CHAPTER

CHEMICALS
5 : FOR

CONSUMERS

SOAPS
Soaps are sodium or potassium
salts of long-chain fatty acids
General Formula:

R-COO- Na+ or

R-COO- K+

Potassium soap are softer, milder than sodium soap and are
usually used for bathing
Example:

CH3(CH2)14COO- Na+

Palmitic Acid + NaOH Sodium Palmitate + H2O

PREPARATION OF SOAP

SAPONIFICATION
Soap is made through
heating oils/fats (Ester)
PROCESS
with an alkali, NaOH

OVERALL SAPONIFICATION PROCESS

Oils or fats + Concentrated
+ Soap
O=

[ESTER]
[SALT]

O=

R-C-O-CH2
R-C-O-CH
O=

R-C-O-CH2

+ 3NaOH

Glycerol

Alkali

HO CH2
HO CH
HO CH2

+ RCOONa + RCOONa + RCOONa

O=

1. HYDROLYSED OF OILS
/ESTERS
O=

R-C-O-CH2
R-C-O-CH

HO CH2

+ 3H2O

HO CH

+ RCOOH + RCOOH + RCOOH

O=

HO CH2

R-C-O-CH2

Oils or fats

Glycerol

fatty acid

2. NEUTRALIZATION OF FATTY
ACIDS
RCOONa + RCOONa + RCOONa + 3H O
RCOOH + RCOOH + RCOOH + 3NaOH
2

Fatty acids

Oils or fats
+ Soap
[ESTER]

Soap

+ Concentrated
Alkali

Glycerol

Preparati
on of
Soap

PREPARATION OF SOAP IN LAB

1. Measure 5cm3 of coconut oil and pour it into a beaker.
2. Add 30 cm3 of 5 mol dm

-3

NaOH into the beaker.

3. Boil the mixture for about 10 minutes while stirring

with a glass rod.
4. Add 100 cm3 of distilled water and 3 spatulas of NaCl.
Stir the mixture.
5. Continue boiling for about 5 minutes.
6. Filter the mixture. Wash the residue with a little
distilled water.
7. Dry the residue by pressing it gently between a few
pieces of filter paper.

TEST THE SOAP

1. Shake a little bit of the residue with about 1 cm 3 of
distilled water in a test tube

DETERGENT
Detergent is a synthetic cleansing agent made
from hydrocarbon
Raw materials obtained from
petroleum
PREPARATION

SULPHONATION
PROCESS
Two common
detergents
are:
1. Alkyl
CH3(CH2)nCH2
sulphate

2. Alkylbenzene
sulphonate

CH3(CH2)nCH2

Na

Na

PREPARATION OF DETERGENT
Step I
Obtain a long chain hydrocarbon from petroleum
fractions
Step II
Reacts long chain alcohol with concentrated
sulphuric acid to form lauryl hydrogen acid
Step III
Neutralise lauryl hydrogen acid with sodium
hydroxide solution and produce sodium lauryl
sulphate (detergent)

CLEANSING ACTION OF SOAP AND DETERGENT

SOAP

DETERGENT

1. Dirty cloth

2.

Soap or detergent dissolves

in water
a.

Reduce the surface

tension of water

b.

Wetting the cloth

3.

The hydrophobic part of

the anion dissolved in
grease and the
hydrophilic part dissolved
in water

4.

Grease loosened and lifted off the

surface. Heat, rubbing and
scrubbing can help this process.

5.

The grease is lifted off the

surface and suspended in water.
6. The grease is dispersed into
smaller drops.

7.

Rinsing away
the dirty
water
removes the
grease
droplet

CLEAN CLOTH

THE EFFECTIVENESS OF CLEANSING ACTION

The effectiveness of soap is reduced when used in
Hard Water
water that contains Ca2+
and Mg2+ ions.
Soap anions form salts with Ca2+ and Mg2+.
These salts is insoluble salt - scum
Soap cannot lather well in hard water but
detergent anions form soluble salts
Therefore,detergent of cleaning power is not affected
by hard water.

