Chapter 1: Exceptional Child: Advanced Issues

PowerPoint Slides and Class Notes

Exceptionalities and Social Justice
Exceptional children
Individuals who differ from societal or community standards of normalcy
Significant physical, sensory, cognitive or behavioral characteristics
Changing Times
Improved Outcomes for Individuals with Disabilities
o Fewer drop out of school; decrease of 21% in 10 years
o More graduate with a standard diploma; 43% increase since 1996
o Many attend post-secondary education; 15% in 1987 to 40% in 2005
o More hold jobs after leaving high school
Fairness and Equality: Ideas now associated with people with disabilities
o Media Portrayals
Perceptions Matter
o Ways of thinking that guide our perspectives:
Deficit
o Human behavior and characteristics are distributed along a continuum called the normal
curve
Cultural
o Different cultures with different views about difference and disability
Sociological
o Disability is socially constructed
Soft diagnosis; different from scientific no definitive test to determine disability

Disability as a Minority
o Like other historically under-represented groups, people with
disabilities comprise a minority group.
o People with disabilities often face barriers are handicapped
because of discrimination and unfair treatment
o Similarities with other minority groups in America
Civil rights movement of 1950s and 1960s
Protected under the constitution
Thurgood Marshall
21 years for disability discrimination to pass
Defacto versus dejure segregation
De Jure segregation

 Segregation by law
separate but equal
Segregation allowed as long as equal rights

and conditions were provided

De Facto segregation
Segregation by practice
Racial segregation, especially in public schools,
that happens by fact rather than by legal
requirement. For example, often the
concentration of African-Americans in certain
neighborhoods produces neighborhood schools
that are predominantly black, or segregated in
fact (de facto ), although not by law
o Words Matter! People with disabilities are people first!
The words we use communicate attitudes and perceptions.
Principles of people first language
Put the primary focus on the person
Example: A student with autism NOT An autistic
student
Exceptions: Members of the Deaf community
Arriving at Basic Guarantees
Exclusion in Society
In last century many individuals with disabilities were sent to live in institutions.
Segregated from society.
Many individuals with disabilities still face discrimination and bias in society.
Exclusion in Education
Prior to 1975, children and youth with disabilities routinely denied education.
1991: approximately 1/3 of students with disabilities attended general education classes for over
80% of school day.
Today: approximately 60% attend general education classes for over 80% of school day.
Legal Protections
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) guarantees students with disabilities a free and
appropriate public education in the least restrictive environment.
Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) protects the rights of all citizens with disabilities.
Definitions and Terminology
Disability
o Limitations imposed on an individual (physical, cognitive, sensory, emotional, learning
difficulties, etc.)
Handicap
o Impact of the disability (social marginalization, discrimination due to perceptions, etc.)

Thirteen Categories of Disability

1. Autism
2. Deaf-blindness (deafness has two models: medical and cultural)
3. Developmental delay (new)
a. Typically uses a individuals performance on standardized developmental assessments
b. Versus at risk individuals who, although not yet identified as having a disability have a
high probability of manifesting a disability because of harmful biological environmental or
genetic conditions
4. Emotional disturbance
5. Hearing impairments
6. Mental retardation
7. Multiple disabilities
8. Orthopedic impairments
9. Other health impairments (#1 largest) 3rd in receiving SE
10. Specific learning disabilities 1st in receiving SE
11. Speech or language impairments (#2 prevalence) 2nd in receiving SE
12. Traumatic brain injury
13. Visual impairments including blindness
14. Non-categorical: programs constructed around student needs and common instructional
requirements instead of categories of exceptionality

Pioneering Contributors to the Development of Special Education

Thomas Gallaudet (1787-1851)
o communication

taught children w/hearing impairments to communicated through sign language

established first institution in the US
Louis Braille (1809-1852)
o Developed system of reading and writing for people who were blind
Alexander Graham Bell (1847-1922)
o Science
o Advocate of educating children with special needs in public schools
o Promoted the use of residual hearing and developing skills for death students
Alfred Binet (1857-1911)
o Constructed the first standardized developmental assessment scale (IQ)
Maria Montessori (1870-1952)
o Pioneer in working with children with mental retardation
o Children learn best by direct sensory experience
o Expert in early childhood education
o
o

Examples of Related Services

Physical therapy
Audiology
Transportation
Speech and language
Psychology
Recreational therapy
Orientation and mobility
Interpreting services

Occupational therapy
Nutrition
Medical
Social work
Vocational education
Rehabilitation counseling
Parent counseling
School nurse services

Successful Partnerships
Family participation
Individualized education programs (IEP)
Collaboration
Consultative services
Exceptionality across the Life Span
Infants, Toddlers, and Preschoolers With Special Needs
o Individualized Family Service Plan (IFSP)
o Early Intervention (EI) (birth to age 2)
o Early childhood special education (age 3-5)
Adolescents and Young Adults With Disabilities
o Transition
o Transition services
o Individualized Transition Plan (ITP)
o Transition challenges and concerns
Learning Objectives:

Define exceptional children, disability, handicapped, developmentally

delayed, at risk, and special education.
Identify the thirteen disability categories recognized by the federal
government.
Distinguish between prevalence and incidence.
Describe the historical evolution of services for children and adults with
disabilities.
List the related services sometimes required by students with
disabilities.
Outline the differences between multi-, inter-, and transdisciplinary
team models.
Describe common instructional models of cooperative teaching.
Identify key dimensions of universal design for learning.
Explain the services typically available to infants/toddlers,
preschoolers, adolescents, and adults with disabilities.

Chapter Outline:
I.
Key ideas reflected throughout the textbook:
a.

Classrooms are made up of diverse learners Identifying social

research questions

b.

Diversity comes in many forms including disability,

ethnicity, gender, learning style, experience with school,
and cultural norms.
Person first language is essential

c.

When describing people with disabilities, it is essential to

focus on the person rather than the disability. Examples of
person first language include person in a wheelchair or
girl with autism.
Attitudes are powerful

i.

i.

Negative stereotypes and cultural beliefs about people with

disabilities can impact the way people think and act and
affects the experiences of people with disabilities in their
everyday lives.
Definitions and Terminology
i.

II.

a.

Exceptional children
i.

This inclusive term is used frequently by both general and

special educators to refer to individuals who differ from
societal or community standards of normalcy

b.

It is important to recognize the difference in meaning and

implication of the terms disability and handicap although they
are often used interchangeably.

