Thesis

CHAPTER - 1
INTRODUCTION
In many applications right from house hold furniture to industrial
components steel is employed. Plain carbon and alloy steels other than
stainless steels are prone to various forms of corrosion when exposed to
external atmosphere. Processes like galvanizing, aluminizing and electro
plating of chromium and nickel are used to deposit coatings of zinc, Al
Cr, Nickel, Cadmium coating and phaspating are used to protect the
component from corrosion [1-15]. Aluminium deposited by the methods
discussed above under goes oxidation. The oxide layer is impervious to
external atmosphere and hence protects the steel from corrosion/
oxidation. Aluminium is used as sacrificial anode to protects ships,
submarine and other marine structures. Aluminium coating can be
obtained by numerous methods involving processes in liquid (hot
dipping) and solid state (pack aluminizing) [16]. However, these processes
tend to result in the formation of inter-metallics and grain growth of the
substrate. Solid state processes like friction surfacing that enable
deposition of a thin layer in solid state can offer a solution for the
deficiencies of the conventional processes discussed above. Solid state
1
welding processes are in vogue to weld those aluminium alloys that are
not weldable by fusion welding. In some of the applications groove
welding is called for. Hence the present study is planned to develop an
understanding on friction surfacing of mild steel and groove welding of
an aluminium alloy in solid state.
1.1. Objectives of present work

The aim of the present work is to friction surface mild steel to
impart corrosion resistance. The process of friction surfacing is selected
as it is free from environmental pollution. In addition aluminium and
mild steel are reactive and have strong tendency to form brittle intermetallics. For this reason fusion based processes are not suitable. Since
friction surfacing is based on deposition of metal in solid state by
frictional heat generated between substrate and coating material and
melting does not occur, the interaction between substrate and coating
material is in solid state only and hence adverse reactions are minimum.
For the above enumerated reasons the process is thought to be more
suitable for the envisaged purpose. In addition, it may be noted that
although the system has been previously investigated by earlier research
workers [17, 18] the studies were more limited to understanding the
influence of individual process variables on physical dimensions of
2
coatings and their mechanical behavior. The studies were mainly

confined to deposition of hard metal over soft metals and very limited
data are available on soft metal coating over hard metal.
It is also
reported by some of the earlier researchers [19] that it is not feasible to

coat aluminium over mild steel. Therefore, the present study envisages
understanding
the
influence
of
individual
parameters
and
their
interactive effects on coating characteristics.

Some of the aluminium alloys are not weldable by fusion welding
due to solidification cracking. In addition the weld contains cast
structure and inherits solidification defects, such as porosity and
segregation. To address these problems solid state welding processes like
friction welding are employed. Geometry limitation in conventional
friction welding is over come by linear friction welding. In order to weld
larger components, as well as produce linear welds, friction stir welding
that utilizes frictional heat generated between the components to be
welded and a rotating tool has been developed and is widely practiced by
the industry to weld many aluminium alloys. However, the enumerated
solid state welding processes do not permit groove welding, which is a
requirement in certain situations. Friction surfacing could be a solution
for this problem if the process can be utilized to fill the groove in solid
3
state by employing a consumable rod. Such feasibility has been cited by

TWI in the year 2011[18]. It is not worthy to mention that, studies in this
direction lack in the open literature till date. Hence, it is proposed to
establish feasibility of groove welding in solid state by utilizing friction
heat generated between a consumable rod and substrate to heat the
consumable to viscoplastic region and deposit the same in to the groove
by shearing action of the linear force of forward moving substrate.
1.2. Scope of the present research work

It is proposed to study the physical and mechanical characteristics
of coatings obtained by friction surfacing of aluminium over mild steel to
understand,
The micro structure and bond integrity

To obtain strong, ductile and adherent coatings.
To understand the influence of parameters on bond quality and its
properties
Design and implement test for mechanical characterization of the
coatings to evaluate bond strength and ductility by appropriate
testing methodology
To investigate the influence of parameters and their interaction by
statistical analysis of data generated from experiments based on
statistical design of experiments.
4
To investigate the role of coating on improving the corrosion
resistance of the substrate.

Establish feasibility of groove welding in solid state and evaluate the
microstructure and mechanical properties of the welds so produced
1.3. Surface modification processes

Surfaces of engineering structures and components are modified
for purposes such as improvement of wear resistance, corrosion
resistance and aesthetic appearance. The techniques employed can be
categorized in to
i. Process involving change in composition of the surface
ii. Process that do not lead to change in composition.
The first process is generally called as physico-chemical process.
The surface modification methods consist of several approaches
involving heat treatment, solid state diffusion followed by heat treatment,
vapor deposition, melt spray deposition, weld overlaying, electroplating,
deposition of material in solid state by utilizing frictional heat etc.
A broad classification of the surface modification process is

presented in Fig.1.1.
Surface modification
processes
Fusion
based
Solid
state
Electro
plating
and
anodizing
Physical vapor
deposition
Vapor
deposition
Plasma spray
Carburising
Weld over lay
Carbonitridin
g
Flame spray
Induction
hardening
Laser based
Flame
hardening
Electron
beam based
Friction
surfacing
Chemical vapor
vapor
Chemical
deposition
deposition
Galvanizin
gAluminizi
ng
Fig.1.1.Classification of surface modification processes [33]

The principles of some of the processes are summarized below;
1.4. Processes based on change in composition of surface

In these processes a material different from the parent material is
deposited either in the form of thin layers as well as in thick deposits. In
addition, the composition of the surface is altered by solid state diffusion
of another element in to the parent metal [20].
1.4.1. Processes based on solid state diffusion

Carburizing
In this process the carbon content in a low carbon steels is
enhanced by the diffusion of carbon in solid state by pack carburizing,
gas carburizing by heating in a hydro carbon atmosphere and in the
liquid state in cyanide baths. This diffusion treatment is followed by heat
treatment to increase the hardness of the surface layer [21].
Nitriding
7
Nitrozen is diffused in to nitriding class of steel by heating the

component in an atmosphere of ammonia. The increased nitrogen
content in the surface layer results in high hardness, which enhances
wear resistance [22].
Carbo-nitriding
In this process both carbon and nitrogen are diffused in to surface
layers of steels by appropriate treatments to enhance the hardenability of
the steels in order to improve wear resistance [23]
Cyaniding
This process is carried out in liquid cyanide bath to diffuse carbon
and nitrogen in to surface layers of steel to enhance the hardenability of
the steel [24].
Surface alloying using laser and electron beam as heat source
Laser and electron beam are used to melt the surface of a steel
component. Some of the alloying elements are introduced in to the
molten layer by powder feeding mechanism to change the surface
composition of the component [25].
1.4.2. Processes based on without altering composition

8
Induction hardening
In this process the component is heated locally using high
frequency current and subjected to high cooling rate to get martensitic
structure that is hard to improve wear resistance [26].
Flame hardening
The surface of the steel component is heated
using gas flame
followed by water quenching to obtain martensitic micro structure [27]

Laser and electron beam heat treatment
The process consists of preferentially heating the surface above
critical temperature to improve the hardness of the surface layer by
phase transformation in to martensite by virtue of high cooling rate to
room temperature [28].
1.4.3. Fusion based processes

Weld overlay
Arc welding processes are employed to melt a filler metal and

deposit the same on to the surface of the component to modify its surface
characteristics such as wear and corrosion resistance [29].
Spray deposition process
In these processes powder is introduced in to a gas flame or
plasma flame to melt the same and is sprayed on to a surface of interest
employing an inert gas as a carrier [30]
1.4.4. Vapor deposition processes

In this approach material to be deposited on a surface of interest
by converting the coating material in to vapor by melting in physical
vapor deposition technique [31, 37]. The other variation of the process is
a compound is made to dissociate in to individual constituent and is
made to deposit on a substrate.
1.4.5. Electroplating
In these processes the component to be coated is employed as a
cathode and is dipped in to electrolyte containing the coating material.
Passage of current enables the material to be deposited on to the surface
of interest by the electrolysis of the electrolyte [32]. For example
10
chromium and nickel coatings are obtained on steel components to

enhance corrosion resistance.
1.4.6.
Aluminizing, cadmium coating and galvanizing
Coating of aluminium, cadmium and zinc by numerous methods

are employed to impart corrosion resistance to the components of steels.
These coatings are thin and some of them result in change in the micro
structure of the substrate [2, 7, and 8]
1.4.7.
Solid state deposition and coating techniques.
Explosive cladding
In this process explosive energy is utilized to bond a sheet of
material on to a parent metal with the help of explosive energy [40, 41].
Roll bonding
In roll bonding a sheet of coating material is bonded on to a metal
plate of interest by passing both of them together through the roll gap of
a rolling mill. Bonding occurs between the sheet and the plate by the
thermo mechanical working involving plastic deformation [39].
Friction based processes for cladding and coating
11
Energy generated in the form of frictional heat is in vogue for thin

coatings on a surface as well as thick deposits in the form of clad overlay
[51]. Thin coatings are generally employed wherever wear resistance and
short time corrosion resistance are important considerations. Claddings
[54] are employed for long time corrosion resistance in aggressive
corrosive environment such as submarines ships and pressure vessels
dealing with aggressive reactions.
1.5. Groove welding

Groove welding is a fusion based metal joining process to weld
thick plates making a groove between two end surfaces which are to be
joined. The groove is filled with weld metal mainly by arc welding
processes [33, 34]. Major welding processes utilized for the purpose are
shown in Fig. 1.2.
Inert gas
welding
Arc
welding
Consumable arc
welding
Shielded metal arc
welding
Gas metal arc

welding
Non-Consumable arc
welding
Gas tungsten arc welding
(GTAW)
Plasma arc welding
(PAW)
12
Fig.1.2. Groove welding processes
Arc welding is a process where in electric arc generated between

electrode and the material to be joined melts the parent metal and in
certain cases both parent metal and electrode are melted [33]. The
molten metal fills the gap between the grooves enabling the joining of the
plates with groove. In SMAW the electrode employed is a stick electrode
coated with flux. During the process of welding the stick electrode melts
and fills up the groove. The flux coating on electrode forms molten
slagand covers the molten weld metal to prevent it from reaction with the
surrounding atmosphere [34].
In the other variant of arc welding process, an inert gas is used to
protect the weld metal from reaction with surrounding atmosphere. This
process is further classified in to two variants namely, i) consumable
electrode process ii) non consumable process. In consumable process
electrode is fed in to the weld groove in the form of wire that melts to fill
the groove. The molten weld pool is shielded by inert gas such as Argon
or helium. In the non consumable welding process tungsten is used as
electrode. Arc is struck between metal to be welded and electrode which
13
results in melting of the metal to be welded. Filler metal is separately

added through the arc. Other variant of GTAW is plasma arc welding
where extra energy is produced in the arc through ionization of plasma
gas, enabling capability to weld thicker plates [34]. In this process also
filler metal is fed through the plasma separately to fill the groove.
Research efforts in solid state groove welding
Since groove welding processes are based on fusion the weld region
consists of cast structure. Therefore the weld region inherits solidification
defects
such
as
inhomogeneous
composition,
inhomogeneous
microstructure, shrinkage and gas porosity. In addition some of the

materials are not amenable to weld rout through fusion due to cracking
and incompatibility between dissimilar metals. Efforts are being made
through intensive research to develop solid state welding process for
groove welding of similar and dissimilar metals. Friction based groove
welding process is one such process that is cited by TWI [18]. It may
however be noted that, data are not available on the subject in open
literature
1.6. Chapter summary
14
In this chapter process details of surface modification and groove

welding are briefly discussed. Surface modification techniques fall in to
two classes namely those involving changing composition of surfaces and
those without composition change. The coating processes are further
discussed based on the thickness of the metal deposited on the surface.
If the metal deposited in thin it is called as coating and if it is a bulk
deposition it is a cladding. The cladding processes discussed are both
solid state and fusion based processes are discussed. The groove welding
processes discussed are mainly arc welding processes based on fusion.
The processes fall in to two categories namely i) shielded metal arc
welding and ii) inert gas welding.
CHAPTER - 2
LITERATURE SURVEY
2.1. Introduction
In this chapter principles of friction surfacing and friction seam
welding are discussed. The contents include influence of parameters as
well as characterization techniques discussed as a review and as a part
15
of literature survey. The observations reported by earlier researchers on

friction surfacing consisting of different material combinations are
reviewed.
2.2. Surface coating using frictional energy

It is a metal deposition process carried out in solid state. The
method employed in this approach consists of heating a metal rod into
viscoplastic region by the frictional heat generated between the metal rod
in rotation pressed against a linearly moving substrate mounted on a
table (Fig.2.1). The viscoplastic material gets deposited on the substrate
by shearing action of forward force of moving substrate [7, 8, 44, and 49].
16
Fig.2.1. Schematic diagram of friction surfacing [18]
The process of friction surfacing has been reported to have been

patented in the year 1941 by Klopstock and Neelands [17]. Thereafter,
there was a lull period till 1950 during which time Russians revived the
process [47] from then on research work in the area has not been
reported for decades the process gained importance since 1980 through
the works of Nicholas on friction surfaced coatings for corrosion and
wear resistance applications [56]. The applications of the process include
reclamation
of
worn
out
components
and
crack
sealing
[46],
reconditioning of bushings and sliding bearings, hardfacing etc.

The process is a variant of friction stir welding [48]; an off shoot of
friction welding [50], where in non consumable tool in friction stir
welding is replaced by a consumable rod [64]. Since the process is based
17
on utilization of frictional heat produced due to relative motion between

the coating material in rod form and a linearly moving parent metal the
temperatures cannot exceed the melting point of consumable [65].This
enables coating in the solid state. Since melting does not occur, coating
materials that react with the substrate can also be deposited. The
process is environment friendly has no fumes are generated. The
research work published in the area till date consist of different coating
and substrate material combinations involving hard substrate with soft
coating material and soft substrate with hard coating material [49,50,52
and 60]. Studies reported consist of such material combinations based
on steels, aluminum alloys, magnesium alloy, titanium alloys and
bronzes [49, 52, 75, 84,100, and 106]. The list includes coating of metal
matrix composites over aluminium, titanium and mild steel to improve
their wear resistance [87, 88, and 89]. Sum of the material combinations
consisting of ferrous and non ferrous alloy substrates are detailed in
Tables.2.1 and 2.2 respectively. The earlier research works on this
subject encompassed influence of parameters on micro structure,
mechanical properties. Corrosion and wear behavior [75-79,129]. The
mechanism of deposition was also given due consideration [98].
Investigations reported include. Experiments in force control and position
18
control mode, although majority of the works are based on force control
mode of experimentation [88].
19
Substrate
material
Carbon steel
Coating material
Mild steel
Alloy steel : AISI 4140
Alloy steel : AISI 86280
Austenitic SS : AISI 304
Austenitic SS : AISI 316L
Martensitic SS : AISI 410
Tool steel : AISI O1
Tool steel : AISI D2
Tool steel : AISI H13
HSS : BM2, BT15, ASP30
Co-Cr based alloys : Satellite-6,12
Ni-Cr based alloys: Inconnel-600
Aluminium alloy: AA100
References
Gandra etal. [126]
Kramar de Macedo et al.[109]
Kramar de Macedo etal.[109]
Rafi et al.[116] Govardhan etal. [120]
Kramar de Macedo et al.[109],Rafi etal. [112]
Lambrineas and jews burry [65] Puli and Janaki Ram [129]
Lambrineas etal.[63], Liu et al. [98]
Puli et al. [119]
Vitanov et al [94]
Vitanov et al [105]
Puli and Janaki Ram [130]
Chandra sekaran et al. [77]
Rao et al.[125]
Rafi et al. [113,117]
Bedford et al. [88]
Rao et al. [124]
Sugandhi and Ravishankar [132]
20
Report
Coating
Coating
Coating
Coating
Coating
Coating
Coating
Coating
Coating
Coating
Coating
Coating
Coating
Coating
Coating
Coating
Coating
Coating
successful
successful
successful
successful
successful
successful
successful
successful
successful
successful
successful
successful
successful
successful
successful
successful
successful
successful
Stainless steel
Aluminium alloy: AA6061