SOAP :
Hard water contains of Ca2+ and
Mg2+ions
When soap reacts with hard water,
white precipitate is formed known as
SCUM

Formation of soap scum reduces

the amount of soap anion available
for cleaning
Therefore, soaps are only suitable
for use in soft water.
The cleansing effectiveness is
affected by hard water.

DETERGENT:
1.Detergent do not form scum when
reacts with hard water.
2.Detergent form a soluble substances
with calcium or magnesium ions.
3.Detergent can still perform its
cleansing action in hard water
4.Detergent is more effective than
soap in hard water

ADDITIVES IN DETERGENT

FOOD ADDITIVES

SALT

SUGAR

HOW THEY WORK :

Sugar or salt draws the
water out of the cell of
microorganisms and retards
the growth of
microorganisms

VINEGAR

HOW THEY WORK :

Vinegar provides an
acidic condition that
inhibits the growth
of microorganisms

Sodium
nitrite or
sodium
nitrate

Benzoic acid
or sodium
benzoate

Sulphur
dioxide

HOW THEY WORK :

These preservatives slow down the growth of
microorganisms

Preservatives

Functions

Salt

Sugar

Example
Salted
vegetables

Draws the water out of the

cells of microorganisms.
Fruit jam
Retards the growth of
microorganisms.

Vinegar

Inhibits the growth of

microorganisms.

Pickled
cucumber

Sodium nitrite /
sodium nitrate

Slows down the growth of

microorganisms. Stabilise
red colour in meats.

Sausage

Benzoic acid /
sodium benzoate
Sulphur dioxide

Side effect
Increase the risk
of cardiovascular
diseases
Tooth decay,
diabetes and
obesity

Carcinogenic

Tomato sauce
Slows down the growth of
microorganisms.

Grape juice

Asthma and
allergies

B. Antioxidant
1. Food containing fats and oils can turn rancid, fats
and oils are oxidised to unpleasant-smelling acids
on exposure to the air.
2.
Function:
Prevent oxidation (causes rancid fats and brown fruits)

Antioxidant

Functions

Example

Side effect

Vitamin E

Prevent oils from turns

rancid

Palm oil &

sunflower oil

No

Vitamin C

Preserve the colour of

fruit juice and the
formation of
nitrosamines
Stop rancidity in fats

Fruit juice &

cured meat

No

Ice-cream

Retard rancidity in
fats, oils and oilcontaining foods

Margarine &
cereal

Carcinogenic

Sodium citrate
BHA (Butylated
hydroxyanisole)
BHT (Butylated
hydroxytoluene)

BHA/BHT
in
Margarine

VITAMIN
C in Fruit
Juice

HOW THEY
WORK :
To retard
rancidity in oils

HOW THEY
WORK :
To preserve the
colour of fruit
juice

Sodium
Citrate in
Cooked
cured
Meat

HOW THEY
WORK :
To stop fats
from turning
rancid

C. Flavouring
Functions:

1. improve the taste

2. improve the smell
3. restore taste loss due to food process
Flavouring
Functions
Example
Side effect
MSG
Bring out the flavor Salad dressing &
Headache,
(monosodium
canned soup
thirsty, nausea &
glutamate)
chest pain.
Aspartame Sweeten food (about Soft drinks & diet Increase the risk
(non-sugar 180 200 times than
drinks
of leukemia,
sweetener)
sugar)
cancer and
neurological
problems
Synthetic
Produce artificial Methyl butanoate
essences
(esters)

flavours = natural
flavour. Cheaper to
use than the real
fruits

(apple flavour) &

octyl ethanoate
(orange flavour)

D. Stabilisers
Functions:
prevent an emulsion from separating out
Stabilisers
Monoglycerides
of fatty acids
Acacia gum
Lecithin

Gelatin

Functions
Mix oil and water

Example
Ice-cream, chewing gum,
beverages, whipped topping
and margarine
Mix two liquids that do not mix Marshmallow, gumdrop, edible
together. Forms an emulsion. glitter, carbonated drink syrup
& gummy candies
Reduces viscosity. Replaces more Margarine, dough, candy bar
expensive ingredients. Controls
& cocoa powder
sugar crystallisation and the flow
properties of chocolate. Helps in
the homogeneous mixing of
Mixture
of peptides
and
proteins Fruit jam, jelly babies, shells
ingredients.
Uses as
a coating.
of collagen extracted from the
of pharmaceutical capsules,
boiled bones, connective tissues,
margarine & yogurt
organs and some intestines of
animals

