0.2126,
is
(that
tabular
find the
must
we
follows:
as
point) from
1,
tissa
man-
follows.
as
9.327563-10.
subtract
10.000000-10
9.327563-10
True
log 0.2126
Multiplying by
0.672437
1.3
raise to
1.3 to
that
power
2017311
672437
0
log 0.21261-3
True
874168
.
Tabular
1.125832
Now
14.7-
log
11.167317-10
9.125832-10
log 0.21261-3
log 14.7
log 0.21261'3
Tabular
2.041485
*
and
The
characteristic
is 1 for any
hundreds
place,
tenths,
for any
as
number
as
0.165; "2
number
in
for
3
the
any
thousandths,
the
to
place,
for
p.
p.
number
in tens
165.32;
log
log
is the
decimals,
For
1653.2, etc.
in
log 0.21261-3
any
as
number
characteristic
number
as
left of the
2 for
16.53;
in
0.00165,
any
"
for
hundredths,
etc.
as
point
number
thousands
in
is:
decimal
in
place,
any
as
number
0.0165;
"
INDICATOR
THE
From
the
logarithm
lb. per
find the
we
2.041485
is in
much
In
on
operating
quality of
poorer
practicalpurposes
assume
order
obtain
to
the
true
to
solve
it is necessary
natural
in
use
most
Engines
gas.
producer
as
in
this
outline
gas,
use
may
instance,
0.8
of
other
points
where
piston is
the
1.27
1.27-0.2
,
,.
volumes
L27
0.8425,
"
L27
=
'
"
"-6
0.685,
volumes, and
found
are
0.4
by
"
the
increased
the
be
to
obtained
for
compression
any
allowance
proper
"
which
0.37,
'"
1.27
1.27
formula, making
the
"
""8
0.5276, and
sufficient for
points will generally prove
The
are
curve.
corresponding pressures
same
at
nC/10K
respectively
are
and
compression stroke
the
on
will be
calculations
the
those
are
compression
of the
for several
The
curve.
made,
(This
=110.
mobile
high-compression auto-
on
gas,
of p in
higher compression.)
curve
the
all
the
to
is the value
is too
stationary engines
to
in the
use
common
engines, but
operating
For
vacuum.
close
sufficiently
be
of p
corresponding
number
110.025, which
be
to
in.,above
sq.
it would
value
table
93
CARD
53.53,
respectively.
The
pressures
approximate explosion
the
110
follows:
Then
"
95.3
4 X
14.7
+
14.7
we
are
able
or
395.9
0.21261"35
log 395.9
log 0.21261-35
log ke
considering
working
to
obtain
ke
ke
2.597585
pv1-35
ke
atmosphere).
the
value
ke:
constant
Then
as
(explosion pressure). By
395.9
(pressure above
95.3
found
be
may
mined.
deter-
absolute,
sq. in.
lb. per
pressure
be
now
may
curve
110
compression being
The
then
expansion
for the
48.955
the
stroke.
lb.,the terminal
exhaust
valve
to
1.092210
1,689795
pressure
open
at
in the
the
end
cylinder
of
the
94
INTERNAL
Hence
in
the
COMBUSTION
equation for
question is pv1,3i
corresponding
found
at
pressures,
by subtracting
the
of 48.955.
They
Sufficient
drawn
are
in this
diagram
the
is
in Fig. 26.
from
to
be
to
diagram represents
We
which
would
exhaust
valve
vertical
line
condition.
to
opened
to
At
(J
due
the
to
vertical
compression,
stroke
to
the
use
be
used
any
point
By the
points
Fig.
27
determine
to
use
on
the
on
of this
the
the
ideal
sary
neces-
1 and
supposed
of
arc
circle,
of
pressure
this
straight
and
curve
effective pressure
mean
Chapter
XXIII.
found,
been
of any
of
c.
diagram.
in
described
the
The
designer
proposed engine
the
compression
compression
the
on
an
is
increase
the
drawn,
the
compression
also shows
purely
the
dimension
of like
of
bore
proposed horsepower.
the
curve
dropped
the
be
cdeg,
it becomes
card
intersection
determine
for any
volume
intersectingpoints/and
having
may
height
cylinder if
ignition,is drawn.
horsepower
he
or
the
would
1 and
been
pressure
in
diagram
pressure
should
the
as
length
unit
completes
computed
be
compute
and
spring
intersection,/, of ordinate
curve
the
from
point
effective
mean
may
of
diagram having
may
the
representing the
curve,
advance
10 to
in
actual
ordinate
line drawn
ordinate
The
This
c.
on
slight
and
which
at
curve,
the
and
theoretical
action
the
from
curve
point
to
complete
expansion
open,
at
the
Plainly this
c.
To
to pass
the
the
represent
curves
the
inch
every
the
in.
completed
have
now
Then
lb. pressure,
140
in. and
lb. per
140
is 4 in.
the
scale of indicator
The
as
187.38.
determined,
been
of v,
from
power
having
is taken
1.35th
the
to
61.70,
are
now
shown
as
diagram
of the
on
points
of the
0.8
compression
computed
the
curve
working
intermediate
The
to
expansion
the
point of
any
4S.955.
pressures,
ENGINES
curve
space
from
computation
curve
terminal
pvu3
curve
20
up
of the
is rendered
pressures
and
k,
to
to
may
locate
500
values
lb.
for
unnecessary.
of the
expansion
96
INTERNAL
As
stated
in
mechanical
the
to
hp.
obtained
is
It
from
limits.
chapter
the
general
actual
an
in
cards
taken
from
under
supposedly
than
favorable
as
it is apparent
the
cards
actual
mean
In
the
mechanical
of
the
It
was
in
size
if
designed
uniform
Hopkinson,
read
and
Engineers
his
he
was
cent.
water
able
It
to
obtain
be
order
also
to
added
be
secure
that
maintained
the
best
the
of
Civil
1908,
these
the
as
to
Mechanical
in
found
the
and
The
results
shows
1
pressure
of
the
results.
they
Bertram
by
within
nearly
as
taken
care
to
correct
were
obtained
be
gives
lines
cent.
per
increase
of
be
engine
however,
paper
may
results
and
Institution
along
80
could
January
diagrams
from
showed
to
tests,
used
which
experiments
may
should
in
for
only
tends
results
was
of
excerpts
extensive
their
the
from
20-hp.
these
engine
pressure.
before
Magazine
Engineering
of
gas
quence,
conse-
engines
of
that
any
indicator
in
obtained
as
while
efficiency
accurate
very
engine
gas
engine
5-hp.
cent,
Continuing
that
maintain
small
of
steady
Institution
the
committee
efficiency
The
internal-combustion
per
be
cylinder.
the
of
an
and
hp.
as
to
considerably
vary
of
90
the
increases.
properly
of
under
from
i.
mean
in
showed
to
the
demonstrated
may
that
out
manifest
as
test
efficiency
type
same
the
committee
efficiency
error,
its
the
the
on
that
hp.
this
conditions,
developed
of
tests
brought
was
power
Engineers
it
in
taken
taken
i.
exercised.
not
hp.
b.
reasonable
proven
running
those
the
the
within
was
engine
of
that
has
care
proper
less
much
vary
ratio
correct
experience
steam
is the
is
the
Testing,"
supposition
card
where
tests
"Engine
on
engine
any
Unfortunately
erroneous
load
the
efficiency of
i.
ENGINES
COMBUSTION
uniform
that
2
or
per
cooling
as
sible,
pos-
XII.
CHAPTER
GENERAL
The
is
to
the
mean
in
the
four
conditions
during
duration
the
number
stated
thus
in the
obtained
power
horsepower
commonly
more
its
The
the
mechanical
the
to
i.
hp.
i.
Since
hp.
The
of
explosion,
is
directly proportional
explosion.
cylinder
of
the
of
the
fuel
dependent
and
the
explosive
explosion,
but
power
while
indicated
or,
method
ratio
used
being
of
of
it
as
(b. hp.), is
the
in
some
the
i.
b.
expressed
is
horsepower
hp.
have
and
varying
explained,
the
to
the
Hence
is
i.
already
as
exerted.
the
the
cent
or
in
hp.
hp.
terms
the
b.
equal
hp.,
the
to
friction
or
hp.
fuels
different
is
horsepower,
per
the
ratio
friction
the
b.
"
90
the
on
between
to
is
the
or
cent.
difference
75
upon
stroke
Card,"
the
to
the
piston, and
pressure
horsepower
from
'
hp.,
per
brake
of
horsepower,
due
of
acting
designated
delivered
efficiency
of
The
usually
value,
is
either
of the
area
theoretical
test
condition
dependent
Indicator
designated,
determination,
smaller
the
of which
use
length
the
"The
on
by
(i. hp.).
the
be
may
power
pressure
minute
is termed
computed
the
is
chapter
the
is
type,
stroke, the
per
chapter
engine,
any
pressure,
times
this
desired
effective
mean
applied
of
of
working
the
of this
certain
combustion
the
"
in
dimensions,
power
external
or
piston
As
The
engine.
internal
fundamental
produce
to
necessary
discussed
dimensions
general
taken
DIMENSIONS.
two
cylinder
mixture
since, in the
values,
varies
cylinder
with
general
factors,
97
The
affect
computation
the
of
the
the
force
fuel
and
before
in
pressure
compression.
naturally
the
compression
effective
mean
on
heat
the
any
quality
proportions
force
power
of
to
the
be
98
delivered
by
the
factor
obtainable
the
by
second; then
quality of
The
per
then
in
natural
above
97
Diesel
the
values
The
sq.
An
65
the
theoretical
effective
mean
used
produce
given
Let
diameter
revolutions
"p
Pb
value
heat
mean
brake
the
explosion
For
poorer
for
per
described,
as
card
from
this
and
stroke
the
now
may
to
necessary
in inches.
minute.
horsepower.
fuel
used
four
fuel
a
is
supposed
gasoline
or
gas
be
to
gases
Then
formula.
the
natural
to
upon
effective pressure.
this formula
The
sq. in.
cylinder in inches.
of
of stroke
length
"
bore
for
hp.
b.
"
In
the
determine
to
being
determined
been
constructed,
obtained
pressure
lb.
readings.
pressure
card
40
value
average
70 lb. per
to
and
poorer
engines.
all gage
are
the
from
range
pressures
gasoline is from
or
gas
oil
of their
blast furnaces.
the
lb. per
98
and
gas,
close
gas
order
in the
is
pressure
natural
producer
gas,
effective
or
effective
mean
be
to
considered
be
not
illuminating gases
from
mean
need
gasoline, with
water
derived
gas
in. to
found
be
the
average
sq.
of
use
come
candlepowers,
highest
The
design.
is assumed
mixture
cylinder, the
any
ENGINES
COMBUSTION
INTERNAL
times
the
factor
must
and
to
the
pressure
compression
be
equal in
be
of
pressure.
introduced
in the
four-cycle engine
cPpln
800,000
And
for
two-cycle engine
d2pln
(7)
=
"
'
'
'
600,000
For
same
an
engine operating
compression
0.7.
the
Producer
fuel
gas
on
factor
producer
may
be
gas
taken
and
as
with
the
mately
approxi-
for that
generally
purpose,
higher.
(See
operating
chapter
compressions
their
carry
For
"Compression.")
on
blast-furnace
on
99
DIMENSIONS
GENERAL
gas
fuel factor
much
engines
of 0.5
is
0.6
to
necessary.
The
the
above
formulas
dimensions
designed.
of
For
be
now
may
engine of
any
determining
for
used
compression
like
single-cylinder,
four-cycle engine capable
40
hp. and
the
effective
mean
70 lb. per
at
the
that
sq. in.
of the unknown
if the
to
is
run
we
be unknown.
must
assume
As
the
solve
speed
which
at
generally known,
we
the
formula
In
the
this
rev.
case
min.
per
would
and
result in
the
will
we
assume
the
piston speed
for
value
correct
to
of 600
two
mine
deter-
to
the
value
be
proper
be
to
ft. per
and
solved
engine speed
length of stroke
for
to
engine is expected
this
assume
order
value
is in
solve
to
equation
value
unknown
mined
deter-
been
In
the
the
delivering
in order
value
quantities and
remaining
proportion.
It is necessary,
one
has
pressure
build
to
of
be
to
for
be
to
18
the
d.
200
in. which
min., approximately
zontal
stationary,low-speed, hori-
engine.
70
d2 X
Then
40
18
200
800,000
or
cP
158
and
12.6.
percentage of compression
The
volume
the
of d.
length of the
lb.
was
space,
an
easy
to obtain
necessary
found
of the total
be
to
23,
or
matter
having determined
For
space
65
it becomes
being known,
of the entire
space
the
mean
per
cent
effective
compression
cylindervolume.
Then
In which
0.23
the total
V.
cylindervolume
piston displacement.
and
cylinder
to
mine
deter-
the
value
of compression
pressure
space
was
of
0.23
100
Solving
obtain
we
compression
its
the value
being known,
space
square,
they
the
bore, and
per
min.
In
the
follow
been
made
are
often
at
run
engine it is often
an
of
by the card
in., and
18
30
b.
unknown
an
190
at
operating
applying
mean
per
rev.
for
fraction.
natural
on
formula
our
uniform
expedient
ratio
gas
the
has
which
satisfactory.
cylinder diameter
of
effective pressure
as
has
to deliver
min.
and
as
fuel.
found
been
four-cycleengines
of the
to
dimensions
of
and
of 60
be
to
ft.
800
as
operation of
engine with
an
to
hp.
the
high
as
that
times
1.2
1 to
found
general
type,
same
take
stroke
in., a
from
piston speed
mobile
Auto-
bore.
requirement
the
to
being made
even
the
to
their stroke
by experience
example
Then
equal
found
shown
stroke
with
engine of the
an
engines
some
engines, owing
design of
as
some
as
determine
to
two-cycle engines
For
1.5.
or
be decreased,
marine
low,
set
1: 1.3
and
12
able
are
we
of the
area
ratio of bore to
proper
four-cycle engines, as
As
the
V, and,
of 0.23
length.
The
of
ENGINES
COMBUSTION
INTERNAL
have,
we
denominator
formula
of
written
be
may
the
follows:
as
60
o0_122 X
IS
190
Solving
for
the
Then
we
equation
horsepower would
for
the
similar
operation
Formulas
to
special
is determined
way
of
6 and
as
similar
984,960.
engine
of
desired
any
d2Pln
which
may
be found
for any
engine
is known.
7 may
600
"
984,960
formula
only.
cases
be
be
b.hp.=
^
In
to
or
be
That
700
simplified and
is, when
ft. per
made
the
min., the
to
apply
piston
speed
diameter
of
GENERAL
the
cylinder
be
may
101
DIMENSIONS
found
by
of
means
the
following
simple
formulas.
Similar
formulas
found
Having
determined
the
to
this
of
the
of
units;
thus
should
be
as
for
are
much
designed
At
the
four
the
power
error
as
power
first
of
owing
the
secured
that
with
of
single
the
to
large
fact
the
single
is
from
less
in
of
the
than
of
engine
to
owing
diminution
to
mind
that
individual
one-quarter
the
reader
This
power.
horsethat
one-quarter
conclusion
is in
efficiency
10
to
engine
same
exactly
cent
per
the
of
better
the
in
design
the
mechanical
5
the
four-cylinder
cylinder.
cylinder,
consequent
size
have
the
given
In
borne
appear
may
that
engine
a
slightly
each
should
proportion
only.
be
of
single-cylinder
it
be
may
formulas
the
govern
develop
thought
cylinders
multiple-cylinder
than
cylinder
cylinders
to
speed.
stroke
proper
the
it should
must
individual
the
of
the
and
engine
cylinders
piston
described.
single
length
in
length
given
any
d, the
described
computations
number
for
previously
as
multiple-cylinder
of
its
making
diameter,
chapter
derived
value
the
by
The
be
may
of
greater
balance
friction
loss.
CHAPTER
THE
Probably
design
the
of
valves
line
mechanical
important
internal-combustion
an
motion
mechanism
of
motion
with
the
crank
for
necessary
or
cam
the
the
ism,
mechan-
cam
controlled
mechanically
the
transforming
for
basis
as
in
feature
is the
engine
engine
every
this
uses
rotary
MECHANISM.
CAM
most
nearly
as
XIII.
shaft
of
operation
straight-
the
into
the
mushroom
valve.
The
the
in
cams
cam
The
at
since
and
fast
the
as
cam
shaft
be
devised,
to
the
is
the
of
valve
types
the
cam
than
end.
in
that
revolutions,
but
during
once
work
must
half
is
eccentric
An
as
been
and
may
themselves
half-time
mechanism
shaft.
crank
previously
mechanically
some
gearing
present
the
on
use
mechanism
may
eccentric
has
which
reduction
represents
an
as
methods
28
practice, and
the
of the
In
mentioned,
the
operated,
adhered
one
large engines,
by
of
means
smaller
to
in
to
transmit
the
the
only
inlet
being
engines
of the
push
rod
it is not
good
design
102
allow
the
the
motion
member.
automobile
between
to
manufacture
cam
intermediate
an
interpose
"
two
open
shaft.
type.
stem
majority
cf
valve
good
most
Fig.
engines,
suction
makes
valves
designed
crank
consider
manufactured
suitable
means
exhaust
It
of
by
the
we
mechanism
are
this
other
designer.
small
the
engines
or
shaft
inlet
of
that
is
on
shaft.
attain
to
operated
of
and
it
because
when
crank
principle other
mechanical
the
half
operating
crank
Occasionally
many
to
exhaust
cycle, their
this
equal
the
cycle
the
called
located
commonly
are
so
is apparent
this
Otto
engine
shaft,
speed
for
reason
complete
four-cycle
half-time
or
revolve
to
valve
valve
to
The-
and
stem
stem
marine
and
even
104
INTERNAL
venient, owing
entail
making
or
the
roller
the
Fig.
starting; pin
move
30.
must
steel block
into
of Cam
make
to
Cam
be
move
with
wide
into
Lever
enough
mesh,
face
the
to
It
is
shifting medium,
the
proper
position for
Transmission.
replaced either
of sufficient
of
movement.
necessary
d
out
Rod.
Push
to
shaft
shaft would
cam
partly
gears
its
gear
to
to shift the
pinion with
Relation
cam-shaft
and
to
half-time
29.
easy
hardened
that
the crank-shaft
comparatively
cause
fact
the
Fig.
allow
the
to
throwing
ENGINES
COMBUSTION
length
by
to
two
allow
maintain
pins
the
a
or
lever
contact
a
e
THE
between
b and
CAM
The
c.
universal
starting by compressed
"Starters."
on
(1) Spring,
"
return,
yoke
or
gravity, return
or
The
cams.
in
use
of
chapter
classes:
(2) Positive
cams.
method
in the
of two
are
105
MECHANISM
style in
spring
return
system.
In
laying
will
out
produce
will
be
determine
valve
where
the
to
The
concentric
of
the
to
the
cam
the
at
and
the
of
the
completed
shaft,and
the eccentric
points
above
be
we
able
are
determined
mentioned
the
which
point in
of
valve
consist of two
to
which
the
exhaust
the
cycle
corresponding
have
will then
portion is
two
cycle
the exhaust
piston has
From
case.
from
illustration
0.85
Fig. 31
Lay-out.
also
the
completed
has
close when
stroke.
For
Cam
in
slight modifications,
every
data
open
We
cycle in which
piston
eccentric
close.
inlet valve.
will take
Single
to
with
nearly
point in the
commence
it should
for the
31.
diagramed
as
and,
obtain
we
the
should
for
"
Pig.
to
method
results
suitable
"Valves
on
the
cam,
accurate
found
chapter
design
cam
is to open
working
0.05
portion
and
the
when
suction
portion
egge,
the
from
we
stroke, and
of the
parts,
data
ee,
which
location
lift of the
106
INTERNAL
valve
required.
valve
The
is in terms
stroke
and
On
stroke).
motion,
before
0.15
after
0.05
the
crank
of
opening
the
1.2
the
180"
the
suction
cam
216"
explosion
of the
end
beginning of
the
exhaust
be
equal
108".
"
the
opens
closes
ENGINES
period of
of
to
COMBUSTION
Having
determined
proceed
follows:
as
determine
the
diameter
diameter
b of the
portion of the
not
be
explained later.
shown.
as
the
In
cam.
to
tangent
by
c,
pass
tangents
order
to
draw
these
b, the angle
of the
means
Substituting:
Angle
circle,
the
lines
54"
circle
through
and
mined
deterline xx,
center
of
and
be determined
may
angle
of
action
co.;-i
rA*
["(90")
-^54"cos-1^]
[(90")
(8)
(54"
17")]
the tangent
being known,
through points
readily drawn
be
lines
The
b.
been
the
to
out
following formula:
proper.
having
be known,
must
cam
reason
e, where
circle
"dwell,"
this latter
on
cam
and
or
than
on
points
the
Through
intersect
the
angle of the
as
The
b.
the
"dwell," lay
is to be laid out
cam
make
the
greater in diameter
in.
The
being known,
cam,
on
shaft,
cam
and
a,
b of the
on
for
finish
good
diameter
tV
c,
shaft
cam
used
the
on
portion of the
for
the
circle of diameter
and
be
to
concentric
determined
eccentric
size of the
the
period of opening
the
38"
surfaces
From
e.
of the
the
cam
may
formula
for
T
*
In
the
above
trigonometrical formula,
the
term,
cos-1
"
means
f|.