Titanium (pure)
Copper (pure)
Brass
Bronze
Co-Cr based alloys : Satellite-6,12
Batchelor et al. [28]

Rao et al. [125]
Batchelor et al. [19]
Kershenbaum and Averbukh [53],Kershenbaum[52]
Katayama et al. [101]
Bedford et al. [64] Vitanov and javaid [86]
Not successful
Not successful
Not successful
Not successful
Coating successful
Coating successful
Coating successful
Table.2.1.[131].Details of steel substrates and coating materials combination investigated in friction surfacing.
Substrate
Aluminium
Magnesium
Coating material
Mild steel
Stainless steel : AISI 304
Aluminium : AA1100
Aluminium : AA6063
Aluminium : AA6082
Aluminium : AA5052
Titanium (Pure)
Copper(pure)
Mild steel
Aluminium :AA6063
Titanium (Pure)
Magnesium : AZ91
References
Chandra sekaran et al. [75] Rao et al. [124]
Beyer et al. [93]
Rao et al. [124]
Gandra et al. [134] Ravi [127], Suhuddin et al. [137], Vilaca et al. [122]
Sakihama et al. [91] Tokisue et al. [96]
Rao et al. [123]
Rao et al. [124]
Rao et al. [124]
Rao et al. [124]
Rao et al. [123]
Nakama et al. [100]
21
Report
Coating successful
Coating successful
Coating successful
Coating successful
Coating successful
Coating successful
Coating successful
Coating successful
Not successful
Not successful
Not successful
Coating successful
Copper
NiAl Bronze
Inconel
Titanium
Copper(pure)
Mild steel
Aluminium : AA6063
Titanium (Pure)
Copper(pure)
NiAl Bronze
Rao et al. [125]

Rao et al. [125]
Rao et al. [124]
Rao et al. [125]
Rao et al. [125]
Hanke et al. [72]
Not successful
Coating successful
Not successful
Not successful
Coating successful
Coating successful
Mild steel
Aluminium : AA6063
Titanium (Pure)
Copper(pure)
Mild steel
Aluminium :AA2124
Aluminium :AA6063
Titanium (Pure)
Titanium : Ti-6Al-4V
Copper(pure)
Rao et al. [125]

Rao et al. [124]
Rao et al. [123]
Rao et al. [125]
Rao et al. [125]
Reddy et al. [128]
Rao et al. [124]
Rao et al. [123]
Beyer et al. [93] Nicholas [92]
Rao et al. [125]
Coating successful
Not successful
Not successful
Not successful
Not successful
Coating successful
Not successful
Not successful
Coating successful
Not successful
Table.2.2.[131].Details of nonferrous substrates and coating materials combination investigated in friction

surfacing.
22
Surfacing can also be made onto a circular substrate (i.e., shaft or

tube) in which case a uniform HAZ can be formed [93]. With the forward
movement of the substrate, the velocities from the angular rotation of the
consumable and form the substrate are added together algebraically
[79].They intensify from each other on the advancing side of the rotating
consumable and are subtracted from each other on the retreating side
[80]. In some respects, a comparison can be made with a helicopter in
motion, but under normal process conditions the contribution of the
linear transverse is less than 1%. This would not be expected to lead to
any significant asymmetry in heating or forming the plasticized layers
[81, 82]. However, this lack of symmetry is always more noticeable at the
lower rotational velocities, presumably because the relative velocity of the
substrate is greater; moreover, with the lower rotational speed, an
increased bulk of plasticized material is generated [83].
The deposition zone of the substrate receives scouring action, the
result of relative motion while under an axially applied load, via the
plasticized layer. The scouring action is greater for the central portion of
the deposition zone [84] than the edges, which only experience a
proportionally brief period of surface action form the outer consumable
edge. This leads to the so-called cold lap; an additional factor is the
23
unequal distribution of frictional energy at the free edge of the

consumable because this edge is unable to transmit the same degree of
pressure [85].
Friction surfacing is regarded as an efficient process, which relies
on friction energy to produce the right temperature conditions precisely
at the interface between deposit and substrate [86]; this is produced by
the
mechanism
of
frictional
contact,
via
plasticized
layer.
The
consumption of the rotating bar occurs because of an unequal

temperature distribution between the comparatively small consumable
bar and bulk substrate. A relative increase in temperature occurs
preferentially at the consumable interface [92], which then offers lower
resistance to the shear mechanisms taking place in the consumable such
that metal from the bar is transferred to the colder substrate [93].
Friction surfacing enhances the effect by providing a lateral
motion,
which
continually
introduces
new
ambient
temperature
substrate to the rotating consumable bar [94]. After the initial dynamic
contact by a rigid consumable and after traverse has been initiated, the
scouring action necessary to disperse the continuous intrusion of the
substrate oxide barrier is continued, not by the contact face of the
consumable, but by the plasticized layer produced from the consumable.
24
While it is recognized that this plasticized layer has lower mechanical

strength and correspondingly produces less of a scouring effect [95] than
the
initial
contact
phase
(provided
the
axially
applied
force
is
maintained), it has been shown practically that the oxide dispersal will
continue during processing and will result in sound bonds [96].
The relative lateral movement between consumable and substrate
exposes the continually generated semicircular leading edge of the
deposit to the atmosphere [97]. This may introduce oxides into the
deposit and these may influence the quality of the deposit, especially for
the more reactive materials [100], which may require the use of a
suitable gas shield. Dispersal of the existing oxide into the deposit is
unlikely to be modified to any great extent by process conditions.
Nevertheless, sound deposits of good mechanical strength and adhesion
are produced.
2.2.1. Materials and metallurgy

Friction surfacing is a relatively recent commercial process and
therefore fewer material combinations have been examined, although the
process does have potential to weld many dissimilar combinations. With
the standard process of friction surfacing, the limitations on materials
25
include an availability of bar stock- now less of a limitation. The

consumable in general should have low melting point and softer than the
substrate. The melting point and hardness restrictions are to prevent
melting of the substrate or drilling into the substrate rather than
surfacing onto it. Metallurgical compatibility may also be a factor,
primarily to avoid formation of excessively brittle inter-metallic phases
[73]. However, intermixing between the two materials is minimal, as it is
limited to little micron thickness. Hence, the process is more for giving in
respect of dissimilar incompatible materials.
2.2.2 Equipment
It has been reported that a wide variety of equipments are used for
friction surfacing. They are, conventional vertical milling machine, radial
drilling machine, CNC controlled dedicated machines and Plano millers.
2.2.3 Characterization techniques

The coatings are mainly characterized for their integrity through
micro structural examination to understand the interface characteristics
and by mechanical property evaluation, hardness, bend ductility and
tensile strength. Groove welds are evaluated for strength and ductility
through appropriate standard testing procedures.
26
2.2.4. Applications
For reconditioning of worn shafts and good quality deposits.
Successfully can be employed for hard facing of cutting edges and

agricultural tools
Anti-corrosion overlay
Bi-metal linear bearings and also in-situ reclamation of worn

railway railing.
Multi - sector applications
Cutting edges
Friction surfacing is used for manufacturing long-life cutting edges
on knives, scissors and similar tools. They may be used for cutting paper
and wood as well as plastics. Difficulty generally occurs at which point
existing tools lose their cutting edge, such that the paper is no longer cut
cleanly, or the surface of the wood is degraded. Any requirement to
change or redress tools can lead to a downtime for the production
equipment and consequent loss of production. Friction surfacing of
specific tool steels to carbon steel substrates has shown that blades can
be successfully produced with good cutting characteristics that offer an
alternative to conventional carbide cutting tips [51,73].
27
Reclamation
Friction surfacing has gained increasing interest in the area of
reclamation of worn components. They can be repaired by friction
surfacing by building up worn out material to match the original [46].
Friction surfacing has been proved to be successful in building up of
worn-out shafts.
Shell banding
The base of artillery shells requires a layer of soft material, known
as a driving band. It improves the shells rifling characteristics to provide
smoothness and accuracy at firing especially in defence industry [73].
Soft material is used as gilding metal for example, (copper-based alloy)
soft iron need to be deposited onto steel. Alternative friction welding
technologies have been examined for this application (e.g. radial friction
welding), but they are limited because they require specialized and
expensive equipment. Friction surfacing can be successfully employed as
a lower cost option, and excellent bond integrity can be achieved [51].
The friction-surfaced driving band must withstand the propellant thrust
and any forces experienced while cutting through the rifling of the gun
barrel. The band must also react to torque in so far as the rifling imparts
spin to the shell.
28
2.2.5. Advantages
The solid phase friction surfacing process minimizes distortion.
Because of its inherent fast freeze characteristic friction surfacing

allows deposits to be made in all positions.
Thin layers of negligible dilution but considerable bond strength

can be obtained for a range of corrosion and wear resistant
materials.
Excellent bonding can be achieved with no defects such as

porosity, oxidation
Properties of the coating materials can be improved
No hot cracking and cold cracking.
Automatic and repeatable process
Dissimilar and similar materials can be bonded.
Small localized heat affected zone
The grain structure of the coating is finer than the starting coating
material
29
2.2.6. Disadvantages
The substrate needs to be able to react to high compressive loads.

Internal support may therefore be necessary for thin walled hollow
components.
The process is limited to deposition over small areas
30
2.2.7. Observations by previous researchers on friction surfacing

Table 2.3 details of work on different substrates with coating material combination.
S.
No
Title
Material combination
Observations
Authors
The effect of metal

type and multilayering on friction
surfacing.
SS, Aluminium and

brass as consumables
and MS as substrate
material
SS could be deposited over mild steel while

aluminium could not be deposited. Multi
layering could be carried out with SS
consumable.
A.W
Batchelor,
S. J.Mater.Pr
Jana, C.P.Koh and C.S oce.Tech.
Tan [19]
57 (1996)
PP.172-181
Study
of
the Stainless steel 304 and
interfacial
MS 1020 over AA5083
phenomena during
friction surfacing
of Al. watt steels.
Friction surfacing of SS 304 and mild steel M. Chandrasekharan,

over aluminium alloy AA 5083 was studied A.W.Batchelor
and
with
random
combinations
of
axial S.Jana [77]
pressure, feed rate and spindle rpm. It is
reported that MS1020 could be successfully
coated on aluminium at a contact pressure
of about 21.8 MPa while SS304 could not be
coated. The bond Interface exhibited
evidence of compound formation is reported
in respect of MS over Aluminium
Friction surfacing
of metal coatings
on
steel
and
Aluminium
substrate
Tool steel and inconel could be deposited on

to MS while Al could be only be deposited at
high contact pressure (21.8 MPa), Titanium
could not be deposited. SS, MS and Inconel
could be deposited over MS
a)Tool steel, Inconel,

Aluminum
and
Titanium
as
consumables and MS
as substrate.
31
source
J.Mater.Sci
.
32(1997)PP
.6055-62
M. Chandrasekharan, J.Mater.Pr
A.W.Batchelor
and oce.Tech.
S.Jana [75]
72 (1997)
PP.446-452
b) SS, MS and Inconel

as consumable and
Aluminium
as
substrate
4
The effect of metal AA5052 substrate

type and multi 2017 consumable
layering on friction
surfacing
AA
AA2017 could be obtained on AA

5052 it has also been observed
efficiency of depositionof second layer
over first layer was better.
Hiroshi
Tokisue,
Kazuyoshi,ToshikatsuA
shina
and
Toshio
Usiyama.[96]
Mater.Tran
s.
47(2006)
PP
874882
The Japan
Inst.
of
Light
metals
Micro
structural Austenitic
stainless Micro structural examination revealed that
evaluation during steel AISI 304 and MS
the coating exhibited fine grain micro
friction surfacing
structure as compared to that of the
of
austenitic
consumable rod material. The evaluation of
Stailess steel AISI
fine grain size is due to dynamic
304 on low carbon
recrystallization
resulting from sevior
steel
plastic deformation
H . Khalid Rafi, N Met.Mater.

Kishore
babu,
G Trans.A.
.Phani Kumar and K 44A (2013)
.Prasad Rao [112]
PP-345350
Characterization of AISI
410
friction
surfaced consumable
martensitic
substrate
stainless steel
Ramesh
Puli,E. Trans.Ind.I
Nandhakumarand
nst.Met.
MS
as It is feasible to coat martensitic SS over MS.

as The bonding between twoo metals is
excellent the coating exhibited good bend
strength and shear strength
G .D Janakiram [119]
(AISI410) coatings.
7.
Friction
surfacing SS as consumable and
Higher traverse speed gave raise to thinner

32
H . Khalid Rafi,
64(2011)PP
41-45
G.D Proce.
of
austenitic SS MS as substrate
on Low carbon
steel: Studies on
the
effect
of
traverse speed
and wider coatings

strength
with higher bond
Janaki Ram, G .Phani World

Kumar and K .Prasad cong.2010,
Rao [112]
Vol.2
Transferring
AISI 321 consumable
Mechanism of the ans
MS1020
as
coating
rod
in substrate
friction surfacing
It is observed that the temperature during

the process raises first and there after
stabilizes at a constant temperature around
the melting point of coating material. At the
tip of the coating rod the material becomes
plastic and is proposed the coating occurs
in the quasi liquid state.
Mechanical
properties
of
a
friction
surfaced
5052
Aluminum
Alloy
AA 5052 P-H34 as The influence of friction pressure rotary

substrate
and speed and linear speed on the mechanical
5052BDS-F
as properties of AA5052 coating over AA5052 is
consumable rod
coated. It is reported deposit with increase
in friction pressure and lower rotational
speed. The deposits were thinner with
increase in rotational speed. Micro structure
of the deposites was finer as compared to
that of coating rod material
HidekazuSakihama,Hir Mater.Tran
oshiTokisue
and s.Vol.44.No
Kazuyoshi Katoh [96].
.12(2003)P
P.26882694
10
Tool
steel
and Tool steel over Steel , The study is an attempt in the direction of
copper coatings by copper over steel and understanding the mechanism of bonding .It
friction surfacing; copper over copper.
is reported bonding is fessible when flow
K Prasad
Rao, A J.Mater.pr
Veerasreenu, h Khalid oc.
tech
Rafi,
Mnlibin, 212(2012)
June-30July.022010
33
X.M Liu, Z.D. Zou, Surf.&

Y.H.Zhang,S.Y Qu, X.H coat.
Wang [98].
Tech.202,
(2008)
18891894.
11
12
a
thermography
study
stress of the visco plastic material is Krishnan

comparable to that of the stress araising Balasubramaniam
from out of axial force deposition of tool [125]
steel over steel and copper over has been
reported to be feasible . however deposition
of copper is not feasible.
PP.402-407
Microstructural
H13 tool steel on low
evolution
during carbon steel.
friction surfacing
of tool steel H13
Coatings of H13 steel over low carbon steel

were found to be hard the hard ness of the
coating is observed to be about 58 HRc
which is higher than a consumable rod in
annealed condition (20HRC) The micro
structure
of
the
coating
is
predomninentlymartensite free from carbide
particles the coating is also observed to be
fine grain.
H . Khalid Rafi, G.D

Janaki Ram, G .Phani
Kumar and K .Prasad
Rao [113]
Mater.Desi
gn (2010)
Characterization of Austenitic
stainless
austenitic stainless steel over low carbon
steel
friction steel
surfaced
deposit
over low carbon
steel.
Using 23 factorial design SS is deposited on

