Editor-in-Chief: ZSOLT VISY

Managing Editor: MIHLY NAGY

Copy Editor: ZSUZSA B. KISS

Individual chapters edited by

LSZL BARTOSIEWICZ, KATALIN T. BIR, ERZSBET JEREM, JZSEF LASZLOVSZKY, MIHY NAGY,
LSZL RVSZ, ANDREA VADAY, TIVADAR VIDA, ZSUZSANNA M. VIRG, ZSOLT VISY, KATALIN WOLLK
Illustrations edited by ANDREA VADAY
Bibliography compiled by JUDIT SOLTI
Maps drawn by LSZL SEBK
Design by IMRE KOVTS
Authors:
LSZL BARTOSIEWICZ, ERZSBET BCSKAY, CSAND BLINT, MARIANN BLINT, ESZTER BNFFY, KATALIN T. BIR,
MRIA BONDR, LSZL BORHY, GERGELY BUZS, MARIETTA CSNYI, VIOLA T. DOBOSI, LSZL DOMBORCZKY, ILDIK
EGRY, KATALIN ERNYEY, TAMS FEJRDY, KLRA P. FISCHL, JEN FITZ, ISTVN FODOR, ATTILA GAL,
DNES GABLER, GYRGY GOLDMAN, JNOS GMRI, ANDRS GRYNAEUS, FERENC GYULAI, GBOR HATHZI,
FERENC HORVTH, LSZL ANDRS HORVTH, ESZTER ISTVNOVITS, JNOS JELEN, ERZSBET JEREM, GBOR KALLA,
TIBOR KEMENCZEI, RBERT KERTSZ, VIKTRIA KISS, EDIT KOCSIS, GYNGYI KOVCS, GABRIELLA KULCSR,
VALRIA KULCSR, JZSEF LASZLOVSZKY, KROLY MAGYAR, GBOR MRKUS, KROLY MESTERHZY, ZSUZSA MIKLS,
RBERT MLLER, MIHLY NAGY, HARGITA ORAVECZ, SYLVIA PALGYI, ILDIK PAP, ILDIK POROSZLAI, KLRA PCZY,
GBOR REZI KAT, LSZL RVSZ, BEATRIX ROMHNYI, EDINA RUDNER, TIBOR SABJN, KATALIN SIMN,
KATALIN H. SIMON, PL SMEGI, GBOR V. SZAB, ILDIK SZATHMRY, KATALIN SZENDE, BLA MIKLS SZKE,
MIKLS TAKCS, JUDIT TRNOKI, GBOR TOMKA, GNES B. TTH, ENDRE TTH, ISTVN TTH, ANDREA VADAY,
GBOR VKONY, MAGDOLNA VICZE, TIVADAR VIDA, ZSUZSANNA M. VIRG, ZSOLT VISY, ISTVN VRS,
MRIA WOLF, KATALIN WOLLK, ISTVN ZALAI-GAL, PAULA ZSIDI
Translated by
NICHOLAS HORTON
MAGDALNA SELEANU
KATALIN SIMN
The preparation of the illustrations for printing was made possible by a grant from the National Cultural Fund
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording or any other information storage and retrieval system, without
prior permission in writing by the publisher.

Department of Monuments of the Ministry of National Cultural Heritage, 2003

ISBN 963 86291 8 5
Managing Publisher: Dr Lszl Diszegi
Editor-in-Chief: Bla Barabs
Cover design: Imre Kovts
Layout: Bla Antal & Gbor Hingyi
Printed in Hungary by Szekszrdi Nyomda

372 The Middle Ages and the post-medieval period

Fig. 26. Oven plastered with sherds, uncovered in one of the medieval
houses at Muhi