In
cosine
decimals,
table
of functions
about
17"
r,
we
is -1
In
the
0.6875,
find
that
cam
0.7187,
the
in
question
and
angle
whose
r,
=0.9565.
cosine
"$
andr
From
is 0.9565
the
is
CAM
THE
effective valve
for
the
the
lift to
which
valve
have
this
circle intersects
this
Corners
completed.
machining,
rise
tangent
without
for
reason
that
there
be
may
most
allowed
taken
be
Added
open.
to be
pins
to
or
circle
of
wear
the
encounters
rise, and
to
commences
when
of fact
matter
play, and
for
smaller
been
in
months,
the
Some
and
manufacturers
inlet valves
rocker
and
valve
arm.
the
by
this
the
the
to
means
Fig. 32
mechanism..
in the
and
the
the amount
circle
much
inlet
the
way
sees
cam
as
for
the
opening of the
the
of a double
c.
to
the
As
allow
fit,to
be
may
arm
exhaust.
exhaust
in connection
cam
point of
same
obtain
it
cam
which
on
cam
be at all excessive.
cam,
the
the
old
J$ in. would
exhaust
in
roller passes
little too
bearing
justcommencing
until the
probably
of
true
of
as
almost
are
on
circle c,
be
the
commence
to looseness
should
open
manner,
same
being determined
cam
the
there
roller passes
it is doubtful
but
laid out
Having
drawn
few
possibly
this clearance
be
may
amount;
run
in. is
can
is
and
stem
cam,
tangent surface
of the other
intersection
there
the
assumption
our
remain
should
and
open,
the
and
during the
up
portion
of lost motion
to
if
take
cam
itself is
cam
traveling
tangent
of this tangent
intersection
the
allowed
roller
the
possible,
as
portion of the
(Especially is
parts.
will be
the
valve
slightlosses,due
when
Now
engines.)
this clearance
to
other
some
the
valve
and,
of roller from
mechanisms
cam
the
before
up
the
than
it and
centric
con-
opening.
to
between
in
gradual
as
gg
interposed between
member
sure
in
As
slight clearance
must
movement
lost motion
no
outline
slightly round
diameter
in
circle
cam
the eccentric
out
larger
angle of action.
to
the
"dwell"
laying
in.
circle ^
be
The
on
make
the
to
than
should
to
as
so
greater diameter
in.
Supposing
actuate.
0.25
as
on
is to
cam
determined
been
circle of 0.25
when
determined
have
we
areas
107
MECHANISM
a,
of this
pivoted
at
with
cam
6, is
108
INTERNAL
provided with
and
exhaust
at
restricted
spring
by
the
be identical
may
coil
with
need
not
be
compensating,
curve
g,
that
Double
described.
The
outline
of
cam
shown,
as
shown
it
be
to
the
in
sectional
of double
the
spring
across
While
plainly reduces
follows:
open,
cut
Fig. 33.
later described.
The
the
on
view
follows
of
valve
cam
in
chord
this reduces
mean
cam,
mechanism
The
of the
cam
noise
opening,
the
inlet
lever
valve
a
to
cam
circle,
of operation,
having caused
general
depression
the
the
the
vertical
practice the
effective
the
made
be
must
engines.
position shown,
h
at
of
mechanism
its center
is made
in
as
is shown
outline, instead
as
joint
automobile
at
is
Cam.
applied to
been
it has
The
/.
ordinary simple
an
binding,
xx.
for
and
push-rod
The
h.
operate,
its movement
shown, and
as
used
prevent
to
valves,
inlet
32.
Fig.
and
d, which
two
respectively, the
ENGINES
COMBUSTION
cam
as
will
is
as
/ is wide
move
about
THE
b and
to
act
follows
the
on
stem
the outline
Fig.
33.
Section
CAM
109
MECHANISM
of/.
The
of A.
cam
When
of Vertical
Motor
roller,in
point
the
1 is reached
"dwell," from
roller
about
to
1 to
engage
2, both
the stem
valves
the
Mechanism.
time,
mean-
remain
of valve
e, and
During
closed, with
just out
of
110
INTERNAL
with
contact
the
COMBUSTION
of
stem
cam,
about
exhaust
b, causing the
until
open
into
the
the
point
3 is
/.
Fig.
Fig.
this
That
cam.
circle c,
laying
the
out
diameter
circle
is
and
on
supposed
remain
angle
immediately
shown,
open
the inlet
to
of
than
same
to
in
In
the
of
the
after
90".
portion from
It
is
method
draw
of
circle of
construction
of
mined,
being deter-
exhaust
or
we
closes
trifle more,
will
keep the
it to open
cause
obviously impossible
Ce without
on
circle b, the
cam
the
particular cam
exhaust
out
is laid out
inlet
the
period of 180",
this
The
for the
as
operation
during
after
equal
the
open
laying
of
follows:
as
immediately
circle.
already described.
open
open
method
starts
again
h to
remain
from
portion is
lever
and
open
the
Lay-out.
cam
its location
as
to
the crank
inlet valve
been
being
well
as
of the
inlet
this
The
c.
Cam
reaches
rotates
spring
the
ts
for
reason
allows
Double
to
which
at
shows
34
34.
part
has
as
valve
1, and
to
roller
the
at
reached,
depression 3
inlet valve
When
/.
ENGINES
cutting down
to
y,
as
lay off
the effective
112
COMBUSTION
INTERNAL
the
cut
on
the
shaft
shaft
periphery of
that
of
is neither
Fig. 35 shows
these
of spur
the
and
gears,
the
is half that
reduction
marked
gear
2 the
of gear
2,
required.
the
the
making
bevel
of
two
bevel
plane and,
same
As
in
the
is made
secure
the
skew
gears,
large
shaft
cam
but
to
is
or,
one
an
use
at
the
as
most
gear.
in which
abnormal
valuable
direct
have
from
in
the
gears,
skew
the
gears,
due
wear.
one
on
to
the
line
center
shaft, and
shaft
gear,
that
lie in
gear,
is shown
the
crank
pair
shaft
of
be
gear
the
of drive
action, are
subject
design of gearing
several
gears
to
may
quiet method
author
shaft
larger than
case,
the
the
right angles.
at
in order
the
of
crank
their
if the
time
same
speed reduction
which
Cut
or,
for
gears
shaft
As
written, the
it details.
speed
one
bevel
at
At
affords
of
pinion
crank
frequently is the
The
pinion
size of the
cam
maintain
manufacturers
to
particular example,
time
amount
been
space
cam
the
and
subject by itself,
works
the
of which
same
the two
pair
shaft
size of
The
speed reduction.
by the
plane.
same
The
and
on
of the
the
gear
of Gears.
is the
spur
half that
proper
and
this
in
of the
use
pinion
secured
is carried
is shown
pair of
motion
4, which
gear
secure
reduction.
one
pinion 3, which
the
as
to
to
Types
of
of
the
at
shaft gear.
cam
35.
direction
in
gears;
b is shown
At
teeth
the
angle with
an
in order
Pig.
changing
with
types of
such
at
parallel nor
three
marked
one
disk, but
which
ENGINES
comprehensive
will
are
output
not
consume
usually bought
of
concern
THE
it is unnecessary
case
bevel
or
number
of
In
such
pair of
pitch diameter
of smaller
pitch diameter
of
will mesh
that
the
be!"-"
such
with
between
of the
crank
shaft
gear.
gear.
shaft
distance
centers
of the
their
pitch circles.
of the crank
shaft
shaft
cam
and
cam
leave
instance,
For
in.,then
gear
the
shaft
crank
must
care
apart that
that
and
a.
larger gear.
shaft
cam
cos
larger gear.
of smaller
pitch diameter.
pinion
were
the distance
lines should
center
-i- =6^fin.
32
Whether
should
the spur,
be made
minimum
bevel, or skew
small
in order
of back
amount
rule, but
rough
use
on
this may
of the valves
tooth
at
to
On
small
than
time, the
may
cam
to
as
make
engines
and
to 7
secure
larger engines
be increased
is
gearing
lash, as well
is the
of
any
gear.
crank
pitch diameter
the
between
to
and
cam
keep them
s\ in. clearance
4 in. and
locating the
supposing
cos
smaller
spiralangle
spiralangle
of
the
being absolutely
pitch and
face
either
the
::
of
teeth
gears
width
gear
than
more
to
maker
velocityof
shaft
skew
gears
In
taken
the
teeth,the face,and
In which
In
insure
pair of
is installed.
pitch, and
to
gear
For
accurate.
give the
to
diametral
pitch diameter,
spur
113
MECHANISM
warrants
be
CAM
on
8.
or
it
10
or
possible
pitch
12
those
for
For
finer
general
ment
adjust-
be secured
by shiftingthe
shaft
is sometimes
gear
gear
made
be placed in
adjustable,so that the cam
may
desired positionin relation to the crank shaft.
Fig. 36
any
In the figure, a is the
shows
such
an
adjustable gear.
which
the ring carrying the teeth is placed,
central disk, on
with
as
the
rim
ring is secured
is secured
to the
by
disk
means
close
machined
by bolts
e, as
of the
slots
/.
fit.
The
shown, and
To
further
outer
ment
adjustinsure
114
INTERNAL
quiet
running,
rawhide,
two
the
and
brass
COMBUSTION
shaft
cam
brass.
plates
The
and
ENGINES
the
is
gear
fiber
are
is
rawhide
or
three
made
often
bolted
or
of
held
fiber,
or
between
together
riveted
^^AAA^f,
Fig.
and
then
cut
constructed
being
as
in
brass,
36.
piece.
one
this
fiber,
Adjustable
way,
and
parts
brass,
Geax.
Spur
The
of
shown
gear
the
rim
respectively.
marked
in
Fig.
1,
2,
36
is
and
CHAPTER
VALVES
THE
The
valves
and
type,
the
latter
two
kinds
The
be
in
since
in
order
is most
37.
that
the
of
the
being
illustrations
available
of
Types
compared
lightness
valves
most
of
of
these
valves.
valve
Fig.
mushroom
of the
are
"
for
37
engines
light weight,
seated
Fig.
See
PORTS.
engine
gas
angle
or
mushroom
flat seated
valve
fiat
variety.
of
AND
standard
of the
may
XIV.
to
of
inlet, as
moving
is
parts
the
as
the
suction
comparatively
is
valve,
desirable,
feature
important
an
reduced
be
may
use
Valves.
Mushroom
angle seated
an
inertia
for
to
minimum
amount.
The
angle seated
mentioned
at
an
is
far
angle, tends
firmly;
greater
collect.
tendency
there
is
less
to
flat
warp
for
superior.
to
tendency
The
valve
for
itself
tendency
the
valve,
leak.
115
than
carbon
being
out
one
its
seat
collect
to
grind
to
the
meeting
place and
into
for
valve
other
valve,
The
wedge
seated
and
all purposes
what
lighter, has
seat
more
and
may
greater
116
INTERNAL
Valves
then
should
machined
the head.
be
If
made
whether
clumsier
and
Fig.
stem.
tapped
be
order
in
riveted
or
into
give sufficient
to
illustrates
38
tends
must, of necessity,
riveted,the head
or
piece, and
one
two-piece valve
any
stem
in
cast
or
size,as
the
tapped
the
tapped and
The
finish
heavier
for
body
drop-forged
be
to
pull apart,
to
ENGINES
COMBUSTION
two-piece valve
riveted.
of which
material
the valve
valve
particular should
in
of
metal
be
made
be
easilyaffected
not
heat
the
by
it will
which
to
continually subjected.
be
The
metal
best
valve
for the
is nickel
alloy is
This
should
be made
is to
burned
alloy.*
easily
not
will
and
haust
ex-
produce
satisfactoryresults and
a
The
inlet
valve, while
subjected, except
Fig.
38.
of
tough steel.
inlet,with
is
in
manufacturers,
material,
with
more
both
engines have
instances,
many
less
or
the
inlet
cases,
give excellent
of
manufacture
the
not
from
successful
and
nickel
use
too
none
exhaust
results.
gas
in
manufacturers
excellent
of material
best
Many
its
should, nevertheless,
gases,
be made
not
on
Valve.
Two-piece
sure
in-
exhaust
but
while
results for
of
prevent the
using
inferior
results.
Many
valves
these
made
valves
time, their
of
may,
in
use
be
discouraged.
size of the
The
*
So-called
Alloy
from
alloy
valves
may
manufacturers,
who
suitable
the
nickel
effective
for
alloy,containing
copper
corroding material.
1.25
is
valve
the
not
be
use
per
openings and
German
manufactured,
their
cent
of
own
silver
or
formula.
aluminum,
of
the
of
commerce.
purchased
A
is also
inlet
direct
manganese,
a
tough
non-
THE
and
exhaust
VALVES
6000
of the
min.
ft. per
inlet gases,
exhaust.
the gases
and
be, based
passing through
safely assumed
ft. per
5000
min.
the
entirelyon
will attain in
be
may
117
PORTS
should
is, or
passages
AND
the
as
the
as
speed
speed in the
at
assumption is that the exhaust
are
gases
of fact, their pressure
atmospheric pressure, but, as a matter
will be
The
The
more
speed
ft. per
of 5000
min.
is then
lb. per
30
safe and
sq. in.
tive
conserva-
estimate.
It is
an
matter
easy
accommodate
to
these
is liable to be
proportioning it.
method
Let
of
design the
to
restricted
The
unless
large enough
passages
port
valve
or
especial care
following formulas
ing
open-
is used
will
give
in
short
passages.
Rev.
Piston
min.
per
of the crank
shaft.
2RL
speed,
ft. per
min.
12
Number
of
Diameter
Area
of inlet passage,
Area
exhaust
Area
of
Diameter
of inlet passage.
dY
Diameter
of exhaust
a,
Then
cylinder,in
of
in.
in sq. in.
in sq. in.
passage,
piston,in
2'
min.
cycles per
sq. in.
passage.
"
.
(9)
6000
It is
speed,a would,
of
necessity,be
large
as
equal
were
to
the gas
A.
as
Substituting for S
2LAR
=
6000
12
J^_.
.
36,000
...
(io)
118
INTERNAL
COMBUSTION
ENGINES
And
S
a,
(11)
5000
2LAR
.
'
5000
12
LAR
(12)
30,000
In
the
case
section,
d and
we
inlet
exhaust
and
simplify
may
formulas
the
circular
are
passages
order
in
to
in
obtain
dt directly.
Trrf2
a
'
4
4a
Then
"P-
or
Also
dx
v/4f
Substituting
6000
And
7T
0.00527
\ZftL
(13)
0.00577
VRL
(14)
If the
which
may
use
the
following values:
a
but
one
last named
class
of
4,
ax=
0.12
0.316
D,
0.346
D.
a\
These
A,
0.1
values
are
design, and
clearlyspecial cases,
should
not
be
taken
a,
a"
covering
as
general
values.
Table
IX
500
to 1200
of
ft. per
min.
and
dt for
120
INTERNAL
Considering
values
to
COMBUSTION
ENGINES
as
be used
for b for
angles of
40"
60".
The
effective
opening is, of
to
the
this annular
the
annular
the
valve, and
the
of b and
product
course,
its
area
circumference
mean
space
will be
C
of
space.
Then
a
bC
(Inlet)
(16)
bC
(Exhaust)
(17)
And
at
Then
C=^
And
ai
The
diameter
valve
of the
D1
may
be
found
as
follows:
Ort substituting
D
4-
(Inlet)
(18)
(Exhaust)
(19)
lib
And
=-^
rtb
Then
b sin
D-
a
-
b sin
(Inlet)
b sin
(Exhaust).
nb
And
D,
^
=
nb
THE
VALVES
121
PORTS
AND
Simplifying,
=0.316^-
b sin
(Inlet)
(20)
"%-
0.316
b sin
(Exhaust)
(21)
In
the
valves
the
and
valve, rather
Some
the
formulas, and
of
use
flat seated
is deflected
tends
the
at
produce
to
lift
great
as
order
diameter, the
in the
do
to
dimensions
be
can
for
as
well
as
choking, it is advisable
angle seated
an
done
with
Referring
valve
Fig. 37, we
to
the
designers
exhaust
the
with
away
collect
and
all
carbon
ideal
in average
0.23
A-
Short
stems.
0.28
D,.
Long
stems.
0.01
A-
0.09
A-
x
x
best
cylinder in
however,
agree,
inlet valves
exhaust
explosion chamber
other
minor
can
be
the
best
given.
that
practice and
far wrong.
not
in the
would
be
is
pressure
a
place both
to
cylinder head
their
products, and
the
judgment
common
larger.
variety of different
and
arrangement
and
same
make
may
be set in the
will vary,
A-
may
fixed rule
no
1.18
be
and
make
to
the
of
head, and
ways;
conditions
of
is to
these, used
stem, thickness
as
the
are
Valves
be
valve, owing
swirls and
size of valve
Materials
should
they
so
be
course,
application
lift of the
would, of
used
be
considered
the
its
exhaust
understood.
thoroughly
In the
in
to increase
formula
should
judgment
been
increase
to
of b in the exhaust-valve
larger.
gas
than
have
seats
it be advisable
Should
exhaust
of
angle of their
the
same.
value
above
on
to
the
sphere, the
and
do
to
tendency
increase
to
the
piston head.
pressure
at
all
122
INTERNAL
points on
chamber
is
impossible in
would
space
of such
several
of
compression
the
engine because
gas
explosion
an
be
extent
form
ENGINES
COMBUSTION
to render
as
such
impracticable.
the idea
explosion chamber
an
manufacturers
of
and
cone
fied
modi-
tried
been
by
piston head
engines, the
small
re-entrant
has
cylinderhead
the
arched.
The
a
common
adhere
to the
41
illustrate these
Fig.
40
shows
of
at
described
have
in
the valve
In
the
In
cam
cages
mechanisms
the
must
be
designed
In
into
it
this
head
as
opening
the
operated by
previously
as
cam,
design
valve
no
cages
separate and
cast
shown.
valves
operated
and
let into
in Head.
being
engines both
and
be
to
double-acting
inlet valve
an
valve
Setting Valves
cylinder
gas
in
of
XIV.
ground
41
Fig.
there
the
Rathbun
exhaust
and
and
arm
Chapter
seats
cylinder head
separate
Method
40.
used,
been
methods.
angle and
an
rocker
designers who
still many
are
two
inlet
the
Fig.
means
is,however,
cylinder head
cylinder head
As
there
and
40
in the
by
are
let into
of
means
the
two
levers.
is let in, in
x,
cage,
greater in diameter
as
shown.
than
the
THE
exhaust
valve
place, the
VALVES
head, in order
forms
cage
an
further
of
the
explanation.
malleable
iron.
making
and
cage
The
The
cap
Inlet
Valve
the
and
easy
that
valve
both
valves
and
yoke should
method
cap
of
ible.
readily access-
and
shown
are
put in
be
may
convenient
cap
cage
123
PORTS
AND
both
may
be ribbed
need
and
no
be
of
strength-
MetValve
Cage.
Fig.
ened
much
as
Method
41.
as
Cap
of
possible,as
high-compression engines
dimensions
The
author
SettingValves
will not
stand
has in mind
an
the
in Pocket.
experience has
shown
drop-forged yoke
strain
instance
to
which
where
of
it is
three
in
ordinary
subjected.
four
or
it
that
was
gave
dropfound
the
best
satisfaction.
The
method
of
in
cage
may
be
124
INTERNAL
used
good
to
suction
inlet.
increase
in
in
advantage
only difference
The
the
height of
placed in the
be
to
ENGINES
COMBUSTION
cap
cage.
design would
in
to
Fig.
illustrates
42
be
the valve
in order
allow
the
such
an
spring
valve
assembled.
The
spring for
possible, so
suction
that
should
inlet valve
it
cause
to
for
correct
diameter
sectioned
42.
Suction
Valve
The
in
in this
valves
the exhaust
placing
it is
in
valves
the
in
to
some
been
both
used
in
set
An
exceedingly close
to
increased
of the extra
engine
has
all the
increased
without
cylinder head.
shaft
cam
cylinder,
extent.
similar
manner
with
double
to
cam
disadvantages
more,
on
inasmuch
of
as
compression
space,
running
piston
the
Added
makes
this, the
to
this method
design undesirable.
of
shown,
or
it may
much
and
direction
is shown
as
box
of
method
pocket,
the
pockets,
separate
to
the
parallel
placing the
of
has
high compression
expense
in
singlepocket and
impossible, owing
a
method
the
pockets
a
long dimension
of
41.
in.
0.042
opposite sides
are
Fig.
exhaust
two
obtain
to
design
valve
and
shaft
Cage.
rectangular
axis.
valves
Inlet
facturers
manu-
the
The
Fig.
coils
outside
Some
spring wire
0.068
to the
six
an
f in.
of
prefer
with
and
of
the
by
spring
open.
light as
as
cylinder will
in the
slightestvacuum
the
be
in
the valve
making
be
more
cast
Fig. 43.
side
This
box
by side, and
construction
detached
may
from
the
single
be
used
cylinder,
complicated casting.
The
arrows
o,
as
and
indicated
passes
by the
enters
gas
in
shown
as
out
arrows
of
the
b.
the valve
by the
cylinder
THE
Gas
engines have
of the
not
were
class
being the
extensivelyat
VALVES
been
AND
manufactured
mushroom
Otto
time.
one
in which
type, the
slide-valve
The
125
PORTS
the
valves
notable
most
engine, which
of this
used
was
quite
greatest difficulty
experienced
YZZZZZZZZ2ZZZZl
43.
Fig.
in the
hot
sticking, and,
cheaper
has
of slide valves
use
and
than
become
The
and
the
and
similar
to
no
The
crank
case
further
in
two-cycle
receive
previously explained
the
inlet
short
full
this
the
be
burettor
car-
designed
charge during
valve
is
exactly
discussion.
cylinder ports in
motors,
should
of
design
two-port
between
"
valve
is of the
engine
is used
the
to
The
stroke.
the
type, it naturally
This
case.
supply
to
suction
every
As
other
any
if the
valve
poppet
the
large enough
be
as
is
popular.
whatsoever;
one
Cylinder.
poppet-valve construction
the
as
from
is the
efficient
most
valves
no
variety, but
needs
as
Separate
Cast
of
use
Valve
and
space
exhaust
It is obvious
that,
full
under
exhaust
of
are
are
open
that, in order
reasonable
any
of gas.
head
time, whereas
ports
at
charge
the
ports
must, however,
motor
open
in
of
two-cycle
but
the
paratively
com-
four-cycle
during
to
secure
one
plete
com-
full
126
INTERNAL
charge, or
larger than
of
Considering
although
the
piston when
the
exhaust
it has
The
piston
other
uncovered
traveling
was
the
but
port would
uniform
opening
of the
total time
port would
required
be
the
piston
of the
ing
open-
ing
travel-
was
piston
stroke, but
one
were
period of total
the
then
wholly
not
of the
approximately one-fifth
complete
to
during
length of
average
speed
If the
port is
the
be while
part,
in. of the
partially open
be
in
of the
port would
working
open,
remaining
the
first inch
be
by the
the
in. of
about
of the
uncovered
words, the
in. of the
speed.
same
to
port will be
completed
exhaust
at the
operate
cylinder that
while
to
universal, practiceso
not
stroke.
designed
be
must
size and
same
proportionatelymuch
opening in a four-cycleengine
two-cycle engine
products, the
exhaust
the
complete discharge of
ports of
ENGINES
COMBUSTION
the
piston,
speed and
during about
open
single stroke
Since
valve
of
follow
to
should
but
open
one-fourth
be four times
as
ports, both
four
times
the
large.
the exhaust
effective
time
completely
is
required for
piston.
the
make
two-cycle engine
of
the
port
as
long
a
area
of
one-fourth
of the
the
consequence
effective
to
in
same
area
It is
that
and
the
as
safe
its
rule
inlet,of
of the
valves
bore, stroke,
and
piston speed.