MS. Under certain parametric combinations
the coatings with good bond integrity and
strength could be obtained. The strength of
the coating is in the range 302-508 MP is
obtained with a parameter combination of
friction pressure 29MPa ,rotary speed 1500
D
govardhan,
ACS
Kumar, KGK Murthy
and
Madhusudhanreddy
[120]
Mater.Desi
gnVol.36.
(2012)PP.2
02-214
34
Doi:
10.1016/J
rpm at a linear speed 190 mm/min. Low

friction pressure-low spindle speed-High
table traverse speed
are conducive for
obtaining high strength coating.
13
Formation
of Commercial aluminium
composite surface over Mild steel.
during
friction
surfacing of steel
with aluminium
Feasibility of oatingaluminium over mild S. Janakiraman, and K Adv.Tribolo

steel by friction surfacing is reported, The Uday Bhat
gy
study was confined to constant traverse [142]
Vol.2012
speed and two levels of load ( 3&4kN) and
Article
spindle speeds of 200 and 400 rpm. The
ID614278,
study reported composite layer formation
5 pages
with fine iron particles embedded in
Doi:10.115
aluminium
coating
no
intermetallic
5/2012/61
formation is reported. The interface is
4278
observed to be smooth and sharp.
14
Some
AZ91 as mectrode and Magnesium alloy AZ91 is coated on AZ31
characterization of AZ31 as substrate
using friction surfacing . The relation
AZ31/AZ91
between micro structure and mechanical
Dissimilar
properties of the coating obtained a different
Magnesium
alloy
surfacing conditions is reported. The deposit
deposit by Friction
is reported to exhibit fine grai structure with
surfacing
hardness higher than the substrate
material. The wear resistance with coating is
reported to be superior to that of the
substrate wit out coating.
Dai
Nakama,Kazuyoshikat
oh and hiroshiTokisue
[100].
Mater.Tran
s.
Vol.49,No5
(2008)
PP1137
-1141
15
Influence
J Gandra, D Pereira,
Proc.CIRP7
of Aluminium alloy 6082- Aluminium
alloy
35
6082
is
coated
over
process
T6 as consumable and
parameters in the aluminium alloy 2024friction surfacing T3 as substrate
of aluminium alloy
6082-T6
over
aluminium
alloy
2024-T3
aluminium alloy 2024. Sound coatings

could be obtained with minimum amount of
inter-metallics at the bond interface. Axial
force is reported to be not conducive to
obtain sound bond interface.
16
Under
water AISI 440C as coating
friction surfacing
rod (martensitic S-S),
SM50C as substrate
(low carbon steel).
Friction surfacing of martensitic stainless J.Q. Li and T. Shinoda surface

steel has been performed over low carbon [79]
engineerin
steel in an environment of water (under
g 2000 vol.
water). It is reported that although
16
deposition efficiency reduces with increase
no.1.PP.31in rotational speed and friction pressure,
34
such effects are not observed when the
surfacing operation is performed under
water.
17
Friction surfacing:
novel technique for
metal
matrix
composite coating
on Aluminium
Silicon alloy
Silicon
carbide
particle
reinforced
aluminium alloy composite is deposited on
A356 sil-aluminium alloy by friction
surfacing. With the coating in place the
wear resistance of the material is better
than that of the parent aluminium alloy
substrate material. The coating has also
been reported to be resistant to corrosion.
Metal matrix composite

as consumable and
aluminium-silicon alloy
as substrate.
36
R.m Miranda, P.Vilaca (2013)341[134].

346.
G
.Madhusudhan Surf.
Reddy, K srinivas and Engg.Vol.2
T Mohandas [106]
5.
PP.25-30.
18
Friction surfacing
of titanium alloy
with
aluminium
metal
matrix
composite
19
Studies on friction Coating materials: Al, The studies were conducted on radial
surfacing of steels
SS, MMC&Ni.
drilling
machine
to
understand
the
of
substrate
coating
Substrate
material: feasibility
combinations. it is reported that coatings of
MS,LCS,MCS & Ni
Al over MS, Ni over MS, SS over MS,MMC
over MS, SS over LCS & MCS and Ni over
MCS are feasible. The study is limited to
examination of micro structure and
hardness distribution across the interface.
20
Aluminium
metal
matrix as consumable
and
titanium
as
substrate.
On the thermo Substrate: Plain carbon

mechanical events steel
during
friction Coating material: HSS
surfacing of high
speed steels
Feasibility of coating of aluminium metal

matrix composite has been established. The
coatings are sound and adhering where
studies reveled that coating of metal matrix
composites improved the wear resistance of
the substrate
G.M Reddy. K.S Rao Surface

and T Mohandas [128] Engineerin
g
P.Sreedhar
M. Tech Thesis
NIT, Warangal (20052007) [141]
Deposition of High speed steel over low Bedforde G M, Vtanov.

carbon steel was reported. It is reported at V I,
the coating exhibits auto hardening and II Voutchkov [88].
requires
only
subsequent
tempering
operation.
37
-------------
Surf. Coat.
Tech.141
(2001)
PP.34-39
Bob Irving [140] in his review article on friction welding and

surfacing has briefly discussed the use of material deposition by using
frictional heat in various situations. It was indicated that friction
surfacing (consumable rod friction) is the proposed joining process by GE
Aircraft Engines for Aerospace materials applications. Since this process
is solid-state technique, the process can be employed for many unweldable materials. Surfacing process can be employed to repair/
manufacture a new component [4, 95]. The consumable rod friction
welding is capable of being successfully employed for Titanium and nickel
base alloys. Consumable rod friction welding can also be used for groove
welding purpose in solid state. The process has, been cited, to be
employed, to weld thick 7075 T651 Aluminum alloy i.e., otherwise unweldable by fusion welding process. It has also been reported that
friction surfacing has been employed to deposit MMC [106]. This can be
done in two ways namely by employing MMC rod consumable or by insitu deposition of MMC by employing a hollow consumable rod with the
case of the matrix material and the core consisting of reinforcement
ceramic particles .the process of friction surfacing has been successfully
employed by TWI [18] to deposit Cr-Ni Steel on low carbon steel, Satellite
on corrosion resistant Cr-Ni steels as well as 4% copper aluminum alloy
38
on to 2014 aluminum. Austenitic stainless steel has been deposited on

mild steel using 25 mm consumable rod at a force of 50 kN, the rotation
speed of the rod was 550 rpm at traverse rate of 5 mm/sec.
Batchelor et al. [19] studied the effect of material type as well as
multilayer deposition using frictional heat. They studied deposition of
stainless steel, aluminum, and brass on to low carbon in inert
atmosphere and steel in open atmosphere, and in flowing nitrogen
atmosphere. For these experiments on friction surfacing, they employed
a vertical milling machine. They were unsuccessful in depositing brass
and aluminum while stainless steel could be deposited as a strongly
bonded thick layer. Experiments in nitrogen atmosphere resulted in poor
bonding. Multilayer stainless steel could be successfully deposited up to
three strongly bonded layers. Their general observations on metal
characteristics to obtain strong and adherent coating consists of low and
intermediate thermal conductivity coupled with inferior wear resistance
in sliding situations. It is reported that layer over layer is feasible.
Optimum traverse and contact stress are required. It has also been
observed low rotary motion results in poor bonding between coating and
substrate. Surfacing could be carried out even on rough surfaced
substrates.
39
Chandrasekaran et al. [75] carried out metal deposition studies by

employing frictional heat as energy source to deform the material of
coating and deposit on a substrate of interest for various coating material
and substrate material combinations. Their studies revealed that, tool
steel and inconel could be deposited on to MS, while Al could be only be
deposited at high contact pressure (21.8 MPa), Titanium could not be
deposited over steel. SS, MS and Inconel could be deposited over MS.
They employed a hard starting plate on which the consumable rod was
subjected to primary heating till such time the hard consumable
softened to enable it to be deposited onto soft aluminum substrate.
Chandrasekaran
et
al.
[77]
in
their
study
on
interfacial
phenomenon observed that low carbon steel could be deposited over

aluminium alloy. Stainless steel exhibited layering, with no evidence of
intermixing and interlocking. For good coating it was necessary to employ
a contact pressure as high as 22 MPa. The lack of bonding of stainless
steel is thought
be due to chromium and other alloying elements that
block the formation interfacial phase formation. Their experiments

carried out in argon atmosphere showed that inconel could be strongly
bonded to the Al substrate through an interfacial compound formation. A
sharp boundary was seen between the tool steel coating and the mild
40
steel substrate. A nominal contact pressure of 22 MPa was required for

good quality coating. Bedford et al. [88] in their study to investigate
influence thermal and mechanical history during deposition of tool steel
over low carbon steel observed auto hardening of the deposit needing
only subsequent tempering.
2. 3. Friction seam welding

The procedure consists of utilizing the frictional heat energy
generated between a rotating rod and the material to be welded. The heat
energy softens the consumable and gets deposited in the groove of the
substrate by shearing action. The downward force consolidates the
deposit on to the substrate (Fig.2.2). The process is first reported by TWI
[18] however, data is not available on the subject, in open literature till
date.
41
Fig.2.2. Friction seam welding [18]
2.3.1. Equipment for friction seam welding

The main elements required for adapting friction seam welding are
rotating head for holding a consumable, a direct drive through which the
force is applied and an X-Y table or rotating chuck for the movement of
the substrate (either plate or shaft). For larger-scale production,
specialized equipment/Machine need to be manufactured to provide
continuous consumable feed, with rotating chuck at different speeds for
various material combinations, table feed, a device to dress the deposited
layer to prevent oxidation. It is also required to have instrumentation and
control system to monitor the quality of deposits. Vertical milling
machine was used for friction seam welding process with considerable
42
difficulties. Friction seam welding is presently not available as a

commercial manufacturing processes, it is yet to be commercialized.

Substrate and coating material combinations employed in friction
surfacing by the earlier researchers. The material combinations include
ferrous over Non ferrous, Non ferrous over ferrous, hard metal over soft
metal and soft metal over hard metal. The purpose of the coating is to
improve wear resins by coating hard metal over soft metal. Soft metal
coating like aluminium over low carbon steel is intended to improve
corrosion resistance of the substrate. The equipment for coating consist
of conventional vertical milling machine, Radial drilling machine, CNC
controlled milling machine and planar milling machine. Characterization
techniques include micro structural examination, hardness, bend
ductility and tensile strength.
43
CHAPTER-3
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
3.1. Introduction
In this chapter experimental details consisting of design of
experiments to
obtain coatings of aluminium over low carbon steel at
different parameter combinations, materials utilized, metallurgical and

mechanical characterization of coatings are discussed. Methodology of
analysis of results to identify optimized parameters for coatings having
the best mechanical properties has also been included in this chapter.
Experimental details on friction seam welding also form part of the
chapter.
3.2. Friction surfacing

3.2.1. Materials
AA 6063 aluminium alloy of 15 mm diameter and 280 mm long rod
was taken as mechtrode (consumable rod, Fig.3.1) and IS2062 mild steel
of size 250 mm x 300 mmx10 mm plate was used as substrate. Surface
of the substrate was machined by milling, surface grinding operations
44
and cleaned with acetone to obtain oxide free clean surface before
coating. Mechtrode and substrate chemical composition and mechanical
properties are presented in Table.3.1 and 3.2 respectively.
Fig.3.1.Mechtrode of AA6063
Material
Si
Fe
IS2062
0.1
7
Bal.
0.4
0.35 0.10 0.10 0.65 0.10 0.10 0.10 Bal.
MS
AA6063
Cu
--
Mn
Mg
1.03 --
Cr
Zn
Ti
Al
--
--
--
--
0.21
0.02
0.016
--
---
---
Al
Table.3.1. Chemical composition of Mechtrode and substrate (Wt.%).
Table.3.2. Mechanical properties of mechtrode and substrate.

Material
Ultimate Tensile Strength
IS2062- MS
(MPa)
410
AA6063 Al
241
45
Elongation
Hardness
(%)
24
HV
180
12
83
3.2.2. Friction surfacing machine

The friction surfacing machine employed in this study is of 50 KN
axial force (F) capacity, having a maximum spindle speed of 2400 rpm (N)
and table speed of 5000 mm/min (V x) with provision to operate in force
control as well as position control mode (Fig.3.2).The equipment is
instrumented with load cells on mechtrode holder and high frequency
online data acquisition system to record table speed, spindle speed, axial
force and spindle torque. This three axis vertical configured machine is
designed for friction surfacing and friction stir welding. The mechtrode is
mounted in to the spindle using collet and mores tapered arbour. The
arbour assembly holds the mechtrode and clamped using the nut
provided so that proper length of mechtrode is maintained for butting
with the substrate. Provision is built in the machine for maintaining
constant feed of mechtrode, constant thrust on mechtrode, and force
control during surfacing. The machine is controlled through PC based
system and Lab VIEW software.
46
Fig.3.2. Friction surfacing machine
3.2.3. Feasibility study

Trial experiments were conducted to identify suitable friction
surfacing parameters namely, axial force (F), spindle speed (N), table
traverse speed (Vx) and dwell time. Adherence of coatings is evaluated by
chisel test reported by Batchelor et al. [19]. Based on the trial
experiments it was observed that adherent coatings could be obtained
with the parameters as detailed in Table.3.3. It was also observed 5-10
seconds dwell time is required to start the process. The process of
friction surfacing in progress is shown in Fig.3.3. It is observed that
mechtrode tip gets blunt and deformed like a bulb during friction
surfacing as shown in Fig 3.5. Cut sections of the tip for various
47
parameters are shown in Fig.3.6. Visuals of the coatings obtained during

feasibility study are shown in Fig.3.4.
Fig.3.3. Friction surfacing process
48
Coating pealed off after

chisel test due to poor
bond strength
Poor bonded coating when all

parameters at lower level
D
Coating spilled out at

higher spindle speed
Coating spilled out at higher

axial force
F
E
Uniform deposition between
selected parameters levels
Poor deposition
at higher
traverse speed
Fig. 3.4. Trial run coatings obtained during feasibility study

Table.3.3.Parameter combinations used in trial experiments
Parameters
Representation
Axial Force
Spindle speed
(Mechtrode rotation)
Table Speed
(Substrate traverse
speed)
Units
kN
rpm
Vx
mm/min
3.2.4. Design of experiments
49
Minimum
(-)
Maximum
(+)
800
1000
600
800
Based on the feasibility study, minimum and maximum values for

friction surfacing were identified. Based on the identified parameters,
experiments are designed using factorial techniques. Since the substrate
and mechtrode material combinations are highly reactive with a tendency
to form brittle intermetallics, the coatings could be obtained in a narrow
band of parameters. For this reason, 2 3 factorial design was selected
[143, 144]. Experimental design matrix is as per Table.3.4. Process
parameters combination for the 23 design of experiments is provided in
Table 3.3.
Table.3.4. Experimental design matrix with coded values.

Parameters
Control Parameters
Response
F
N
Vx
Combination
Y
(X
(X
(X
1)
2)
3)
PC
1
-1
-1
-1
+1
-1
-1
-1
+1
-1
+1
+1
-1
properties and
-1
-1
+1
physical
50
+1
-1
+1
-1
+1
+1
+1
+1
+1
Mechanical
dimensions
Table.3.5. Process parameters for deposition of aluminium alloy over low

carbon steel by friction surfacing
Parameters
Vx
Combination
kN
rpm
mm/min
PC
(X1)
(X2)
(X3)
800
600
800
600
1000
600
1000
600
800
800
800
800
1000
800
1000
800
51
3.2.5. Coating
In the present study the experiments were conducted in force
controlled mode. AA6063 aluminium alloy coatings were deposited over
a length of 100 mm on mild steel as per the experimental parameter
matrix details given in Table.3.5.
Fig.3.5.Deformation of mechtrode tip after coating
52
Fig.3.6. Mechtrode deformation at all parametric combinations
3.2.6. Metallurgical Characterization of Coatings

The
coatings
were
subjected
to
visual
examination,
metallurgical characterization by optical microscopy and electron probe

micro-analysis
and
mechanical
property
evaluation
estimation of hardness, tensile strength and bend ductility.