lowed by an intensive collection of surface finds. A grid system was laid over the site, and university students from
Miskolc collected and registered every find within the grid
squares. Students from the geophysics department of the
Etvs Lornd University prepared a magnetometer survey
of the area under the direction of Sndor Puszta, and this was
compared with the data from earlier aerial photographs and
with the information from the new aerial reconnaissance. We
also searched for traces of chemical changes in the soil using
phosphate analysis. The choice of areas to be excavated and
the field techniques to be used were based on the evaluation
of these surveys and analytical results. The results of the excavation fulfilled our expectations since we gained an overall
picture of the development of the market towns structure
and its late medieval features. We found the market towns
main street, lined with closely set houses on both sides (Fig.
24). The outer districts of the town were more loosely built
up and the houses were generally smaller. The third investigated area yielded a number of residential buildings and an
extensive ditch system that can be associated with livestock
raising, although it must be noted that some of these ditches
date to the settlements decline in the Ottoman period and
not to the late medieval period (Fig. 25).
The detailed evaluation of the find material will enable a
precise determination of the towns development and the
phases reflecting the settlements transformation from a
small village into a significant market town and, also, of how
this process affected the life of its inhabitants (Fig. 26).

CATHEDRALS, MONASTERIES AND

CHURCHES: THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF
ECCLESIASTIC MONUMENTS
Jzsef Laszlovszky & Beatrix Romhnyi
When Saint Stephen began the creation of the Hungarian
ecclesiastic system around the year 1000, the first step was the

organization of the dioceses. The ten bishoprics established

by him Esztergom, Kalocsa, Veszprm, Gyr, Vc, Eger,
Bihar, Erdly, Csand, Pcs formed the backbone of the
Hungarian diocesan system in later centuries as well. Three
new dioceses were later established in the Carpathian Basin,
Nyitra (Nitra, Slovakia) and Zagreb at the turn of the 11th
12th centuries and another one, Szerm, in the mid-14th
century. At the end of the 11th century, the seat of the bishopric of Bihar was moved to Nagyvrad (Oradea, Romania).
There are hardly any early episcopal seats whose medieval churches have survived in their original, or more or less
original forms. Most of them were destroyed during the Ottoman period, while the ones that survived were significantly altered in the ensuing centuries. The two churches
that preserve their medieval forms lie outside the current
borders of Hungary, in Nyitra (Slovakia) and Gyulafehrvr
(Alba Iulia, Romania). The Cathedral of Pcs too preserves
some of its medieval features, in spite of the fact that it underwent a significant reconstruction, involving historicizing
alterations during the later 19th century. The cathedrals of
Gyr and Veszprm similarly preserve many medieval elements, but the two buildings are in essence Baroque and
Classicist. The remains of other cathedrals are only known
from archaeological excavations. The remains of some, such
as the ones in Eger and Kalocsa, have survived fairly extensively, buried under the modern surface, while only a few
carved stones and descriptions have remained of others,
such as the one in Esztergom, known from earlier surveys,
since the building itself and its foundations were destroyed
as a result of modern construction projects.
The next level of the ecclesiastic organization was represented by the archdeaconries. Substantially less is known
about their emergence and development than that of the
bishoprics. As part of the investigation of bailiffs centres in
more recent decades, a number of early churches have been
uncovered, for example in Borsod, Szabolcs and Visegrd,
and in a few cases, like Sopron, the churchs former location
is known from earlier descriptions. Bearing in mind that this
level of the ecclesiastical organization went thorough significant changes at a fairly early date, already during the 12th
century, the archdeaconal churches in essence preserved
their 11th century forms without change.
MEDIEVAL MONASTERIES
Research into medieval monasticism and monasteries traditionally falls within the field of ecclesiastic history. In Hungary, however, ecclesiastic history was explicitly forced into
the background after World War 2. In contrast, there has
been quite some progress in the architectural and archaeological study of medieval monasteries in more recent decades. A number of major historic preservation projects involving the investigation and restoration of monastic centres have been launched owing to their great importance to
Hungarian culture. Archaeological and topographical work

Cathedrals, monasteries and churches: the archaeology of ecclesiastic monuments | 373