The
and
above
it is well to
ports should
order
not
to
open
too
the
of the
is,of
subject to
course,
in mind
bear
be too
increase
in the
power
rule
that
large than
the
it is much
modification,
better
that
area,
the
exhaust
port does
expansive power
to
fall and
The
average
of the
gases
the
too
effective
some
materially weakening
sure
pres-
the
four-fifths
128
INTERNAL
head.
Fig.
small
As
in
it
is
smaller
the
rings
crank
than,
same.
the
forcing
the
vacuum
is
its
great
to
same
of
used
for
crank
and
port
through
into
possibility
that
fall
the
in
the
the
inlet
cylinder,
case
will
port
opens.
the
there.
or
period
encountered
case
charge
its
effective
preventing
the
to,
at
several
port,
catching
equal
into
opening
required
introducing
be
is
large
one
the
slipping
the
across
surface,
and
around
rings
the
area
bearing
inlet
before
cast
openings
difficulty
the
be
in
should
area
piston
instead
the
port
More
into
very
into
cylinder
charge
bars
forming
bars,
third
case,
that
aggregating
slipping
a
the
gases.
distance
the
clearly,
exhaust
the
quite
prevent
forming,
ports
opening,
to
necessary
thus
intervals,
If
order
of
for
methods
two
paths
continue
ports
cylinder,
these
the
showing
the
them
illustrates
44
arrows
ENGINES
COMBUSTION
into
gas
slightly
of
the
larger
introducing
third
port
and
full
than
there
because
leak
the
opening
allow
in
is
the
CHAPTER
THE
There
The
air-cooled.
The
water-cooled.
I.
II.
air-cooled
The
radiation
surface
the
from
radiating
into
holes
first
named
of the
cost
to
castings would
of
the
holes
and
cylinder
have
be
the
the
class
the
of
annular
driving
pins
wall.
allowing
and
in
the
the
reducing
in cost
the
drilling
illustrates
valve
The
although
up
Fig. 45
in. in
difference
made
with
radiating
to
cylinder
direction
every
this
and
by
use,
by
cylinder
advantages,
pins.
first
the
in
than
more
the
0.75
or
However,
setting the
of
its
freely in
casting.
the
head,
of
that
casting
of
commonly
most
circulate
to
of
an
and
cage
airhead
integral.
cast
Fig.
is
46
and
this
through
order
to
the
at
is
will
keep
best
very
it
valve
the
the
pocket
cooling
highest
essential
for
at
point of the
the
thus
and
water
circulation.
129
gases
enough;
that
In
the
this
water-jacketed.
cool
cooling effect
water
perfect
the
cool
completely,
integral.
shown
as
necessary,
cylinder with
cast
is
valve
outlet, it is advisable
off
draw
the
inlet
not
valve
secure
and
valve
outlet
is
however,
water-cooled
valve
the
particular example
This,
of
example
one
jacket, head,
water
to
outside
is claimed
air currents
cooled
the
is
the
effect
order
from
bottom
of
in
and
apart
the
to
In
possible
as
namely:
cooling
large by
center
method
pin method
first
the
great
in.
top
drilled
air.
is made
0.25
cylinders,
the
secures
as
cylinder
from
height,
the
be
fins, about
or
gas-engine
surrounding
may
the
of
rings
the
effect
of
cylinder
into
cooling
CYLINDER.
classes
two
are
XV.
about
water
making
thus
jacket,
By
rushing
however,
the
exhaust
jacket
it
in
round
sur-
possible
maintain
which
drawing
the
tion
condithe
130
off at a,
water
as
and
its
45.
Fig.
box
jacket
the
the
of Air-
Type
cooled
be
the
jacket to reach
placed on the top of
were
valve
the
shown,
circulating system
through
ENGINES
COMBUSTION
INTERNAL
so
to
speak,
and
pass
a
would
box
Type of Water-cooled
Cylinder.
Cylinder.
sidetracked,
the
if the outlet
valve
cylinder,the
46.
all
must
water
outlet,whereas
Fig.
into
is thrown
obtain
but
limited
very
circulation.
The
thickness
pressure
to
of the
which
cylinder walls
it is
subjected
to
resist the
be
may
internal
found
the
by
formula
2^.0.1
t=
(22)*
2/
In
in.
which
in.,/
considered
thickness
(four times
in
be
the
the
See
in.,p
pressure
in
lb. per
compression approximately),
allowable
16,000 lb.
*
in
Unwin's
per
tensile
sq.
"Machine
strength, which
in., and
0.1
Design."
is
sq.
eter
diammay
constant.
THE
In
somewhat
heavier
than
indicate, in order
to
the
side, and
one
allow
to
is cast too
thin, water
into
cylinder. In
the
under
to
the
bore.
from
actual
0.05
D, in which
The
cylinder wall
made
be
is the
diameter
of the
lightest cylinderpermissibleand
the
with
concerns
lighterthan
the
uniform
tend
course,
being
no
to
up
depth of the
The
to
seems
it would
be
and,
value,
be
water
in the
at from
to
160
We
find that
of D, due
to
the
best
the
0.16
the
D
automobile
limited
amount
the
170
complex
of
the
and
the
it would
for the
depth
of
practice of different
with
of
amount
ing
regulat-
entering
just enough
water
temperature
of the
of the
water
engines
of
approximate
deg. fahr.
depth
to 0.10
fact,
considered,
find that
pump
used, the
to
be
an
value
of the
make
of
matter
combustion,
an
which
over
conductivity
of
circulation
be
would
average
an
passes
It is
duce
pro-
hand
somewhat
the
we
The
may
constant
they
other
pump
probable heat
water
discharge
as
even
derived
supply pipe
be
that
dimension
at
consideration
If then
manufacturers.
valve
j is
arrive
to
having
be
foreign
limit.
jacket would
cylinders, weight
the
on
question, and
some
all conditions.
meet
but
jacket
water
find
Some
claim
heavier
of
use
certain
impossible
after
the
use
to
common
wall.
the
unless
the
to
in
especial drawback
advantage
there
toward
it is
and
dimension,
results
cylinder
above
0.1 D
manufacturers
0.25-in.
jacket
water
Automobile
1.2 1.
cylinder wall,
from
the
through
to pass
thickness
tt, from
thin
cylinder wall
If the
practice the
in
seem
wall too
the
making
jacket is liable
jacket, varies
water
flange, may
the
made
reboring.
for
is
would
formula
fallingand
above
produce
to
cylinder wall
the
practice,however,
actual
131
CYLINDER
jacket
(23)
use
the
larger value
circulatingwater
carried
132
COMBUSTION
INTERNAL
and
the
its
of
fact
being
is also
made
small
water
in the
which
to
The
become
the
than
casting; in small
It
for
is
of the
designer
in
greater than
jacket should
safe
6-in.
or
means
of
of
Jacket.
the
but
additional
The
the
the
side
type.
the
the
on
outlet
If the
of
the
the
if the
the
the
stagnates and
water
result.
the
placed at
inlet
in
deteriorate
the
by the
or
to
calked
and
first-
and
ably
prob-
use.
The
into
place
the
head
place with
the
proper
jacket the
copper
in cost
is
than
more
offset
the necessary
jacket
the
labor
jacket,
produces
As
the
produce premature
cylinder itself.
its lowest
at
point,
highest point
of
engine be
jacket
it is liable to
copper
cylinder.
leaves
water
in
jacket and
enter
be
should
saving
of the
should
water
cylinder is
the
on
opposite the
height
which
place it
inlet water
and
cost
in this
of the
cost
water
joint. The
oakum,
With
even
accomplished by
be
must
securely
gaskets.
Copper
or
made
is effective
and
lead
fastened
-J
D,
copper
be
expensive
least
0.04
generally about
be
may
method
jacket
with
tl
the
must
expansion
an
copper
to
relatively
the
required
good
unequal expansion of
This
mentioned
the
be
0.03
is
thickness
Provision
iron.
and
engines using
In
and
use
by
would
thickness
the
for the
case
Water
thicker
no
produce
to
cylinder bore,
5V in-
47.
the
that
possible in
as
made
be
necessary
make
to
jacket the
Fig.
pump
I,
time
to 5
up
much
as
consider
may
probably
engines
in order
reason,
have
may
passing
cooled.
wall
outer
same
after
circulation
the
capacity of
for the
radiator
partiallycooled
but
ENGINES
at
the
so
"
formed
point is heated
explosions and
on
vertical
point lower
pocket is
steam
and
than
formed
hot
is
in
spot in
usually
the
most,
rapidly
to
THE
The
133
CYLINDER
that part
jacket should completely cover
cylinder subjected to the heat of the burning gases
should
continue
from
position which
engine
was
inclined
the
the
make
to
stroke, is
if the
relieved
which
if the
the
or
c,
dead
the
and,
To
it
ring
if it
the
as
parts
of the
the
of either
the
On
allow
engine
other
either
edges
the
and
be
marked
become
worn,
will, in time,
travel
the
lower
passes
result
partly overtravel
of their
by
edge b, will be
the
not
case
in the
entirely
entirely passes
does
b.
center.
readily imagined.
to
half
will result
case,
piston
is the
pass
dead
conditions
of the
in
becomes
D
the
different
conditions.
by
for
openings
size
naturally varies
water
ring, which
the outer
on
be
D,
this is
knock.
will result.
"knocking"
different
in
by the edge
half
ring should
this
ring, if
respectively,the end
The
oil
an
crank
the
may
lower
shoulder
out,
run
shoulder
cylinder
compression chamber;
the
will pass
center,
these
into
conditions
of these
to
the
upper
off in the
pulled
b, Fig. 46,
at
observe
to
are
be
engine is
the
valves
consequence.
will result in
condition,
piston carries
and
if the
should
latter
inner
when
to
shown
as
previously
well-designed engines,
Failure
by
As
jacket.
relieved
condition
such
on
Likewise,
upper
of its outward
the end
are
this,contending that
are
this
at
is
engine
edge
require
to
the
designers
accomplish
in all
than
facilitate the
cylinder:
edge
shorter
even
the
to
when
assume
Some
center.
it
or
cylinder down
good practicecompletely
their
to
to
the
dead
cylinder should
in order
and
the
valves
in the head
The
it
it is
top of the
sufficient
not
mentioned,
the
forward
on
heat, when
box
of the
water
far the
If
most
"broken"
tank
(24)
in
inlet
of
makes
and
has
discharge
engines and
cooling tower
method,
desirable
and
and
no
lime
as
or
water
under
be used,
the
"
cooling
sediment
to
134
INTERNAL
made
at
engine
is
hydrant
inlet
water
The
order
outlet
if the
the
engine
area
outlet
to
marine
| in. and
the outlet
is
there
case
with
cooled
were
equal in
should
due
water
engines
to
1-in.
area
larger in
the
be
cases,
expansion of the
and
be
openings
J-in.wrought-iron pipe
Automobile
the
ordinary stationary
the
For
smaller
In
that
equal in
for the
to allow
absorbed.
it is necessary
pressure.
while
sufficient,
pipe.
ENGINES
larger than
somewhat
water
COMBUSTION
the heat
to
somewhat
use
make
inlet
the
f in.
tendency for
without
the
to
water
directly
pass
Copperjacket
^packed
Fig.
wall,
baffle
48.
enough
to
done
finished
their
When
as
the
Cylinder.
machines
chattering
cylinders bored
its proper
or
and
ground,
number
best
of
as
when
this
in
"work
to
with
found
heavy
The
vibration.
engine is marketed
engine for
extreme
be
must
into
water
operation in which
using the
increases
the
and
all
prevent
it takes
cylinder."
Jacketed
in.
be cast
is necessary,
engines have
after
Copper
accuracy
is
of
channel, should
The
Type
here
to
the
be
months,
the
cylinder
true
that,
its power
worn
to
136
different
of
cylinders, and
fully covering
all
conditions,
suggestions
enable
good
forms
ENGINES
COMBUSTION
INTERNAL
to
working
Cylinders
form,
from
eight
by
not,
should
they
sufficient
offer
draftsman
average
means,
any
design
to
cylinder.
with
best,
at
the
while
to
the
jacket and
water
fourteen
cast
integral
in
cas'ting,usually ranging
expensive
an
head
the
cents
imperative
is
It
pound.
cost
for
^-Exhaust
V%77ZBZZZ2ZZZZZZZZZZZl
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//////////,
f n Ik f passage
wzzzzzzzzzzzm.
50.
Fig.
this
casting
simple
as
engines,
automobile
four
jacket
the
supporting
of
suitable
that
reason
the
together,
be
means
and
core
often
in
in
pairs
properly
the
making
Cylinders,
cast
patterns,
for
provided
thereby
possible.
as
are
Cylinder.
Two-Cycle
problem
especially
or
three
even
being
consequence,
for
or
very
complicated.
castings should
Cylinder
that
they
should
tested
be
and
foundry
be
may
manufacturers
that
found
20
of
per
to
be
cent
so
tough
as
under
again
be
after
the
the
best
One
has
engines
faulty that
they
the
the
in
in
order
casting
leaving
of
made
cylinders
are
each
before
pressure
machining.
finished
iron
gray
possible, and
as
water
marine
of
of
their
"scrapped."
the
leading
statement
shop
are
CHAPTER
THE
The
it
to
the
during
this
another
It
flywheel is
to
store
portion of
received
its
of
FLYWHEEL.
impulse
thus
energy
remainder
of the
function
XVI.
of
cycle
imparted
energy
cycle, and
any
the
to
up
machine
operations,
the
during
until
or
restore
to
it
receives
impulse.
possible
is
minimum
to
design
so
the
amount
Rankine
the
treats
it will
flywheel that
of
fluctuation
of
fluctuation
of
speed
speed
as
this
designates
coefficient,
the
to
engine.
of
coefficient
and
fluctuation
reduce
"
which
In
"
2E0
AE
is the
is the
of energy
excess
actual
fluctuation
fixed
generally taken
is
sV
or
about
1.5
machine.
the
is 200
rev.
would
rev.
suppose
per
min.,
Its
min.
per
for
cent,
speed
per
by
full load
be
considered
the
of
be
the
nature
on
an
=6
rev.
203
its
of
average
the
rev.
speed
per
min.
must
not
trating
Illus-
engine.
at
speed
no
load
was
195
was
these
min.,
per
flywheel
engine
from
the
between
rev.
two
loads
cent.
But
195
205
then
might
6
may
speed,
and
min.
of the
variation
0.03
governing
at
speed
average
effected
speed
on
of 3 per
200
is its
the
while
depending
variation
rev.
speed
in
whose
speed
as
the
for
variation
197
with
this:
rev.
machinery
min.
per
speed regulation
confounded
finely regulated
lowest
between
vary
The
205
200
of
machinery
per
min., with
coefficient
ordinary
engine, then,
An
per
since
and,
to
highest and
between
be
cent
per
which
the
say,
and
this
and
^,
impulse,
during
flywheel reduces
amount,
at
is to
that
55!
energy.
to
received
as
per
200
the
way,
regulation
be
controlled
of
effected
by the
this
by the
variation,
weight
governing
plainly, could
of the
apparatus
137
flywheel
not,
but
(Chapter
in
should
XXII).
any
be
138
INTERNAL
The
steadiness
dependent
of
the
on
flywheel alone.
speed regulation, as
units
utilize
dynamo.
well
the
in lesser extent.
made
to the
engine,
even
is
actual
obvious
only method
of
flywheel required is
the
forces
resultant
method
This
to
wheel
very
for
of
is tedious
the
pamphlet
derived
equalize
and
revolution
ditions
con-
where
acting
as
on
to
the
from
the
used
to determine
the
within
to
obtained
from
gives
the
a
an
in
the
of
the
unbalanced
common
crank
weight
portions.
reader
may
refer
Reciprocating
serving
acting
as
it has
use,
University Technic
in
the
Michigan
showing
"Dynamics
on
accurate
Machinist
of the
empirical formulas
empirical formulas
be
favorable
the
cylinder
effect
are
gasoline
or
graphical diagram
the
will
which
great value
revised
gas
show
basis
make
diagram thus
the force
the
they
to
the
be
comparatively large.
be
The
that
two,
should
to which
most
per
web,
or
proportion of idle
large,in
so
impulse
one
engine receives
must
the
getting only
steam
is
strain
the
common
weight but
arms
or
portion
arms,
their
exert
that
strokes
and
the web
reason
possible to resist
It
subjected.
strokes
this
For
light as
as
are
of
hub
is the heaviest
the
of the
mined,
flywheel is deter-
revolution, it is
its axis of
other
tail shaft
the
in
direct-connected
potent factor
Some
on
not
direct-connected
pulleys,shafting, and
connected.
from
engine is
an
is
armature
also the
are
In
auxiliary flywheel
farthest
as
the
belt
an
As
most
as
when
in
speed obtainable
electric-generatingunit
machinery,
ENGINES
COMBUSTION
to
a
no
detailed
a
small
Engines,"
of 18SS.
as
The
few
per
actual
cent
of those
diagram.
The
which
would
American
following formula:
1K
ff
"
"26"
THE
In
which
firing charge
of the
The
weight of rim,
revolution
every
and
piston in
of
area
stroke
rev.
48,000,000
for
engines
for
engines
min.
per
diameter
minute
per
given, is good
sq. in.
in ft.
outside
revolutions
as
=24,000,000
four-cycletype,
139
FLYWHEEL
in ft.
or
the
for
of wheel
above
engines
average
but,
purposes,
are
constant
as
have
we
AS
observed, the
from
1.5
value
cent
per
varying conditions
this
a
allowable
the value
and
of
from
to
3 per
we
should
and
should
introduce
be taken
from
of fact the
for
care
of
We
constants
figures,and
average
to
20,000,000
60,000,000.
that
factor to take
are
suit different
to
it is obvious
matter
48,000,000
to
vary,
cent; hence
As
40,000,000
may
^p-
variation.
24,000,000
of
30,000,000
then
are
conditions
as
able
follows:
2AiL.x
W=
to
(27)
R2D2
which
In
consider
we
in the
Portable
Driving
Driving
looms
Driving
electric
Driving
cotton
low
cubic
cycle
four-
conditions,
as
1.1
use
1.2
textile
or
machinery,
machinery,
spinning,
in these
inches
1.3
etc
1.4
etc
1.5
etc
motor-boat
we
Having determined
in
for different
constant,
for
cases
for
cases
tools
and
demands,
as
all
all
1.0
ordinary
and
Automobile
as
in
in
engines
machine
and
20,000,000
40,000,000
as
a
as
following table:
Pumping
usage
is
the
may
and
weight of
is determined
for
stationary
safely use
value
their
poses,
purof
0.75
for motor
boats.
rim
necessary,
its content
by dividing the
weight by
140
INTERNAL
0.27, which
thickness
Now
as
of
weight,
possible. The
be
may
two.
diameter
thickness
known,
its width
it may
contain
inches, above
produce
to
the
must
the
the
will,
diameter
of
rim
be
such
being
that
of
number
by
ference
circum-
and
determined,
cubic
necessary
required weight.
in.
-J-
nearest
rim
of the
of
diameter, divided
mean
and
its center
its outside
to
the
" "
dimension,
far from
diameter
mean
rim
its minor
as
then, be equal
for the
possible,be
gravity
inch, for
cubic
per
thickness
some
should, wherever
rotation
ENGINES
approximate
assume
its center
that
so
is the
iron.
cast
COMBUSTION
above
the
Use
calculated
width.
Most
engines
Flywheel.
while
engines
marine
wheel
showing
equations, s
flywheels used
the
with
the majority
the webbed
use
made
are
of
six
in
spokes,
automobile
Fig. 51
pattern.
dimensions
average
stationary
on
good
is
and
spoked
In
use.
the
diameter.
crank-shaft
Then
The
dimension
formula,
be
may
computed
B
n
rf
diameter
d=
of
pulley
breadth
of rim
number
of
0.6337
V
flywheel
0.798
J"
flywheel transmitting
in in.
in in.
arms,* thus:
(Singlebelt)
(28)
(Double belt)
(29)
Unwin's
in which
D
For
from
no
power
smaller
value
may
be
used.
THE
Some
141
FLYWHEEL
manufacturers
and
inserted
wheel; the
shrunk
rings
outer
and
leaving the
on,
bar
parts,
be
may
Fig. 52 representssuch
for
two
are
in
space
iiMiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniim
which
the
notches
shown.
as
bind
is
per
min.
cut,
bolts
firmly together.
maximum
rim
been
rings and
The
the wheel
The
have
velocity of
generally
Then
taken
6000
at
6000
the
ft.
nRD.
Whence
6000
D
1910:
tzR
The
XIII
a
(30)
size of
and
Fig.
key
should
necessary
be
of
strong
as
may
TABLE
OF
OF
in
Flywheel.
Tables
as
tendency
to
FLAT
IN
KEYS,
work
loose.
INCHES.
XI.
SQUARE
KEYS,
IN
INCHES.
of shaft.
Diam.
Breadth
Depth
keys
keys
of
of
TABLE
OF
DIMENSION
Diam.
SLIDING
XII.
FEATHER-KEYS,
IN
INCHES.
of shaft.
.
Breadth
Depth
of keys
of
Kent's
keys
"
Mechanical
Engineer's Pocket
Book,"
pages
to
possibleand
X.
TABLE
DIMENSIONS
found
cross-section
lessen the
to
DIMENSIONS
be
52.
821-822.