Visual Examination
53
comprising
The coatings exhibited ripple formation with spacing between the

ripples. Coating width and thickness were observed to depend on
surfacing parameters. Coating width of advanced side and retreating side
were machined to observe effective contact area and sectioned for
measuring the effective coating width and thickness in contact with
substrate. Physical dimensions of the coating namely, coating width and
thickness were measured from their stereo micrographs obtained after
conventional metallographic preparation of transverse sections of the
samples. Typical photo graph of coating is shown in Fig.3.7.
Fig.3.7. Typical photo graph of coating

Optical microscopy
Metallographic samples were sectioned from the friction surfaced
plates by precision saw (Buehler Isomet 1000) and hot mounted in
Bakelite (Phenocuresupplied by Buehler) using an automatic mounting
machine (Buehler simplimet 300) at 290 bar pressure and 150 C . The
54
samples were grounded on 120 and 220 grit SiC papers polished through
600, 800 and 1000 grit SiC papers and then wet polished by using
diamond paste on disc polishers through 9, 3 and 0.3 micron cloths
respectively. After proper polishing the specimens were etched with nital
solution (2 ml HNO3 and 98 ml alcohol) on mild steel surface and with
Kellers (1 ml HF, 1.5 ml HCl, 2.5 ml HNO 3, 95 ml distilled water ) reagent
on aluminium alloy. Macro and microstructures were obtained at various
magnifications
under
optical
microscope
(LEICA
make).
Sample
microstructure of substrate and mechtrode are shown in Figs.3.8 and 3.9

respectively. The substrate material consist banded microstructure with
alternate layers of pearlite and ferrite. Mechtrode microstructure shows
single phase.
55
Fig.3.8. Substrate microstructure
Fig.3.9 Mechtrode microstructure (AA6063)
Electron Probe Micro Analysis (EPMA)

The friction-surfaced coatings were examined for composition
variation across the interface in order to determine the interaction
between the substrate and the coating employing electron probe micro
analyzer
(EPMA).
Standard
metallographic
techniques were employed for the study.
3 .2.7. Mechanical property evaluation

56
sample
preparation
Ram tensile test

Ram tensile test similar to Mil-J24445A was designed in order to
determine the interfacial strength and bond integrity of the coating with
the substrate. Ram tensile test was carried out on Instron 10 Tonnes
universal testing machine by using specially designed ram and die as
shown in Fig.3.10.
Die
Ra
m
Fig.3.10. Ram tensile test attachment
For this the coating material was machined from the substrate as a
circular area to form an inner circle without the coating while retaining
the outer circular area to form an annular space consisting of coating
and substrate intact [120]. Outside the outer circle coating was
machined to facilitate supporting the substrate on a fixture such that on
57
loading the inner circular area, the area in the annular space is only
subjected to loading. The arrangement in the test was such that only the
coating is subjected to tensile load along the bond interface as per the
sketch shown in Figs.3.11.and 3.12 respectively.
Fig.3.11. Ram tensile test
Fig.3.12. Ram tensile test method
specimen
Ram tensile specimen before and after testing are shown in

Figs.3.13 and 3.14.respectively.
58
Fig.3.13. Ram tensile test sample before and after testing
Fig.3.14. Ram tensile test samples after testing

Bend Test
The coatings were subjected to face bend test by three point bend
test as per ASTME190, AWSB40 guided bend [112,113]. Visuals of
59
samples after testing are shown in Fig.3.15. Bending was discontinued at

the instant of pealing/cracking of the coating. From the bend specimen
the radius of bend was obtained to estimate bend ductility using the
following relation:
Bend ductility ( ) = 1/ [(2R/t)+1] x100,
Where Percentage (%) of elongation, R -Radius of curvature of the
bend and; t -thickness of the specimen (substrate+ coating) in mm.
Fig.3.15. Face bend specimen after testing
Micro hardness Test

The micro hardness measurements were carried out across the
interface employing [88,91] Mitsuzawa make MMT-3 model digital micro
60
hardness tester (Fig.3.16) at an interval of 0.25 mm at a load of 300 gm

applied for 10 seconds as per the procedure laid down in IS: 1501-2002
[91] .Vickers hardness survey
across the interface is as shown in
Fig.3.17.
Fig.3.16. Mitsuzuwa Make Digital Micro hardness tester (Model MMT3)
PC-3
61
Fig.3.17. Hardness survey across the interface.
3.2.8. Pitting corrosion testing

To evaluate the pitting corrosion behavior of aluminium alloy
AA6063-T6 coating obtained at different parametric combinations,
potentio-dynamic polarization tests were carried out. The pitting
corrosion experiments were carried out by accelerated electrochemical
studies using the potentio-dynamic polarization test employing software
(Model:
Gil
AC)
controlled
electrochemical
cell.
Reference
electrode( saturated calomel electrode, SCE) and auxiliary electrode

(carbon electrode) are used to carry out potential scan in an aqueous
solution (NaCl 3.5 wt % and 3.4 gm of KOH) of pH10.0 at 25 0C. Samples
of size 20 mm x 20 mm for corrosion testing were cut from the coated
plates. The testing was carried out as per the ASTM G-107 standards.
The samples were polished with SiC papers and diamond paste to get
mirror like surface, as per the metallographic sample preparation
technique, thoroughly rinsed with distilled water.
The prepared samples are mounted in the electrochemical
corrosion cell and exposed (approximately 1cm 2 area) to the corrosive
62
solution for a period of 30 minutes. The electrochemical tests were of a

cyclic sweep and scans starting from -250mV to 1250mV at a constant
sweep rate of 25 mV/s
3.2.9. Statistical analysis of results

The results obtained from physical and mechanical property
evaluation were subjected to Yates [143] statistical analysis to obtain
regression equations in order to understand the influence of parameters
and their interaction effects on respective properties. Method followed for
analysis is presented in appendix.
3.3. Friction seam welding

3.3.1 Materials
AA 6063 aluminium alloy of 16 mm diameter and 125 mm long rod
(Fig.3.18) was taken as filler rod (consumable ) and AA 6063 aluminium
of size 100 mm x 150 mm x 10 mm plates (Fig.3.19) were used as base
metal. Filler rod and base metal chemical composition and mechanical
63
properties are same as mechtrode properties shown in Tables.3.1 and 3.2

respectively.
Fig.3.18. Mechtrodes a) Plane type b) Shoulder type
3.3.2. Weld joint preparation

The effect of groove angle, plate thickness and weld speed on the
weld joint properties is the aim of the thesis. At 2800 rpm spindle speed
with 30,45 and 60 groove angles, with
900 groove angle at three weld
speeds (400 mm/min, 600 mm/min and 800 mm/min) were studied.
64
For this the plates were beveled as shown in Fig.3.19 employing ram type
vertical milling machine.
450
300
600
Fig.3.19. AA 6063 metal plates with different bevels for friction seam welding
3.3.3. Friction seam welding procedure

Friction seam welding was carried out on a universal vertical
milling machine (Fig.3.20) with provision for a maximum rotational speed
of 2800 rpm enlarged view of friction seam welding in progress is shown
in (Fig.3.21). During the process of welding mechtrode gets blunt
(Fig.3.22). Friction seam welding experiments were conducted 1) to join
10 mm thickness plates at a mechtrode rotating speed of 1800 rpm at
three groove angles namely 30, 45and 60. 2) Seam welding
experiments were also conducted to study the weld strength of 6 mm
thickness plates and influence of weld speed on weld joint strength at
table speed of 400 mm/min, 600 mm/min and 800 mm/min with 90 0
groove angle.
65
Fig.3.20. Friction seam welding set up on universal milling machine
Fig.3.21. Friction seam welding of AA6063 plates
66
Fig.3.22. Consumable rods (mechtrodes) after welding
3.3.4. Characterization of seam welds.

The seam welds were subjected to visual examination, metallurgical and
mechanical characterization. Mechanical characterization consisted of
evaluation of hardness, estimation of tensile strength and toughness
3.3.5. Mechanical testing
67
Tensile Testing
Tensile testing was carryout on a 10 Ton tensile testing machine at
a cross head speed of 5 mm / min. The specimen used for the tensile
testing machine is shown in Fig. 3.23. Ultimate tensile strength, yield
strength and percentage elongation are reported on a gauge length of 50
mm. The specimens employed for tensile test as per AWS standards.
400 mm /min
600 mm/min
800 mm/min
Fig.3.23. Tensile test specimens of friction seam welds at 400, 600 and
800 mm/min welding speeds.
68
Hardness
Hardness survey was conducted across the welds using Vickers hardness
tester at a load of 500 gm for 10 seconds.
Impact Testing
Charpy impact testing was carried out on a standard specimen
(Fig.3.24). The notch in the specimen was located at the centre of the
weld.
Fig.3.24. Charpy test specimen
69
Details of materials used, equipment employed for surfacing, seam

welding, testing and characterization of physical and mechanical
properties of the deposits and welds procedure adopted for statistical
analysis of the results are detailed. Details of experimental work and
characterization are summarized as cause and effect diagram in
Fig.3.25.
70
CAUSE AND EFFECT DIAGRAM
Materials
Mechtrode:
Aluminium (AA6063)
Substrate:
MS, Aluminium
(AA6063)
MS, Aluminium
(AA6063)
Friction surfacing
and Groove welding
Process
parameters:
Characterization of coatings and groove

welding
Physical
dimensions:
Coating
width
Axial down
ward force
(kN)
Coating
thickness
Mechtrode
speed (rpm)
Mechanical
Properties
Hardness
Tensile
strength
Bend ductility
Impact
toughness
Substrate
linear
speeds
(mm/min)
71
Metallurgical
properties:
Micro
structure
Fig. 3.25. Cause and effect diagram
72
CHAPTER-4
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1. Introduction
In this section of the chapter, the effect of surfacing parameters on
physical
appearance
and
dimensions
of
the
coatings,
their
microstructure and mechanical properties of friction surfaced coatings

and friction seam welds are discussed in the following sections
4.2. Friction surfacing

4.2.1. Visual examination and physical dimensions of the
coating
Visuals
of
the
coatings
obtained
at
different
parameter
combinations are shown in Fig.4.1.The top view of the coating is rough

with ripples. The spacing between ripples are observed to be depend on
table speed and friction force. Although not shown in the top view the
coatings in general exhibited a tendency of edge lifting without adequate
bonding to the substrate.
73
Fig.4.1. Friction surfaced AA6063 alloy coating
The physical dimensions of the coatings for different parameter

combinations were obtained from the stereo micrographs of transverse
section of the coated specimen (Fig.4.2).The width and thickness of the
coatings are presented in Table 4.1. The width of the coatings is in the
range 12.44 -16.09 mm while the thickness is in the range 1.2-1.9 mm.
The coating is observed to be widest at maximum friction force and
maximum table traverse speed (PC-6). Thickness is observed to be
maximum at the maximum values of all parameters (PC-8). The effect of
parameters on width and thickness of the coating is presented in
74
Figs.4.3 -4.5. From these figures it is observed that, wider width results
in lower thickness. Increase in axial force leads to wider coating (Fig.4.3),
while spindle speed exhibit an opposite trend (Fig.4.4) and table speed
has similar influence as that of spindle speed(Fig.4.5)
4
1mm
Fig.4.2. Stereo micrographs of transverse sectioned coatings obtained at

different parameter combination
Table.4.1. Coating width and thickness under different parameters

combination
Process parameters
Parameters
Combination
F ( X1)
N (X2)
Vx (X3)
(PC)
(kN)
(rpm)
(mm/min)
800
Response (Y)
Coating
Coating
width
thickness
(mm)
(mm)
600
13.38
1.58
800
600
15.42
1.20
1000
600
12.44
1.25
1000
600
13.17
1.26
75
800
800
15.95
1.20
800
800
16.09
1.30
1000
800
13.11
1.73
1000
800
14.16
1.90
Fig.4.3 Influence of axial force on width and thickness of coating
76
Fig.4.4 Influence of spindle speed on the width and thickness of coating
Fig. 4.5. Influence of table speed on coating width and thickness
4.2.2 Metallurgical property evaluation of the coatings

Microstructure
The microstructures of transverse sections of the coatings obtained
for the eight experimental parameter combination based on factorial
77
design of experiments are presented in Figs.4.6-13. It is observed that

the coatings are free from oxidation. It has been reported that large
plastic deformation of mechtrode results in flash formation, which covers
the substrate and prevents it pro oxidation. It was observed that the
coatings were adherent to the substrate with saw tooth like interlocking
with the substrate (Table.4.2), that is desirable for adequate bond
integrity and strength in combination with ductility. These features are
predominant for PC-3 and PC-6, which showed high strength and
ductility.
Microstructure of the coating is fine grained than that observed in
the starting mechtrode material indicating that the temperatures
attained are above the recrystallization temperature of mechtrode
material. It is observed that heat affected zone is almost negligible
because mechtrode forging temperature is lower than substrate forging
temperature .
78
PC-1
Fig. 4.6.Microstructure of the coating at PC-1
79
PC-2
Fig. 4.7. Microstructure of the coating at PC-2
PC-3

80
PC-4
Fig.4.9. Microstructure of the coating at PC-4
PC-5
81
PC-6
PC-7
82
PC-8

Influence of process parameters on interface microstructure
Table.4.2. Influence of process parameters on interface microstructure.
Parameter Combination
PC
Interface microstructure features
(kN-rpm-mm/min)
PC-1
The interface is slightly wavy and the wave length
4-800-600
PC-2
is larger.
The interface is wavy; the amplitude of the wave is
6-800-600
PC-3
small.
The interface is wavy with lot of intermixing of
4-1000-600
aluminium with steel. The amplitude of the wave is

83
larger.
PC-4
4-800-800
PC-5
6-1000-600
PC-6
6-800-800
PC-7
4-1000-800
PC-8
6-1000-800
The interface is wavy with broader wave length.

The interface is almost smooth with negligible
interlocking effect.
The interface is
wavy
with
saw
tooth
like
appearance and intermixing of aluminium with

steel is more.
The interface is nearly smooth with waviness at
some locations
The interface is wavy with wider wave length.
Interface with wavy nature with smaller wave lengths and saw tooth like
appearance exhibited better strength.
Electron probe micro analysis (EPMA)
The friction surfaced coatings were examined for composition
variation across the interface to find out the extent of reaction with the
substrate and consumable by employing electron probe micro analyzer.
Typical back scattered images and profiles showing the elemental
distribution across the interface of PC-3 and PC-6 are presented in
Figs.4.14 and 4.15 respectively. From the EPMA composition profiles
across the interface, it is observed that inter-diffusion of iron and
84
aluminium occurred during the surfacing operation [82] and is presented

in Table.4.2. The width of inter-diffusion zone is around 1.9 to 2.1 m.
Parameter combinations 3 and 6 exhibit narrower inter-diffusion
distances observed.
PC-3
PC-3
Fig.4.14. Elemental distribution across the interface of PC-3
85
PC-6
PC-6
Fig. 4.15.Elemental distribution across the interface of PC-6
86
Table.4.2. Inter diffusion zone width of coatings under different

parameter combination
Process Parameters
Parameters
Response (Y)
Inter diffusion
Combination
F ( X1)
N (X2)
Vx (X3)
(PC)
(kN)
(rpm)
(mm/min)
800
600
1.99
800
600
2.02
1000
600
1.91
1000
600
2.10
800
800
2.01
800
800
1.87
1000
800
1.86
1000
800
2.08
87
zone width
(m)
4.2.3. Mechanical property evaluation of the coatings

Hardness
Typical hardness trends across the interface of substrate and
coating for PC-3 and PC-6 are presented in Figs.4.16 and17 respectively.
Hardness profiles for all the parameter combinations are presented in
Fig.4.18. From the Table 4.3, it is observed that the interface is harder
than aluminium coating because of thermal effect. Areas around the
interface are harder than the substrate and coating material. Interface
hardness is in the range 152-197 HV. Increase in hardness, in and
around the interface is thought to be due to combined effects of strain
hardening, solid solution strengthening and possible presence of intermetallics [114]. The hard zone width for parameter combinations 3 and 6
is observed to be on the lower side, (Fig.4.18) that matches with narrow
diffusion zone width for these combinations. Interface hardness values
for all parameter combinations are presented in Table 4.3.
88
PC-3
Substrat
e
Coating
Fig. 4.16. Interface micro hardness of coating at PC-3
PC-6
Substrat
e
Coating
Fig. 4.17. Interface micro hardness of coating at PC-6
89
220
180
160
Interface
Interface Hardness ( Hv )
200
140
120
100
Mild Steel
Substrat
e
Hardness (Hv) of
Parametric Combinations
PC-1
PC-2
PC-3
PC-4
PC-5
PC-6
PC-7
PC-8
Aluminium Alloy
Coating
80
60
-3.0 -2.5 -2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Distance from Interface ( MM )
(mm)
Fig. 4.18 Interface micro hardness of coating for all parameter

combinations
Note: Interface hardness values are located on graph (0,0) along

interface line
90
Table.4.3. Influence of process parameters on mechanical properties of

coatings
Parameters
Combination
Response (Y)
Process Parameters
F ( X1)
N (X2)
Vx (X3)
Interface
Tensile
Bend
kN
(rpm)
(mm/min)
Hardness
Strength
Ductility
(Hv)
(MPa)
( )%
(PC)
800
600
182
55
4.46
800
600
186
64
4.88
1000
600
197
147
11.40
1000
600
153
61
1.45
800
800
168
78
1.68
800
800
170
159
10.63
1000
800
197
66
1.55
1000
800
152
98
7.04
Tensile strength and bend ductility

The influence of individual parameters namely spindle speed,
downward axial
force and table speed on tensile strength and bend
ductility is presented in Figs.4.19 - 4.21 respectively from Table 4.3.