Disability
1.
The term disability is the limitation or inability to
perform a task in a certain way. For example, a
person may have paralysis of the leg muscles,
cognitive impairments, loss of sight or hearing,
emotional disturbances, or learning difficulties.
ii. Handicap
1.
The term handicap refers to the problems or
difficulties that a person with a disability may
encounter because of their disability, for example, a
building that isnt wheelchair accessible, a building
with Braille signs posted far into a building, or
marginalization and discrimination due to negative
social attitudes.
Classroom Suggestions
i.

III.

a.

Focus on the person rather than the disability

i.

ii.

iii.

iv.

Focus on the person rather than the disability.

1.
The person lives a life that is just as important to
them as your life is to you and its important to
recognize the parts of their life that they find
valuable and important. Remember, the disability
doesnt define the person.
Avoid super achiever and other stereotypes.
1.
Negative stereotypes about people with disabilities
are as unfair as stereotypes assigned to other
minority groups. Using these stereotypes can have
negative implications for the thoughts and attitudes
of people without disabilities and contributes to the
handicaps that people with disabilities may
encounter in society.
Avoid terms of pity such as afflicted with or suffers
from and generic labels like the retarded.
1.
Terms of pity evoke emotions of sorrow and charity
and encourage people to distance or separate
themselves from the object of pity. Using terms of
pity furthers the social stereotype that people with
disabilities are helpless, weak, or inferior.
Use person first language such as boy with Down
syndrome.

Language is often the precursor to thought. Focusing

on the person before the disability sends the
message that the person isnt defined by their
disability. This change reflects an important social
shift in thinking about people with disabilities and
can impact attitudes about people with disabilities.
Use language that affirms ability such as uses a
wheelchair rather than wheelchair bound.
1.
Language is powerful and using it in different ways
can convey different meanings. Using language that
does not emphasize a persons disability or
limitations sends the message that the disability or
limitation isnt the persons defining characteristic.
Use correct terminology rather than euphemisms.
1.
Terms such as physically challenged are often used
to describe a person with a disability and are seen as
condescending. It is important to use the correct
terminology to express respect for the person with a
disability.
Dont confuse disease with disability.
1.
Disability does not imply disease or illness although
many people have diseases that are disabling.
Disease can be frightening for children and implies
that the disability might be contagious and this belief
may cause them to distance themselves or fear the
person with the disability. A disability is not a
sickness and should not be presented as a problem
or in need of a cure.
Portray people with disabilities as active participants in life
and in society.
1.
Positive portrayals of people with disabilities show
children that people with disabilities are equal
participants in society and can impact their beliefs
and perceptions about people with disabilities.
Changing negative attitudes is part of the struggle
that disability rights activists have been fighting for
decades.
Terms
1.

v.

vi.

vii.

viii.

IV.

Important
a.

Developmental Delay
i.

Many states have different criteria for identifying a

developmental delay for example, testing with
standardized tests or comparing developmental
milestones. Current legislation allows states to use the
term developmental delay for children aged 3 through 9.

b.

The use of specific disability labeling for young children is

of questionable value.
At-Risk

c.

Children who are at-risk are generally not identified as

having a disability but have a high probability of
manifesting a disability due to biological, genetic, or
environmental factors. Adverse circumstances or factors
may contribute to delays in learning or development but it
is not a guarantee.
Special Education

d.

Special education is a customized instructional program

that considers materials, equipment, services, and
teaching strategies to meet the needs of the student with a
disability. Special education is often conducted in the
regular education classroom. Not all students with
disabilities will require special education programming.
Students who receive special education will have an
Individualized Education Program (IEP).
Related Services

e.

Related services are provided by professionals who may

work with students with disabilities. Related services are
an integral part of a special education program if the
student requires them. They will be discussed later in the
chapter.
Incidence

f.

Incidence refers to a rate of inception, or the number of

new instances of a disability occurring within a given time
frame, usually a year.
Prevalence

i.

i.

i.

i.

Prevalence refers to the total number of individuals with a

particular disability currently existing in the population at a
given time.
Federal Categories of Disability identified by Public Law (PL) 108-446
(the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004).
i.

V.

a.

Federal categories
1)
2)
3)
4)

Autism
Deaf-blindness
Developmental delay
Emotional disturbance

VI.

5) Hearing impairments
6) Mental retardation [Intellectual disability]
7) Multiple disabilities
8) Orthopedic impairments
9) Other health impairments
10) Specific learning disabilities
11) Speech or language impairments
12) Traumatic brain injury
13) Visual impairments including blindness
b.
Pros and cons to using labels to identify people
c. Increase in number of students receiving special education
services
Prevalence of Children and Young Adults with Disabilities
a.
b.

VII.

VIII.

Important terms: incidence and prevalence

Number of children and adults served

i. Review Figure 1.1 and Table 1.2

c. Note on gifted and talented individuals
History of Special Education
a. Pioneers in the Development of Special Education
b.
Institutions and Asylums
c. Special education classes in public schools
d.
Change in social beliefs about people with disabilities
e. Legislation and litigation reflected social beliefs
f.
Inclusive philosophies and services
g.
Related Service Providers
Successful Partnerships and Practices
a.
b.
c.

Families of children with disabilities

Collaboration and consultation with professionals
Service delivery teams
i.

ii.

Multidisciplinary teams
1.
Mandated by PL 94-142 and IDEA (2004).
Multidisciplinary teams are typically formed of
professionals across various disciplines that
independently conduct their own evaluations.
Parents may meet with each expert separately to
receive information and suggestions. This type of
team is not as collaborative as other types of teams.
Interdisciplinary teams
1.
Interdisciplinary teams evolved from the fragmented
approach of multidisciplinary teams. Team members
conduct their evaluations separately but the program

d.

that is developed is based on collaboration and

reflects the integration of each experts findings.
Families may meet with the entire team or with a
representative.
iii.
Transdisciplinary teams
1.
Transdisciplinary teams build on the strengths of the
interdisciplinary model. All team members are
committed to working collaboratively across
individual discipline lines. Professionals conduct their
evaluations and additionally teach their skills to the
other team members. A team leader, often an
educator, is chosen to serve as the primary
interventionist. The transdisciplinary model provides
a more coordinated and unified approach to
assessment and service delivery and teams view
parents as full-fledged members of the group with an
equal voice in decision making.
Cooperative teaching
i.