142
INTERNAL
Table
should
motion.
used
be
These
keys
are
MM"
parts
against
tapered
and
"bear
all
flywheel,
This
in
could
safely
be
the
found
53.
the
Flywheel.
shaft
cause
The
If,
crack
after
form
to
this
machines
of
in
Some
the
this
will
John
be
found
Richards,
spoked
well
metal
be
wheel,
where
they
otherwise,
may,
joint.
accurately
is
the
found
and
be
heavier
in
side
heavy
webbed
turned
to
manufacturers
in
web
will
web
spokes
of
most
one-fourth
In
the
mass
side
one
diameter.
the
be
drilled
are
difficulty.
face
at
must
finishing,
holes
large
the
as
flywheel
other,
the
rim,
the
In
approximately
fillet
always
join
be
to
the
as
probably
spokes.
of
thickness
thin
as
would
six
as
0.5
computed,
web
poured
be
strong
as
cases
Fig.
wheels,
small
mobile
auto-
from
be
not
for
in
engines,
need
and
should
53,
varies,
marine
in.,
0.75
thickness
thickness
and
over."
small
key
endwise
Fig.
comparatively
web.
as,
the
the
to
wherein
work
fixed
webbed
use
its
all
holds
I"
ENGINES
for
also
but
drives,
only
not
COMBUSTION
go
wheel,
order
so
but
unnecessary.
in
Cassier's
Magazine.
far
except
balanced.
than
to
as
the
overcome
to
finish
for
finest
144
INTERNAL
shaft
be
may
studs.
maximum
forward
may
be
of the
cap
Frame
be made
of
liners,a,
used.
They
clear
to
B.
30-gage
the
cut
shaft
S. and
"
take
to
liners,made
are
In
Engine.
used
are
bring the
bearing.
of the
for Horizontal
the
by the frame,
it would
as
bottom
five of these
or
and
the
that
such
be
received
desirable,
near
brass
Four
brass, should
shape
too
of
will not
45"
will be
be
not
54.
Fig.
shaft.
of
thrust
instead
frame
angle
an
in the
the
against
While
ENGINES
COMBUSTION
of
in.
play
light-gage
Two
the
to
or
three
of about
like number
the
conform
to
up
40-gage.
good
rule
make
to
their
diameter
for the
diameter,
of the
Some
follow
to
the
0.25
the
out
the
carry
cylinder, on
if this is
which
lugs
air
from
the
quiet
as
The
of the
hollow
Vertical
usually becomes
cheaply
purposes,
to
Engine.
a
but
the
the
"
crank
of
order
secure
gearing. There
constructed
the
on
bolts
cylinder.
are
unequal expansion
loosen
these
is
It
bolts
of
or
cylinder alignment.
in
base,
cast, and
are
either
possible and
cam
will
frame
distortion
The
and
good design, as
cylinder and
cause
thread,
of
base
is
shaft-
manufacturers
under
the
at
bearing studs
size of the
In
to
a
this
case,
are
warm
type
the
as
dry suction.
of
single-cylinder engines
modern
operation
high-class vertical
in
course,
for
general
engine
as
THE
rule
has
apply
closed
to
In
chamber.
proportioning and
type, whether
similar
crank
the
frame
construction
the
made
in two
which
are
The
designing
consists
to that
crank-case
145
FRAME
type
used
of
as
in the
closed
horizontal
case
engine the
engine.
half
the upper
is
case
is of
or
in the horizontal
independentof
of
general rules
same
generally
Squared fa
vtrenchp
65.
Fig.
fastened
the
to
Frame
for Vertical
half, and
upper
the
Engine.
halves
two
are
fastened
securelytogether.
Fig. 55 gives a good general idea of this class of design.
The
formula
for the cylinder studs, a, has already been
given and
the
or
by
b.
screws,
cap
the
of the
shown.
the
As
fastened
The
half.
lower
means
further
no
shown
are
case
with
needs
as
be
used
described
The
wedge,
their
the
engines
adjustments.
horizontal
together by
means
halves
two
of the
of
bolts
bearings in this
instead
in
The
it is desirable
play
discussion.
of
that
case
placing liners
use
on
are
this method
horizontal
also
acts
the
more
of
between
screw,
or
d,
as
accessibl
less,in-
taking up
the
up
the
bearings,
of the
best
type. Some
the wedge and
to secure
screw
146
INTERNAL
and
Plate
/.
well
inserted
being
removed
i,
in
to
use
bearing
long
it
in
make
the
dynamo
an
above
cap
the
screw
continue
would
be
or
of
fastened,
the
that
them.
C,
with
it
through
plate
would
design
to
top
act
of
be
the
on
the
crank
accessible.
horizontal
and
plate.
machined
units,
bed,
their
engines
is
Especially
direct-connected
and
The
h.
at
better
as
bushing
side
the
the
valve,
shown
shoulder
vertical
bed
and
push-rod
shaft,
cam
plates
of
means
cam
the
require
easily
both
sub-base
by
case
if used;
reach
to
the
covers
shown,
as
accurately
are
of
shown,
g,
of
interior
mechanism,
manufacture
forming
and
as
and
Manufacturers
often
/,
order
cap,
where
case,
the
at
studs
bearing
to
starting
the
as
be
had
is
Access
ENGINES
COMBUSTION
onto
perfect
the
which
alignment
this
true
sub-base
the
engine
assured.
CHAPTER
XVIII.
ENGINE
The
foundations
engine
owner
builder.
The
drawing
in
of
the
consist
location
of
template
be
to
sooner
working
loose
The
the
from
foundation
of the
of
bed
the
plate
applied cylinder
by
the
on
solid
bed
plate and
engine
floor
the
of
in
other
to
transmitted
vibration
in.
the
felt, or
placed
should
not
be
used
absorb
has
been
below
water
used
be
the
air
swell.
with
good
147
transmission
the
or
used
and
vibration
Cork,
owing
bed
results.
of
the
material,
deadening
as
layer
be
may
foundation
the
such
of
reduce
to
between
as
insulating
some
foundation
and
of the
independent
foundation.
the
floor
absolutely
substance
may
the
to
next
tions
condi-
no
furthermore,
necessary
placed
be
cork
of
large
job, and
the
of
bearing
to
Under
the
the
absorbed
building, except
becomes
soil.
surrounding
thick
the
of
good
given
effect
not
to
as
be
governing,
prevent
layer
thick, should
felt,horsehair
to
of
it
get
directly
be
concussion
still further,
to
order
When
considered
necessary.
should
engine
of line.
out
forces
soil
give
to
it should
It should
temporary
parts
the
by
ground.
of the
for
building
the
foundation,
vibrations
bottom
bolts
the
inertia, the
quality of the
except
room,
be
may
engine be fastened
an
from
getting
crank-pin
or
of foundation
depth
should
and
its
by
frame.
the
ground,
the
extent,
and
also
is bound
or
frame, in that
or
absorb,
to
settling
engine
suddenly
or
dimensioned
locating these
engine
foundation
mass
engine
bolts, and
for
an
later, from
or
sufficient
of
made
the
by
the
by
accurately
foundation
foundation
good
trouble,
the
built
furnished
of
the
always
foundation.
Without
part
drawings
drawings
plates showing
almost
are
from
contractor
or
FOUNDATIONS.
to
or
10
in.
however,
ency
its tend-
dry sand
as
148
If it becomes
floor where
crib
of
support
should
foundation
of
engine
an
ground
the
on
timbers
heavy
install
to
necessary
bearing
ENGINES
COMBUSTION
INTERNAL
the
below
upper
floor
to
will
foundation
This
concrete.
an
obtained,
be
cannot
built
be
on
engine foundation
An
in
cement,
one
and
four
2-in.
ring. The
than
parts broken
is
layer
next
floor
brick.
be
mentioned
mortar,
foundation
may
should
have
be laid up
the
any
tendency
of about
stone
foundation
The
weight
as
of
extent
cases
that
were
condition
the
of
be
in
and
formula
or
outline.
in
Fig. 56.
nected
direct-con-
to
to
be
brick
dynamo,
take
soil
is seldom
subject
are
unbalanced
bed
plate
would
be
surrounding conditions
the
as
prevent
same
engine is
designed
sure
should
general, the
the
so
should
to
as
so
design is shown
engines
their
from
frame
any
foundations
cap
in the
bearings.
differently designed
weight of their
3 in. to
This
engine foundation
an
degrees of shock,
or
above-
cement
engine directlyconnected
outboard
and
concrete
to
up
foundation
foundation
case,
should
foundation
dynamo
in
of standard
unit,that is,an
the
Stone
on.
the
brick
granite, or
or
and
be hard-
brick, in the
or
be
cement
should
of concrete
the
should
to
engine.
follow,
frequently is the
If, as
then
should
foundation
concrete
before
laid in
more
good foundation,
slide.
to
batter
put
mortar,
have
the
not
of brick
of brickbats
built up
be
may
stones
given
layers of
brick used
being taken
be
be
through
pass
part Portland
one
very
of limestone
cap
in cement
that
receive
to
way,
of
The
made
care
then
1 ft. in thickness
composed
line,may
ordinary
to
made
Foundations
mortar
foundation
burned
the
in.
to two
should
put
laid in cement
enough
be laid in
should
concrete
in., each
small
stone
laid
two
cement,
mixture
the
If of concrete,
stone.
or
of concrete, brick
made
be
may
may
varying, it would
to
different
forces, and
vary
applicable
the
computed,
same.
be
to
to
the
such
an
but
few
With
the
impossible
to
FOUNDATIONS
ENGINE
derive
with
universal
even
formula
that
reasonable
building foundation
found
this rock
the
building.
amply
heavy;
foundation
be
cases
that
of concrete.
not
of foundation
engine, in
no
bolts
the
engine
to
foundation
Foundation.
line
its
and
give the
weight will in
equal
is about
used
to
varies
with
four
and
case
eight. The
than
more
found
the
most
ft. of brick
cu.
the
1 cu.
ft.
number
of the
1.25
cases
When
of
make
to
and
is used
in all
rock, it is often
on
frost
the
base
If brick
rest
Engine
below
broad
good
ample.
to remember
The
well
go
Standard
used
vibration
good practice
56.
be
accuracy.
both
carries the
It is
Fig.
could
degree of
engine and
that
149
approximate
the
size
usually
number
may
be
by the formula
P
N-
Where
nearest
The
size of the
1.5
to
advisable
in.
engine frame
to
1.75
or
the
of their
should
absorb
used
bolts
foundation,
together
of
the
engine always
use
the
of bolts.
to make
good chance
of the
horsepower
number
even
engines
is the
(31)
the
in. for
being twisted
to
that
from
than
shocks.
and
combined
For
0.75
off in
all intents
their
0.75
in.
for
large machines.
bolts smaller
be,
so
varies
this
small
It is not
in.,as there is
tightening. The
purposes,
inertia
reason
the
may
part
act
founda-
150
INTERNAL
tion
bolts
COMBUSTION
should
be
in
ample
ENGINES
of sufficient
size and
number
to
In
laying
firm
good
to
out
ground,
carefully;in
to
If it is found
should
bed, locate
that
template
the
foundation
in
such
point.
in the
will
the
when
assume
from
suspended
pipe slipped
the
be
may
in the
large enough
to
the
The
pipe is supported
and
its upper
engine.
anchor,
of
top
be
the
around
brick
receive
the
the
bed
done
be
mortar.
with
has
engine
plate is
Y
been
they
bolts, before
being
pipe should
the
be
is
now
either
which
This
is to
leveling
After
accurate.
filled with
cement
2-in. standard
the
the
may
surface
be
must
use
by
pipes should
to
end
foundation
be
setting
just below
perfectly level.
piece of iron
come
When
level and
set the
excavation
its lower
at
that
sure
place
of the bolt in
The
pipes.
concrete, is laid, be
or
should
these
good
position which
This
should
foundation.
finished
built up
end
foundation
the
have
slightmovement
concrete
engine, and
The
set.
template, should
allow
The
secured
over
over
30-in.
on
template,
engine is
localities.
the
Having
position
bolts
bolt
piles and
off
necessary
driven
level.
bolt
that
the
be
some
be
ground-water
from
in
piles may
necessary,
up
it may
except
be filled in between
started
ground is marshy
off at
cut
then
proper
be
Dig down
follows:
as
and
pan,
this is unusual
to
and
centers
proceed
hard
or
the
case
piling,but
use
the
foundation
gas
pipe.
Foundations
for
be
as
least
at
used
dry
It
sooner,
in
not
This
described.
prevent
built
unless
circumstances
to
a
make
case
secure
assumed
foundation
the
as
be
being
which
possible to
as
insulate
to
month,
should
is such
after
is done
good
that
with
only
when
it desirable
nuisance.
the
should
allowed
demand
to
set
them
should
concrete
be
to
made
mixture.
it is
common
shock
that
be
the
practice
absorbent,
location
every
as
of the
to
above
engine
precaution be used
152
INTERNAL
Let
DB
Dc
ENGINES
the diameter
of the shaft
the diameter
of the
"
Pm
For
COMBUSTION
the maximum
cylinderin
in.
cylinderpressure.
in in.
practice is
average
to
make
D,
For
malleable
values
These
keeping with
For
be
found
VPm
"
0.06
Dc
VK
to
produce
(32b)
practice when
1.5
(32a)
"
iron,
results
the
gives the
closely
stroke
is
equal
following formulas
than
"
stroke
the
to
in
to
for
cylinder
1.
wrought iron,
D,
Da
VPJL.Dc2
0.056
(33a)
....
steel,
For
he
remarks,
the
larger than
this is
the
Roberts
where
is other
bore
As
W.
shafts
crank
Ds
average
E.
Dc.
1.5
wrought
or
will
De
0.05
(33b)
....
the
will be
formulas
will be
found
For
found
marine
automobile
engines
larger than
much
be
to
and
give results
to
stationary engines
for
practice,but
average
good fault.
values
VPJL.Dc2
0.052
average
practice requires.
length
The
determined,
formula
of
once
the
the
crank-shaft
bearing
diameter
is known,
which
Dc
T)2
Uc
much
by the
I
following
rP
use
2.5 Da.
(34)
K
'
Ds
cylinder diameter,
Ds
as
above.
Shaft
diameter,
Mean
effective pressure.
practice,however,
made
the
1018
In
from
readily
In
is
necessary
longer
as
determined.
the crank-shaft
than
of this formula.
the
value
A
which
good rule
bearings
would
to
follow
are
be
usually
obtained
is to make
THE
CRANK
The
the
SHAFT
crank-pin diameter
diameter
of the
be determined
is
crank
from
the
usually made
shaft, and
153
PARTS
RECIPROCATING
AND
its
1.1
from
length would
then
followingformula:
DC2P
lp
Dp
I
Z)p
the
of the crank
and
Dc
crank
The
diameter
should
arms
illustrates
57
given in
are
be found
to
sufficiently
large
be
forces
which
to
relative
The
57.
Fig.
arms
formula.
they
slow-speed engine.
pin.
pin.
in the above
as
suddenly applied
Fig.
(35)
"
"
508
In which
Crank
Oil
with
the ends
shafts
crank-pin brasses
of the
be
finished,as
crank
the
at
b.
the
as
crank
will
This
as
for
allows
^V
indicated
the
automobile
to
finish for
m-
at
In
a.
~fa in.
facing both
or
larger
A
like
brasses
surfaces
of
throws.
balance
crank
the
diameter, and
leave
to
shown, without
Single-throw cranks
with
of
Ring.
increased
finish is allowed
to
is customary
It
stationary
produce values
engines.
subjected.
for
of the crank-shaft
terms
withstand
to
are
dimensions
1.3
to
high-speed engines
weights in order
and
arms
rotative.
for
It
that
to
neutralize
are
provided
the
weight of
is customary
to
to be
assume
centered
two-thirds
in the
of the
crank
pin
154
INTERNAL
and
hence
balance
the
for the
throw
and
in this
tight
cause
in the
groove
retains
the
end
no
rivet
screw
balance
weights
the
crank
may
be
force
When
their
introduces
increased
greater
place, as
in
Fig. 58,
engines
the
on
their
distance
of
amount
when
good job
rivet
the
and
cap
carry
the
side
in this latter
to
and
run
babbitted
are
shown,
Some
flywheel and
located
in
arms
manner.
smaller, owing
but
rotation,
the
on
pin.
much
same
crank
indicated
joint is machined
the
in the
weights
as
arm,
in
When
by babbitting
engine is
the
as
the
are
pin.
the
crank
secures
screw
When
used
are
and
cap
either crank
on
weights and
The
When
location
securely fastened
be
rapidly
very
weight and
and
is secured.
fit.
of trouble.
babbitt
the
one
opposite to
the
ing
comput-
usual
by machining both
perfect and
place them
to
they should
manner
pins, and
joint or
to
weights is
The
necessary.
on
place with
to the
weights
balance
located
the
added
be
to
ENGINES
COMBUSTION
opposite
position they
increased
radius
of
from
center
of
the
wear
the
on
engine
bearings.
In
balancing
is the
be
single-throw crank
weight, considered
balanced
the
by
two-thirds
rotative.
to
" Wr+Wp
the
connecting
weight
to
be
first
thing
in the
As
mine
deter-
to
crank
pin, to
previously
is
rod
balanced
tioned,
men-
considered
would
be
as
equal
x.
which
In
Wr
Wp
Then
the
centered
weight.
counter
of
the
The
value
rather
values
of
x,
Wr
the
remainder
in the
and
crank
Wv
are
of the crank
the
moment
equation.
of Wr
tric
concen-
arms
arms
considered
pin.
easily determined, but
accurately computed,
complicated
determine
and
bolts,etc.
would
Hence
and
WP
the
possibly require
it is
and
customary
then
to
to
balance
THE
CRANK
them
with
SHAFT
weight
10
per
Wp)
in
cent
155
PARTS
RECIPROCATING
AND
calculated
of the
excess
value.
Then
balance
moment
of
from
center
of the
center
necessary
of
(Wr
1.1
weights
of shaft to center
pin).
Now
the
taking the
crank-shaft
balance
distance
center
to
and
rod
the crank
be
would
1.1
lu the
gravity from
of
weight
to
necessary
be
(Wr+Wp)l
(36)
h
Half
of this
gravity lt distant
balance.
To
and
"cut
the
from
Fig.
Lay
58.
weight with
shaft
would
value
of
the
determine
try."
in
shown
in each
amount
the crank
out
Then
cut
Machine
nearly produce
lt
and
a
centers
it is
customary
balance
weights,
of
a
to
as
template of cardboard
ffr/sjornf
babbit
or
out
their
en
aotteet
indicated
/mea
Fig.
the
58.
exact
Crank.
Balanced
drawn;
as
the
determine
shaft
when
the
in order
to
of
to
make
template
lu
make
them
should
of
distance
center
of
the
in
center
the
of this
find the
determined,
as
the two
thicker
be
of balance
amount
is to be
the
point from
placed in
is found
to
each
be
so
necessary,
weight.
small
If
that,
laid out
and
larger value
for
lx deter-
156
INTERNAL
Crank
which
from
mined,
COMBUSTION
with
shafts
smaller
and
balance
to
value
than
more
ENGINES
throw
one
each
the crank
of the
found.
balanced,
not
are
balance
arms
will be
for
other; neither
cheaper industrial
engines.
The
expensive engines
more
ground in order
then
The
and
shaft
insure
to
to
cut
should
they
the
carry
smooth
and
be
finished
made
are
the
to
lubricant.
Fig.
turned
and
bearing.
connecting-rod bushings
their shafts
have
of
some
size,
proper
59 illustrates such
bushing
^j_
"t
Fig.
with
are
oil grooves
the
in
cut
preferring
use
metal,
of
the
best
very
as
to
crank-case
means
must
the
crank
be
case
engines
provided
bushing;
the
rod
revolution, enough
through
the
slot to
is
best
being phosphor-bronz
between
is
made
of
the
two,
with
bronze
of
the
crank
splash lubrication
when
This
of the
rod
pin
is often
cap
and
the
and
works
into
in
plished
accom-
through
in
is used,
oil contained
conducting the
picked
keep
while
metal,
Rings.
in the end
end
facturers
manu-
to
for
some
pin bushing.
the
to
by millinga slot
the
the
good lubrication
secure
closed
bearings
order
of
one
There
manner.
market;
little choice
Oil
In
the
on
"
is very
babbitt
customary
grade of babbitt
bearing bronze
There
One
the
good
Bronze.
Bearing
many
others
59.
the
its
pin
THE
CRANK
better
outside
of the
RECIPROCATING
and
however,
is to
use,
crank
duct, shown
The
AND
method,
general
more
oil
SHAFT
arm
it out
the
duct
the
to
aluminum,
it should
The
oil
securely screwed
made
be
the
the
a
crank
shaft
the
oil
no
general proposition it
through
acts
as
of
and
arm,
produce
perfect
oil cup
an
ring is required.
Rod.
imparted
energy
carries
rule, made
engine transmits
gas
to
certain
oil and
provided with
are
Connecting
connecting rod of
to
it is forced
as
An
the
which
the
A.
at
oil up
up
The
the
ring is,
The
Fig. 57
into
on
to
picks
ring from
of the
pin.
in
in the
centrifugal force
the
coming
is
ring located
lines,leads from
point and
oil
an
shown
as
in dotted
which
one
provide
157
PARTS
the
to
strut, the
directlyto
piston.
As
at
component
is at
when
the
Connecting
rods
its maximum
working
stroke.
different
shapes, the
crank
is
made
are
popular design
most
in
right angles
at
end
from
the crank
this
design does
the
point
toward
not
the
to
the
produce
"wrist
rod
tapering
While
pin" bearing.
with
point, due
strain,which
of greatest transverse
its greatest
pin and
crank
several
stationary
for
in the
midway
at
to
of its
length from
the
very
satisfactory
approximately 0.6
to
found
produce
piston end, it is
results.
Fig.
place. This
and
screw
60
rod
for
such
illustrates
is
of
taking
adjustable
feature
bearing, but
some
is
the
up
rod
"strap"
the
often
method
with
the
at
both
omitted
at
the
taking
up
the
the
adjustable feature
brass
placed
between
consists
the
rod
of metal
and
the
end
pattern, with
bearings
of
rod
wedge
ends.
"wrist
The
pin"
should
wear
the
cheaper
is
essential,
liners of
cap,
in
which
light-gage
latter is
158
INTERNAL
held
in
COMBUSTION
place by studs
bearing becomes
liners taken
and
the
as
"I"
and
web
section
rod
and
and
lock
automobile
is made
of
in
and
rod
As
nuts.
is removed
cap
Fig. 61 illustrates
out.
on
castellated
the
worn,
ENGINES
the
pair of
in
commonly
use
It is known
type.
drop-forged steel,the
the
dies.