91
Coating
Tensile strength and bend ductility are found to increase with an

increase in spindle speed, when downward axial force (F) and table speed
(Vx) are at lower level. At higher levels of axial force (F) and table traverse
speed (Vx), tensile strength is found to decrease with spindle speed and
B&D : F,Vx kept constant at lower level

and N varied
A&C : F,Vx kept constant at higher level
and N varied
C
800
850
900
950
160
150
140
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
(%)
170
160
150
140
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Bend ductility
Tensile strength (MPa)
bend ductility reamins unaffected (Fig.4.19).
1000
Spindle speed (rpm)
Fig.4.19. Influence of mechtrode speed on tensile strength and bend

ductility
From Fig.4.20 it is oberved that tensile strength and bend ductlity
increase with an increase in axial force for all parameter combinations.
Hower,the effect is predominant when Vx and spindle speed (N) are at
lower level.
92
100
100
Tensile strength
90
90
70
70
60
50
60
30
A&C : N,Vx kept constant at lower level

and F varied
B&D : N ,Vx Kept constant at higher level
and F Varied
20
Bend ductility
40
10
50
40
30
20
0
4.0
4.5
5.0
(%)
80
Bend ductility
Tensile strength
(MPa)
80
5.5
6.0
10
0
6.5
Axial force (kN)
Fig.4.20. Influence of downward axial force on tensile strength and bend

ductility
Strength is observed to increase with an increase in table speed for
all parameter combinations. However, the effect is significant at lower
levels of axial force and spindle speed. Bend ductility improves with
increase in table speed at higher levels of axial force and spindle speed
and a reverse trend is noted when axial force and spindle speed are at
lower level [76].
93
100
Tensile strength
90
100
90
70
70
60
60
50
50
A&C : F,N kept constant at lower level
and Vx varied
B&D : F,N kept constant at higher level
and Vx varied
40
30
40
30
20
(%)
80
Bend ductility
80
20
Bend ductility
10
10
0
600
650
700
750
800
Table traverse speed (mm/min)
Fig.4.21 Influence of table speed on tensile strength and bend ductility
To understand the role of physical dimensions of the coating on

strength and bend ductility trends are plotted against width and thicknes
of coatings in Figs. 4.22 and 4.23 respectively. It is observed that
strength and ductilty tend to attain their maximum at the extreme ends
of thickness. From Fig. 4.23 it is found that at lower thickness strength
and ductility are maximum . Combined effects of width and thickness on
strength and ductility are presented in Fig.4.24. From the figure it is
observed that wider and thinner coatings exhibit higher strength and
ductility (parameter combinations 3 and 6). It is also to be noted that
94
hardness also follows in general the trends observed in respect of

strength and ductility.
Fig.4.22 Influence of coating width on tensile strength and bend ductility
95
Fig.4.23. Influence of coating thickness on tensile strength and bend

ductility
96
Fig.4.24. Inter-relation between physical dimensions and mechanical

properties
4.2.4.
Parameters combination effect
on physical
dimensions and mechanical properties Axial force effect

The influence of axial force with different combination of spindle
speed and table traverse speed on physical dimensions and mechanical
propeties are presented in Table 4.4 and Figs.4.25-4.29. It is observed
from the table and figures that high strength is observed at low friction
force (4 kN), maximum rotation of consumable rod (1000 rpm ) and
minimum table linear motion (600 mm/min ) as well as at maximum
axial force ( 6 kN ) minimum consumable rotary speed ( 800 rpm ) and
maximum table traverse speed (800mm/min)
97
Parameters
S.N
o
Vx
Torqu
e
Rp
m
MM/
min
Tz
Min
Min
Min
800
600
PC
F
kN
1
2
1
2
Responses
800
600
Ma
x
Ma
x
Max
N-m
Force
Fx
kN
Coatin
g
Coatin
g
Width
Responses trend
Bend
Tensile
Thick.
Ductlt
y
Streng
th
Micro
Hardn
ess
mm
mm
E %
MPa
Hv
1.576
4.46
55
182
8.63
0.659
4
13.35
8.55
0.582
7
15.42
1.195
4.88
64
186
100
0
800
4.49
0.013
6
13.11
1.724
1.55
66
170
100
800
4.39
0.016
14.16
1.884
7.05
98
197
98
Tz
B
D
T
S
Hv
W t
5
6
7
8
3
5
4
6
Var
y
Ma
x
Min
100
0
600
100
0
600
Var
y
Min
Max
800
800
800
800
6.41
0.646
9
12.44
6.54
0.203
7
15.95
1.205
1.68
78
168
4.32
0.129
4
13.17
1.258
1.45
61
153
6.5
0.653
3
16.09
1.251
1.299
11.04
10.63
147
159
197
170
Table.4.4. Interaction effect of axial force with other parameters on physical dimensions and mechanical
properties
99
Fig. 4.25. Effect of friction force
Fig. 4.26. Influence of axial force

on coating thickness
on the width of coating
100
b: N,Vx at min. and F Increased

c: N,Vx at max. and F Increased
d: N at max., Vx at min.and F Increased
e: N at min.,Vx at max.and F Increased
220
Hardness (Hv)
200
b
180
d
e
160
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
Axial force (kN)
on coating hardness
on tensile strength
101
Fig. 4.29. Influence of axial force on bend ductility
Spindle speed
The influence of spindle speed with different combination of axial
force and table traverse speed on physical dimensions and mechanical
propeties are presented in Table 4.5 and Figs 4.29-4.33. From the data
presented in table and figures it may be noted that high strength and
high bend ductility are observed at maximum spindle speed-minimum
axial force-minimum table traverse speed as well as for the parameters
combinations minimum spindle speed-maximum table speed maximum
axial force. This observation similar to that reported by Rafi et al.[112]
coating of austenitic stainless steel on low carbon steel. Which implies
102
high and low spindle speeds are conducive for strenghth and bend
ductility. The coating width is observed to decrease with increase in
spindle speed only when axial force and table speed are kept constant,
while for other parameter combinations coating width increases. It has
been reported by Rafi et al. [113],that coating width decreases with
increase in spindle speed, in respect of coating of H13 tool steel over
mild steel. It may be noted that their observations are based on single
parameter effect keeping the other parametrs at constant level. In our
study also the observations are in conformity with that reported by them
when table speed and axial force are kept at constant level.
103
Table.4.5. Interaction effect of spindle speed with other parameters on physical dimensions and
S.N
o
PC
Parameters
N
Vx
Torqu
e
Rp
m
MM/
min
Tz
Min
Min
Min
800
600
100
0
600
Ma
x
Ma
x
Max
F
kN
1
2
1
3
Responses
N-m
Force
Fx
kN
Coatin
g
Coatin
g
Width
Responses trend
Bend
Tensile
Thick.
Ductil
ity
Streng
th
Micro
Hardn
ess
mm
mm
MPa
Hv
1.576
4.46
55
182
8.63
0.659
4
13.38
6.41
0.646
9
12.44
1.251
11.04
147
197
800
800
6.5
0.653
3
16.09
1.299
10.63
159
170
100
800
4.39
0.016
14.16
1.882
7.04
98
152
104
Tz
B
D
T
S
Hv
W t
5
6
7
8
2
5
4
7
Ma
x
Var
y
Min
800
600
100
0
600
Min
Var
y
Max
800
800
100
0
800
8.55
0.582
7
15.42
6.54
0.203
7
15.95
1.205
1.68
78
168
4.32
0.129
4
13.17
1.258
1.45
61
153
4.49
0.013
6
13.11
1.195
1.724
mechanical properties
105
4.88
1.55
64
66
186
197
Fig. 4.30. Influence of spindle speed
on coating width
220
b: F,Vx at min. and N Increased

c: F,Vx at max. and N Increased
d: F at max.,Vx at min. and N Increased
e: F at min.,Vx at max. and N Increased
210
Hardness (Hv)
200
190
180
170
160
150
c
800
850
900
950
1000
Spindle speed (rpm)

on coating hardness

on tensile strength
106
Fig. 4.34. Influence of spindle speed on bend ductility

Table traverse speed
The influence of table speed with various parameter combinations
on mechanical properties and physical dimensions presented in Table 4.6
and from Fig.4.34-4.38. From this data it is noted that high strength and
ductility are observed at low table speed maximum spindle speed- low
axial force as well as at maximum table speed - maximum axial forceminimum spindle speed. It has been reported that increase in table
speed results in decrease in coating width and thickness while strength
improves in respect of coating of austenitic stainless steel over mild steel
Rafi et al. [112]. However in the present study it has been observed that
high strength can be obtained at maximum as well as minimum table
speed depending on the parameter combination of table speed- spindle
107
speed- axial force. This implies that observations based on single

parameters effect cannot be extended when multiple parameters are in
operation. However, the reported observation shows that lower thickness
results in high strength [112] are in conformity with our observation in
the present study. Increase in table traverse speed has also been reported
to result in reduced coating width and thickness based on single factor
effect which observation is at variance with that of our observation. In
our study it has been observed that coating width in general is high
when thickness is low, as our observation is based on multiple factor
effect.
108
S.N
o
PC
Parameters
N
Vx
Torqu
e
Rp
m
MM/
min
Tz
Min
Min
Min
800
600
F
kN
1
2
3
4
1
4
5
8
Responses
800
800
Ma
x
Ma
x
Max
100
0
600
100
0
800
N-m
Force
Fx
kN
Coatin
g
Coatin
g
Width
Responses trend
Bend
Tensile
Thick.
Ductil
ity
Streng
th
Micro
Hardn
ess
Mm
mm
MPa
Hv
1.576
4.46
55
182
8.63
0.659
4
13.38
4.32
0.129
4
13.17
1.258
1.45
61
153
6.54
0.203
7
15.95
1.205
1.68
78
168
4.39
0.016
2
14.16
1.882
109
7.04
98
152
Tz
B
D
T
S
Hv
W t
5
6
7
8
Ma
x
Min
Vary
800
600
2
6
800
800
Min
Ma
x
Vary
100
0
600
100
0
3
7
800
8.55
0.582
7
15.42
6.5
0.653
3
16.09
1.299
10.63
159
170
6.41
0.646
9
12.44
1.251
11.40
147
197
4.49
0.013
6
13.11
1.195
1.724
4.88
1.55
54
66
186
197
Table.4.6. Interaction effect of table speed with other parameters on physical dimensions and mechanical
properties
110
Fig. 4.36. Influence of table speed
on coating width
Hardness(Hv)
225
220
215
210
205
200
195
190
185
180
175
170
165
160
155
150
b: F, N at min. and Vx Increased

c: F, N at max. and Vx Increased
d:F at min.,N at max.and Vx Increased
e:F at max.,N at min. and Vx Increased
e
c
600
650
700
750
800
Table traverse speed (mm/min)
on coating hardness
on tensile strength
111
Fig. 4.39. Influence of table traverse speed on bend ductility
4.2.5. Pitting corrosion

The coatings obtained at different parameter combinations,
substrate metal and mechtrode metal have been subjected potentio
dyanamic polariazation tests to investigate their resistance to pitting
corrosion. Plots of current Vs potential are presented in Figs.4.39 - 4.47.
Crtical potential values from these studies are presented in Table 4.7.
Higher the nagative potential for pitting, better is the resistance to pitting
corroion [129]. Mechtrode material exhibits maximum critical potential
(820 mV), substrate has a crtical potential of 620 mV while coatings
exhibited critical potential in the range of -682 to -713. Among 8
112
combinations of friction surfacing PC-2 exhibited maximum negative

potential of -732
mV while PC-1 exhibited the least critical negative
potentil of -682 mV.This observation suggests that pitting resistance of

mild steel can be improved by aluminium coating.
Fig. 4.40. Current-potential relation for substrate and mechtrode at PC-1
113
114
115
Fig. 4.44 Current-potential relation for coating with parameter

combination 6
116
Fig. 4.47. Current-potential relation for substrate and mechtrode at PC- 8
Substrate
metal
coating metal
Fig. 4.48. Current-potential relation for substrate and mechtrode at 8 PCs

117
Response (Y)
Process Parameters
Material
F (X1)
(kN)
N (X2)
PC-1 coating
800
600
1.5768
-682.43
PC-2 coating
800
600
1.1950
-713.25
PC-3 coating
1000
600
1.2511
-699.02
(rpm)
Vx (X3)
Coating
Critical pitting
(mm/min) Thickness (mm)
Potential (mV)
PC-4 coating
1000
600
1.2582
-699.02
PC-5 coating
800
800
1.2054
-688.61
PC-6coating
800
800
1.2996
-694.54
PC-7 coating
1000
800
1.7248
-688.61
PC-8 coating
1000
800
1.8820
-700.47
Substrate
-620
Mechtrode
-820
Table 4.7 Pitting corrosion characteristics of the coating, substrate and

mechtrode materials
4.2.6. Discussion on the observations on friction surfaced

coating characristics
Frictional heat is resposible for plastisizing the mechtrode
material to enable it get softened and its ultimate deposition over the
substrate. The extent of heat generated and efficiency of its utilization
118
would control the quality of the deposit. For the deposit to be adherent to
the substrate, the substrate material also should get adequately heated.
The parameter combinations govern the quantity of heat generated. In
order to explain the influence of parmeters on the properties of the
coatings, heat input is calculated using the follwing formula [71] :
Heat input/unit length = Power input/Table speed,Vx
Power input = Torque x Spindle speed
The
calculated
heat
input
for
the
experimental
parameter
combinations are presentd in Table 4.8. From the table it is observed

that heat input is in the range 34-72 J/mm. Best properties are obtained
for parameter combinations 3 and 6 ( Table 4.3 & Figs. 4.19-4.21) for
which heat input is in the intermediate range of 55-67 J/mm. High heat
input or low heat input resulted lower properties [98]. The reason for this
is high heat input results aggressive interaction between substrate and
coating materials that can result in brittle intermetallic formation [133].
On the otherhand at low heat input adequate bonding is unlikely to
occur as the substrate does not get heated adequtely. In addtion, as the
temperature is low at low heat input, the mechtrode materail may not be
119
sufficiently heated to plastic stage to enable it spread over the substrate

uniformly.
Response (Y)
Process Parameters
Paramete
rs
Combinat
Vx
Torque
Input
Power
(Watts)
P=2NT/60
Coefficient
of
Friction
k = F/N
Heat
Input
(J/mm)
Q=P/Vx
ion
(X1)
(X2)
(X3)
(PC)
(kN)
(rpm)
(mm/min)
Nm
800
600
8.63
722.98
0.2838
72.29
800
600
8.55
716.28
0.2923
71.62
1000
600
6.41
671.25
0.3744
67.1
1000
600
4.32
452.16
0.3657
27.14
800
800
6.54
547.61
0.1834
51.36
800
800
6.50
544.26
1000
800
4.49
470.79
0.2761
35.26
1000
800
4.39
459.71
0.2710
34.47
Table 4.8. Influence of parameters on heat input
120
0.3676
54.45
4.3. Friction seam welding