Cooperative teaching, or co-teaching, is an increasingly

popular approach for including students with disabilities in
general education classrooms. Co-teaching occurs when a
general education teacher and one or more support service
providers work together in a collaborative manner in the
general education classroom. Common models of coteaching include:
1.
One teach, one observe: one teacher presents the
instruction to the entire class while the other teacher
collects data on one or more students.
2.
One teach, one support: one teacher takes the lead
instructional role while the other teacher provides
support and assistance to all students who need it.
3.
Station teaching: student change their locations, or
stations, throughout the classroom and work with all
teachers during the rotations.
4.
Parallel teaching: each teacher delivers instruction
to half the class at the same time as the other
teacher is presenting the same lesson to the other
half of the class.
5.
Alternative teaching: One teacher provides
instruction to the larger group while the other
teacher works individually with a smaller group to
provide alternate teaching strategies.
6.
Team teaching: Both teachers take equal turns in
presenting the instruction and in supporting
students.

e.

Universal Design for Learning (UDL)

UDL is the concept that curriculum, instruction, and

evaluation procedures should be designed to meet the
needs of all students by providing access to learning, not
simply access to information. Learning materials and
lessons are designed to allow for flexibility and offer
various ways to learn to ensure that all children achieve
success.
Disability Across the Lifespan
i.

IX.

a.

Infants, Toddlers, and Preschoolers with Special Needs

b.

Legislation provides services for the youngest citizens with

disabilities in the form of Early Intervention (EI) services for
children from birth through age 2 and early childhood
special education for children who are 3-5 years of age.
ii. The Individualized Family Service Plan (IFSP) provides
support and services to the family in addition to the child
with the disability.
Adolescents and Young Adults with Disabilities
i.

i.

ii.

iii.

Full participation in adult life is the goal of most

adolescents and young adults as they leave high school
and plan for their future. Transition planning is mandated
by PL 108-446 (IDEA) and occurs for students in secondary
school as they prepare to transition to the adult world.
Transition planning involves planning services to assist
students with disabilities in attending postsecondary
education, securing employment, participating in the
community, living independently, and engaging in
social/recreational activities in ways that suit their interests
and needs.
Full participation may not be possible without planning and
effective instruction while students are still in high school.
An Individualized Transition Plan (ITP) is incorporated into a
students IEP no later than age 16 (and annually
thereafter).

Definitions

At risk: An infant or child who has a high probability of exhibiting

delays in development or developing a disability
Category: Label assigned to individuals who share common
characteristics and features.

Collaboration: How individuals work together; a style of interaction

among professionals.
Consultation: A focused problem-solving process in which one
individual offers support and expertise to another person
Cooperative teaching: An instructional approach in which a special
education teacher and a general educator teach together in a general
education classroom to a heterogeneous group of students
Developmental delay: A term defined by individual states referring to
children ages 3 to 9 who perform significantly below developmental
norms
Disability: An inability or incapacity to perform a task or activity in a
normative fashion
Early childhood special education: Provision of customized services
uniquely crafted to meet the individual needs of youngsters with
disabilities ages 3 to 5.
Early intervention: The delivery of a coordinated and comprehensive
package of specialized services to infants and toddlers with
developmental delays or at-risk conditions and their families
Exceptional children: Children who deviate from the norm to such an
extent that special educational services are required
Handicap: Difficulties imposed by the environment on a person with a
disability
Handicapism: The unequal and differential treatment accorded
individuals with a disability
Incidence: A rate of inception; number of new cases appearing in the
population within a specific time period
Individualized Education Program (IEP): A written detailed plan
developed by a team for each pupil ages 321 who receives a special
education; a management tool
Individualized Family Service Plan (IFSP): A written plan developed by a
team that coordinates services for infants and toddlers and their
families
Individualized Transition Plan (ITP): An individualized plan with
identified goals and objectives used to prepare the student in making
the transition from high school to work (or college)
Interdisciplinary team: A group of professionals from different
disciplines who function as a team but work independently;
recommendations, however, are the result of sharing information and
joint planning
Multidisciplinary team: A group of professionals from different
disciplines who function as a team but perform their roles independent
of one another.
Noncategorical: Programs developed based on student needs and
common instructional requirements rather than on disability

Prevalence: The total number of individuals in a given category during

a particular period of time
Related services: Services defined by federal law whose purpose is to
assist a student with exceptionalities derive benefit from a special
education
Self-contained: A separate classroom for children with disabilities,
usually found in a public school
Special education: Specially designed instruction to meet the unique
needs of an individual recognized as exceptional
Transdisciplinary team: A group of professionals from different
disciplines who function as a team but work independently; however,
they share roles, and a peer is identified as the primary interventionist
Transition: A broad term used to describe the movement of an
individual from one educational environment to another, from one
class to another, or from one phase of life (high school) to another
(independent adulthood)
Transition services: Individualized and coordinated services that assist
the adolescent with a disability to successfully move from school to
post-school activities.
Universal design for learning: The design of curriculum materials,
instructional activities, and evaluation procedures that can meet the
needs of learners with widely varying abilities and backgrounds.

Quiz
1. The term handicapism describes the unequal and differential treatment experienced by those with a
disability. True
2. Contemporary thinking believes that services should be provided in the most natural or normalized
environment appropriate for each individual student. True
3. A disability is not necessarily a handicap. True
4. An individualized transition plan is different from the IEP in that is does not require goals. False
5. High school students with disabilities are entitled to a transition plan. True
6. Recreational therapy is considered to be a related service. True
7. Cooperative teaching, or co-teaching as it is sometimes called, is an increasingly popular approach for
facilitating successful inclusion. True
8. A concern associated with alternative teaching is that not all students receive all of the critical content.
False

9. Authorities agree the practice of labeling students is the most effective method of providing services.
False
10. Gifted and talented students are classified in a separate category under IDEA. False
11. Disability is defined as an inability or a reduced capacity to perform a task in a specific way.
12. Handicap refers to the impact or consequence of a disability, not the condition.
13. A way of ensuring participation in the general curriculum as required by PL108-446 (IDEA -2004) is the
concept of universal design.
14. The reauthorization responsible for rapid development of services for youngsters with disabilities,
delayed or at risk is PL 99-457.
15. Special education is defined as a customized instructional program designed to meet the unique needs
of an individual learner.
16. Which of the following special education pioneers is considered the father of special education. Izard
17. Key ingredients required for successful cooperative teaching include
Voluntary participation
Adequate planning time
Mutual respect
18. Similar to an IEP, the IFSP is more family focused and reflective of the familys resources, priorities, and
concerns.
19. In this model, team members are committed to working collaboratively across individual discipline lines.
Transdisciplinary Approach
20. In this model of teaming, recommendations are the result of information sharing and joint planning.
Interdisciplinary Approach
21. Services for young children are covered under Part C of IDEA.
22. Prevalence refers to the total number of individuals with a particular disability existing in the population
at a given time.
23. The statement, last year 500,000 new cases of autism were recorded is an example of incidence.
24. Noncategorical programs:
Focus on the instructional needs of the pupils
Do not focus on the etiology of the disability
25. Exceptional children are individuals who resemble other children in many ways but differ from societal
standards of normalcy.