The
cap
and
illustrated
the
~w
Figs.
liners
dimensions
general
given
are
the
in
shown
are
in
and
60
In
both
on
good
place.
based
"
of
terms
Connecting
61.
Rods.
rods
practice
average
crank-pin diameter.
the
Kent
gives
rectangular section
for
"
necting
con-
rods:
t
In
which
Thickness
Diameter
Maximum
Having
at
pin end
varies
centers
1
is
based
end
equal
on
consequence,
to
the
between
the
VP
0.6
(37)
pressure
the
is made
1.5 t.
oi rod in in.
of
determined
the crank
wrist
0.01
value
equal
The
for
to
length
the
surplus metal
at
is found
and
the
depth of
the
of
2
length of stroke.
t, the
2.25
ratios
required section
cylinder.
and
The
the
at
above
surge
the
3:1,
in which
formula
is
point and, in
crank
end.
160
shown
are
fit
in
is
given the
should
fit in
to
loose.
bushing,
tightly
as
as
its
have
its size.
on
without
be
may
The
it should
in.,depending
to 0.003
piston
tight
as
working
its
the rod
as
made
be
the
0.001
the
should
prevent
same
fit of from
running
ENGINES
screw
beside
is shown
pin
diameter
It
This
place.
possible in order
as
wrist
COMBUSTION
INTERNAL
outer
the
from
is very
diameter
of
toward
the
head
from
apparent
subjected
the
to
piston should
the
end.
crank
the
and
end
this
and
is liable to stick
should
taper
good
average
0.998
Dc
increase
is to
rule
crank
the
and
Piston
expands much
of metal,
amount
63.
end
rapidly than
the
cut
with
the
the
equal
pistons
best
rings,although
or
even
1.5
of the
are
rings should
ring
ring and
piston.
its dimensions
The
oil
an
the
The
also
terms
stroke
ones
the
with
are
crank
to
length
with
provides
of the
of the best
four
made
end
given in
be made
at
equal
The
Dc.
the
center.
cheaper
of the
some
diameter
usually provided
rings. The
two
capacity of
end
are
piston diameter.
0.999
to
the crank
cylinder. Obviously
head
the
of
"oceOc
Ring.
more
make
end, being
head
the
OC("
Fig.
for this
reason
and
greatest heat
The
that
fact
taper slightly
eccentric
with
three
in the
serves
Fig.
63
and
cylinder diameter.
grade of gray
cast
iron
THE
CRANK
and
SHAFT
in
cast
generally
AND
so-called
made
inside
rings
in
turned
electric
an
they
have
the
the
to
used
with
rings ground,
The
rings
to the
machine
their
a
positions and
fixed
pin is placed
dowel
pin hole
the
fitted
their
to
enough
for
This
the
obtaining
been
as
same
the
discussed
in
the
chapter
on
just small
by
the
the
to
gases
in
with
then
are
with
cast
are
piston
lead
rings
them
in
or
as
shown
piston
type
The
B
cylinders.
suitable
of
top
of
means
four-cycle engines.
exhaust-port
rings in
binding.
Fig. 64, A,
of
the
correspond
The
without
accomplished
in
to
making
dimensions
general
The
maintain
groove
incoming
see
engines
best
two-cycle engines
be
may
To
grooves,
by casting the
manner
remain
in
use
The
or
Head.
shown.
as
expand
the
B.
and
deflecting the
for
cylinder.
on
respective
their
piston
in the
ring slot
contract
to
Pistons
means
in the
with
cylinder bore,
Piston
cylinder.
into the
compressed
the
be chucked
then
may
finish.
Two-Cycle
when
more
or
outside, and
the
on
exact
this insures
as
eight
out
eccentricity,after which
ground
the
turn
is
"piston pot"
required
proper
and
161
PARTS
pot."
to
size
slotted.
chuck
be
may
the
to
off and
cut
are
"piston
large enough
rings; it is finished
the
RECIPROCATING
web
Fig. 64,
and
rings
method
has
cast
factory
satis-
more
at
the
of
already
CHAPTER
XX.
GOVERNING
There
of
speed
the
methods
principal
four
are
DEVICES.
internal-combustion
an
(2) By
charge;
off the
cutting
the
keeping
exhaust
(4) By
strokes;
valve
closed
the
interrupting
hit
as
or
open
(1) By
throttling
one
or
miss;
or
during
more
(3)
one
By
more
or
if electrical
spark
the
governing
during
supply
known
for
viz.
engine,
cycles, commonly
complete
used
ignition
is used.
Greatest
obtained
the
by
in
driving
the
the
throttled
of gas
being
the
narrow,
total
volume.
in
air
has
Clerk,
A
volume
that
govern
The
limits
of
of
of
gas
governors
between
mixture
loses
and
acting
these
itself
Engine,"
for
the
limits
may
gas
of
explosive
throttling
able
allow-
mixtures
to
are
-jV of
of
no
unburned,
its
is
Fig. 65,
change
it and
away
the
coal
more;
there
combustion."
"
226.
page
inflammability
on
of
burn
less
containing
gas
See
\ of its volume
pass
as
charge
the
of
from
to
present
Oil
its
will
gas
oxygen
air
ranging
slight
the
explosive
gaseous
containing
of
and
limits
formed
per-
combination
for
reason
work
be
properties
the
oxygen
of
off.
cut
"The
mixture
Gas
then
The
present
gas
increase
mixture
and
show
just sufficient
"The
which
governor.
air will
insufficient
being
in
used
the
undoubtedly
must
uneconomical.
variation
is
economy
nature
machinery.
been
proportions
further
any
and
the
very
gas
has
it is
the
to
speed
electrical
electric-light
mixtures
in
the
poorest
but
charge,
owing
certain
to
up
Otto
method
of
methods
two
the
when,
engine,
but
operation
the
throttling
by
satisfactory
most
of
regularity
than
altogether.
supply
should
-fa
of
its
It follows
be
set
to
only.
be
throttled
162
without
altering
the
GOVERNING
ratio
of
mixture
greater
mixture.
the
at
This
Keeping
fuel and
the
less
before
cut
or
off for
valve
valve
one
economical
closed
miss"
or
wasteful
course
in use,
the
as
greater
of
range
Light
or
five per
cent
as
is
entirely
the
course
most
Governor.
charge is
force
or
varied
never
at
none
all.
governing admits
miss"
to
governor
up.
supply
properly adjusted
or
the fuel
explosion of full
an
ing
Keep-
of unburned
again be taken
Electric
Otto
of
completely exhausted
complete cycles is of
The
65.
can
four
of
mixture
be
must
within
is of
type in which
more
method
is either
quality of
same
force
produces
is
with
the
open
cylinder which
Fig.
there
cycle of operations
"hit
inferior
an
in the
the
The
maintains
the
of
of
explosion and
uniformly explosivecharge.
reduces
exhaust
the exhaust
products
less amount
or
method
time
same
producing instead
air, thus
to
gas
163
DEVICES
against two
is
obtain
per
and
It
of
possible
regulation
cent
with
the
throttlinggovernor.
The
devices
mechanisms
are
of two
used
to
control
the
different
(1) The
governing
centrifugal
164
which
governor,
of
modification
of
one
these
inclined
with
of these
tendency
connected,
are
fastened
which
bell crank
in
and
arrows
resisted by
will be
until
below
the
so
s, the
the
the
of which
the
and
device
returns
is of
is
shaft
by
to
is
the
is
adjusted by
limit
collar d
push rod /
Valve
movement
be
may
h throws
This
This
certain
shown.
As
indicated
as
tension
stem.
Collar
d.
move.
collar d.
as
and
lift the
speed decreases
valve
and
free to
speed reaches
stem
the
their
as
fly balls
two
separate
valve
closed
collar d,
and
the
collars
to
plane
same
dulum
pen-
of
fastened, is
doing
spring
raised
the
from
h is
When
collar i.
while
e,
balls
the
revolved
shown,
as
shaft
to
and
At
less
or
being taken
in the
revolve
centrifugalgovernor.
more
revolving
essentially a
Figs. 66, A
points of support.
of the
to
arms
governing device.
advantage
arms,
governor
governing.
methods,
two
is
inertia
miss"
or
every
centrifugal governor
tioned
of the above-men-
one
(2) The
"hit
to
for any
governing;
of
applicable only
is
which
be used
may
methods
ENGINES
COMBUSTION
INTERNAL
then
away
remains
its
to
the "hit
place
miss"
or
variety.
To
speed
known
determine
their
"
"
the
weight and
have,
we
lift of the
for
governor
the resistance
of the
simple pendulum,
weight
for
given
any
spring
being
the ratio
_w_ _qr
__
centrifugal force
balls
wv2
v2
9r
or
Substituting
for
8?
its value
9.788-
2 nrn,
"
"
35.237
or
"
-JfT
in.
"
/00.
(88)
GOVERNING
165
DEVICES
I?
166
ENGINES
COMBUSTION
INTERNAL
In which
h
distance
from
plane of
line of balls
center
the
to
radius
32.2.
velocity of
center
number
of
rev.
per
number
of
rev.
per
N
The
does
of circle described
with
revolve
the
at
the
is loaded
For
the
loaded
force, due
value
the
weight
balls
Let
length
of
center
lx
point of suspension
v)
load
weight
in
balls to
of
its
the
h=W[1
the
ratio
being
of half the
and
"
point of suspension
half
point of suspension of
let the
the
to
length of the
arm
the
to
value
from
of the
its
ball;
spring
plane of revolution
from
of
y; then
2$j)]
spring
sidered
con-
point of attachment
height
but
combined
the
to
length of the
ws=
ugal
centrif-
of the
spring load
the
ball, and
the
ball;
pounds; h=
the
the
be
to
one
from
the
balls, unchanged,
of
of
defect
weight.
or
equal
center
y
the
value
the
arm
of
this
value
the
becomes
now
gravity of
link
suspending
of
spring
have
we
the
remedy
To
of
and
nrn.
weight
directlybelow
the
is not
means
the
to
min.
arms.
governor
of the
of
weight
by
sec.
sec.
uniform
angle of
governor
the
simple fly-ballgovernor
not
by balls in ft.
"
load
the
to
"
weight of
"
"
ball
one
of
gravity
are
equal
of the
in
ball
being
as
Since
it mustthe
governor
be
engine.
the governor
run
If
is
or
the valves
to
governor
is
designed and
not
hold
other
set
for
this
the
true.
necting
con-
out.
certain
speed
geared down
or
up
as
or
the
lift
The
mechanism
easilylaid
at
must
normal
Unless
-j.
of
diminished,
case
may
be.
168
INTERNAL
effective
Fig.
i, and
space
tling
throt-
mixture.
principleof
The
68.
pivoted
to
ENGINES
the
The
COMBUSTION
the
turn
weight
the
to
by
inertia
crank
in
spring d,
and
the
the
separated when
direction
Governor
but
bell crank
to
tendency
the
Centrifugal
67.
the
The
c.
is illustrated
governor
is connected
push rod
bell
Fig.
resisted
the
and
the
as
of
of
the
the
is
arrow
Throttle.
push
of
and
weight
is
rod
moved
this
engaging parts
speed reaches
in
valve
the
limit.
certain
gear
by
means
are
The
of
following formula:
the
WV,
9
(41)
h
In
which
W
Wa
Weight of
ll
V
the
In
the
of
arm
about
Velocity attained
32.2
above
pendulum
moment
Lever
in lb.
is
ft. per
weight
by push rod
the
neglected.
weight
To
be
onto
b in ft. per
sec.
sec.
formula
of it and
c.
the
rod,
as
of the
accurate
rod
carrying the
the
be used, but
shown,
resultant
ing
by thread-
adjustment
may
be
GOVERNING
secured
used,
are
as
rule,
is
operation
the
above-mentioned
the
to
is
current
is
the
the
In
order
to
mechanism
variations
the
possible
the
in
The
is
the
constantly
oil
soon
stick.
found
be
result
the
e.m.f.
to
time.
and
If
reason
ism
mechan-
the
and
causes
splash
the
dirty
the
parts
t"8.
electrical
is
a
and
is
it
location,
to
governing
it
this
this
engine
in
mechanism,
purpose
shaft,
The
to
to
is unfortunate.
subjected
gums
deemed
separate
the
the
governor
as
the
in
crank
the
For
case
when
of
one
some
or
sensitive
placing
crank
device,
from
to
of
practice
the
without
speed
it.
make
to
off
governing
as
of
switching
type.
be
must
one
runs
well
operate
cost.
the
speed
miss"
or
the
adapting
of
regularity
the
for
engine
governors
devices
Electrical
"hit
of
by
When
off, and
impulse.
an
by
certain
cut
cycles
more
accomplished
governing
attains
engine
to
system
requirements.
where
engines
consideration
is
ignition
Inertia
required.
as
industrial
on
governing
for
out
or
secondary
Electrical
current
it in
moving
by
169
DEVICES
governor
will
be
then
poorly,
and
is
installations
advisable
chamber
Inertia
Governor.
to
and
in
fluctuation
inclose
should
inspected
be
the
used
cleaned
the
governing
for
from
this
time
CHAPTER
XXI.
IGNITION.
There
the
three
are
ignition of the
(1)
By
mechanically
in
either
of
means
heat
by
of
the
effect
(2)
By
cylinder
surface;
(3)
ignite the
to
By
is
charge
alone
compression
of
means
compression
of
securing
for
gas-engine
heated
or
sufficient
means
combined
the
in
spark;
flame
which
employed
charge
electrical
an
operated
auto-ignition,
methods
compressed
of
means
produced
general
by
or
and
residual
heat.
ignition devices
Electrical
be
these
may
spark
system;
subdivided
(2) The
Jump-spark
causing
metallic
two
of
space
the
operated
and
jump
generally
latter
the
known
as
having
name
is
a
charge
which
ignited
the
engine
confusing
to
very
its
so
is
origin from
that
the
to
running.
inasmuch
as
by
This
spark
the
fact
that
be
at
closed
spark
device
advancer,
that
point
the
to
the
by
at
is
the
mutator
com-
means
which
the
speed
be
may
regulation
or
being
cause
operator,
statement
speed
advancing
170
will
to
be
must
shaft
or
the
proper
contact
circuit
correspond
the
the
at
cam
value
engine
change
it may
compression
make-and-break
commutator
that
large extent,
or
in
between
contact
cycle the
This
gap.
the
spark
crank
in
igniting the
circuit, this
sufficient
lever, is able
is
the
operating
arranged
so
suitable
of
generated
across
the
electrical
the
produced
make-and-break
the
means
every
e.m.f.
an
to
of
by
point in
some
in
somewhere
placed
so
cylinder
thus
produce
jump-
consists
spark
to
in
placed
spark
To
implies,
high potential
of
The
(1)
and
system.
name
conveniently
charge.
in
the
as
cylinder, the
the
classes:
two
make-and-break
current
points
compressed
instant
into
ignition,
induced
an
extensively used,
most
are
at
what
some-
is obtained,
retarding
the
time
171
IGNITION
of
ignition. Nevertheless
correspond
at
starting the
beyond
the
speed
which
at
dead
and
center
explosions
to
the
attains
sufficient
ignition up
their maximum
The
speed
dead
to
to
at
point slightly
stroke.
and
As
soon
into the
into the
center
stop
pound
or
before
compression
the
If the
compression
badly
itself from
as
spark is
gather speed.
to
must
running.
regularly the
carry
center
the
burning
until
it
point of
reach
gases
pressure.
make-and-break
in the
This
to close and
space
be
may
ignition consists
points or
two
means,
compression
electrical circuit.
of electrical
system
causing, by mechanical
located
set
center
dead
over
cycle
smooth
secure
occur
past dead
the
engine is operating,
in the expansion
commence
to
stroke, thus
in
the
gradually advanced
in
point
particularinstant, in order
any
In
the
to
the
electrodes
then
the
open
points to
rub
together and
known
the
and
as
causing them
called
contact
the
to
then
separate by
"hammer
or
of
means
break."
intenselyhot spark
an
When
is
arc
is
times
spring, some-
the
points break
produced, due
the
to
producing, momentarily,
very
high potential.
spark and
of
enough
contact.
much
ignite the
to
On
wear,
the
for the
hand,
other
manufacturers
on
the
are
these
substitutes.
points
the
the
wipe
being
jump
most
almost
other
If
subject
are
spark, and
platinum
alloy is
alloys,which
well.
as
"Casalloy"
"
or
meteor-
by their
been
wire"
the
Within
it is claimed
satisfaction,have
to
quently
conse-
give better
market.
ignition,it
quite rapidly.
points they
years
the
necessity of replacingthem
the past few
than
in
especiallywith
deteriorate
hotter
electrical
certain
is much
reasonably slow
on
satisfactory form
used
spark
make-and-break
The
is
placed
one
of
172
INTERNAL
points of
The
and
care
be
renewal
in
too
high the
very
short
resistance,as
terminals
In order
cells may
With
be carried
should
the
potentialat
of
cells of
with
the
high internal
sufficiently
large number
emergencies and
for all
or
less than
that
long
time.
be much
to last
hand,
other
should
resistance.
the
on
proper
low, unsatisfactory
is too
pressure
with
ignition may,
strength, be made
of proper
electric
the
ENGINES
make-and-break
current
If
time.
COMBUSTION
of
ary
prim-
allow
to
for
nil
-cna
69.
Fig.
The
Non-inductive
depletion,the destructive
by placing
into
introduction
inductive
a
in
potential without
fall in
end
closed
the
on
substance, and
indicated
wire
is thus
in
action
used
The
neutralized
by
other.
the
suitable
If the condenser
all
meet
or
attention
box
resistance
method
requirements
will
be
is used
is
wire
about
an
exactly
with
that
able
non-magnetizthe
bobbin
action
similar
and
in
must
further
be
as
one
equal
if this method
condenser
no
coil.
wire, placing
varying resistances
conditions
and
causes
sparking
electromagnetic
provided,
necessary.
other
or
apparent
itself to varying
accommodate
to
is
It
the
non-
unbalanced
any
by doubling
the
winding
circuit in series
affect
of wood
bobbin
69.
A, Fig.
at
would
by
or
resistance.
methods.
two
the
coil is made
resistance
points
the
producing
which
electromagnetic action
Such
into
thrown
be reduced
non-inductive
clearly these
resistance
Condenser.
the
points may
parallel with
circuit of
the
illustrates
69
Fig.
at the
action
condenser
and
Resistance
is
to
provided.
large enough
adjustment
178
IGNITION
The
ordinary
tin foil
with
the
alternate
for
current
in B,
shown
as
commercial
the
condenser
sheets
connected
potential secondary
in
For
the
current
small
from
by
of
current
momentarily
primary
coil.
ignition system
primary-secondary jump-spark
secondary
The
inducing high
dynamo
induction
an
of
means
of
another
one
terminals.
to
ignition is obtained
cells,storage batteries, or
of sheets
consists
Ground'
70.
Fig.
is
induction
of this coil
construction
Tl and
T2
platinum
point
being grounded by
circuit with
the
vibrator
circuit
at
arrests
the
applied to
p;
when
the
of
soft
F
the
contact
one
points
iron
opens
minimizes
screw
terminal
in contact;
are
and
condenser, which
and
closingthe primary
commutator
the
current
coil of which
of
shaft
which
the
shows
single cylinder.
commutator,
own
so-called
the
Fig. 70
battery; C the
the
of its
Single Cylinder.
of
means
vibrator.
or
as
means
point p;
primary
by
battery terminals
the
are
ground terminal;
is the
with
coil
for
Connections
Ruhmkorff
and
Coil
Ruhmkorff
The
the
closes
the
momentarily
break
spark
174
at
INTERNAL
(the condenser
ENGINES
COMBUSTION
is not
and
essential
made
and
coil of
coil of
heavily insulated
terminal
of which
terminal
being connected
end
of
the
annealed
Fig.
for
71
shows,
By
is made
71.
of
four
of
to
one
opposite
of very
core
soft
Bt.
By
and
all
the
in
using
turn,
the
to
is wired
the
the
single coil
ground
same
to
primary
units
for
which
two
the
tion.
connec-
current
1, 2, 3, and
4,
which
it is connected.
of
sets
batteries,
either set
primary circuit,so
insufficient
an
the
three-point switch
into
produce
Cylinders.
high-potential current
cylinder
thrown
ignition. The
with
commutator
of the
means
is found
wiring connections
for Four
coils identical
shown
as
be
that
if
set
be used.
coil is
very
makes
are
of coils
reasonable
case,
to
important
jump-spark
operation of
in any
secondary
the
to
jump-spark
unit
charge in the
of coils may
very
iron
the
alternatelythrough
pass
system
The
Connections
Wiring
means
to
fires the
may
diagrammatically, the
producing in each,
one
primary
the
previously described
and
the
are
wire.
coil consists
the
spark plug,
/ the
wire;
secondary coil,and
Fig.
The
fine
it); G
coils
many
marketed,
in cost, but
purchase
element
in
the
ignition system.
many
of which
it is doubtful
coil and
are
successful
Numerous
apparently
if it is advisable,
consider
its low
cost
as
176
INTERNAL
push rod
B.
collar
washer
when
spring
the
this
On
adjustment
points
up
is broken.
the
motion
in
contact.
are
p,
against the
impinges
circuit
stop and
the
located
is
push rod
which
takes
and
the
ENGINES
COMBUSTION
flat compensating
The
push rod
of the
fiber
after
spring F, acting
Coil
,6V
Fig.
G,
lever
on
apart
plug H,
point of
those
sparking device
in
In
brass.
and
brass
the
the
plug
marked
are
grounded
on
the
battery connected
that
to
the
time
cap
in series.
of
the
the
as
are
The
plug
free
and
H
be
as
the
entire
plate
being
of
the
coil is
free terminal
shown.
or
on
The
battery
terminal
varied
equally
wiring connections
and
the
structed
con-
insulation.
coil J
The
be
must
pu
shown
The
screws.
ignition may
push rod.
cylinder head
engine frame
to
leaves
insulating material
other
held
up
battery terminal
and
connected
place with
Igniter.
the
cam
porcelain, or
good, and
are
throws
carries the
which
of
as
Hammer-Break
shown,
as
the
as
72.
of the
It is apparent
by causing
retarding the
cam
spark.
177
IGNITION
This
as
may
be
accomplished by making
shown
at
L, Fig. 72.
direction
of X
the
tripping sooner
spark
toward
spark would
Fig. 73
hammer-break
that
in
be
advanced, the
in the
push rod
be
tarded.
re-
water-cooled
the
on
shaft
cam
shaft
igniter, similar
use
the
of the
Y, in which
position the
shows
edge
by moving
may
if the
than
shifted
were
Then
the
to
Rathbun
gas
engines.