An attempt has been made to employ friction stir welding for linear
groove welding in solid state by replacing non-consumable tool with
aluminium alloy AA 6063 consumable rod (mechtrode) of matching
composition with that of aluminium alloy plates for joining. The variables
investigated are groove angle, table speed, spindle speed and thickness of
plates to be welded. The first set of experiments is conducted to establish
feasibility of solid state welding to evaluate groove angle influence. In
these experiments, aluminium alloy plates of 10 mm thickness are
welded at a constant spindle speed of 2800 rpm and at a table speed of
300 mm/min at 300, 45 and 60 groove angles. In the second set of
experiments 6 mm thick plates are welded at table speeds of 400
mm/min, 600mm/min and 800 mm/min at constant spindle speed of
1800 rpm with 900 groove angle.
4.3.1. Feasibility studies (Influence of groove angle)

Visual inspection
Friction seam weld coupons from the first set experiments
(feasibility study) are shown in Fig 4.49. It may be noted that the friction
121
welded coupons with 300 groove angle contain un-bonded areas and
under filled areas. These effects are observed to decrease with an
increase in the groove angle.
a
b
C
Fig.4.49. Influence of groove angle on the quality welds in friction seam
welding a) 30 b) 45 c) 60
Microstructure
122
Typical microstructures of the seam welds from the feasibility

studies are presented in Fig.4.50. The interface between the parent metal
and the weld shows continuity between them without discontinuity
(Fig.4.50 a). At smaller groove angle defects are found in the form of
unfilled areas (dark round shape areas) (Fig.4.50 b).
100
m
100
m
Fig.4.50 . Typical microstructure of friction seam welds a) Parent metal

weld interface b) Unfilled regions in the weld
4.3.2.
Mechanical properties of friction seam welds
Hardness, tensile strength and impact toughness of welds obtained

during feasibility studies are shown in Table 4.9 and Figs.4.51-4.53. The
123
values given are average of three trials. It is observed that hardness is

not influenced by groove angle. Strength and impact toughness are
observed to improve with an increase in the groove angle. This could be
due to defects free in the welds that are observed in the visual
examination and microstructure at larger groove angle.
Table 4.9. Influence of groove angle on mechanical properties of

weldments.
Locati
Hardness (Hv)
on
Groove angle
Tensile
Impact
strength(MPa)
toughness(J)
Groove angle
Groove angle
(degrees)
(degrees)
30
45
60
30
45
60
30
45
60
Weld
83
86
87
20
30
38
30
50
57
HAZ
71
72
71
Parent
65
65
65
Metal
124
90
Weld centre
At 30
0
At 45
0
At 60
Hardness (Hv)
85
80
75
HAZ
70
65
Parent metal
10
12
14
16
18
20
Distance from parent metal to weld centre (mm)
Fig. 4.51. Influence of groove angle on hardness of seam welds
40
38
Tensilestrength
36
34
32
30
28
T
e
n
s
i
l
e
s
t
r
e
n
g
t
h
(
M
P
a
)
26
24
2
20
18
Weld
30 35 40 45 50 5 60
o
Weld gro veangle (0 )
Weld gro veangle
Fig.4.52. Influence of groove angle on tensile strength of seam welds
125
60
Toughness
55
Toughness (J)
50
45
40
35
30
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
Weld groove angle (0 )
Fig. 4.53. Influence of groove angle on impact toughness of seam welds
4.3.3. Influence of table speed on friction seam weld

properties
From the feasibility studies, it has been observed that smaller
groove angle welds tend to have defects leading to lower strength and
toughness. Keeping this in view the next set of experiments are carried
out at a wider groove of angle at 90 0. The welds are obtained at variable
table speeds of 400, 600 and 800 mm/min keeping the spindle speed at
a constant value of 1800 rpm. The findings from these experiments are
presented in this section.
Visual examinations
126
From the visuals presented in Fig.4.54 it is observed that the welds are
free from defects.
Fig.4.54. Friction seam welded coupons of 6mm thick plates with 90 groove angle
showing the influence of welding speed a ) 400 mm/min. b) 600 mm/min c) 800 mm/min
Microstructure
It is observed that continuity is maintained between the weld and
parent metal (Fig.4.55). The microstructures of the welds are free from
such defects which were observed at smaller groove angles during the
course of feasibility studies to investigate the influence of groove angle.
The possible changes during friction seam welding are that the weld zone
is likely to contain fine grain size and would be free from porosity and
segregation problem as the welding is carried out in solid state.
127
Weldment
Base
metal
Base
metal
Weldment
100
m
100
m
Fig.4.55. Typical microstructures of weld and parent metal interface at A:

450and B: 90 groove angle.
Mechanical properties
The role of welding speed (table speed) on hardness, tensile strength
and impact toughness of the seam welds are presented in Table.4.10. It
may be noted that welding speed does not influence hardness, however,
marginal improvement in tensile strength and toughness are indicated
with increasing welding speed (Figs.4.56-4.58). The improvement in
strength and toughness is thought to be due to better utilization of heat
energy (Table.4.11), as a consequence of reduction in heat loss by way of
conduction in to the surrounding parent metal. This condition would
enable better mixing of the metal in the weld region which would result
in welds, relatively free from defects.
Table .4.10. Influence of table speed on the mechanical properties
128
Locati
on
Hardess (Hv)
Tensile strength
(MPa)
Impact toughness
(J)
Table speed
(mm/min.)
Table speed
(mm/min.)
Table speed
(mm/min.)
400
600
800
400
600
800
400
600
800
Weld
92
92
93
55
56
57
83
86
93
HAZ
82
82
83
Parent
Metal
65
65
65
Weld bead
95
A : 400 mm/min
B : 600 mm/min
C : 800 mm/min
90
HAZ
HAZ
Hardness (Hv)
85
80
75
70
65
60
Parent metal
Parent metal
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
Distance from parent metal (mm)
Fig. 4.56. Influence of spindle speed on hardness of seam welds
129
Tensile strength
57.0
56.5
56.0
55.5
55.0
400
500
600
700
800
Welding speed (mm/min)
Fig. 4.57. Influence of table speed on tensile strength of seam welds
100
Impact toughness (J)
95
90
85
80
75
70
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
Table speed (mm/min)
Fig.4.58. Influence of table speed on impact toughness of seam welds
130
Table.4.11. Parameters influence on mechanical properties of friction

seam weldments.
Groove angle
Thickness
Table speed
(0)
(mm)
(rpm)
Location
Hardness
(Hv)
Toughness
(J)
Tensile
strength
30
45
60
90
10
400
600
800
83
86
87
93
87
93
92
92
93
30
50
57
93
57
93
83
86
93
20
30
38
57
38
57
55
56
57
(MPa)
4.3.4. Discussion
The observed lower properties of friction seam welds at lower
groove angle are due to the blunting of mechtrode during the progress of
seam welding. Wider groove angle enables full coverage of the mechtrode
in to the groove even after it gets blunt. For this reason, the seam welds
at wider groove angles exhibit better properties. Reduction in the
thickness of the plate, results in shallow weld groove, that enables
accommodation of mechtrode fully in to the groove, even after blunting.
Therefore the welds in thinner plates are relatively free from defects and
thus exhibit better strength and toughness.
131
The observation that, as the welding speed increases, the strength

and toughness improves could be due to that when the welding speed
increases the heat input decreases as the power generated is constant
since the spindle speed and downward force are constant. When the heat
input is low the weld cools fast. Faster cooling rate results in finer
microstructure. Finer the microstructure better are the mechanical
properties namely, tensile strength and toughness. In addition, in the
event of low heat input the weld region is likely to get work harden under
the prevailing thermo mechanical conditions. This condition also would
lead to improved mechanical properties. Thus, the improved mechanical
properties of the seam welds at high speeds is due to the combined
influence of faster cooling rate leading to finer grain structure and work
hardening effect.

Friction Surfacing
From the friction surfacing studies discussed above it has been
observed that it is possible to obtain sound and adherent aluminium
alloy coatings over mild steel a narrow set of parameters namely, down
ward axial force (4-6kN) , rotary speed (800-100rpm) of the consumable
rod (mechtrode) and table speed ( 600-800 mm/min). High tensile
132
strength and bond strength are obtained when the coatings are wide and
thin. Out of eight
experiments conducted by factorial technique, better
properties
be
could
obtained
only
for
two
sets
of
parametric
combinations. Pitting corrosion studies revealed that, aluminium coating

over mild steel by friction surfacing improves corrosion resistance.
Friction seam welding
Feasibility of friction seam welding has been established. The
quality of the welds depends on the groove angle. Wider groove angle
results in welds relatively free from defects and thus exhibit better
mechanical properties. It is further observed that, defect free welds could
be obtained by reducing the thickness of the plates. It is also observed
that the weld properties could be improved by welding at high speeds, as
it would lead to low heat input results in faster cooling rate and
consequent finer micro structure, in addition to work hardening effect
due to the prevailing low temperatures.
133
CHAPTER - 5
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF FRICTION SURFACING DATA
5.1. Introduction
The data on physical characteristics and mechanical properties of
the friction surfaced coating have been subjected to statistical analysis,
based on Yatess technique, to understand the influence of parameter as
well as their inter-active affects. Detailed analysis of the results and
observations are furnished in this chapter.
5.2. Physical characteristics

5.2.1. Coating width
134
ANOVA table is constructed to test the significance of the

parameters and it is shown in Table 5.1. The table shows influence of
individual parameters arrived at, based on Yates analysis [131] of the
results (details of analysis are presented in Annexure). Based on the
analysis regression equation obtained is in the following form
Y = b0+b1x1+ b2x2 + b3x3 + b12x1x2 + b13x1x3 + b23x2x3 + b123x1x2x3
[Where x1: Axial force, x2: Spindle speed and x3 : Table traverse speed.]
135
Table.5.1. Regression equation coefficients for coating width (Response)

S.No.
1
2
PC
1
X1
3
X2
4
X1X2
5
X3
6
X1X3
7
X2X3
8
X1X2X3
Mean=14.266
Response
Column-
(Y)
Column-2
Column-3
TSS
F ratio=
Significant
(Z)
(Z2 /8)
TSS/MSS
factors (Z/8)
13.358
15.424
28.782
25.624
54.406
59.728
114.134
4.386
1628.32
2.404
7.9292
0.0117
(coefficients)
14.266 bo
0.548 b1
12.447
13.177
15.956
16.031
13.113
14.628
31.987
27.741
2.066
0.73
0.075
1.515
2.796
1.59
-3.158
-4.246
-1.336
1.44
-7.404
0.104
5.322
-1.206
-1.088
2.776
6.852
0.001352
3.540
0.181
0.147
0.9637
0.03336
0.0000065836
0.01723
0.00088139
0.0007158
0.004692
-0.9255 b2
0.013 b12
0.6652 b3
-0.15075 b13
0.136 b23
0.347 b123
MSS (MEAN SUM OF SQUARES) :205.357
136
The regression equation for coating width after substituting coefficients

(b) values is
Y =14.266 +0.548x1 0.925x2+0.665x3 +0.013x1x2 0.150x1x3
+0.136x2x3+ 0.347x1x2x3
After the test of significance eliminating the least important terms (less
significant) the equation can be re-written as
Y
14.266 + 0.548X1 0.925X2 + 0.665X3 + 0.347X1X2X3
In the table the constant b0 and the coefficients b1, b2, b3, b12, etc. for
the above regression equation, are presented in the last column of the
table. From the values presented in table, it may be noted that
coefficients b2 and b13 show a negative trend (decreasing coating width),
while all other coefficients indicate a positive trend (increasing coating
width). It implies that increasing spindle speed and the combination of
axial force and table traverse speed result in reduction width. It may also
be noted that the combination of x1x2 has least significant contribution
on coating width. The trends on coating width at minimum and
maximum values of x1, x2, x3 and x1x2x3 are presented in Fig.5.1. From
which the observations discussed above are evident.
137
15.0
14.8
15.5
Factor- X1 effect
14.814
15.0
14.4
Coating width (mm)
mm
14.6
Coating width
Factor-X2 effect
15.191
14.2
14.0
13.8
13.718
13.6
13.4
14.5
14.0
13.5
13.341
13.2
13.0
13.0
X1 min
X2 min
X1 max
X2 max
Factor- X2
Factor-1 effect
15.0
15.0
Factor-X3 effect
14.931
14.8
14.6
14.4
14.2
14.0
13.8
13.6
14.814
14.6
Coating width (mm)
Coating width (mm)
14.8
Interaction effect of factors X1,X2 & X3
14.4
14.2
14.0
13.8
13.601
13.718
13.4
X3 Min
13.6
X3 Max
X1X2X3 Min
Factor-X3
X1X2X3 Max
Factors X1X2X3
Fig.5.1. Interaction effect of factors on coating width

138
5.2.2. Coating thickness

ANOVA Table 5.2 is constructed to test the significance of the
parameters. Where TSS indicates total sum of squares and MSS is mean
sum of the squares of coating thickness.
Mean of the response = 11.44/8 = 1.423
Standard Deviation (SD)
= 0.0623
Mean Sum of Squares (MSS) = (squares sum of responses)/8 = 2.0891

The regression equation can be written after substituting coefficients of
significant factors (coefficients b).
[ Where
X1:
Axial force,
X2:
Spindle speed and
X3
: Table traverse speed ]
Y =1.429 + 0.078619x1 + 0.099x2 +0.109x3 - 0.040x1x2 -0.015x1x3 + 0.164x2x3

+ 0.056x1x2x3
5
139
The
regression
equation
for
coating
thickness
after
substituting
coefficients (b) values is

Yt=1.429 + 0.078x1 + 0.099x2 + 0.109x3 + 0.164x2x3 + 0.056x1x2x3
140
Table.5.2. Regression equation coefficients for coating thickness (Response)

S.No.
PC
Response
Column-
(Y)
Column-2
Column-3
TSS
F ratio=
Significant
(Z)
(Z2 /8)
TSS/MSS
factors(Z/8)
(coefficients)
1
2
1
X1
3
X2
4
X1X2
5
X3
6
X1X3
7
X2X3
8
X1X2X3
Mean=1.423
1.576
1.195
2.771
2.509
5.28
6.155
11.435
0.626
16.3449
0.0489
7.8238
0.00234
1.4293 bo
0.0993 b1
1.251
1.258
1.205
1.299
1.724
1.882
2.549
3.606
-0.381
0.007
0.094
0.158
0.374
0.252
-0.262
1.057
-0.388
0.064
0.795
-0.324
0.875
-0.122
1.319
0.452
0.079
0.0131
0.0957
0.0018605
0.2174
0.0255
0.0378
0.00627
0.0458
0.0008905
0.1040
0.012206
0.0993 b2
-0.0405 b12
0.10937b3
-0.0152 b13
0.1648 b23
0.0565 b123
141
The influence of parameters x1, x2, x3, x2x3 and x1x2x3 at their
minimum and maximum values on coating thickness are presented in
Fig.5.2. From the figure it is observed that the coating thickness
increases with increasing the value of the enumerated parameters. This
observation is in conformity with the values for the respective
coefficients.
mm
1.58
Factor- X1 effect
Factor-X2 effect
1.60
1.568
1.56
1.589
Coating thickness (mm)
Coating thickness
1.54
1.52
1.50
1.48
1.46
1.44
1.55
1.50
1.45
1.42
1.40
1.412
1.40
X1 Min
1.391
X1 Max
X2 Min
Factor X1
X2 Max
Factor X2
2.0
1.9
1.7
1.6
1.5
1.4
1.3
1.55
1.50
1.45
1.40
1.251
1.381
X1X2X3 Min
1.35
X1X2X3 Max
X3 Min
Factors X1X2X3
1.65
Factors- X1X2 effect