Additional Exercise

Identify key dimensions of universal design for learning.

Describe the historical evolution of services for children and adults with disabilities.
Explain services typically available to individuals with disabilities.

Chapter Two: Policies, Practices and Programs

PowerPoint Slides

Key Special Education Court Cases

o Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas (1954)
o PARC v. Commonwealth of Pennsylvania (1972)
o Board of Education of the Hendrick Hudson Central School District v. Rowley (1982)
o Daniel R.R. v. State Board of Education (1989)

Key Special Education Legislation

o PL 94-142 (1975)
Education for all Handicapped Children Act
o PL 99-457 (1986 Amendments to PL 94-142)
Education of the Handicapped Act Amendments of 1986
o PL 101-476 (1990 Amendments to PL 94-142)
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)
o PL 105-17 (1997 Amendments to IDEA)
IDEA Act Amendments of 1997
o PL 108-446 (2004)
Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004
o PL 94-142
The Education for All Handicapped Children Act
Called the Bill of Rights for children with disabilities, the legislative heart of
special education, and the Parents Law.
- Free Appropriate Public Education (FAPE)
- Least Restrictive Environment (LRE)
- Individualized Education Program (IEP)
- Procedural Due Process
- Nondiscriminatory Assessment
- Parental Participation
o PL 99-457

Education of the Handicapped Act

Amendments of 1986
- Affected education and services for young children with special needs and
their families
Preschoolers (age 3-5)
Children from birth through age 2
Individualized Family Service Plan (IFSP)
o PL 108-446
Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004
- Special education services aligned with national school improvement
efforts
- IEP changes
- Identification of students with learning disabilities through Response to
Intervention (RTI)
- Highly qualified special education teachers
- Discipline
- Due process
- Evaluation of students
- Assessment participation

Key Civil Rights Legislation

o Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973
This act employs a broader definition of eligibility than IDEA and states that no
individual can be excluded, solely because of their disability, from participating in
any program or activity receiving federal funding, including schools.
Schools may be required to develop plans to meet the needs of students who
require accommodations.
Section 504 covers the entire lifespan not just the school years.

Identification and Assessment of Individual Differences

o Interindividual differences are differences between students (examples: height, sports skill,
reading ability)
o Intraindividual differences are differences within a student (examples: individual strengths
and weaknesses)
o Both are important considerations for the IEP team and classroom teacher

Referral and Assessment for Special Education

o Prereferral
Interventions are designed by a support team and implemented within the
classroom to assist a struggling child.
o Referral
Child is formally referred for assessment
o Assessment
Parental permission is obtained. Evaluation is conducted by a multidisciplinary
team to determine if a disability is present.

Individualized Education Program (IEP)

o An IEP is created by a team that includes:
A parent/guardian
The student, when appropriate
The childs teachers including a general education teacher and a special educator
A representative from the school district
An individual able to interpret the instructional implications of the assessments
conducted
Other professionals as appropriate

Cascade of Service Delivery Options

o The Least Restrictive (LRE) option is the general education classroom because it provides
the most access to children without disabilities.
o Increased emphasis on providing supports and services within the general education
classroom.
o Students may need a more restrictive setting to meet their unique needs.

Chapter Summary
Legislation impacting the practice and pedagogy of students with disabilities are highlighted, including
major national and state regulations as well as civil rights legislation. These important laws paved the way
for inclusion of students with disabilities and outline the identification and assessment process.
In addition, this chapter describes the design and implementation of individual education plans as well as
service delivery options; including a focus on full inclusion and the regular education initiative.
Learning Objectives:
Identify the court cases that led to the enactment of Public Law 94142.
Summarize the key components of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act from 1975 to
2004.
Describe the legislative intent of Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 and the Americans
with Disabilities Act.
Distinguish between inter- and intra-individual differences.
Describe the difference between norm- and criterion-referenced assessments.
Outline the steps in the referral process for the delivery of special education services.
List the key components of an individualized education program (IEP) and an individualized family
service plan (IFSP).

Define mainstreaming, least restrictive environment, regular education initiative, and full inclusion.

Chapter Outline:
I.
Key Special Education court cases
a.

Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas (1954)

Segregation by race is unconstitutional; paved the way for changes to the
educational practices of the time that segregated by disability.
PARC (Pennsylvania Association for Retarded Children) v. Commonwealth of
Pennsylvania (1972)
i.

b.

c.

States must guarantee a free public education to all children with mental
retardation ages 6-21 and younger if school districts provide services to preschool
age children without disabilities.
Board of Education addressed Hendrick Hudson Central School District v. Rowley (1982)

d.

First U.S. Supreme Court interpretation of PL 94-142 to determine what

constitutes an appropriate education for a child with a hearing impairment.
Appropriate is found to mean reasonable but not necessarily optimal
accommodations.
Daniel R.R. v. State Board of Education (1989)

e.

Established least restrictive environment based on whether pupil can make

satisfactory progress in the general education classroom and if the student has
been integrated to the maximum extent possible.
Oberti vs. Board of Education of the Borough of Clementon School District (1992)

f.

Placement in the general education classroom with the support of aids and
services must be offered to a student prior to considering more restrictive
placements. Placement outside the regular education classroom in order to meet
the students needs must be justified.
Cedar Rapids Community School District v. Garret F. (1999)

i.

i.

i.

i.

Expanded and clarified the concept for related services to include intensive and
continuous health care services necessary for students to attend school that are
not provided by a physician.
Key Special Education Legislation
i.

II.

a.

PL 94-142 The Education for All handicapped Children Act (1975)

i.

ii.