Fig. 27. Excavated sections of the Cistercian abbey at Pszt

Fig. 28. Reconstruction of the Cistercian abbey at Pszt

also contributed a wealth of new information, meaning that

we can now securely identify the medieval monasteries that
were deserted during the Ottoman period and whose ruins
have for the most part disappeared without a trace in the
post-medieval and modern period. In many cases, medieval
archaeology undertook one of ecclesiastical historys activities and today an outline of the history of medieval monasticism in Hungary is inconceivable without knowledge of the
archaeological finds.
At the turn of the 10th11th centuries, representatives of
both western and eastern monasticism arrived in Hungary,
roughly at the same time. Those from the West followed
the rules of Saint Benedict and those from the East the rules
of Saint Basil, this being the reason that they are called
Benedictines or Basilians. Although at first both branches of
monasticism enjoyed the sovereigns support, the number
of Benedictine abbeys surpassed by far those of the Basilians
already in the 11th century. At the turn of the 12th century,
however, when the consequences of the 1054 schism began
to be felt in Hungary as well, the Orthodox monasteries
were gradually forced into the background until they
practically ceased to exist by the earlier 13th century. Later
on, from the end of the 14th century, the establishment of
Orthodox monasteries can be exclusively linked to the immigrant populations, mostly Romanians and Serbs, who followed the Eastern Rite.
Parallel to the process mentioned above, the great western reform orders arrived in the earlier 12th century, first
the Premonstratensians around 1130 at Vradhegyfok and
later the Cistercians at Cikdor in 1142. While the latter order enjoyed the support of the ruler, particularly Bla III,
the former became popular among the aristocracy and the
nobility (Figs. 2729).
A radical change occurred in the concept of the monastic
ideal in Europe during the earlier 13th century. A more active, ministering, missionary monastic life was promoted in-

stead of the earlier contemplative, hermetic traditions. The

first representatives of this new ideal were the Dominicans
and the Franciscans. Both of these orders established themselves in Hungary before the Mongolian invasion, but their
large-scale spread only started in the later 13th century. A
third order, that of the Augustinian hermits, arrived after
the Mongolian invasion. Finally, the Carmelites came after
a delay of about a century. They were unable to create an independent province; in the Middle Ages they had a total of
no more than four monasteries in the country.
Last, but not least, a few words about the hermit orders.
We must first mention the Carthusians owing to their
prominence in Europe, although they played a minor role in
Hungary. Their first two monasteries were built at the turn
Fig. 29. Remains of the Cistercian abbey at Szentgotthrd. The
medieval ruins were incorporated into a granary; following the
archaeological investigations, the medieval remains were exhibited in
the towns theatre

374 The Middle Ages and the post-medieval period

of the 13th14th centuries in the Szepes region, while in the
later 14th century they settled in Felstrkny (near Eger)
and Lvld (present-day Vrosld). The latter monastery,
the only one established by the king, was one of the countrys wealthiest and most influential ecclesiastic institutions
during the two centuries preceding the Turkish occupation.
The priory of Lvld played a significant role in the countrys cultural life, for example in the dissemination of religious literature in Hungarian. The rdy Codex was one of
the many fine works written here.
The other hermit order that rose to prominence in Hungary was the Order of the St. Paul the Hermit, known as the
Paulites. The process during which they organized their order lasted for roughly half a century, from the mid-13th
century to their recognition by the Pope in 1308. This long
process ultimately also meant that the order could not retain
its purely hermit nature; depending on the circumstances,
monastic or mendicant features appeared in individual communities. In the later Middle Ages, the Paulites could boast
the largest network of monasteries next to the Franciscans,
but at the same time it is conspicuous that the most of their
monasteries were quite small, accommodating communities
of no more than six to twelve people.
The earliest archaeologically known buildings of monastic architecture date from the mid- to the later 11th century.
These include the crypt in the Tihany and Feldebr church
and early parts of the abbeys at Zselicszentjakab and
Somogyvr. These reflect cultural influences from Germany and northern Italy. It must be noted, however, that in
the majority of the cases there is information only on the
church. In Hungary, cloisters first appeared in the 12th century, and it seems likely that the first among them were in
the Cistercian abbeys, whose groundplan was modelled on
the founding abbey; at the same time, there were several
monasteries whose cloister was never fully constructed even
as late as the 13th century (for example at Jk, Vrtesszentkereszt, Gyulafirtt and csa). The building types introduced in the 13th century by the newly established orders
usually followed the forms that had developed until then, although local settlement features, especially the urban environment, did influence the groundplan to a certain extent.
The development of the monasterys entire quadrangle often lasted quite a long time in these cases, sometimes attaining the final form in the modern period (for example in
Szcsny or the Franciscan friary in Szeged).
Even though the churches were built on a wide range of
groundplans, they nonetheless shared a number of common
features. Most churches of the monastic orders have three
aisles with either one or three apses although a few one
or two aisled buildings with a central plan can also be
quoted. The majority was built with paired western towers
paired eastern towers were an exception. The mendicant orders modified local building types to their own needs for the
most part. Therefore we may only speak of the architecture
of the mendicant orders with certain restrictions. The distinguishing features in the appearance of these churches are