Fig. 74
of
shows
type
common
The
point
mounted
oscillating device
breaks
point
This
p.
is
push rod
of
be
spring
trippingpoint
be
alloy, and
of the
means
turn
re-
by
Timing
B.
Fig.
may
73.
Water-Cooled
Igniter.
by changing the
of the
located
electrode
The
spring
shown, the
as
described.
as
cam
nearly
as
possiblein
as
gases
the
being obtained
accomplished
should
and
ment
oscillatingmove-
movement
means
makes
produced by
and
cam
with
contact
the
on
order
to
in
The
path
the
the
secure
the
made
not
this form
reason
of
incoming
for that
ignitionpoints
is
of
platinum
inexpensive and,
if
and
its
insulated
consisting of
Pennington
is
terminal
a
coiled
shown.
spring
As
the
stroke
stirrup-shaped end
shown,
surface
as
out,
indicated
igniter is
in
being tapped
as
the
piston head
Fig.
one
strikes
by the
B.
arrow,
carried
piston
of A,
If
into
the
the
on
nears
which
are
used
of
these
The
75.
plunger C,
as
to the
principle is illustrated
breaking device
the
The
extent.
some
attached
circuit-
shown,
as
cylinder and
end
forked
the
has
plunger C has
end
of its
inclined
an
been
of
pulled
will be
178
INTERNAL
engaged by
required
be
Under
be
being
to
long
merely pulled
in
stirrup and
the
with
it is
another
as
the
the
it snaps
as
which
With
is
the
Igniter.
that
this mechanism
finger B
slipsoff A
apparent
as
break
contact
piston recedes.
the
Wipe-Spark
74.
sparks, one
commutator
the
out
the
on
should
will
into the
stroke
return
occurs
forms
and
mounted
description of
of
mechanism
on
the
cam
shaft
or
since
must
be
in connection
in
operated by
variety
typical form
one
four-cycleengines
For
used
as
it is either
1
spark advancer,
or
jump-spark
different
of
If,
advanced.
the
from
away
spark.
piston.
The
produce
ignition advanced
two
and
is
Fig.
produce
ignition will be
the
occur
to
slipoff of
piston will
of the
slightmovement
it to
cause
plunger C
made
too
only
conditions
these
however,
can
and
to
ENGINES
COMBUSTION
geared
but
as
one
well
half-time
as
to
it with
explosion
the
shaft.
valve
In
179
10N1TI0N
crank
shaft
is either
commutator
mounted
or
on
tion
reduc-
any
in time.
A
other
essentiallyof
piece of fiber, or
another
the
consists
commutator
terminal,
ground, which
cycle
connected
insulated
to
in every
once
in contact
comes
terminal, and
one
with
terminal, thus
the
,J
tarily
momen-
ri^fce;-)
VSTf*
33
?-
m
Fig.
75.
The
Pennington
Igniter.
Fig. 76 shows
cylinder engine.
as
shown
shaft C
cam
on
by
shaft
engages
E.
As
the
shoe
primary coil,and
electromotive
drawing,
for
commutator
is
fiber
may
Shaft
C,
ring
mounted
be rotated
which
two-
may
about
be the
an
mechanism
E
the
of
of the lever D.
means
or
form
for Two-
Cylinder Engine.
common
In
Commutator
Fig. 76.
the
force
producing
to
the
F,
shaft
the
current
be
spark.
circuit is closed
from
the
in the
the
tact
con-
through the
battery
causes
an
ing,
secondary windapparent that by shiftingthe
generated
It is
revolves, and
tact
con-
180
sleeve
retarded
meets
the
shoe
may
be
increasing
the
be
may
F.
bearing
of
77.
in
the
Means
provided by
about
the
Fig.
78
shaft
lever
represents
the
may
C,
cam
form
be
means
Fig.
is secured
of the
79
commutator.
which
mounted
tor
commuta-
the
on
end
of
point being
contact
Two-Cycle
of
Engine.
retarding the
or
the
rod
used
of
to
The
fiber may
be
spark
moved
of
advantage
single-cylinder
on
the
and
the
on
carried
by moving
commutator,
make
mounted
is
spring S which
Timing
cylinders by
of
inexpensive
for
advancing
A, by
four-cycle construction.
of the
one
Commutator
for
the
to
C.
which
means
simple and
flywheel,the ground
Shaft
contact
accordingly.
contacts
wheel.
Crank
commutator.
similar
number
any
ground
the
commutator
advanced
be
ignition may
the
next
spring pin
Fig.
of
the
for
number
ENGINES
point where
made
made
the
two-cycle engines
For
is
shaft
by varying
described
the
the
around
or
COMBUSTION
INTERNAL
in
break
struction,
con-
is secured
shaft, acting
cam
the
cheap
fiber F
fiber around
the
as
by
on
shown.
shaft
by
R.
illustrates
more
complicated
and
expensive
181
IGNITION
Commutators
are
secondary while
possible
While
to
single coil
method
reduces
vibrators
necessary,
is not
good
as
much
in which
the
to
it
making
to
the
unit
of
number
coils and
system
the
is low
mutator
com-
tension
easilyinsulated.
more
with
use
distribute
which
using the
one
current
and
the
as
multiple units
market
use
this
the
on
consist
lava
or
jumpof
insulated
and
another
the
similar
the
to
proximity
in close
point
ground
are
"mr""
for sale.
far
By
point in
the
important
most
spark plug is
that
sure
through
forms
cylinder. Many
offered
nected
con-
there
is
otherwise
make
to
tion,
perfect insula-
under
the
Fig.
high
for
78.
Cam
Shaft
Pour-Cycle
Timer
Engine.
across
less than
at the
with
plug withdrawn
cause
the
of serious
Fig.
80
spark plug of
the insulated
the
across
three
pieces,
brass
parts bear
as
is
be apparent
not
C.
gap
with
shown,
upon
necessarilyhave
the
point
The
which
A
illustration,
between
which
suitable
the
packing, where
breaking.
the several
The
to
is
an
is the
porcelain insulation
it, to prevent
its
make
French
In
expensive plug.
grounded and
must
the
from
resistance
the
this may
While
gap.
where
ignition trouble.
shows
efficient but
jumps
spark
circuit
in the
point
some
spark
is in
the
plug
prevent
joints make
this
author
plugs
has
are
had
made
the
that
give excellent
best
results
with
satisfaction.
the
so-called
182
INTERNAL
Fig.
Commutator
79.
COMBUSTION
with
ENGINES
Hammer
Break
Contacts.
J?
Fig.
80.
The
Pognon
Plug.
Spark
Fig.
81.
Ordinary
Spark
Plug
Construction.
of
184
Of
in
dynamo
the
Company,
device,
and
water
friction clutch
which
dynamo
to
4 to
batteries
surplus
5 volts
Fig. 86 shows
jump-spark
identical
used
the
except
to
up
for
that
For
there
to be
S,
means
of
see
Fig. 89,
it is
the
rev.
for
being
jump-spark
constant
e.m.f. of
min.
Storage
per
these
to
dynamos
sparking stored
for
up
and
for
the
starting.
spark plugs
extra
made.
1200
wiring diagram
ignition.
connections
and
either
made
the
enable
to
as
to
Apple Igniter.
1000
connected
not
energy
The
85.
at from
be
may
of
shoes
the
field magnets
the
ignition,and generate
Fig.
from
in
centrifugal
Fig. 85,
placed
so
are
ignitersare
These
make-and-break
its
as
entirely enclosed
are
in
compact
well
as
provided with
direction,
either
in
run
permanent.
or
brushes
The
steadily.
run
and
neat
facturing
Manu-
the
as
parts
shown
as
Electrical
which,
of
cost
It is
case.
governor,
release
It is
The
it.
proof
dust
Ohio.
first
efficiency,recommends
a
Dayton
commonly
most
one
the
by
Dayton,
reasonable
the
the
ignitersprobably
Apple made
is the
use
ENGINES
COMBUSTION
INTERNAL
See
the
Fig.
current
four-point automatic
possible to read
on
the
87.
and
The
to the
is
mutator
com-
storage
primary,
cut-out
volt-ammeter
switch
the
185
IGNITION
voltage of the
of current
the
storage battery
coil
each
current
shows
90
break
ignition in
which
double
coil is not
shows
the
the
used.
"",
'""
Fig.
Apple igniter in
is illustrated
92
of
the
Bosch
stationary
armature
provided with
to
coil
to the
The
and
current
of
is
which
end
and
the
The
87.
of the
and
-WW-
produced
soft-iron
Fig. 86.
Wiring Diagram for
Jump Spark with Apple Igniter.
A.
armature
and
Wiring
Diagram
also to
primary
one
shaft C and
Shaft
also
which
carries
high-tension distributor
the
primary winding
of the
joy*
an
is
secondary b forms
oppositeend
breaker
sponds
corre-
the
disk
Fig.
One
of
partially surrounds
notched
is
ing.
secondary wind-
by the rotation
the
primary winding
induction
sleeve
type.
corresponds
r~\
windings
two
b, of which
the
Commutator
"H
dynamo
and
""
section.
Fig.
and
the
make-and-
The
amount
sumes.
con-
In
instant, the
any
91
at
for
Four
is
Cylinders.
grounded
continuation
a
is led to
terminal
of
E.
of
one
the
on
the
the
shaft,
primary.
side of contact
condenser, the
186
other
the
opposite
come
poles
of the
windings momentarily
is
interval
Fig.
the
as
sleeve
B.
under
the
snap
open,
primary
sparks;
90.
the
itself, there
on
of
magnetism
When
circuit
a.
winding
by
of
being connected
the
to
its
the
arm
of
the
the
b,
the
condenser
the
the
Cut-Out.
lines,a powerful
the
disk
Make-and-Break
notches
of
the
generates
H.
primary
The
as
through
the
breaker
spring,
and
being
current
by
on
high
rotating
B
the
secondary
and
comes
points
break
e.m.f.
further
described
thus
Ignition.
shown
contact
the
during
winding
is varied
breaker
contact
high-tension current
action
This
armature
Four-Point
low-tension
core
of
to
of
for
one
movable
owing
is
Connections
Wiring
of
action
between
secondary
means
the
by
89.
magnetic
contacts
together
being closed
it
The
generated.
held
are
the
cutting
the
G,
slots
the
when
field magnet
Fig.
breaker
of contact
arm
slotted, and
is
Storage Battery.
Fig. 88.
e.m.f.
moving
the
Sleeve
grounded.
are
and
of which
terminal
ENGINES
COMBUSTION
INTERNAL
in
the
the
increased
winding
connected
187
IGNITION
both
the
E which
91
and
opens
Motsinger
at
runs
governed
A
cut
Company
from
to
700
at
to
maintain
of the
by
closes the
Remy
Bosch
92.
1200
a
coils
rev.
of
means
utilized.
being
the
tor
commuta-
secondary coil.
is shown
Type
per
of
in
Fig.
93.
It
Dynamo.
min.
and
is
automatically
speed.
uniform
Magneto,
Anderson,
shown,
as
Auto-sparker
Fig.
spark plugs
cylinders,the tension
more
secondary
Section
or
accomplished
is
Distribution
and
primary
Fig.
The
in the four
produced
are
to the several
made
Ind., is
shown
by the Remy
in
Fig.
Electric
94.
This
188
INTERNAL
igniter
is
for each
so
designed
revolution
93.
Fig.
in
step
with
from
25
with
this magneto
to
30
rev.
as
to
produce
of its armature,
Fig.
be
ENGINES
COMBUSTION
the
per
The
94.
The
and
electrical
impulses
consequently
must
Jlotsinger Sparker.
Remy
engine.
min.
two
and
by cranking
It
Magneto.
will
it is easy
it in the
deliver
to
start
ordinary
spark
an
way.
at
engine
189
IGNITION
Flame
ignitersare
hot-tube
or
still used
and
engines for general purposes,
results.
Notwithstanding this they are
on
replaced
ignition systems.
the
the
flame
in
burner
gas
extent
give good
uniform
being
very
rapidly
The
hot-tube
igniters is
type
some
electrical
by
simplest of
to
directwhich
outside
the
contact
by
of
means
uncovered,
instant
charge
the
port being
at the
in the
proper
stroke, by
the
piston
movement
by
valve
gear
crank
shaft.
form
or
the
on
cated
compli-
of the
flame
igniter is found
on
Otto
engine.
slide-valve
Barnett's
the
ignition cock,
the
igniter.
In
the
is the
illustration,a
ignitionport
ing
open-
the
explosion
chamber
from
b, the port
opening
in
to
pet cock
which
turned
that
so
opposite
to
port which
is
will be
d,
port
and
e, a
be
may
is open
atmosphere
of which
hollow
c,
to
the
in front
flame,
gas
kept burning; / is
lever connected
to the
crank
by
95.
Barnett's
Ignition Cook.
of
means
shaft
Fig.
and
some
suitable
by which
half-time
port b
may
be
ism
mechanmade
to
190
INTERNAL
alternatelyopen
to
ports
in the hollow
In
pet cock
b and
ports
that
bare
Now
c.
correspond
flame
will be
Fig.
and
that
the
exposed
96.
Hot
quite rapidly,otherwise
turn
lack
owing
to
When
the
and
the flame
explosion occurs
is turned
is
on
until
over
figureit
apparent
of the
cylin-
Igniter.
the flame
a
turned
g is then
the contents
to
Tube
ports
tained
con-
The
pet cock
g will be
b
are
must
extinguished
both
g will be
closed
to b.
extinguished,
on
may
of air when
in the
will ignite.
charge
jet
gas
over
engine
shown
as
shown.
as
if the
is
gas
lights from
and
but
d, and
and
correspond and
der
ENGINES
COMBUSTION
varied
be
by suitable
arrangement
of
the
half-time
device.
The
hot-tube
similar
to
In the
alloy
or
those
use
on
the
Robey
the
chimney
and
is
engines.
96
with
should
be of nickel
lining of asbestos;
192
INTERNAL
pression,is found, in
makes
of
sq.
in.
more
the
above
form, in several
less modified
or
engines. Chief
In this motor
ENGINES
COMBUSTION
compression is carried
atmosphere,
and
well
nearly
it is forced
as
The
in
elsewhere
the
is sufficient to
soon
as
in
reaches
chamber
ignitethe charge, as
into it.
lb. per
temperature
1000
motor.
500
to about
the
combustion
Diesel
is the
these
among
fullydescribed
are
this
as
work,
under
their
respective heads.
modified
form
ignition,and
is not
and
the
engines,
the
principleof
both, ignition
the
the
walls
but
Fig.
97.
these
of which
surrounded
are
Porcelain
Tube.
The
e.
with
the
of
by
vaporize
oil spray
end
b,
oil and
the
opens
of which
oil.
the
stroke
air.
pure
being forced
the
same
air port
the
into
On
exhaust
products
of
the
a,
casing
outer
from
previous
is sufficient to
chamber
on
at
the
a,
the
the
are
in this chamber
mechanism,
operating the
the suction
stroke,
contains
while
the
compression
forced
out
the
vaporized
stroke, the
instant
valve
at
cylinder contains
temperature,
proper
heat
igniterchamber
chamber
rises until
On
The
products of combustion,
almost
compression
an
heat
by forcing
compression, together
residual
insulated
In
In
heat
B, shows
water-jacketed
not
are
two-
chamber
of Inserting
Method
the
small
Weiss
igniters.
obtained
is
"
latter
two
charge, during
cycle, into
in the
being of the
former
pressure
the Mietz
of
type
high, is found
as
Hornsby-Akroid
oil
this
in which
one
carried
of
due
to
ignition
d is
the
pression,
com-
occurs.
opened and
of
air
the
cylinder.
193
IGNITION
These
products will,due
remain
to
quite
large extent
probably produce
exhaust
neck
The
their
to
leading
residual
Fig.
98.
Types
cylinder
quite
of
The
the
does
engines
to be
not
at
have
b and
the
oil
it does
mixture
with
the
B,
at
against the
against the
not
mix
contained
combustion
rapidly
tests
show
the
the
in
by
lip I, and
heated
heated
surface
cylinder from
ignition would
the
a;
with
This
the
while
it
of
drawn
that
engine works
into
the
the crank
not
be
case.
crank
air
It is apparent
applicable
to
as
possibly be
throttled
better
the
as
to
the
tion
excep-
but
it enters
this
is
the
type of
engines depending
so
the
on
case
that
the
a,
products of
result
the
partially compressed
charge might
ation
oper-
lip Z, on
of the
means
intimately with
air is secured.
fuel is not
sprays
sary.
neces-
as
quite satisfactory.
the
through
pass
as
of the
by impinging the
other
end
the
and
Auto-Ignition.
cylinder
valve,
naturally produce
at
inabilityto
products
of the
ignition chamber
pressure
the
to
location
in the
slight back
stroke, due
restricted
to the isolated
on
the
fuel
decrease
the
as
194
INTERNAL
compression
variation
and
COMBUSTION
make
is obtained
There
is
the
varying conditions
gaseous
fuels
speed
with
time
burns
very
in the process.
The
such
at
under
nearly
rapidly;
ical
theoret-
point
in
point
at what
ignitesand
more
is to
determining
vapor
consume
condition
of
occur;
this
Gasoline
case.
every
The
late.
occur
cycle ignitionshould
the
explosion
fixed method
no
ENGINES
in the
Fig.
99.
stroke
compression
just
as
the
5"
increase
should
be
forth.
The
determined
in
about
the
on
point
at
Firing
Orders.
it may
crank
speed; thus
10", at
for Different
300
which
center
into
be said that
circle with
at
rev.
the
200
per
per
min.
engine
100
min.
about
runs
and
expansion
the lead
every
rev.
pressure
the
should
rev.
per
the
lead
15", and
so
best
should
be
then
advancing
no
greater speed
spark until with further advancement
to knock.
obtained
the engine commences
or
the
is
that
engine passes
increased
min.
Cranks
Approximately
stroke.
be
Four-Throw
195
IGNITION
The
firing
varies
to
of
engines
with
extent
with
the
order
some
than
more
manufacturers.
12
cylinder
engine
fired
other
no
left
the
order
be
the
fired
of
cranks,
be
may
A
the
taken
and
shown
orders
firing
only
being
and
In
It
in
impulse
is
Order
use
as
firing
of
For
apart.
firing
order
shown
as
that
be
as
cranks
the
the
B,
at
must
wiring
probably
For
99.
for
connections
practice
best
third
every
be
explosions
the
of
revolution.
The
with
1-3-5-2-4-6,
engine
overlap,
the
cranks
order
of
60"
set
is
firing
345678
12
with
1-5-3-7-2-6-4-8,
crank
number
3
In
calling
in
order
throws
the
engine
eight-cylinder
an
The
any.
given
should
is
order
crank
1-3-4-2,
Fig.
A,
be
apparent
four-cycle
being
the
identical,
are
For
at
must
(C)
or
right.
shown
as
order
six-cylinder
one
and
engine
1234
or
throws
99.
changed.
widely
as
crank
Fig.
C,
at
left
be
must
firing
for
the
from
four-cylinder
correspond.
to
be
can
other
each
1-3-2-4,
made
either
the
(B)
or
being
throws
order
99,
1-2-3-4,
from
it
fact
1234
course,
crank
firing
Fig.
(A)
in
following
1234
may
left.
to
three-
1-2-3,*
cylinders
right
from
or
in
fire
way,
right
to
should
cylinders
two
which
is
located
the
the
one
the
left
particular
number
orders
1.
the
The
cylinder
small
larger
is
fired.
45"
set
behind
45"
behind
firing
to
cranks
located
45"
above
that
is
the
apart;
1, crank
number
5, and
figures
figures
so
is,
ber
num-
forth.
represent
below
that
the
indicate
cylinders,
the
order
CHAPTER
XXII.
ENGINE
There
but
are
b.
of
recording
these
of
absorption
in
used
and
dynamometers
transmission
from
object
is to
the
its
dynamometer
the
the
the
which
from
operator
from
the
of
number
Fig.
100
of
the
or
and
bolts
as
be
necessary.
force
to
the
another,
the
speed
that
end
to
X,
at
of
revolve
which
it
it.
tension
of
mines
deter-
Transmission
self-recording
and
taken
by
obtained
is
the
arm
is
friction
the
part
of
190
to
time,
at
at
while
what
it is apparent
Now
to
absorbed
operator
one
unrestricted
attached
shown
the
as
tightly
as
time
pulley
radius
applied
determines
were
the
is
device
from
by
absorption
is the
delivers
revolving.
B
of
figure, A
tachometer,
arm
the
taken
are
lever
as
transmission
known,
form
E, where
of radius
In
lever
balance
of
means
pulley
if the
continue
point
by
its
point of delivery
pressure
clamping
readings
regular intervals,
mean
which
The
spring
that
constantly
simplest
brake.
to
the
the
the
pulley
shown,
be
as
readings.
Prony
or
drum
may
these
the
"
must
and
represents
dynamometer
kinds
two
dial
in
the
by
case
dynamometer
velocity
delivered
readings
a
its
tion
absorp-
as
differential
net
with
power
of
are
its
at
power
By-
power.
second
absorption
actual
and,
of
amount
known
velocity; while
the
gearing
or
dynamometers
in
and
force
the
dynamometer
delivered
measures
belting
those
the
(1)
are
the
and
running
of
are
in
The
transmission
absorb
record
to
case
used
those
the
transmission
first
dynamometers.
differs
and
the
in
to
different
many
methods
two
(2) By
power;
are
used
The
tests.
the
instruments
The
instruments
of
testing engines
of
there
hp., although
makes
and
designs
general methods
two
their
determine
TESTING.
A
the
it would
and
that
balance
the
E,
ENGINE
would
travel
number
at
describe
of the
circle traveled
2 nR.
Now
lever
being made
in terms
of
resistance
stationary were
weight, then
R.
would
(for one
2 nRW
revolutions
minute
per
would
then
being made
"
the
resistance,
by that
would
We
revolution).
be
hold
to
This
X.
at
circumference
The
just sufficient
applied
revolution
each
At
by the point
over
a
suppose
arm
by A.
circle of radius
the
speed directlyproportional to
some
of revolutions
it would
197
TESTING
then
the
knowing
Now
by pulley A
at the
time
force
that
-^
"
H
T^
Fig.
the
be
in
exerted
2 nRWN
The
is taken,
reading W
would
100.