Free Appropriate Public Education (FAPE)

1.
FAPE guarantees that all students, regardless of the severity of their
disability, will receive a public education that is free and appropriate (zero
reject philosophy).
Least Restrictive Environment (LRE)

Children with disabilities are to be educated, to the maximum extent

possible, with their classmates that do not have disabilities.
iii.
Individualized Education Program (IEP)
1.
An educational plan that is designed to meet the individual needs of
children who have disabilities that impact their educational performance.
iv.
Procedural Due Process
1.
Safeguards are provided including confidentiality of records, parents
rights for access, rights to an independent evaluation, parents right to
legal counsel and an impartial hearing regarding disagreements.
v.
Nondiscriminatory Assessment
1.
Prior to placement, a child must be evaluated by a multidisciplinary team
in all areas of suspected disability using tests that are not racially,
culturally, or linguistically biased.
vi. Parental Participation
1.
Parents are considered equal partners and participate fully in the decisionmaking process for their childs education.
Educational Reform: Standards-Based Education
1.

III.

a.

PL 107-110 No Child Left Behind Act of 2001

b.

Reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act

Annual testing for all students in certain grades to demonstrate adequate yearly
progress in mathematics, reading, and science
iii.
Public access to schools performance on tests
iv.
Provides for parental choice in schools that do not meet annual progress goals
v.
Schools not making sufficient annual progress offer additional services to students
vi. Highly Qualified status for teachers
vii. Common Core State Standards Initiative, 2010
PL 108-446 Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004
i.
ii.

i.
ii.
iii.

Reauthorization of IDEA; commonly called IDEA

Special education services aligned with national school improvement efforts
IEP changes
1.
short term objectives only required for students taking alternative
assessments
2.
IEPs must include present levels of performance
3.
Progress toward annual goals must be assessed and reported
4.
IEP team members may provide written input instead of attending
5.
IEP meetings may occur via telephone or video conferencing
6.
Minor changes may be made to an existing IEP without a team meeting
7.
Transition plans developed at age 16 and consideration of postsecondary
goals is required
8.
Multi-year IEPs may be developed with parental consent
9.
The U.S. Department of Education developed new forms for the IEP and
IFSP

Identification of students with learning disabilities through Response to

Intervention (RTI)
1.
States may choose not to use a discrepancy model for identification of a
learning disability. They may opt to provide intensive interventions and if
they dont result in adequate progress for the student, a learning disability
is assumed to be present and additional assessment is warranted.
v.
Highly qualified special education teachers
vi. Discipline
1.
Students who are removed from their current educational setting for more
than 10 days must still receive special education services
2.
Interim educational placements may be used for up to 45 school days for
offenses involving weapons or drugs or inflicting serious bodily harm
3.
IEP teams must consider whether a childs disability contributed to their
behavior and whether the school failed to implement the IEP appropriately
4.
Students remain in the current educational placement in the event of a
hearing or mediation to resolve a dispute
vii. Due process
1.
Parents have a two year time limit for filing due process complaints
2.
A resolution session is required within 15 days before proceeding to due
process
3.
Parents may recover litigation expenses if they prevail in due process
hearings
viii.
Evaluation of students
ix. Assessment participation
1.
All students participate in state- and district-wide assessments. States are
allowed to assess up to 1 percent of students with alternative
assessments.
Key Civil Rights Legislation
iv.

IV.

a.

Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973

b.

This act employs a broader definition of eligibility than IDEA and states that no
individual can be excluded, solely because of their disability, from participating in
any program or activity receiving federal funding, including schools.
ii. Schools may be required to develop plans to meet the needs of students who
require accommodations.
iii.
Section 504 covers the entire lifespan not just the school years.
PL 101-336 (1990): Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)
i.

i.
ii.
iii.

Designed to eliminate discrimination against people with disabilities in the public

and private sectors.
Expanded definitions of eligibility may include people with AIDS, substance abuse
issues, or any impairment that limits a major life activity.
Employers, mass transit systems, and companies who provide products and
services must make reasonable accommodations for people with disabilities.

c.

PL 110-325: The Americans with Disabilities Act Amendments of 2008

Reauthorization of the ADA; commonly called ADAA

1.
Became effective January 2009
2.
Broader interpretation of disability includes additional life activities
(reading, concentrating, thinking) or body functions (such as immune
system or neurological functioning)
3.
Interpretation of substantial limitation made without considering the
effects of mitigating measures like medication or medical equipment
Identification and Assessment of Individual Differences
i.

V.

Interindividual differences are differences between students (examples: height, sports skill,
reading ability)
b.
Intraindividual differences are differences within a student (examples: individual strengths
and weaknesses)
c. Both are important considerations for the IEP team and classroom teacher
Referral and Assessment for Special Education
a.

VI.

a.

Prereferral
i.

Interventions are designed by a support team and implemented within the

classroom to assist a struggling child. The classroom teacher receives support in
helping the child to succeed.

b.

Referral

c.

The child is referred for assessment because prereferral interventions were not
successful. A referral can be made by a classroom teacher, parent, or other
concerned party and must include information regarding the students progress
and the supports and interventions that have been implemented. A committee
reviews the information and obtains parental permission for further assessment if
the documents warrant such action.
Assessment
i.

i.

Parents must provide permission for schools to conduct formal evaluations of their
child. Assessments must be conducted in the childs native language and the child
must be assessed in all areas of a suspected disability. Assessment tools may
include formal and informal measures such as standardized tests, interviews,
observations and work samples. The goal is to develop a complete picture of the
childs strengths and needs using a multidisciplinary team approach. If a disability
is present, a child may be eligible for an IEP if the disability impacts their
educational performance. If the disability does not impact the childs educational
performance, the child may still be eligible for accommodations under Section 504.
1.
a. Norm-referenced assessments
b.
Criterion-referenced assessments

d.

Instructional Programming and Appropriate Placement

e.

i. Eligibility for special education services

ii. Standards vary state to state
Eligibility for Special Education Services

The Multidisciplinary Team (MDT) uses a variety of assessments, including parent

input, to determine if a child has a disability that impacts his/her academic abilities.
ii. If the MDT determines that the child has a disability that impacts his/her academic
abilities, then the child is eligible for special education services and an IEP (or
IFSP) will be developed.
iii.
If the MDT determines that the child has a disability that does not impact his/her
academic abilities, then the child may be eligible for a 504 accommodation plan.
Designing Individualized Instructional Programs
i.

VII.

a.