simplicity, lack of ornament, church interiors that could accommodate a fairy large congregation and several aisles, as
well as a long, projecting chancel that was the monastic
choir. In addition to this, a single eastern tower at the meeting of the chancel and the cloister is characteristic of Franciscan churches. The majority of Paulite churches were
even more modest. Most of them were relatively small, with
the size of the nave indicating that they did not count on the
attendance of a large mass of believers for the liturgy. Some
of these churches could even be called chapels. At the same
time, some exceptions can also be quoted, such as the orders centre at Budaszentlrinc.
For a long time archaeological research focused almost
exclusively on the monasteries churches and residential
buildings. During the excavations and topographical surveys conducted over the past few decades, however, emphasis has also been placed on the monastic centres outbuildings. As a result, we now have a better idea of how individual
monastic orders differed from each other in this respect and
to what extent these differences can be traced to the hierarchy and history of the order (Fig. 30).
The monasteries were not just made up of a church and
monastery buildings, they also contained various outbuildings for the communities economic activities. Some of
these were used for storing and processing agricultural produce, while others were erected for expressly industrial activities. A third type of structure is represented by the water
supply and storage systems that not only supplied the monasterys drinking water, but often the water needed for the
industrial activities and its provisioning (fishponds).
The study of Cistercian abbeys revealed that in Hungary
the western side of the abbey complex, the so-called
conversis wing, where the lay brothers were accommodated,
was very often not a residential building, but a storehouse.
The reason for this is the lack of conversi mentioned in the
written sources. The single known monastic metal workshop functioned in the Cistercian abbey of Pilis; judging
from the amount of slag found in the yard beside it, the
workshop could boast a rather intensive production until
the end of the Middle Ages. Another significant industrial
structure, a glass workshop was active in the Pszt abbey.
The finds associated with the building indicate that the
workshop mostly produced window panes.
The utilization of water in the monasteries was quite var-

Fig. 30. Ornamented floor tile

from the Cistercian abbey at
Pilis

Cathedrals, monasteries and churches: the archaeology of ecclesiastic monuments | 375

Fig. 31. Ruins of the Paulite monastery at Gnc

ied. The only complete system has been uncovered in the

Cistercian abbey of Pilis, where water from nearby springs
was led in three directions with the appropriate regulation.
One part of the water supplied the abbeys cloisters, another
was pooled by a dam and was used by the metal workshop,
while the third was used in the gardens. The water from the
entire system was led into a single conduit that disposed the
sewage water beyond the walls of the abbey.
An interesting water management system is indicated by
the small ponds generally found in the immediate vicinity of
Paulite monasteries. These were at first interpreted as
fishponds, but it seems more likely that they functioned as
reservoirs since some of them are so small that fish could
hardly have been bred in them. At the Paulite monastery in
Toronyalja, a pond impounded in this manner had a wellbuilt conduit leading to a small building nearby that the archaeologist working on the site identified as a mill. As a
matter of fact, mills and genuine fishponds, lying in the
broader surroundings of the monastery, played an important role in the economy of the Paulites.
The ponds and other water regulation systems came into
the focus of archaeological interest not simply because of
their economic role. One of the most useful methods for
identifying a former monastery is the search for structures of
this type, especially in the case of certain monastic orders and
their monasteries. The Paulites, for example, often settled in
forested areas, but not too far from other settlements. During
the Ottoman period, their monasteries were abandoned and
began to decay (Fig. 31). The ones lying near villages that