1.654
1.60
1.55
1.50
1.45
1.40
1.35
1.30
X3 Max
Factor X3
1.70
1.599
1.93
1.8
1.2
Factor-X3 effect
1.60
Factors - X1X2X3 effect
1.326
X1X2 Min
X1X2 Max
Factor X1X2
142
Fig.5.2. Interaction effect of factors on coating thickness
5.3 Mechanical characteristics

5.3.1 Hardness
The hardness data have been subjected to Yates analysis to obtain

regression equation showing the interaction effects of parameters on
hardness of the coatings. ANOVA Table 5.3 has been constructed to test
the significance of the parameters. In the Table TSS indicates total sum
of squares of tensile strengths and MSS is mean sum of the squares of
hardness.
Mean of Hardness = Sum of response/8 = 175.62
Standard Deviation (SD) = 16.66
Mean Sum of Squares (MSS) = (Squares sum of response)/8 = 31121.875
The following is the regression equation obtained from the ANOVA Table.
Y = b0+b1x1+ b2x2 + b3x3 + b12x1x2 + b13x1x3 + b23x2x 3 + b123x1x2x3
[where
X1:
Axial force,
X2:
Spindle speed and
X3:
Table traverse speed ]
The regression equation for hardness after substituting coefficients (b)

values is
143
Y = 175.625+ 0.875x1 0.825x2 -3.875x3 - 0.625x1x2 + 10.875x1x3 +

3.625x2x3 + 11.375x1x2x3
YHv= 175.625-3.875x3 + 10.875x1x3 + 11.375x1x2x3
From the above regression equation the influence of x 3, x1x3 and x1x2x3
at their minimum and maximum values are presented in Fig.5.3. From
the figure it is evident that the combination of axial force and table speed
does not influence hardness. However increasing axial force, spindle
speed and table traverse speed increase in hardness. It may be noted
from the experimental data the maximum hardness of 197Hv is observed
atPC-7.
144
S.No.
PC
X1
3
4
5
6
7
8
X2
X1X2
X3
X1X3
X2X3
X1X2X3
Interface
Hardness
(Hv)
182
186
Column-1
Column-2
Column-3
TSS
F ratio=
Significant
(Z)
(Z2 /8)
TSS/MSS
factors (Z/8)
368
718
1405
246753.125
7.928
(coefficients)
175.625 bo
350
687
6.125
0.0001968
0.875 b1
0.0001968
0.0001004
0.0003859
0.03040
0.0003377
0.03326
-0.875 b2
-0.625 b12
-3.875 b3
10.875 b13
3.625 b23
11.375 b123
197
338
-40
153
349
47
168
4
-18
170
44
11
197
2
-48
152
45
43
Table.5.3. Regression equation coefficients
145
-7
6.125
-5
3.125
-31
120.125
87
946.125
29
105.125
91
1035.125
for hardness (response)
Mean :175.625
MSS (Mean Sum of Squares) : 31121.875
146
192
180
179
Factors - X1X3 effect
Factor-X3 effect
179.50
190
190.37
Hardness (Hv)
177
176
175
174
188
186
184
173
172
182
171.75
171
X3 Min
180
X1X3 Min
X3 Max
X1X3 Max
Factors X1X3
Factor X3
200
Factors - X1X2X3 effect
197.25
195
Hardness (Hv)
Hardness (Hv)
178
190
185
180
175
174.5
X1X2X3 Min
X1X2X3 Max
Factors X1X2X3
Fig.5.3. Interaction effect of factors on coating hardness
147
5.3.2. Tensile strength

The tensile test data have been subjected to Yates analysis to
obtain regression equation showing the interaction effects of parameters
on the tensile strength of the coatings. ANOVA Table 5.4 has been
constructed to test the significance of the parameters. In the Table, TSS
indicates total sum of squares of tensile strengths and MSS is mean sum
of the squares of the tensile strength.
Mean of tensile strength = Sum of the response/8 = 91
Mean Sum of Squares (MSS) = (Squares sum of tensile strength)/8
= 9722
The following is the regression equation obtained from the ANOVA table.
Y = b0+b1x 1+ b2x 2 + b3x3 + b12x1x2 + b13x1x3 + b23x 2x 3 + b123x 1x 2x3
[ where x1: Axial force, x 2: Spindle speed and x
10
: Table traverse speed]
The regression equation for tensile strength after substituting coefficients

(b) values is
Y=91+ 4.5x1 + 2x2 + 9.25x3 - 18x1x2 + 23.75x1x3 20.25x2x3 + 5.75x1x2x3 11
148
YTS =91+4.5x1+ 9.25x3 - 18x1x2 + 23.75x1x3 20.25x2x3+ 5.75x1x2x3
12
149
Table.5.4. Regression equation coefficients for tensile strength (Response)
Significant
S.
Interaction
Response
Column-1
No.
Coefficient
(Y)
1
X1
55
119
64
147
61
78
159
66
98
3
X2
4
X1X2
5
X3
6
X1X3
7
X2X3
8
X1X2X3
Mean = 91
Column-2
Colum-3
TSS
2
F ratio=
factors (Z/8)
(Z)
(Z /8)
TSS/MSS
327
728
66248
6.8142
91bo
208
401
36
162
0.01666
4.5b1
237
164
09
-86
81
32
-77
113
89
-73
-95
-49
16
-144
74
190
-162
46
32
2592
684.5
4512.5
3280.5
264.5
0.003291
0.2666
0.0704
0.4641
0.3373
0.0272
2b2
-18b12
9.25b3
23.75b13
-20.25b23
5.75b123
MSS (MEAN SUM OF SQUARES): 9722
150
( coefficients)
The influence of significant parameters in the above regression

equation at their minimum and maximum values on tensile strength is
presented in Fig 5.4. From this figure it is observed
that increase in
axial force , table speed, higher axial force-higher spindle speed, higher
axial force- higher table speed, higher spindle speed higher table speed
and higher axial force-higher spindle speed-higher table speed lead to
higher tensile strength.
Factor-X1 effect
100
95.5
94
96
92
90
88
100.25
95
90
85
86.5
86
Factor-X3 effect
81.75
80
X1 Min
X1 Max
X3 Min
X3 Max
Factor X1
Factor X3
Factors-X1X2 effect
78
130
77.5
128.5
125
76
74
72
70
68.5
68
120
115
110
105
100
X1X2 Min
X1X2 Max
101
X1X3 Min
Factors X1X2
X1X3 Max
Factor X1X3
100
80
Factors- X1X2X3 effect
Factors - X2X3 effect

80.0
96
90
Tensile strength (mm)
Factors- X1X3 effect
80
70
60
75
70
65
57
61.5
60
50
X1X2X3 Min
X2X3 Min
X1X2X3 Max
X2X3 Max
Factors X2X3
Factor X1X2X3
151
Fig.5.4. Interaction effect of factors on coating tensile strength
5.3.3. Bend ductility

Yates analysis showing the significance of the parameters is
presented in Table 5.5. Here, TSS indicates total sum of squares and
MSS is mean sum of squares of bend ductility.
Mean of the response = Sum of the response/8 = 5.387
Mean Sum of Squares (MSS) = (Squares sum of responses)/8 =
42.951
The standard regression equation for the interaction effect of the
parameters is as under
[Where
13
X1: Axial force, X2: Spindle speed and X3 : Table traverse speed
and b0 is average of the bend ductility and b1,b2 etc. coefficients for the
parameters.]
152
S.No.
PC
Response
Column-1
Column-2
(Y)
Column-3
TSS
F ratio=
Significant
(Z)
(Z2 /8)
TSS/MSS
factors (Z/8)
4.467
9.34
22.19
43.09
232.093
5.403
(coefficients)
5.386 bo
X1
4.88
12.85
20.90
4.91
3.013
0.07014
0.9887 b1
3
4
5
6
7
8
X2
11.40
12.31
-9,53
-0.21
0.0055125 0.00012834
X1X2
1.45
8.59
14.44
-13.83
1.728
0.0402
X3
1.68
0.42
3.51
-1.29
0.208
0.0048427
X1X3
10.63
-9.95
-3.72
23.97
71.820
1.6721
X2X3
1.55
8.95
-10.37
-7.23
6.534
0.1521
X1X2X3
7.04
5.44
-3.46
-13.83
23.908
0.5566
Table.5.5. Regression equation coefficients for coating bend ductility (response)
153
-0.02625 b2
-1.7287 b12
-0.16125 b3
2.99625 b13
0.90375 b23
1.72875 b123
Mean : 5.387
MSS (Mean Sum of Squares) : 42.951
154
The regression equation for coating bend ductility after substituting

values for coefficients (b) is as follows
Y = 5.387+ 0.613x1 0.026x2 -0.161x3 1.728x1x2 + 2.996x1x3 +
0.903x2x3 + 1.728x1x2x3
14
Y
BD
= 5.387 1.728x1x2 + 2.996x1x3 +1.728x1x2x3
15
The influence of significant parameters in the above regression

equation at their minimum and maximum values on bend ductility is
presented in Fig 5.5. From this figure it is observed that higher values of
X1X2, X1X3
and
X1X2X3
lead to higher bend ductility which is evident from
the corresponding coefficients in the regression equation. It may be noted

that individual parameters do not exhibit an influence on bend ductility.
Combination of parameters namely axial force- spindle speed, axial forcetable speed and axial force- spindle speed-table speed. Axial force
spindle speed show a negative effect on bend ductility while the
remaining two combinations exhibit positive influence.
155
5.0
Factors-X1X2 effect
Factors-X1X3 effect
9.5
4.74
9.47
4.5
Bend ductility (%)
Bend ductility (%)
9.0
4.0
3.5
8.5
8.0
3.0
7.5
2.77
7.49
2.5
X1X2 Min
X1X3 Min
X1X2 Max
X1X3 Max
Factors X1X3
Factors X1X2
9.0
8.5
Factors -X1X2X3 effect

8.48
Bend ductility (%)
8.0
7.5
7.0
6.5
6.0
5.5
5.0
5.02
4.5
X1X2X3 Min
X1X2X3 Max
Factors X1X2X3
Fig.5.5. Interaction effects of factors on coating bend ductility
5.4. Single parameter and parameter interaction effects
156
The effects of axial force, spindle speed and table speed with one
parameter variation at a time and their multiple combinations on
physical dimensions and mechanical properties are summarized in Table
5.6. From the data presented in the table it is observed that single
parameter effects are different from those of multiple parameter effects.
For example the width of the coating increases with increase in axial
force and table traverse speed, while it decreases with increasing spindle
speed. Two parameter combinations namely
X1X2, X2X3
and
X1X3
do not
exhibit any influence on coating. However, with an increase in the three

parameter combination
X1X2X3
coating width increases. Similarly trends
in respect of tensile strength and bend ductility are different for single
parameter effect from those of multiple parameter effect. Thus, it may be
noted that the influence of single parameter effects are different from
those of multiple parameter effects.
157
Table. 5.6. Physical dimensions and mechanical properties calculated from the respective regression
equations at minimum and maximum levels of factors in individual and interaction effect.
Factors
X1-Min
X1- Max
X2-Min
X2- Max
X3-Min
X3- Max
X1X2-Min
X1X2- Max
X1X3-Min
X1X3- Max
X2X3-Min
X2X3- Max
X1X2X3-Min
X1X2X3- Max
Width
Thickness
Responses
Hardness
Strength
(mm)
13.718
14.814
15.191
13.341
13.601
14.931
Insignificant
Insignificant
Insignificant
Insignificant
Insignificant
Insignificant
13.601
14.931
(MPa)
1.412
1.566
1.391
1.589
1.381
1.599
Insignificant
Insignificant
Insignificant
Insignificant
1.326
1.654
0.923
1.93
(Hv)
Insignificant
Insignificant
Insignificant
Insignificant
Insignificant
Insignificant
Insignificant
Insignificant
185.875
185.875
Insignificant
Insignificant
174.50
197.25
158
(MPa)
86.5
95.5
Insignificant
Insignificant
81.75
100.25
68.5
77.5
101.0
128.5
61.5
80.0
57
96
Bend ductility
(%)
Insignificant
Insignificant
Insignificant
Insignificant
Insignificant
Insignificant
3.75
3.75
8.483
8.483
6.39
6.39
Insignificant
Insignificant
Properties
bo
b1
b2
b3
b12
b13
b23
b123
Coating Width
14.266
6.548
-0.925
0.6652
0.013
-.0.150
0.136
0.347
Coating Thickness
1.4293
0.078
0.099
0.109
-0.040
-0.015
0.164
0.565
Coating Hardness
175.625
0.875
-0.825
-3.875
-0.625
10.875
3.625
11.375
Tensile Strength
91
4.5
9.25
-18
23.75
-20.25
5.75
Bend Ductility
5.386
0.988
-0.026
-0.161
-1.728
2.996
0.903
1.728
Table.5.7. Regression equation coefficients for observed properties
159
Table.5.8. Comparison of experimental results and theoretical results (from regression equation)
Parametric
Experimental Values
combinations
PC-1
Theoretical Values
Coating
Thickne
Hardn
Tensile
Bend
Width
ss
ess
strength
Ductility
13.38
1.5768
182
55
4.46
160
Y(w)
Y(T)
Y(HV)
Y(TS)
Y(BD)
13.631
1.251
175.125
57
5.93
4-800-600
PC-2
6-800-600
PC-3
4-1000-600
PC-4
4-800-800
PC-5
6-1000-600
PC-6
6-800-800
PC-7
4-1000-800
PC-8
6-1000-800
15.42
1.1950
186
64
4.88
12.44
1.2511
197
147
11.40
13.17
1.2582
153
61
15.95
1.2054
168
16.09
1.2996
13.11
14.16
15.421
1.2394
176.125
66
6.85
14.325
0.9525
197.875
145
11.036
1.45
14.727
0.9978
153.375
59
-1.868
78
1.68
15.655
0.9721
176.125
80
1.588
170
159
10.63
14.207
1.0174
175.125
161
7.58
1.7248
197
66
1.55
13.111
1.3865
153.375
64
3.394
1.8820
152
98
7.04
14.901
1.655
197.875
96
9.386
161
Table.5.9. Comparison of results trend between theoretical and

experimental.
Properties
Parameters effect
X1
(F)
X2
(N)
X3
(Vx)
X12
(FN)
X13
(FVx)
X23
(NVx)
X123
(FNVx)
Width
Thickness
Hardness
Strength
Ductility

Yates analysis has been performed on the data obtained for coating
width and thickness and their mechanical properties namely, hardness,
162
tensile strength and bend ductility. From this analysis, regression

equations are obtained for the enumerated properties. From these
regression equations the influence of individual factors and their
interactive effects have been found out. Plots are drawn for the properties
verses individual parameters, as well as their interaction effects at
minimum and maximum values. It has been observed that coating width
and thickness are influenced by individual factors as well as their
interactive effects. Coating width is observed to be lower at higher
spindle speed, while the opposite trend observed in respect of thickness.
It is to be noted that, the combination of axial force and spindle speed
does not show any influence on coating width. All the three parameters
combination influence coating width and thickness, in that, at maximum
value of this combination higher physical values are observed.
Parameters
X3, X1X3
and
X1X2X3
are found to influence hardness.
Higher table speed and higher values of axial force and spindle speed
result in lower hardness, while higher values of the combination of
factors axial force- spindle speed result in higher hardness.Three factors
and their combined effects namely, axial force, table speed, axial forcetable speed, spindle speed- table speed and combination of all the three
163
factors influence tensile strength, in that, at their maximum value

strength is observed to be maximum
Three factor combinations namely axial force- spindle speed, axial
forcetable speed and the combination of the three factors are found to
influence bend ductility. At the maximum value of the parameters and
their combinations bend ductility is observed to be high. It is to be noted
that the influence of axial force-table speed and the combination of all
the three factors is more predominant as compared to axial force-spindle
speed.
CHAPTER - 6
CONCLUSIONS
6.1. Introduction
In this chapter, the salient observations on the experimental results
obtained. In respect of friction surfacing of aluminium alloy AA6063 over
mild steel and friction seam welding of AA6063 are summarized. These
include observations on the influence of parameters on physical
dimensions and mechanical properties of the coatings as well as micro
structure and mechanical properties of friction seam welds
164
6.2 . Friction surfacing
Friction surfacing of aluminium over mild steel has been carried

out based on 23 factorial design of experiments with axial force,
spindle rotary speed and table speed as variables in force control
mode. It may be noted that initial feasibility experiments revealed
that coatings can be obtained within a narrow band of parameters.