An Individualized Education Program (IEP) is a written contract to provide supports and

services to a student with a disability once the student has been found eligible for special
education. A team, including the parents, uses the assessment information to develop a
plan that will benefit the student in the LRE. The main components of an IEP include:
Current performance: Statement of childs present levels of educational and
functional performance including how the disability may impact involvement in the
general education curriculum
ii. Goal: Statement of measurable annual goals that address students academic and
functional needs in the general education curriculum
iii.
Special education and related services: Statement of special education, related
services, and any additional aids or services the child needs.
iv.
Participation with typical students: An explanation of the extent, if any, to which the
student will not participate in the regular education classroom
v.
Participation in state- and district-wide assessment: Statement of any
modifications that may be required in order for a student to participate in state- or
district-wide assessments or a statement of how the student will be alternately
assessed
vi. Dates and locations: Projected date for services, including location, duration and
frequency of such services
vii. Transition services: Required at age 16; a statement of services to attain
postschool goals in training, education, employment, and independent living skills
viii.
Progress measuring: Statement of how goals will be measured and reported on a
regular basis
ix. Age of majority: At least one year before reaching age of majority (generally, age
21), information regarding transfer of rights is given to students and families
An IEP is created by a team that includes:
i.

b.

i.
ii.
iii.

A parent/guardian
The student, when appropriate
The childs teachers including a general education teacher and a special educator

A representative from the school district

An individual able to interpret the instructional implications of the assessments
conducted
vi. Other professionals as appropriate
Individualized Family Service Plans (IFSP) supports infants and toddlers with disabilities
and their families.
iv.
v.

c.

VIII.

i. Developed based on assessments by professionals and family input.

ii. Goals developed to reflect the familys priorities and needs.
iii.
Reviewed every 6 months
Placement Considerations
a.

Placement options (LRE)- Cascade of Service Delivery Options

b.

Regular Class: Students who receive the majority of their education in a regular
classroom and receive special education and related services outside the regular
classroom for less than 21% of the school day. This placement option also
includes individuals who are provided with specialized instruction or services
within the regular classroom setting.
ii. Resource Room: Students who receive special education and related services
outside the regular classroom for at least 21% but less than 60% of the school
day. Students are pulled out of the regular classroom and receive specialized
instruction or services in a separate classroom for limited periods of time. Services
may be individualized or offered in small groups. A common placement option for
children with less severe disabilities.
iii.
Separate Class: Students who receive special education and related services
outside the regular class for more than 60% of the school day. Commonly known
as a self-contained classroom wherein pupils, usually those with more severe
disabilities, receive full-time instruction or, in a modified version, participate in
nonacademic aspects of school activities. Classroom is located in regular school
building.
iv.
Separate School: Students who receive special education and related services in
a public or private separate day school for students with disabilities, at public
expense, for more than 50% of the school day.
v.
Residential Facility: Students who receive a special education in a public or private
residential facility, at public expense, 24 hours a day.
vi. Homebound/Hospital: Students placed in and receiving a special education in a
hospital or homebound program.
Important Placement Considerations
i.

i.
ii.
iii.
iv.

The Least Restrictive (LRE) option is the general education classroom because it
provides the most access to children without disabilities.
Increased emphasis on providing supports and services within the general
education classroom.
Students may need a more restrictive setting to meet their unique needs.
LRE: Not a place but a concept

There isnt a one size fits all approach to special education that assumes
that all students can have their needs met in the same location. Different
students have different needs that may make some placement options
more appropriate for some students than they are for other students with
the same disability.
Regular Education Initiative (REI): Focus on collaboration between regular and
special educators to develop effective practices for all students
1.
A shared responsibility between special and general education educators
increases collaboration and results in a greater ability to meet the needs
of all students with and without disabilities in the classroom.
Full Inclusion
1.
Full inclusion is the belief that all children with disabilities should be taught
exclusively, with the appropriate supports, in the general education
classroom. The LRE may not be the regular education classroom for
some students although it should be the first consideration for placement
when considering the continuum of service delivery options. IEPs require
educators to justify educational placements outside of the general
education classroom.
2.
CEC policy statement on full inclusion
1.

v.

vi.

Key Terms

Assessment: The process of gathering information and identifying a students strengths and needs
through a variety of instruments and products; data used in making decisions
Child-find: A function of each state, mandated by federal law, to locate and refer individuals who
might require special education
Criterion-referenced assessments: An assessment procedure in which a students performance is
compared to a particular level of mastery/full inclusion An interpretation of the principle of least
restrictive environment advocating that all pupils with disabilities are to be educated in the general
education classroom
Inter-individual differences: Differences between two or more persons in a particular area
Intra-individual differences: Differences within the individual; unique patterns of strengths and
weaknesses
Least Restrictive Environment (LRE): A relative concept individually determined for each student;
principle that each pupil should be educated, to the maximum extent appropriate, with classmates
who are typical.
Mainstreaming: An early term for the practice of integrating students with special needs into a
general education classroom for all or part of the school day
Multi-disciplinary team: A group of professionals from different disciplines who function as a team
but perform their roles independent of one another
Norm-referenced Assessments: Refers to standardized tests on which a pupils performance is
compared to that of his or her peers.

Pre-referral intervention: Instructional or behavioral strategies introduced by a general educator to

assist students experiencing difficulty; designed to minimize inappropriate referrals for special
education
Referral: A formal request by a teacher or parent that a student be evaluated for special education
services
Regular Education Initiative (REI): An approach that advocates that general educators assume
greater responsibility for the education of students with disabilities

Quiz
1. PL 94-142 was the first public law mandating a free, appropriate public education.
true
2. The language contained in IDEA 2004 clearly defined who may be considered a highly qualified
special educator.
true
3. The philosophy of Zero Reject believes that all children, regardless of their disability, should be
provided an appropriate education.
true
4. PL 101-476 identified Autism and Traumatic Brain Injury as separate disability categories.
true
5. IDEA 2004 imposed a statute of limitations on parents for filing a due process complaint from the
time they knew or should have known that a violation occurred.
true
6. Reevaluation of eligibility for special education must occur annually.
false
7. PL 108-446 requires that all students participate in all state- and district-wide assessments.
true
8. Inter-individual differences are frequently the reason why students are placed into special
education programs.
true
9. Pre-referral interventions are mandated by IDEA.
false
10. Placement in the least restrictive and the most normalized setting is based on a completed IEP.
true
11. In _________________________the Supreme Court ruled that separate schools for black and
white students were inherently unequal, contrary to the Fourteenth Amendment, and thus
unconstitutional.
Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka Kansas
12. The U.S. Supreme Court ruling ________________________was interpreted to mean that special
educators can now provide services to children in parochial schools.
Agostini v. Felton