(R being
we
in
feet
clearly in foot-pounds).
of
determine
may
minute
one
Brake.
Prony
and
in
since
Now
point
the
at
the
pounds
the
by 33,000,
the above
at
be
may
the
or
result
is
foot-pound equivalent
minute,
per
found
the
by dividing
or
2ttRWN
(42)
33,000
each
test
same
wheel
designed brake
from
H, is known
rev.
per
min.
speed
brake
design
engine before
in inches.
shop where
turned
out
it leaves
the
are
is made.
The
and
number
of
it is desirable
shop,
specially
probable horsepower,
at which
of the
In
"
the
engine is
flywheel V and
R.
H.
to
let W
run.
be
Call the
the width
Thurston, in "Engine
and
eral
periphof
the
Boiler
198
INTERNAL
ENGINES
COMBUSTION
by multiplying
the width of brake W by the peripheralspeed V and dividing
Calling
by the horsepower H shall not exceed 500 to 1000.*
obtained
Trials," tells
us
that
the
this value
we
have
the formula
K,
number
WV
K
(43)
From
which
In
the
running
the
unknown
value
brake
test
latter,where
the
in the
on
gas
by
readily found.
be
may
or
high, difficultyis
is
speed
produced
heat
friction of
the
tered
encoun-
brake
the
on
^
Fig.
101.
for
Arrangement
Brake.
"
wheel.
for
supplying
the
flywheel
in water
carries
as
rim
the
is
in
the
the
method
rim.
One
of
shape
an
engine is running.
out
in
the
rim
and
should
be
method
inverted
The
and
way
Boiler
tests
is to
centrifugal force
keeps it there.
so
"
Trials,
R.
H.
make
TJ, pouring
efficient device
more
provided
is to
good
"Engine
reason
to
longer running
used.
*
water
the water
method
for
this
For
the
Thurston,
pages
This
tests, but
should
that
272
be
running
to
279.
200
ENGINES
COMBUSTION
INTERNAL
XIII.
TABLE
PRONY
From
the
for R
length
solution
point
The
it is
table
is 5.252
the
of
ft.,for
formula
for
horsepower
that
readily seen
the
in order
convenient
then
and
to obtain
the
the
the
decimal
horsepower.
be
may
is 0.1
moving
revolution
one
any
the most
constant
only entails
one
FACTORS.
BRAKE
obtained
by
instant
by the
modifications
of the
at
any
constant.
The
brakes
described,
ones
which
obtain
the
The
brake
discussion
reader
to
but
of
practical use
there
the
producing
Alden
in
most
are
friction
speciallydesigned brakes
some
by
acting
is
constructed.
the
as
brake
Prony
the
hydraulic action,
pressure
so
are
cooling agent
For
the
author
Carpenter's "Experimental
water
well.
as
exhaustive
more
would
Engineering,
refer
"
the
207
pages
216.
to
The
brake
Belt
Dynamometer.
which
the belt
of
the
at
both
as
shown
ends
with
in
Fig.
the
formula, in
the
weights A
Then
flywheel. The
or
this
and
the brake
The
case
when
the
weights
used
may
engines is
is
be
is
equal
the
to
the
apparatus
difference
is in
Prony
is the
arm
belt to be
ring, to which
103.
of
testing of small
in which
dynamometer,
pulley
modification
in the
used
be
may
"
radius
provided
fastened,
to
in
between
equilibrium.
2nR(A~B)N
H
(44)
33,000
ENGINE
obtained
shown
in
To
but
103.
Strap
for
Brake.
other
on
water
during
be
the
to
an
minute
obtaining
pressure
rubber
reduce
is
this
in order
The
the
subject
gas
bag
same.
The
operator
Spring]Balances.
stiff
tutes
consti-
able
spring suit-
thermometers,
air pyrometer
an
for
of the
gas
a
to
be
to
must
the
ratio
be
gage
in the
of water.
for
need
so
of the
should
should
variation,
should
pressure
in inches
engine and
air meter
pressure
some
fluctuation
the
obtain
an
water
value
to
to
required,by placing
and
with
standard
generally connected
suction.
with
tachometer,
instrument
supplied,but
supplied
on
Brake
as
any
is
meter
gas
the
Strap
or
for the
initial tension
remains
an
104.
Fig.
suitable
exhaust,
not
spring balances
of the
test
formula
is
dynamometer
of
small
of
must
The
complete
form
balances
Fig. 104.
run
above
substitution
the
by
weights, the
Fig.
of the
improvement
An
201
TESTING
be
air
placed
obtained,
gas
Since
extreme
supply
the
gas
accuracy
minimum.
be taken
Before
to arrange
if
to
starting
the appara-
202
ENGINES
COMBUSTION
INTERNAL
vice,
reducing de-
tus.
consisting of pulleys
or
pantograph
("lazy tongs")
rigged
be
device
The
up.
adapted
best
testing of
the
to
must
engine is the
gas
ducing
re-
This
pulley.
is shown
apparatus
the
in
diagrammatic
Fig. 105,
consists
of
pulleys
out,
lay-
b, and
at
pair of
in
shown
as
detail at I.
The
pulley
should
wheels
be
as
light as possible,preferably
of aluminum
in
wood,
the
order
inertia
cord
and
taken
strong
around
to
being made
the
The
rim
of the
cord from
then
run
and
to
the
fastened
drum,
as
then
shown.
fastened
For
to
the
engines
cord
cord
there
at
from
on
operating
2;
the
the
at
is
piston
rigidly,as shown
pulley is
or
larger pulley
the
as
two
the
end
of
wheel.
smaller
is
top
of
wraps
are
sible.
pos-
jacket,
of the cord
fast
the
water
both
as
duced
re-
device
tapped into
three
be
may
The
shown,
that
much
as
the
or
cator
indi-
high
of
rate
high
the
speed
tension
rapidly
hooks
order
in order
to
should
be
be
for 500
set
shown
d.
at
the
in
The
engine
the
valve
placed
is
turned
on
barometer
off
but
suction
pipe.
Testing
exerted
on
this
the
the
the
of
weight
reading the
value
net
by
the
there
readings
average
is
reading
scale
of the
brake
be
two
attached
while
doing
so.
another
on
the
different, the
is the
value
the
arm
Then
scale,
being
determine
pulley and
foot
the
lower
the
readings
point
a
with
force
or
the
to
air
is
the
To
wheel
not
the
test
actual
any
is
in
on
The
at
meter
arm.
the
on
be
may
all scale
the
or
brake
is taken, raise
friction
some
will
the
spring balance
originalposition, taking
As
of W
three-way
consideration
from
The
running
impose
subtracted
e,
h, in order
placed
air
first
will
at
at
point
In
required.
be
some
"
the
itself
scale
loosen
constant
means
brake
be
at
in
ing
enter-
gas
water
as
The
Brake.
Prony
must
find
j
may
placed
be
arrangement,
which
to
the
the
which
in order
by
should
preceding
constant
near
as
is
inlet, as
of the
discharge
test.
the
gases.
tank
respectively.
exhaust
thermometer
the
in
passage,
the
brake
shown
as
placed
ute
min-
pounds,
8.0
thermometer
an
sion
ten-
per
pressure
exhaust
that
revolutions
metal
cord
Prony
as
For
the
The
and
weighing
room
with
is
parts
from
revolutions,
to
up
vibrate.
discharge,
of the
so
the
point
shown
weight
at
and
convenient
in the
free
to
300
and
at
temperature
or
the
oil bath
taken
are
to obtain
in
temperature
is located
pyrometer
For
set
of the
minute
per
diagramed.
as
be
tendency
pounds.
14
similar
also
for 400
pounds;
be
must
inertia
must
pounds.
4.5
the
revolutions
200
is inserted
another
the
the
revolutions,
oil bath
and
minimize
substantially
up
brass
cord
at
spring
absorb
The
about
it should
drum
to
possible.
as
engine running
and
indicator
in
203
TESTING
ENGINE
at
which
or
arm
more,
to
its
at
any
being
constant
time, these
the
larger.
C.
two
The
204
sheet
log
follows.
substantiallyas
determined, prepare
having been
Constant
ENGINES
COMBUSTION
INTERNAL
Engine.
of
Manufacturer
.
Test
made
by
...
...
At
Date
.
Clearance
Stroke
Piston
Diam.
....
commencing
Before
should
be taken
nearly
as
sufficient for
the
takes
floating
will be
assistant
fourth
and
tank
to
should
Readings
the
test
any
one
lasts,and
no
an
load
hour's
an
with
readings
the
the
brake
test
three-quarter
may
be
taken
engineer
in
may
load
as
is
the
beam
Another
and
take
to
One
necessary.
intervals
should
run
the
as
should
while
latter
be
at
order
possible
be
third
being merely
made
In
for
be made
horsepower, and
also
nearly
are
weighing
generally sufficient
if desired.
charge
scale
of the
care
five-minute
removed,
Runs
test.
of
assistant
an
the
readings
at the rated
one
power,
indicator
half, and
time
at
charge
indicator
take
to
other
taken
generally
at maximum
at
able
in
may
reading
fluctuates.
the
inlet and
is
while
power
whatever
be
engineer
handle
to
will be
take
possible. One
as
The
assistants
readings
thermometer
the
the
of
temperature
different
readings, keeping
as
able
the
or
speed indicator
scale
brake
constantly
assistant
the
two
room
run.
three
test
time
the
hour's
an
that
same
and
handle
should
the
at the
barometer
of the
test
in order
secured
be
actual
the
at
quarter,
that
the
provided
the
same
with
ENGINE
whistle, and
again
and
although
signal
as
not
the
absolutely necessary,
to the person
After
and
the
measure
center, being
Now
weigh
from
this measured
part
of
Now
inch
the
space
divided
cubic
the
contained
hence
is much
then
of water
by
fill the
the
compression
to
and
39.1
The
water.
Wt is the weight
of the
space
in the
engine.
0.036
deg. and
extreme
in.
be
cu.
.036
may
of the water
the
determined
are
formula:
very
that
dynamometers
is
the
to
say
the
that
mover
transmitted
See
the
being measured
tendency
the
is resisted
by
Mechanics,
"Engine
"
Vol.
and
Boiler
II, pages
39-73.
of this work
reader
is
is sufficient
placed
machinery
to rotate
Engineering,"
page
between
the
"
springs of known
Trials,"
standard
to
It
subject.*
by the tendency
Carpenter's "Experimental
Thurston's
the
to.
transmission
the scope
dynamometer
driven
of
forms
since
refer
embracing
dynamometer
readings is adhered
to
author,
and
transmission
different
the transmission
prime
which
works
water.
as
engineering
"
of the
many
(45)
461
t +
so
by
....
general method
same
.There
is
accuracy
500-
4Bl.
temperature
taking
of
500
In
lb.,
compression
temperature
following thermodynamic
W=t
space
spillany
to
per
not
remaining
contained
will
0.036
sufficient
at 39.1
water
higher than
Wherein
be
its upper
on
than
compression
in that space.
of the
should
carefullyseated.
are
more
weights
two
in the
valves
weigh
weight of the
inches
the
space;
water, and
cubic
diameter
between
of the water
that
quantity of water,
clearance
test, the
recorded.
sure
compression
difference
piston
handling the
dead
the
and
is valuable,
stop watch
completing the
fillthe
reading is taken
carefully measured
To
before
it is to be started.
speed indicator.
of
seconds
ten
205
TESTING
264,
power
gears,
resistance,
pages
or
219-234,
Weisbach's
206
by weights, suitable
or
The
method
of
making
Such
record
of
it is
The
mechanical
most
tests, as
in the
same
place
"gal.
of
of
reading
respects the
the
be
if
of
is
the
be
used
taken
run
will be
ent.
differ-
column
ing
read-
The
column
the
and
be
column
replaced by
in
fuel";
all
it stands.
as
mixing
valve
just before
fuel
perature
tem-
be
is used
the
other
The
is used, should
carburettor
or
tests, will be
gas" should
the
of
and
"
omitted,
of
be
jet
the
indicator
substituted.
water"
brake
testing
the
the
ft. of gas,
cu.
may
fuel, if
carburettor;
In
"
consumption
"
"temperature
log sheet
should
Engines.
for fuel
should
of
test
and
horsepower
"temperature
of the
the
Oil
column
in.
the
the
are
test
details,
of
part
performed
the
or
complete
smaller
any
is
engine
guarantee
the
cases
engine.
the
tests
the
in
gas
perform
detail.
in
an
of
all
determine
fuel"
of
reading the
as
the
way,
for
on
well
basis
tests
and
of
the
to
every
except
run
description
common
Alcohol,
brake
as
to
to
in
performance
matter
operating
usually
not
actual
efficiency of
engines
"press,
matic
auto-
applies
engine,
gas
consideration
tests
Gasoline,
described
as
detail
into
indicator
one
the
easy
an
required.
In
is
such
every
of
test
test
naturally takes
and
either
arrangements,
engine testing
faulty design.
detect
but
recording
complete
required in
to
of
complete
where
ENGINES
or
at
COMBUSTION
INTERNAL
taken
the
perature
tem-
reaches
the
valve.
In
make
gasoline automobile
talking
points
question of the
while
motor,
their
of
low
consumed
amount
fact, with
the
varying
loads
fuel
is
manufacturers
many
consumption,
secondary
weight, and,
and
speeds
to
great fuel
indicator
test
and
economy,
is all that
is
as
consequence
the
to
as
which
power
matter
such
obtain
to
a
the
brake
an
an
any
and
engine.
208
Prony
lever
Length
Constant
ENGINES
COMBUSTION
INTERNAL
Brake.
ft.
(R)
arm
brake
lb.
(Correction)
Brake
load
average
(Gross)
lb.
Brake
load
average
(Net)
lb.
ft
lb.
Weight
of gas
Weight
of air per
Ratio
of mixture
Weight
lb.
ft
cu.
mixture
Average
Sp.
heat
gas
Sp.
heat
air
Sp.
heat
mixture
value
Heat
cu.
per
lb.
ft
cu.
per
to air
gas
B.t.u.
ft
cu.
Results.
ft.-lb. per
Av.
Work
Av.
Work
ft.-lb. per
hr.
Average
d.hp
Indicated
m.e.p
Indicated
hp
Av.
per
i.hp
cu.
Gas
per
d.hp
cu.
by
exhaust
Radiation
and
As
B.t.u.
B.t.u.
B.t.u.
work
B.t.u.
friction
will
probably be
by the
ratio of gas
divided
a
not,
miss"
by
in
items
some
reader, an
the
report
not
of
these
consumed
per
explanation
to
the
air is the
quantity of
air consumed.
gas
the
In
in
cut-off
the
An
type
type
obtained, except
cycle.
cent
given.
will be
take
Per
i.hp
per
readily understood
hour
B.t.u.
efficiency
there
The
Hour.
per
gases
in
B.t.u.
d.hp.
"
water
Absorbed
Thermal
ft.
fuel
Supplied by
Absorbed
ft.
i.hp.
Av.
-t-
i.hp.
loss
Heat
In
d.hp.
Av.
efficiency
Friction
lb.
Average
Gas
Mech.
or
min.
as
governed
of governor,
the
approximate
engine
result
by
the
exact
may
an
be
gas
of the
means
takes
engines which
ratio
"hit
cannot
impulse
obtained,
is taken
at
or
be
every
however,
REPORT
OF
between
performed
the
hour
per
and
computed
would
and
the
cycles, and
in
would
be
not
charge of air
fuel may
be
it may
or
of the
gas
with
cycles, which
stroke.
from
the
the
analysis should
their
The
be
weight,
analysis, and
weights and
specificheats
the
of the
gas
pany
com-
by
petent
com-
cubic
be
may
foot
of the
in the
appear
XIV
gas,
will
gas
give the
parts of the
gas-engine fuels.
as
XIV.
SPECIFIC
AND
complete
weight
constituent
encountered
the
to
parts of the
Table
of the
TABLE
WEIGHT
ratio.
weight
performed
known
are
idle
quantitative analysis
constituent
the
commonly
the
the
of the
records
from
computed
When
times
of air in
constituents
most
idle
reading the
always obtaining
the suction
on
be
this
"
determined
gases
these
explosions
obtained
chemist.
together
meter
gas
of
air
value
cycles
average
number
the
air used
of
actual
average
ratio
fresh
the
subtracting from
amount
be
This
hour
per
209
TESTS
Lb.
HEAT
per
OF
Cu.
GASES.
Sp. Ht.
Sp.
Const,
Ht.
Const.
Constituent.
Ft.
Pr.
Vol.
Air
0.08082
0.237
0.168
Hydrogen
Oxygen
Nitrogen
0.00559
3.409
2.406
0.0894
0.217
0.155
0.0779
0.244
0.173
0.0445
0.593
0.467
0.245
0.173
0.216
0.171
0.404
0.332
CH4
oxide, CO
acid, C02.
Marsh
gas,
Carbonic
Carbonic
Olefines
The
heats given
weights and specific
pressure
The
fahr.
be found
may
the
specificheat
by the
same
percentage of the
their
heat
specific
of
the
method
constituent
is found
in the
for
are
atmospheric
an
of 32
temperature
and
gas
as
for
of
the
mixture
deg.
table.
The
and
weight
210
of
mixture
the
ENGINES
weight of the
32
being known,
gas
weight of mixture
foot is found
cubic
per
be
The
14.7.
determined,
having been
or
air to
of
is found
lb. at
0.08082
the
COMBUSTION
INTERNAL
ing
by the follow-
formula:
Wm
In
which
The
at
should
of the gas
heating value
laboratory by
percentage of
y the
foot, and
Samples of the
then
and
sent
mixed;
the
to
in
recorded
temperature
basis of
of
gas
sample of
and
air
log sheet
and
atmospheric
of water
The
their
gases,
results should
be
not
computing probable
be
obtained
the
mixture
at
different
should
at
pressure
reduced
be
must
in
pressure
in
standards
use
then
The
following formula
order
and
test
standard
to
form
to
the temperature
are
level, which
sea
in the
obtained
as
freezing point, 32
the
at
in. of mercury.
reduction
should
gas
I,
different conditions
basis for
the
comparison.
atmospheric
as
Table
While
laboratory.
volumes
The
30
only used
but
on,
gas
determined
be
of various
for accurate
and
subject to variation
(46)
gas.
under
or
weight of the
chemist.
expert
an
ay
always
of air, a the
is the percentage
cubic
per
(0.08082)
the
equivalent
be used
may
to
in the
49L2
pP
=
14.7
(47 )
""""""
459.2)
(2,+
which
In
tt
"p
v
at
atmospheric
pressure
14.7
This
inches
gas.
of
give an
The
water
time
at
and
at
32
derived
on
of test.
temperature.
deg. fahr.
and
pressure
of
lb.
formula, while
will
for the
volume
corrected
of test.
at this pressure
volume
time
temperature
gas
may
the
approximately
pressure,
be
reduced
as
basis
correct
measured
to
inches
of the
value
in
of
air
when
the
mometer,
ther-
used
test, in
mercury
by
REPORT
dividingby 13.62, or
in
pounds
by multiplying by
of 32
The
cards
indicated
taken
effective
If
the
distances
of
expansion
from
AB
second
sum
from
lines.
The
result
the
planimeter,
It may
areas.
mean
line
be
ordinate
so
AB
diagram.
compression
the
first and
the
name
the
space
lengths
curve
ay,
an
adjusted as to record,
irregularfigure
any
Engineering," page
the
AB
to
the
number
of
value
instrument
without
further
of given
31.
same
subtract
by the
approximate
implies, is
of
lengths of the
divide
of
"Experimental
equal
ten, from
case
the
the
be
being half
the
Add
add
106.
Card.
diagram, in this
and
be
it may
ordinates
erect
Engine
the
will
as
Fig.
see
of
means
available
not
The
minute.
by
best
last ordinates
106.
mean
method,
ex,
to
product of the
explosions per
Fig.
curve
the indicator
from
is obtained
first and
in the
lines contained
cards
atmospheric
ends
is the
planimeter is
apart, the
the
lines
of
by the ordinate
From
the
number
of the
temperature.
of the
area
for temperatures
are
computed
and
of mercury
accurate
give sufficiently
to
average
test
taken
has been
to inches
ratios
found
is to be
the
the
planimeter.*
obtained
any
work
pressure,
ordinate
from
at
during the
feet, and
mean
These
will be
of the gas
be reduced
2.033.
results if used
in
if the pressure
per
211
TESTS
OF
for
of
the
computing
calculation,
length.
See
penter's
Car-
212
in inches.
ordinate
mean
irregular, due
mean
curve
the
its
in
If the
drawn
ordinate
expansion
vibration
be
may
While
use
the
to
ENGINES
COMBUSTION
INTERNAL
of
Fig.
right of
to
computations requiring
extreme
be
spring,
will
method
indicator
the
shown
as
should
curve
106.
results,
is not
accuracy
advisable.
The
effective
mean
the
multiplying together
scale of the
effective
mean
in
spring
lb. per
by
result
in.,which
sq.
of the
means
by
and
the
is known.
The
indicated
the
being known,
obtained
in inches
ordinate
mean
pressure
is calculated
is the
pressure
power
horse-
following formula
Plan
H
(48)
33,000
In
which
P
I
same
engine
number
work
of
Area
Number
applied
as
number
would
four-cycle engine.
would
The
of
impulses given
there
be
the
same
quantity
as
of
the
per
min.
half
of heat
the water
heat
consumed,
absorbed
as
in
but
If
the
as
many
be
and
engine
In
work
"hits"
impulses
in
noted.
gas-engine
the
steam-
the
regularly
revolutions
as
the
value
of
engine.
supplied by the
formula
should
steam
above
engine
min.
per
For
for
in the
steam
be
sq. in.
rev.
only
in ft.
piston in
between
to
pressure.
of stroke
of
difference
cycle
every
in
The
"
formula
effective
Length
Note.
Mean
per
cu.
in
the
determined
gas
ft. times
water
per
hour
the
is the
cu.
is the
ft.
sumed.
con-
product of
in the test,and
the range
of temperature:
Hi
In which
(t2-tl)W
tl
The
t2
Temperature
temperature
Weight
of the
(49)
of the
of the
discharge.
inlet.
cooling water.