The coatings were characterized for their physical dimensions
(width & thickness), micro structure
and mechanical properties
(hardness, tensile strength and bend ductility).

In all the experimental combinations the interface of coating and
substrate exhibited saw toothed like interlocked micro structure

The inter composition is observed to be in the range 2-3 m.
High strength and ductility are observed for the parameter
combinations low axial force- high spindle speed-low table speed as
well as high axial force -low spindle speed-high table speed.

In general wider and thin coatings exhibited better strength and
ductility.
The influence of single parameter on various properties is different
from that of the multiple parameter combinations.

Heat input calculations showed that ductile and strong coatings
could be obtained, if the heat input is in the range 54-67 J/mm.
Either, a higher or lower heat input lead to brittle and weak
coatings.
165
Yates analysis has been conducted on the experimental results to

obtain regression equations for understanding the influence of
various parameters on properties. The regression equations
obtained are as follows
Y
= 14.266 + 0.548X1 0.925X2 + 0.665X3 + 0.347X1X2X3 1
Y t =1.429 + 0.078x1 + 0.099x2 + 0.109x3 + 0.164x2x3 + 0.056x1x2x32

Y
Hv
= 175.625-3.875x3 + 10.875x1x3 + 11.375x1x2x33
YTS = 91+4.5x1+9.25x3 -18x1x2 + 23.75x1x3 20.25x2x3 + 5.75x1x2x3..4

Y
BD
= 5.387 1.728x1x2 + 2.996x1x3 +1.728x1x2x35
Coefficients in the regression equation for various properties are

presented in Table 5.7. From the data, it may be noted that, axial
force
exhibits
maximum influence
on
coating width,
while
combination of axial force and table speed exhibit maximum

influence on strength and bend ductility.
Experimental data and data obtained from the evaluation of

regression equation are compared in Table.5.8. It may be noted
from the data that the experimental results nearly match with
those obtained from regression equations, except in certain
combinations of parameters in respect of physical dimensions and
166
mechanical properties ( Table. 5.9 ), where reverse trends are
observed.
Potentio dynamic pitting corrosion studies show that friction
surfacing by aluminium improves the pitting corrosion resistance
of mild steel substrate.
6.3 Friction seam welding
Feasibility of groove welding in solid state has been established.

The variables studied include groove angle, plate thickness and
table speed.
The welds were characterized for micro structure, hardness, impact
toughness and tensile strength. The observations on the influence
of groove angle, plate thickness and table speed on mechanical
properties are summarized in Table 4.11

Plate thickness is found to have an influence on the quality of
welds. Sound and defect free welds could be obtained at lower
thickness.
Inferior quality and low strength of welds at higher thickness is
observed to be due to blunting of the mechtrode, resulting in
inability of the mechtrode to reach the root of the groove. For the
same reason the welds at smaller groove angle contained defects
and exhibit low strength.

Increase in table speed results in improved strength possibly due
to low heat input leading to finer micro structure.
167
Increase in groove angle results in improved strength and
toughness.
Decrease in plate thickness leads to improved strength, as the
welds are relatively free from defects, since mechtrode can
approach the root of the groove as the groove is shallow, when the
thickness of the plate is low.
6.2. Scope for future work
6.2.1. Friction surfacing
Industrial applications call for uniform and controlled thickness.

Position control only can be an answer for this. Hence, studies in
this direction may be of help.

Detailed micro structure analysis studies can be carried out to
understand the influence of parameters on microstructure and to
establish correlation between micro structure and properties.

Examination of the interface and surrounding areas by EPMA to
understand the interaction effects between coating and substrate
materials.
168
Thermo graphic studies used to thermal history during the process

of friction surfacing, to explain possible reaction between substrate
and coating, as well flow behavior of coating material, is yet
another area that can be explored.
6.2.2 Friction seam welding
The work on groove welding by friction seam welding is an

exploratory work and needs further research to improve the quality
of welds,
These welds contained un-bonded areas. This has been observed
to be mainly due to change in taper of the consumable rod as the
welding progressed.
This deficiency needs to be addressed by finding out suitable
solutions to retain the shape of the tip of the electrode during the
process of welding. This probably can be achieved by an online
machining of the electrode for which a suitable mechanisms needs
to be developed.
Studies in force control and position control mode involving
investigation on the influence of different parameters and their
169
interactive
effects
can
throw
more
insight
and
better
understanding of the process, enabling it to be developed as a

process for practical applications.
170
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APPENDIX
189
Design of experiments and statistical analysis of the

results for optimization of parameters
Parameters optimization is carried out using the factorial design of
experiments which is an established statistical method.The habitual
single factor experiment, run on the principle of varying one factor at a
time
while
keeping
the
others
constant,
will
be
tedious
and
unsatisfactory in the case of complex systems such as friction surfacing

where the number of possible influencing factors are large. Statistical
design of multi-factorial experiment, on the other hand, involves the
simultaneous variation of all the factors which, while greatly minimizing
the number trial, still enables mathematically reliable estimate
the
optimum conditions.
Basics of approach
The basis of approach is the assumption of the simplified linear
model for the optimization parameters given by
Y
x where
2 3
b 0+b1x 1+ b2x
+ b3x3 + b12x1x2 + b13x1x3 + b23x 2x
X1: Axial force, X 2: Spindle speed and X
+ b123x 1x
: Table traverse
speed, on which y depends and b0, b1,etc. represent the true
190
values of the corresponding unknown coefficients. Each coefficient

represents the influence of the corresponding factor on the property of
the deposit expressed by the optimization parameters. From the results
of an experiment comprising a finite number of trails, one can arrive at a
simple estimates of the coefficients b, which are then usually fitted in to
linear regression equation of the type.
In terms of the friction surfacing, the response function y is the
magnitude representing the physical characteristics of the deposit such
as width, height, and surface roughness, or bonding strength of the
deposit like tensile strength and shear strength.
The first step in the factorial design is the selection of process
parameters and their levels which are indicated in the table. The three
factors chosen are friction force (F), rotational speed of the mechtrode (N)
and welding speed (Vx) which are generally considered to be the quality
controlling variables in friction surfacing.
The higher and lower levels indicated in the table are usually
transformed for convenience into coded variables +1and-1 respectively.
The condition of the experiment can then be written down in the form of
a design matrix shown in Table.3.4 of chapter-3.This is a matrix for a 2 3
191
factorial design where the factors have been considered at two levels
each.
The values obtained for the response function Y in each of these
23experiments
regression
are
then
coefficients
statistically
and
fitting
analyzed
prediction
for
estimating
equation
for
the
the
optimization parameters.
The procedure for finding out the coefficients in the regression
equation is provided in the following table.
Table .A1. Calculation of coefficients from F- ratio
s.
no
PC
Resp
onse
Y
Column1
Column2
Column3
(C)
(T)
(Z)
F- Ratio=
TSS
(Z2/8)
TSS/MS
S
(F)
Significant
factors= (Z/8)
(b0 coefficients)
R1
C1
T1
Z1
TSS1
F1
Z1/8 = b0
X1
R2
C2
T2
Z2
TSS2
F2
Z2/8 = b1
X2
R3
C3
T3
Z3
TSS3
F3
Z3/8 = b2
X1 X2
R4
C4
T4
Z4
TSS4
F4
Z4/8 = b12
X3
R5
C5
T5
Z5
TSS5
F5
Z5/8 = b3
X1 X3
R6
C6
T6
Z6
TSS6
F6
Z6/8 = b13
X2 X3
R7
C7
T7
Z7
TSS7
F7
Z7/8 = b23
X1 X2 X3
R8
C8
T8
Z8
TSS8
F8
Z8/8 = b123
192
The values in column-1 are obtained from response values as per

following procedure:
C1= R1 + R2, C2= R3 + R4, C3 = R5 + R6, C4= R7 + R8, C5 = R2 - R1, C6 = R4 - R3,
C7= R6 - R5, C8 = R8 - R7
The values in column-2 are obtained from column-1 values

T1= C1 + C2, T2 = C3+C4, T3 =C5+C6, T4 = C7 +C8, T5 = C2-C1, T6 = C4-C3
T7 = C6-C5, T8= C8-C7
The values in column-3 are obtained from column-2
Z1 = T1+T2, Z2 =T3+T4, Z3 = T5+T6, Z4 =T7+T8, Z5 = T2-T1, Z6 =T4-T3, Z7 = T6-T5
Z8 = T8-T7
Calculation of mean sum of squares (MSS), Total sum of squares (TSS),
F-Ratio, and Coefficients (b0, b1, b2)
MSS
TSS
Mean Sum of Squares of response
(R12+R22+R32++R82 ) /8
Total Sum of the Squares = Z2/8

193
TSS1 =
Z12/8
F - Ratio = TSS/MSS
F1
[(Z12/)/8]/MSS
Following the procedure out lined above the contents of the table for
coating width showing the influence of various parameters and their
interactive effects is given in Table. A.2
194
Table. A2. Coefficients for regression equation of coating width (Response)

S.No.
Effect of
Response
Column-1
Column-2
Column-3
TSS
factors
1
2
1
X1
3
X2
4
X1X2
5
X3
6
X1X3
7
X2X3
8
X1X2X3
Mean=14.266
F ratio=
Significant
TSS/MSS
factors (Z/8 )
C1
Z2 /8
(b0 coefficients)
13.358
15.424
28.782
25.624
54.406
59.728
114.134
4.386
1628.32
2.404
7.9292
0.0117
14.266 bo
0.548 b1
12.447
13.177
15.956
16.031
13.113
14.628
31.987
27.741
2.066
0.73
0.075
1.515
2.796
1.59
-3.158
-4.246
-1.336
1.44
-7.404
0.104
5.322
-1.206
-1.088
2.776
6.852
0.001352
3.540
0.181
0.147
0.9637
0.03336
0.0000065836
0.01723
0.00088139
0.0007158
0.004692
-0.9255 b2
0.013 b12
0.6652 b3
-0.15075 b13
0.1366 b23
0.347 b123
195
The F (frequency distribution) ratio is equal to (TSS/MSS). Using

the above procedure, the F ratios are calculated and these values are
also shown in the Table.2. The values so obtained are then compared
with F ratios given in the standard tables. The latter have been compiled
for a given significance levels. Since the 2 level and 8 repeated trails are
selected for the design of experimental matrix, hence their degree of
freedom is 1 and 7 respectively. From F table, for 95%, the significance is
equal to 3.59. if the calculated F value in the given treatment
combination is higher than or nearer to this tabulated F value, the
corresponding factor/ F ratio is to be taken as significant. From Table.2,
taking the significant factors in to account the regression equation for
coating width is as follows
Y
14.266 + 0.548X1 0.925X2 + 0.665X3 + 0.347X1X2X3
196
LIST OF PUBLICATIONS
A) International Journals:
1 B. Vijaya Kumar, Dr. G. Madhusudhan Reddy and Dr. T Mohandas

Identification of suitable process parameters for Friction surfacing
of mild steel with AA6063 aluminium alloy International Journal
of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, September-2014, Volume
74, Issue1-4, pp 433-443.
Influence of process parameters on physical dimensions of AA6063
aluminium alloy coating on mild steel in friction surfacing Defence
Technology xx (2015 )1-7
10th April 2015.
B). International / National Conferences:
International Conference:
B. Vijaya Kumar, Dr. G. Madhusudhan Reddy, Dr. T Mohandas and

Dr.B. Anjaneya PrasadA study on the use of frictional energy for
surface modification of mild steel with AA6063 aluminium alloy over
197
lay International Conference & Exhibition on Total Engineering

Analysis & Manufacturing Technology ( TEAM TECH-2008) 22 nd -24th
September-2008, Bangalore.
National Conference:
Effect of Parameters on Efficiency of AA6063 Aluminium Alloy
Coating on Mild Steel in Friction Surfacing , Recent Innovations in
Mechanical Engineering (RIME 2014) March 21st 2014, at CMR
Technical Campus, Hyderabad,
ISBN: 9789383038138, Page No.:101
3
B. Vijaya Kumar, Dr.G. Madhusudhan Reddy and Dr.T Mohandas

Friction surfacing of AA6063 aluminium alloy over mild steel in
National Welding Seminar, Weld India-2013 , 7th -9th February-2013
at Bangalore organized by The Indian Institute of Welding.
Papper ID: 312, Page No.:91
198

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CHAPTER - 1

1.1. Objectives of present work

coatings and their mechanical behavior. The studies were mainly

reported by some of the earlier researchers [19] that it is not feasible to

interactive effects on coating characteristics.

state by employing a consumable rod. Such feasibility has been cited by

1.2. Scope of the present research work

The micro structure and bond integrity

To investigate the role of coating on improving the corrosion

resistance of the substrate.

1.3. Surface modification processes

A broad classification of the surface modification process is

Weld over lay

Fig.1.1.Classification of surface modification processes [33]

1.4. Processes based on change in composition of surface

1.4.1. Processes based on solid state diffusion

Nitrozen is diffused in to nitriding class of steel by heating the

1.4.2. Processes based on without altering composition

using gas flame

followed by water quenching to obtain martensitic micro structure [27]

1.4.3. Fusion based processes

Arc welding processes are employed to melt a filler metal and

1.4.4. Vapor deposition processes

chromium and nickel coatings are obtained on steel components to

Aluminizing, cadmium coating and galvanizing

Coating of aluminium, cadmium and zinc by numerous methods

Solid state deposition and coating techniques.

Energy generated in the form of frictional heat is in vogue for thin

1.5. Groove welding

Gas metal arc

Fig.1.2. Groove welding processes

Arc welding is a process where in electric arc generated between

results in melting of the metal to be welded. Filler metal is separately

microstructure, shrinkage and gas porosity. In addition some of the

1.6. Chapter summary

In this chapter process details of surface modification and groove

of literature survey. The observations reported by earlier researchers on

2.2. Surface coating using frictional energy

Fig.2.1. Schematic diagram of friction surfacing [18]

The process of friction surfacing has been reported to have been

reconditioning of bushings and sliding bearings, hard- facing etc.

on utilization of frictional heat produced due to relative motion between

Aluminium alloy: AA6061

Batchelor et al. [28]

Rao et al. [125]

Rao et al. [125]

Table.2.2.[131].Details of nonferrous substrates and coating materials combination investigated in friction

Surfacing can also be made onto a circular substrate (i.e., shaft or

unequal distribution of frictional energy at the free edge of the

consumption of the rotating bar occurs because of an unequal

While it is recognized that this plasticized layer has lower mechanical

2.2.1. Materials and metallurgy

include an availability of bar stock- now less of a limitation. The

2.2.3 Characterization techniques

For reconditioning of worn shafts and good quality deposits.

Successfully can be employed for hard facing of cutting edges and

Bi-metal linear bearings and also in-situ reclamation of worn

Multi - sector applications

The solid phase friction surfacing process minimizes distortion.

Because of its inherent fast freeze characteristic friction surfacing

Thin layers of negligible dilution but considerable bond strength

Excellent bonding can be achieved with no defects such as

Properties of the coating materials can be improved