were occupied or resettled in the post-medieval period

mostly disappeared without a trace because their ruins were
used as a source of building materials by the inhabitants of
nearby villages. Despite this, the sites of former monasteries
in the Pilis, Bakony and Zempln Mountains can be identified during field surveys using the research methods of landscape archaeology. The establishment of fishponds, mills and
dams required significant earth-moving operations, and these
survived even after the destruction of the monastery. Since
the water regulation systems were not kept in repair, they
quickly decayed, but the large dams and man-made channels
remain visible on the surface to this very day. Unlike the good
quality stone, there was no sense in taking these away since
they were usually made of earth. Similarly, traces of largescale earthworks are preserved in the terraces created on the
steep hillsides for cultivation, attesting to the monasteries
clearance work even in reforested areas. The survey of these
areas can be of aid in the identification of monasteries, their
former properties and fields.
The excavation of wells and cisterns is also part of the research of the monasteries water supply systems. In more recent years, two such structures have been successfully uncovered in Franciscan friaries. The first is the well of the
Franciscan friary at Visegrd that was constructed of beautifully carved stones with curved inner sides to collect ground
water. The second was found during the investigation of the
Franciscan friary in Buda: a cistern with an interesting filtering system that conducted rainwater to a basin in the centre of the courtyard.
THE FRANCISCAN FRIARY IN VISEGRD
The monuments of the mendicant orders can be discussed
in two contexts in relation to the archaeological study of
Fig. 32. Hall of the chapter house in the Franciscan friary at Visegrd, with the remains of the Gothic vaulting from the collapsed ceiling

376 The Middle Ages and the post-medieval period

Fig. 33. Remains of the altar in the chapter house, of the Franciscan
friary at Visegrd

medieval monastic orders. The Franciscans and the Dominicans, the two most important mendicant orders, primarily
settled in towns and thus the excavation of their houses and
friaries is part of both urban archaeology and the archaeology of ecclesiastic monuments. European historical research has convincingly shown that the presence of Franciscan and Dominican friaries in a settlement can be used as a
yardstick of its degree of urbanization; the presence of several mendicant orders friaries reflect an even higher level of
urbanization. Besides these general statements, though,
there are examples of the friary of a mendicant order indicating a far more complex situation. The excavation of this
type of monument provides archaeological information on
the impact and influence of royal authority, medieval urban
life and ecclesiastic institutions on each other. One case in
point is the Franciscan friary in Visegrd (Fig. 32).
Large-scale excavations have been conducted in the immediate surroundings of the royal palace since the early
1990s, with the aim of uncovering one of medieval Visegrds most important ecclesiastic buildings, the remains of
the Franciscan friary. The Medieval Archaeology Department of the Etvs Lornd University co-ordinates this research project because the site provides an outstanding opportunity for students of medieval archaeology to acquire
the necessary experience and practice that is needed for
evaluating the features and finds of a medieval site. The
proximity of the royal palace and Visegrds other monuments also makes it possible for the students working here
to acquaint themselves with other excavations, together
with the principles and the practice of historic restorations.
The beginning of research into the friary was very similar
to the first excavation of the royal palace. In this case also, we
knew that there had been in Visegrd a significant Franciscan
friary founded by King Sigismund, on which according to
the evidence of a Matthias period document further con-

struction work had been planned. We also knew that in the

early 16th century, the chapter of the Observant provincia had
been held at this friary. Attempts had been made to locate the
friary on the basis of this information, but without success.
Although the traces of two ecclesiastic buildings were discovered within the territory of the present-day settlement, neither of these showed the characteristic traits of a Franciscan
friary. It was not mere chance that the remains of the friary
had earlier been sought near the medieval settlement, rather
than in the vicinity of the palace. Similarly to the other medieval mendicant orders, the Franciscans built their houses in
the major urban settlements since they regarded the spiritual
care of urban populations as one of their most important
tasks. Their simplicity and poverty was in stark contrast to the
royal palaces luxurious, ostentatious life. In this sense, the
Visegrd friary was an exception. The sections uncovered to
date suggest that it acted as a transition between the world of
urban burghers and the royal court, representing a type of
meeting point between the two.
In the 1980s, minor sounding excavations were undertaken on the plot next to the palace, where the remains of a
large building were found. It was apparent that significant
building remains lay concealed in the ground and that numerous carved stones would be uncovered. The excavations
of the past ten years have surpassed all expectations, revealing that that the site holds a magnificent friary building with
superbly crafted architectural elements. The walls of the
cloister, the chapter house and the refectory were preserved
to a height of 1.5 m in some places. The carved stones of the
Gothic vaulting were found under the thick layer of debris
covering the friarys former flooring. Gothic ribs of vaulting, keystones and corbels came to light; several hundred
elaborate architectural carvings were inventoried.
The high number of carved stones enabled a detailed architectural reconstruction. It became clear that the Sigismund period building was built in several phases, and it
seems likely that the basic outlay of the friary incorporated
Fig. 34. The well of the Franciscan friary at Visegrd