Thickeners
Functions:
thicken food
give the food dense, smooth and uniform texture
Thickeners
Gelatin

Pectin
Starch

Functions

Example

Side

effect
Mixture of peptides and Fruit jam, jelly babies,
proteins of collagen
shells of
extracted from the
pharmaceutical
boiled bones, connective capsules, margarine &
tissues, organs and
yogurt
some intestines of
Dietary
fiber
Fruit jam
animals
Thicken food
Soup, custard, pudding,
noodles and pasta

Dyes / Colouring
Dyes

(colouring agents) - chemicals added to

foods to give them colour to improve their
appearance.
Some foods are naturally coloured, but lost
during food processing. The foods industry uses
synthetic food colours to :
a) Restore the colour of food lost
b) Enhance natural colours,
c) Give colour to foods that do not have
colour.

EXAMPLE OF DYES
Azo and triphenyl compounds. Both these
compounds are organic compounds.
The Brilliant blue - triphenyl compound.
Tartrazine and sunset yellow - azo compounds.
Azo compounds - yellow , red, brown, black in
colour.
Triphenyl compounds green, blue or purple
in colour.

MODERN MEDICINE

1. Stimulants

Increase the level of activity, arousal and alertness of

the mind

Example
Amphetamine , dextroampheteamine and
methylphenidate
is prescribed to relieve mild depression and fatigue

2. Antidepressants
Increase the activity of neutrotransmitter (chemicals
that pass signal between nerve cells) in the brain

Example
tranquilisers ,barbiturate or fluoxetine
Prescribe to moderately depressed patients who feel
sad, hopeless and may having crying spells

3. Antipsychotic drugs :
Reduce the activity of neurotransmitter in the

Example :
Clozapine is prescribe to schizophrenia patients who
tend to hear non existent voices or believes other
people are plotting to harm them

PROPER MANAGEMENT

DETERGENT
1.Wear gloves when working with strong detergent
to protect your hands
2.Use biodegradable detergent
3.Use appropriate amounts of detergent

FOOD ADDITIVES
1.Be a wise consumer. Read the label to know what
you are eating
2.Avoid consuming too much salt and sugar
3.Read up to know about food additives
4.Avoid foodstuff with additives which you are
sensitive to
5.Avoid rewarding children with junk food

MEDICINES
1.Do not store up medicines
2.No self medication
3.Do not take medicine prescribed for someone
else
4. check for expiry date
5.Follow your doctor prescription
6.Take the medicine after meals
7.Take the medicine with correct dose

:SODIUM ALKYL
SULPHATE

PREPARATION

1. FORMATION OF AN ORGANIC ACID

H2 O

CH3(CH2)nCH2OH +

Water

Long Chain

+ Concentrated

Alcohol

CH3(CH2)nCH2

Sulphuric acid

Alkyl Sulphonic
Acid

2. NEUTRALISATION
CH3(CH2)nCH2

Water

Alkyl Sulphonic
Acid

+ NaOH
Na + H2O

+ NaOH

CH3(CH2)nCH2

Sodium Alkyl +
Sulphate

:SODIUM ALKYLBENZENE
SULPHATE

PREPARATION

1. FORMATION OF AN ORGANIC ACID

CH3(CH2)nCH=CH2 +
Long Chain Alkene + Benzene
CH3(CH2)nCH2
+ H2 O
Alkyl benzene

Alkyl benzene

+
+ concentrated
H2SO4

CH3(CH2)nCH(CH3)

CH3(CH2)nCH2

Alkyl benzene Sulphonic

Acid

+ Water

2. NEUTRALISATION
CH3(CH2)nCH2
+ H2 O

Water

Alkyl Sulphonic

NaOH

CH3(CH2)nCH2

+ NaOH

Sodium

Na