13. The need for testing linguistically different students in their primary language as well as English
was argued in:
Diana v. State Board of Education
14. The Education of all Handicapped Children Act (PL 94-142) was passed in:
1975
15. Which of the following is NOT a requirement for special education teachers under the No Child
Left Behind Act (PL 107-110 NCLB) of 2001?
Teachers may teach five years in a public school and become certified
16. ____________requires schools to educate all children, to the maximum extent appropriate, with
their nondisabled peers.
Least restrictive environment
17. This was the first public law specifically aimed at protecting children and adults against
discrimination due to a disability:
Section 504 of 1973 Rehabilitation Act
18. A(n) _________________________is a management tool that stipulates who will be involved in
providing special education, what services and instruction will be provided, where they will be
delivered, and for how long.
IEP
19. Elements of a meaningful IEP include:
Current performance
Related services
Meaningful goals
20. Beginning at age 16, the IEP must include a statement of needed______________
transition services
21. Measurable annual goals must include all but which of the following components:
objectives and annual benchmarks for all students
22. The _______________ is designed for the delivery of services to infants and children until their
third birthday.
IFSP
23. It is generally agreed that the most normalized setting for individuals with disabilities is in
the_______________.
general education classroom
24. This term, while popular, is not mentioned in the federal regulations.
mainstreaming
25. Elements of a Full Inclusion model include:
Zero rejection
Site-based management and coordination
Home-school attendance

Additional Exercises

Identify court cases impacting the implementation of IDEA 2004.

Define mainstreaming, least restrictive environment, regular education initiative, and full inclusion.

Summarize key components of IDEA 2004.

Chapter 3: Cultural and Linguistic Diversity and Exceptionality

PowerPoint Slides

Disproportional Representation of Minority Students in Special Education Programs

o Overrepresentation: a situation in which greater numbers of students of certain groups are
placed in special education than you would expect based on their numbers in the school
population
There is typically an overrepresentation of minority students in special education
programs.
o

Underrepresentation: fewer students in a particular category than one might expect based
on their numbers in the school population
There is typically an underrepresentation of minority students in gifted and talented
programs.

OVER-identification
o Primarily soft disabilities:
MMR, ED, SLD.
o English language learners
Speech and language, LD.
o Usually NOT in medically diagnosed categories:
Deafness
Blindness
Downs syndrome, etc.

Challenges
o Accurately interpret behaviors of learner
How culturally competent are you?
Is there a universality of childrens behavior?
o What is multicultural curiosity?
Deconstruct cultural narratives
o What are the main minority groups in the USA?
Depends

Ask yourself these questions

o Self, how has the majority culture interacted with the minority culture?
What does the majority value that the minority may not?
o Do we need a separate study of human behavior for different cultures?
Or are there things that tie us all together?

Increased number of minorities in SPED?

o Four Areas:
Incongruence between teachers and the diverse student body
Incongruence can also be seen in the mode of instruction
Inaccurate Assessment and Referral
Ineffective Curriculum and Instruction

Altering Pedagogy
o Context-embedding
Use the students experiences as tools
o Providing meaningful experiences
Multiple perspectives
o Equitable representation of groups
o Interactive and experiential teaching

Ensuring tolerance and acceptance

Consequences of Disproportional Representation
o May result in an inferior and less effective educational experience
o Increases risk for underachievement and school dropout
o May create limited employment opportunities
o

Assessment Innovations
o Nondiscriminatory assessments
o Test revisions
o Multiple Intelligences
o Portfolio assessments

Educational Suggestions
o Display sensitivity to the cultural heritage of all students
o Use instructional strategies and materials that respect different learning styles and
personal experiences
o Consider the instructional environment and the impact on student behavior

Learning Objectives:
Explain how cultural and linguistic diversity is affecting U.S. classrooms.
Define culture, multiculturalism, multicultural education, and bilingual education.
List six instructional options for teaching students who are bilingual.
Outline the issues associated with the disproportional representation of culturally and linguistically
diverse learners in special education.
Describe the challenges confronting educators when assessing students from culturally and
linguistically diverse groups.
Lecture Outline:
I.
Cultural Diversity: The Changing Face of a Nation
a.

Culture

b.

The attitudes, values, belief systems, norms, and traditions shared by a particular
group of people that can be reflected in their language, religion, dress, diet, and
social customs.
Multiculturalism

c.

Acknowledgement and acceptance of many different cultures that have equal

value. Individuals can function in more than one culture.
Multicultural education

i.

i.

i.

Education that is infused throughout the curriculum and values the customs, race,
language, and ideas of all cultures including cultural constructs such as race,
gender, and disability.

d.

Bilingual education

e.

An educational strategy for students whose first language is not English where
they receive instruction in their native language while learning English.
Macroculture

f.

Core national culture which represents a shared culture such as American

individualism and independence.
Microculture

g.

Distinct subcultures within the larger culture that retain their own unique
characteristics.
English Learners

h.

Individuals whose primary or home language is not English and who are not yet
proficient in English so they cannot fully profit from instruction provided in English.
The Federal Government only recognizes seven distinct racial groups:

i.

i.

i.

i.

American Indian or Alaskan Native, Asian, Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific

Islander, Hispanic, Black, White, Two or more races.
ii. Any categorization of racial background will be somewhat inaccurate due to the
many variations and commonalities within groups.
Multicultural Education, Bilingual Education, and Student Diversity
i.

II.

a.

Bilingual Special Education Considerations

b.

i. Instructional and program options

Over-representation of minority students receiving special education services/Underrepresentation of minority students in gifted and talented programs
Relationship between family socioeconomic status (poverty)
1.
Minorities groups often live in urban areas that are associated with poverty
and may have poor nutrition, adverse living conditions, and limited access
to prenatal and healthcare. Numerous reports have shown the negative
influence of poverty on educational achievement.
ii. Identification procedures
1.
Faulty identification procedures, ineffective prereferral strategies, test
bias, and inappropriate assessment techniques may also account for
some of the overrepresentation.
iii.
Instructional methodology
1.
Research demonstrates that children from minority groups may learn
differently than White youngsters and teachers may not employ strategies
that meet the learning styles of all of their students.
Consequences of a disproportionate representation of minority students in special
education programs
i.

c.

May result in an inferior and less effective educational experience

1.
Students who are removed from the general education classroom and
curriculum may experience inferior educational opportunities due to limited
expectations, supplies, instructional materials, and resources.
ii. Increases risk for underachievement and school dropout
1.
Minority students historically have higher rates of school dropout than their
White classmates.
iii.
May create limited employment opportunities
1.
Adults who did not complete high school are more likely to be unemployed
or incarcerated.
Assessment of Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Students with Disabilities
i.