Castles, forts and stockades medieval and Ottoman period military architecture | 377
one or more earlier stone buildings. In the Matthias period
more alterations followed that did not, however, affect the
entire monastery. There are no written sources about this period, but the style of the carved stones, as well as the presence
of similar carvings at the palace, confirms this dating. The
most significant alteration, took place in the Jagellonian period. The majority of buildings in the ensemble were given a
new vaulting; the one in the chapter house was particularly
ornate. The altar too suggests that it had also functioned as a
chapel. It may even have been a private royal chapel since the
Franciscans were traditionally the kings confessors (Fig. 33).
The excavations also revealed how this magnificent
building fell into decay. In the Ottoman period the friary
was abandoned, similarly to the town, and only the castle remained to suffer several sieges. The buildings slowly began
to fall into ruin (Fig. 34). The surviving areas of the friary
were used a burial ground because it was a consecrated site.
Later still, when the ruins had lost all their significance, they
were regarded as a source of building material. First to be
removed was the brick paving from the cloister, followed by
the larger stones as the friary decayed even further. In the
meantime, the still extant larger sections also collapsed. In
the 18th century, the German settlers removed only the
stones they needed for their houses, and they erected small
rural buildings on top of the levelled ruins. The shallow
foundations of the post-medieval houses hardly disturbed
the medieval remains: for example, elements of the collapsed vaulting remained where they had fallen. Accumulating to several meters in some spots, the debris actually
served as a protective layer. A number of other archaeological remains were uncovered during the excavation of the
walls of the 15th century friary, some two meters below the
floor level of the Franciscan buildings. These were the remains of the houses built by the burghers who had settled
next to the royal court in the early 14th century. The excavation of the Franciscans buildings has not only enriched
the relics of Visegrd with a medieval ecclesiastic
monument, but has also provided information on how the
urban inhabitants lived in the vicinity of the palace during
the time of Charles Robert.

CASTLES, FORTS AND STOCKADES

MEDIEVAL AND OTTOMAN PERIOD
MILITARY ARCHITECTURE
Gergely Buzs, Gyngyi Kovcs & Zsuzsa Mikls
The study of castles has traditionally been an important
part of medieval archaeology. The excavations and topographical work of the past decades, has revealed that many
types of fortification existed in the Middle Ages beside the
familiar knights castles made of stone. The research also
provides fundamental information for medieval power relationships.

MINOR CASTLES
A few decades ago it was generally accepted that there were
hardly any castles in Hungary before the Mongolian invasion (1241) and that, strictly speaking, the construction of
private castles in Hungary began during the second half of
Bla IVs reign. Only in the wake of research in recent decades has it become clear that there existed a small castle
type already in the 12th13th centuries that differed in several respects from the castles appearing from the later 13th
century.
The investigation of this type of castle began in the 1960s
and 1970s as part of archaeological topographical work, and
later became more intensive in the 1970s. The first study
covering a wider geographical area was published on the
Brzsny Mountains region and was followed by similar
studies on the Gdll Hill and the Mtra Mountains region, Ngrd county and historic Borsod county, as well as
a portion of Baranya county. Research methods have also
been perfected during recent years. Earlier research was
mostly based on existing written sources, cartographic documentation and field surveys; the potentials of aerial photography and reconnaissance are now also fully utilized,
meaning that we can now identify castles whose traces are
not visible in the course of field surveys (Fig. 35). We have
investigated as many castles as possible through excavation
when possible, not simply by opening one or two trial
trenches, but with a full exploration. We can thus familiarize ourselves not only with the fortifications structure, but
also with its layout, as well as the dwellings and outbuildings
it contained, while the finds offer an insight into the daily
life of the castles inhabitants.
The minor castles were most commonly placed on the
long ridges of lower hills; they can also be found on hills rising only a few meters above the floodplain. Some exceptions
occur, however for example in the Brzsny Mountains
Fig. 35. Earthen fort at BikcsBels sziget