REPORT
The
The
1
result
obtained
OF
is in
213
TESTS
B.t.u
units).
(British thermal
required
through
deg. fahr.
The
heat
absorbed
in work
is the
hr. divided
ft.-lb. per
rr
Hw=
is 778:
60
,,m
(50)
778
The
the
heat
carried
specific heat
off in the
of the
exhaust
mixture
having
as
the
B.t.u.
required
fahrenheit.
in
Then
raise
to
in
us,
of temperature
(obtained
the
thermometer),
class
same
that
as
derived
ft. and
cu.
degree
one
ft. of mixture
cu.
the range
and
pyrometer
itself into
of the
one
for water:
S
*,)W
(t2
-
(51)
Specificheat of mixture.
t2
Temperature
as
obtained
tt
Temperature
of
entering mixture
W
To
be
passing
Total
weight of mixture
out
with
engine, but
in
the
exhaust
subtracted
practiceit
by pyrometer.
gas.
of unburned
should
be
that
of the
from
or
hour.
per
the amount
absolutely accurate
heating value
is considered
mixture
considered, and
as
fuel
its
entering the
by radiation.
The
heat
by radiation
is determined
computed
losses from
by subtracting
the heat
supplied
gas.
The
thermal
heat
engine
lost
of the three
sum
by the
the
decimal,
which
In
the
of
of the
means
resolves
formula
He
lost
by
in
determined,
through
weight of
follows:
as
been
terms
pound
one
the
knowing
is found
absorbed
divided
by the
heat
supplied the
in fuel:
T=
(52)
778
CH
214
INTERNAL
which
In
the
the
formula
COMBUSTION
derived
hp.
for
of
the
is
engine
prony
F
of
gas
value
Heat
the
ft.
Cu.
b.
recognized
the
as
of
numerator
(50)
The
is
numerator
ENGINES
brake,
cu.
per
found
hr.
per
by
ft.
of
means
the
formula
33,000
In
in
the
which
table,
the
page
constants
200.
for
different
lengths
of
are
given
216
INTERNAL
Horse-power.
COMBUSTION
The
"
33,000
1,980,000
Heat
Fahr.
Unit.
(from
39
Horse-power
deg.
units per
minute
heat
units
hour.
"
per
,
,
1
lb. of fuel, per
r
"
minute,
Feet
required
to
40
550
second
to
raise
in
0.707
per
per
^
heat
heat
""-,.,
( 2545
lb. of fuel
second
SHEET-METAL
deg.
1.98
5280
2545
lb. of fuel.
per
15
XV.
GAUGES
units.
"
second
22
=
42.416
'
=
units per
heat
000
33
units
( 1,980,000
hp.-hr.
r
1 lb. of water
deg.).
TABLE
AND
horse-power
or
3600
WIRE
of
hour.
expressed
heat
Unit
of work.
rate
Heat
"
ENGINES
COMPARED.
hp.-hr.
hour.
217
MISCELLANEOUS
WIRE
AND
SHEET-METAL
GAUGES
COMPARED.
"
Continued.
218
ENGINES
COMBUSTION
INTERNAL
TABLE
TAP
DRILL
XVI.
TABLE.
219
MISCELLANEOUS
TABLE
MACHINE
XVII.
SCREW
TABLE.
"220
ENGINES
COMBUSTION
INTERNAL
TABLE
WROUGHT
XVIII.
IRON
PIPE.
221
MISCELLANEOUS
TABLE
XIX."
CIRCUMFERENCES
ADVANCING
AND
BY
EIGHTS.
AREAS
OF
CIRCLES
222
CIRCUMFERENCES
ENGINES
COMBUSTION
INTERNAL
AND
AREAS
OF
CIRCLES.
"
Continued.
224
INTERNAL
CIRCUMFERENCES
COMBUSTION
AND
AREAS
ENGINES
OF
CIRCLES.
Continued.
"
225
MISCELLANEOUS
XX.
TABLE
TABLES.
TRIGONOMETRIC
To
find
the
will
example
To
function
find
illustrate
sin
81"
sin
last
values
the
table
in the
given
the
following
method:
Ay
81"
between
angle
any
the
81"
sin
Dif
of
40"
0.9894
50"
0.9899
unit
From
table
of
proportionate
5
.3
sin
Where
the
81"
angles
"
sec
table,
43'
have
we
0.98955
difference,
have
parts
The
P.,
0.9894
have
For
P.
1.5
Adding
we
marked
parts,
more
in
last
been
not
than
90"
10
for
place,
unit
but
tabulated,
cos,
tan,
cotan,
sec,
or
cosec
of
90"
sin,
cos,
tan,
cotan,
sec,
or
cosec
of
180"
of
180"
or
cosec
of
x".
sec,
or
cosec
of
270"
sec,
or
cosec
of
tan,
cotan,
sec,
sin, cosin,
tan,
cotan,
sec,
sin, cosin,
tan,
cotan,
sin, cosin,
tan,
cotan,
and
but
their
sin
versed
cosec,
values
sec
may
and
be
or
co-versed
determined
versed
(90"
x"
x"
360"
sin
as
oo-versed
sine
the
portionate
pro-
a;).
leas
(but
(270"
are
not
follows:
sin
=1
sin
cosin.
"
"
sio.
than
270")
x").
contained
cosin
cosec
than
x"
cosec
sin, cosin,
less
determined.
readily
are
sin,
is
minutes
in
the
ing
follow-
226
COMBUSTION
INTERNAL
TABLE
XX.
"
TRIGONOMETRIC
ENGINES
FUNCTIONS.
227
MISCELLANEOUS
TRIGONOMETRIC
FUNCTIONS.
"
Continued.
228
INTERNAL
TRIGONOMETRIC
COMBUSTION
FUNCTIONS.
ENGINES
"
Continued.
229
MISCELLANEOUS
FUNCTIONS.
TRIGONOMETRIC
Sin.
24
0.4067
Tan.
0.4452
d.
Cos.
Cot
2.2460
Continued.
"
P. P.
d.
0.9135
174
"0
0.4094
0.4487
2.2286
20
0.4120
0.4522
2.2113
173
0.9124
0.9112
30
0.4147
0.4557
2.1943
170
0.9100
40
0.4173
0.4592
2.1775
168
50
0.4200
0.4628
2. 1609
166
0.4226
0.4663
2.1445
0.9088
0.9075
164
25
0.9063
65
162
0.9051
10
0.4253
0.46W
2.1283
20
0.4279
0.4734
2.1123
160
0.9038
30
0.4305
0.4770
2.0965
158
0.9026
156
0.9013
154
0.9001
40
0.4331
0.4806
2.0809
50
0.4358
0.4841
2.0655
152
2!i
0.4384
0.4877
2.0503
0.8988
61
150
10
0.4410
0.4913
2.0353
20
0.4436
0.4950
2.0204
30
0.4462
0.4986
2.0057
40
0.4488
0.5022
1.9912
50
0.4514
0.5059
1.9768
0.8975
149
147
145
144
0.8962
0.8949
0.8936
0.8923
142
27
0.8910
0.4540
0.50M
1.9626
10
0.456O
0.5132
1.9486
20
0.4592
0.5169
1 .9347
139
0.8884
0.8870
63
140
0.8897
30
0.4617
0.5206
1.9210
137
40
0.4643
0.5243
1 .9074
136
50
0.46)9
0.5280
1.8940
0.4o95
0.531/
1 8607
134
0.8857
0.8843
133
29
62
0.8.29
131
10
0.4720
0.5354
1.8676
20
0.4746
0.5392
1.8546
30
0.4772
0.5430
1.8418
40
0.4797
0.5467
1 .8291
50
0.4823
0.5505
1.8165
0.4848
0.5543
1.8040
0.8816
130
128
127
126
0.8802
0.8788
0.8774
0.8760
125
1
0.8746
61
123
10
0.4874
0.5581
1.7917
20
0.4899
0.5619
1.7796
30
0.4924
0.5658
1.7675
40
0.4950
0.5696
1.7556
0.4975
0.5735
1.7437
50
0.8732
121
121
119
119
0.8718
0.8704
0.8689
0.8675
116
30
0.5000
0.5774
1.7321
1.7205
60
0 8560
116
10
0.5025
0.5812
20
0.5050
0.5851
1.7090
30
0.5075
0.5890
1.6977
40
0.5100
0.5930
1.6864
50
0.5125
0.5969
1.6753
0.5150
0.6009
1.6643
0.5175
0.6048
1.6534
0.5200
0.6088
1 .6426
0.8646
115
0.8631
113
0.8616
113
0.8601
111
0.8587
24
2.4
4.8
7.2
9.6
12.0
14.4
16.8
110
.1
0.8572
59
109
10
20
30
0.5225
0.6128
1.6319
40
0.5250
0.6168
1.6212
50
0.5275
0.6208
1.6107
5299
6249
1.6003
Cos.
Cot.
Tan.
0.8557
108
0.8542
107
0.8526
107
0.8511
105
19.2
21.6
0.8496
104
32
0.8480
1~
Sin.
58
d.
P.
P.
230
INTERNAL
TRIGONOMETRIC
COMBUSTION
FUNCTIONS.
ENGINES
"
Continued.
TABLE
XXI.
TABLE
OF
COMMON
LOGARITHMS
OF
NUMBERS
From
minus
A
true
value
in the
last
1000
or
after
the tabulated
place.
233
to
10000
tabular
log.indicates that its
any
less
than half of the unit
value
by
235
MISCELLANEOUS
LOGARITHMS
OF
NUMBERS.
236
INTERNAL
LOGARITHMS
COMBUSTION
OF
NUMBERS.
ENGINES
"Continued.
237
MISCELLANEOUS
LOGARITHMS
OF
NUMBERS.
"
Continued.
238
INTERNAL
LOGARITHMS
ENGINES
COMBUSTION
OF
NUMBERS.
"
Continued.
240
INTERNAL
LOGARITHMS
ENGINES
COMBUSTION
OF
NUMBERS.
"
Continued.
241
MISCELLANEOUS
LOGARITHMS
OF
NUMBERS."
Continued.
242
INTERNAL
LOGARITHMS
ENGINES
COMBUSTION
OF
NUMBERS.
"
Continued.
243
MISCELLANEOUS
LOGARITHMS
OF
NUMBERS."
Continued.
244
INTERNAL
LOGARITHMS
ENGINES
COMBUSTION
OF
NUMBERS.
"
Continued.
245
MISCELLANEOUS
LOGARITHMS
OF
NUMBERS.
"
Continued.
246
INTERNAL
LOGARITHMS
ENGINES
COMBUSTION
OF
NUMBERS.
"
Continued.
248
INTERNAL
LOGARITHMS
COMBUSTION
OF
NUMBERS."
ENGINES
Continued.
249
MISCELLANEOUS
LOGARITHMS
OF
NUMBERS.
"
Continued.
INDEX
Pagb
Abb6
de
Hautefeuille
Acetylene,
Calorie
combustion,
82
of
generation
value
heating
of
pressure
of
yield
pound
liquefication
per
107
82
operation
layout
effect of, on
109
82
horizontal
for
supply
double
of calcium
carbide
gine
en-
144
Alcohol,
air
combustion,
heat
80
76,
of
75
of
rate
71
composition
heat
76
of, computed
value
for
temperature
mixture,
inlet
107
material
Ill
lost
in
of
shaft
transmission
quired
re-
Aspirating
49
Automatic
engines
25
Carburrettor,
air supply
law
connecting
crank
to
adjustment
of,
42
56,83
supply
air
127
134
effect
154
flexibility
57
card
on
7
49
feed
float
Holley
mechanical
53, 54
ebullition
case
145
spray
surface
47
rod
157
type
type
two-cycle engine
of,
in
de
Carburetting,
156
shaft.
crank
152
petroleums
144
temperature
in vertical
Care
gines
en-
engines,
of
143
Circulation
144
Clearance
principle, 4, 6,
43,
of
43
of
fuel
as
fected
af-
continued
251
46
27
Clerk, Dugald
17
56
....
engine
144
Rochas
21
alcohol
vaporization
35
horizontal
48
by
29
studs
46
type
53
pounding
Beau
53
43, 48,
52
lubrication
setting,
53, 54
...
Schebler
liners
setting,
25, 32
187
for
in
103
primer
shaft
length
111
adjustment
closed
102,
motion
....
storage
Bearings,
111
102,
auxiliary
design
Matteucci
102,
alcohol
80
Back
cells
cam
107
of
valve
Battery
double
motion
timing
83
valves
Barsanti
177
78, 80
Avogadro's
105
gearing
56, 71,
heat
103
efficiency
vaporization,
105
shaft
79, 80
thermal
89
exhaust
82
.
110
card
offsetting
single, layout
sparking
starting
Cam
mechanism,
quired
re-
for
75
105
81
82
.
75
the
Calorimeter,
classification
Cams,
rate
of.
Air
Page
129
205
5,11,12
252
INDEX
Page
Coal
gas,
Page
Gas.
see
Coil
3,173
requisitesof
175
Combustion
air
31
required
76, 77
75, 82
heat
rate
Commutator
single cylinder
180
timing
two
cylinders
179
178,
two-cycle
Compression, chart
Clerk engine
effect
of valve
efficiency,relation
to
.
effective
mean
relation
Crude
oil,composition
Cylinder, air cooled
bore
1 1
bore,
133,
effect
of
overheating
99,
32
for
35
"hot-spot"
in
136
23,
proportionate equation
85
thickness
speed
84
water
cooled
relief cock
'37
water
in
relieved
23
water
jacket
....
for
of walls
33
100
130
129
35
131, 132
12
stroke,
91, 94, 99
table
85
temperature
two-cycle engine
case)
two-cycle engine
84
(crank
14, 16
der)
(cylin16
Condenser, electrical.
172,
Condensation, latent heat
Connecting rod
adjustment of bearings.
.
33
oil
fuel
for
101
flooded
to
space,
34
for
to
to
136
material
34
134
31
of
relation
ratio
100
boring
pump
relation
Robson
stroke
to
care
gasket
duced
pro-
134
98
ratio
equation
2, 11
starting
engine
129
131,
86, 88
97
72
....
135
95
pressure,
explosion
by
premature
153
151
casting, cost
to
151
size
bolts
84
156
pin
17, 18
33, 36
limits
154
156
automobile
153
153
finish
180
92
Degrand engine
Diesel engine
pin
shaft, arms
balance
weights
bushings
capacity
179
5,
curve
Crank
Crank
174
75
Day engine
Degrand engine
Diesel engine
cycle
12
3
17
19
of
economy
efficiency
Drawings for
Dynamometer,
22
22
foundations
147
.
absorption.
196
.
belt
200
157
transmission
196,
205
157
formula
158
Cooling, Hugon
spray
27, 133
cylwater, effect of,in hot inder
tower
30
heat
lost in
inlet and
inlet and
213
outlet,location
outlet,size.
132
27, 96
regulation
temperature
Cost of fuel,acetylene
131
24, 27
82
...
alcohol
oxygen
83
and
producer
Crank
case
hydrogen.
operation
66, 67
206
engines
Diesel engine
18, 22
four and two
18
cycle engines
4
Hugon engine
Lenoir
3
engine
Otto
and
4
Langen engine
Efficiency of engine, 86, 88, 96, 97,
101; 213
Electric
ignition,2, 3, 28, 170, 171,
172, 175
de
HauteEngines, Abb6
.
automobile
133
pressure
of
Economy
feuille
Barber
...
gas
64
Barnett
explosions
22
Barsanti
1
2
patent
3
and
Matteucci
3
.
253
INDEX
Page
Page
Four-cycle engine,
Engines (continued)
blast furnace
20
67
gas
205
of
12
Day
Degrand
Diesel
of.
Lebon
acting
2
.
4, 5
Otto
Otto
slide
Langen
125, 189
valve
Papin
122, 177
Rathbun
Robson
12
Stockport
Street, patents
12
146
75
value
heat
75
value
heat
mixture
necessary,
31
26,
periodof injection,Diesel
18, 19
engine
in
fuel
question)
(see
81
acetylene
tion
air required for combus77
(Table)
78,
79,
76,
75,
71,
alcohol, 56,
80, 82
.
72
oil
crude
economy
for internal
combustion
.
58, 60
producers
for
73
fuel oil
heat
213
lost
18
pressure
8, 19
16, 18, 19
of
Expansion
93
curve
21, 31
90, 97
Explosion
force
ideal chamber
in crank
121
for
22
case
ders
of,in multiple cylin-
order
98
factor
Wright
time
143
weight
of
sub-base
Exhaust,
143
Fuels
Weiss.
.
and
of
purpose
low
Otto
143
patents
and
bolts
Fuel, high
Lenoir
Mietz
Frame,
Fuel
double
Johnston
74
table
5, 11
Clerk
46
distillation
Fractional
clearance, determination
horsepower
Hornsby-Akroid
Hugon
Huygens
tage
advan-
195
35
premature
73
oil
gas
kerosene
hydrogen.
oxygen
71, 72,
petroleum distillates,
75
required
horsepower hour
analysis
67
and
...
amount
Gas,
blast
coal
per
.
66,
209
67
furnace
gas
as
motive
power.
66
economy
139
Flywheel, automobile
of weight
calculation
138
137
coefficient of fluctuation
finish
function
69
142
137
perfect,definition
86
of
201
uniform
pressure
effected
speed regulation
66
68
oil
140
rim
68
Table
139
formula
210
heating value
natural, composition
heating value
by
137
spokes
140
webbed
142
heating value.
...
production
69,
61, 62,
61, 62,
71
66
63
208
150
ratio to air
drawings
147
speed
material
148
water, composition
70
148
production
weight and specificheat
70
Foundations,
on
upper
purpose
bolts.
floors
149,
147
(Table)
of
Gas
oil,composition
117
209
73
254
INDEX
Page
Page
Gasoline
(see Fuels,
and
distillation,
Combustion),
tion
required for combus-
air
tional
Frac-
combustion,
fractional
77,81
67, 71, 194
of.
rate
Igniter,Pennington
porcelaintube for
distillation
177
191
setting
wipe spark
171,
Ignition, effect on card
auto-ignition, Hornsby-
74
28
177
7
191
Akroid
....
lighting gas
low
heat
from
74
of,
effective
Diesel
puted
com-
pressure
produced
quality
straining
vaporization,
71, 98
25, 33
25
heat
weight
58,
for
cam-shaft,
Governing,
closeness
methods
81
of regulation
of
of
Governors,
centrifugal
electrical governing
care
30,
sparking points,
inertia
location
169
for
throttle
valve
of
uniformity
Wright
Gunpowder
as
speed
motive
balance
Heat
losses
ignition
185
Bosch
170, 194
cylinder
Heating
Horsepower, computation
card
211
card
for card
four-cycle card
ideal card
21
of, 197.
212,
of
definition
ratio
of
97
i.hp. to b.hp..
96, 97
economy
Huygens
of card
89
work
Indicated
211
Injectors,Diesel method
Hornsby-Akroid
Mietz
and
Insulation
44
Weiss
of
engine
tube
material
17, 44
44
tion
founda147
James-Lunkenheimer
valve
engine
ing
mix49
2
23,25,28
of
break.
.
hot
91, 94
Johnston
Igniter,care
90
engine
hammer
86,
97
theoretical
Hugon
214
216
friction
19
201
engine
...
of
Indicator, computation
166
212
wall.
of
183
183-185
187
Motsinger
187
Remy
3
Stephard
time
of, 7, 23, 24, 25, 2S, 34,
for gas
formula
212
189
194
purpose
Heat
2, 189
apple
Diesel
power
nition
ig-
of
167
quired
re-
172
cock
184
for
destruc-.
ignition,Barnett
magneto
30, 208
164, 168
164,167
of
action
tive
flame
162
169
lift of balls
171
prevention
lead
169
rial
mate-
for
163
164
miss
magneto
tion
igni-
hot-tube
exhaust
or
102, 111
113
ratio
191
170, 175
make-and-break
60, 67
113
Gearing, pitch
hit
ignition,
spark
Lebon
patent
Lenoir
ignition
193
191,
17,
jump
electric
74
Gasometer
skew
ignition
quired
re-
78, 79,
reduction
Weiss.
.
value
76
mean
and
Mietz
29, 191
Kerosene
ignition temperature
Keys, table of
74
74
141
256
INDEX
Page
Spark plug.
tap for
...
Page
1S3
52, 53
starters, 23,
air
39
ber
auxiliary explosioncham-
auxiliary storage
compression
by means
of
204
207
report
Thermal
efficiency
213
Throttle
26
67
38
per
38
ports
of power
increase
cent
four-cycle
over
22
for
125
38
of first
charge
of
Units, definition
hand
of
215
38
pump
37
.
hand
37
38
37
or
diameter
115
.
121-125
carburettor
49
28, 122,
proportion
7,
130
116
120
Diesel
44
dimensions
(Table)
119
12
effective
26
(Table)
flat seated, advantage
or
24
1
98
:
29
31
bore
43
.
of
cooling
design and
to
engine
aspirating,for
23
25
Street, Robert
ratio of, to
....
of
204
readings,interval
ber
cham-
cartridgestarter
Stroke
Tests, log
135
Spraying nozzle
Starting devices,
of
100
opening.
117,
119
120
of.
115
24
gas
material
116
21
mixing
43, 48, 49
needle, for vaporizers
43
Robson
12
engine
size
7, 9
....
circumferences
Tables,
and
of circles
areas
221
compression temperatures
cylinder dimensions
flywheel coefficients
keys
logarithms
233
machine
219
brake
factors
drill
trigonometric
functions
.
dimensions.
valve
weight
and
sheet
gauges
wrought iron
Diesel
pipe
cylinder
combustion
compression
Tests, apparatus
arrangement
assistants
121
139
timing,
105
for
hot
tube
niter
ig191
two-cycle, see
Vapor, pressure
200
saturation
218
225
(Table)
Vaporization
120
Venturi
209
design
Volatility as
Ports.
of gas
78,
...
80
78
pressure
79
78
119,
specific heat
of gases
and
wire
Temperature,
stems
timing
141
screw
Prony
tap
85
101
tube
in carburettor
56
affected
vaporization
metal
by
46
216
220
Water
27
Water
19
17
201
gas,
see
Gas.
jacket, copper
depth
draining
132
length
133
202
Watt
204
Wiring connections
131
25
i
23
methods
196
206
for four-cylinder
Wright engine
174
204
Wrist
159
for
pin