III.

a.

Numerous attempts have been made to limit bias in assessment tools and procedures.

Test revisions
1.
Tests were renormed, or restandardized, to reflect the diversity of todays
American schools. An example includes the Kaufman Assessment Battery
for Children (K-ABC) II which was redesigned in 2004.
ii. Multiple Intelligences
1.
Howard Gardner (1983, 1993) suggested a broader view of intelligence
that looks at characteristics that are not traditionally assessed on standard
IQ tests. Gardner proposed eight different, though related intelligences:
verbal/linguistic, musical/rhythmic, bodily/kinesthetic, interpersonal,
logical/mathematical, visual/spatial, intrapersonal, and naturalist.
iii.
Portfolio assessments
1.
Portfolio assessments are considered authentic, performance-based
assessment strategies that demonstrate an individuals growth over time
rather than comparing the progress to a set of norms.
Classroom Suggestions for Teachers of Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Students with
Disabilities
i.

IV.

a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.

Assess a child in both English and in the native language before administering other tests
so that a childs abilities in the native language can be determined. A student may have an
English language barrier but understand the content in the native language.
A student must exhibit a disability when evaluated in the native language or the student
does not have a disability.
Schools should use multiple assessment tools and procedures including a combination of
formal and informal measures that are collected from the child, teacher(s), and the
parents.
Evaluators should use tools and techniques that are as unbiased as possible to obtain
accurate results.
An interpreter may be used if bilingual education is not available and the interpreter has
experience in assessment terminology and principles.
Parents should be involved in developing assessments that will yield meaningful results.

g.
h.
i.

j.

Display sensitivity to the cultural heritage of all students through the use of appropriate
materials and instructional practices and through critical consideration of the curriculum.
Teachers attitudes impact the perceptions and beliefs of students.
Use instructional strategies and materials that respect different learning styles in order to
meet the needs of all students in the classroom and help them to achieve academic
success.
Consider the instructional environment and the impact on student behavior. Students come
to school with a variety of experiences that influence how they respond to school
situations. Varying cultural expectations may influence students behavior within the
classroom.
The instructional materials that teachers use in the classroom communicate cultural values
to students through the pictures, examples, language, and attitudes they experience within
them. Critical consideration and selection of instructional materials can help to promote
positive attitudes regarding diversity among students. It is also valuable for all students to
learn to critically evaluate diversity issues within the curriculum and within their own lives

Key terms
Bilingual education: An educational approach whereby students whose first language is not English
are instructed primarily through their native language while developing competency and proficiency
in English.
Bilingual special education: Strategy whereby a pupils home language and culture are used along
with English in an individually designed program of special instruction
Cultural pluralism: The practice of appreciating and respecting ethnic and cultural differences.
Culture: The attitudes, values, belief systems, norms, and traditions shared by a particular group of
people that collectively form their heritage
English Learners (ELs): Students whose primary language is not English and who have yet to
achieve proficiency in English
Ethnocentrism: A perspective whereby a person views his or her cultural practices as correct and
those of other groups as inferior, peculiar, or deviant
Field dependent / sensitive: Students who approach learning intuitively rather than analytically and
logically. These students tend to find success in cooperative learning situations and group work
Field independent: Learners who are detail oriented and analytically inclined. These students tend
to thrive in competitive settings
Macro-culture: The shared or national culture of a society
Melting pot: A metaphor describing the United States in the early decades of the twentieth century.
Micro-cultures: Distinct subcultures within a larger culture; these groups maintain their own distinct
values, norms, folkways, and identification
Multi-culturism: Referring to more than one culture; acknowledges basic commonalities among
groups of people while appreciating their differences
Multiple intelligences: An alternative perspective on intelligence suggesting that there are many
different kinds of intelligence

Multicultural education: An ambiguous concept that deals with issues of race, language, social
class, and culture as well as disability and gender. Also viewed as an educational strategy wherein
the cultural heritage of each pupil is valued
Nondiscriminatory testing: Federal mandate that assessments be conducted in a culturally
responsive fashion
Overrepresentation: A situation in which a greater number of students from minority groups are
placed in special education programs than would be expected based on the proportion of pupils in
the general school population.
Portfolio assessment: A type of authentic assessment; samples of different work products gathered
over time and across curriculum areas are evaluated.
Underrepresentation: A situation in which fewer children from minority groups are placed in special
education programs than would be expected based on the proportion of pupils in the general
school population

Quiz
1. About one in five residents, or approximately 20 percent of the U.S. population over the age of 5,
speak a language other than English at home.
true
2. Despite increasing cultural and linguistic diversity in our schools, almost 90 percent of general and
special education teachers are white.
true
3. Cultural pluralism requires cultural groups to relinquish or abandon their cultural heritage.
false
4. Individuals who are English Learners (ELs) represent a very homogeneous group of individuals.
false
5. Culturally bound test items are an example of intrinsic bias factors.
true
6. IDEA states that learning disabilities must exclude individuals whose learning problem is the result
of a language or cultural difference.
true
7. By the year 2020, students of color are projected to make up 75% of all school-aged youth in the
United States.
false
8. The melting pot theorys goal was to remove all individual cultures and merge them into one.
true
9. Textbook curriculums should have contributions from diverse cultural and linguistic groups
true
10. Multicultural education and bilingual education are synonymous terms.
false
11. Components of Bacas definition of bilingual special education include:
The use of the home language
The culture of the home

 The need for individualized instruction

12. ________________ is defined as the attitudes, values, belief systems, norms, and traditions by a
particular group of people.
Culture
13. Ethnocentrism is defined as:
Viewing ones own cultural group characteristics as superior
Viewing of other groups as inferior or peculiar
14. The thought of society as the core national culture, representing a shared culture is known as
a_____________.
macroculture
15. Pupils maintain proficiency in first language while receiving instruction in English, is an example of:
maintenance programs
16. In _________________________students are instructed in academic content areas via their native
language until they are sufficiently competent in English.
transitional programs
17. It is generally believed that Asian American and Pacific Islander children are typically
______________in special education classes and _______________________in classes for the
gifted and talented.
underrepresented / overrepresented
18. According to research, _______________ learners approach leaning intuitively rather than
analytically.
field dependent
19. _______________ learners thrive in competitive settings where achievement and individual
accomplishment are prized.
Field independent
20. Assessment outcomes for culturally and linguistically diverse students include:
Identification of emotional difficulties
Identification of a childs specific educational needs
Accurate appraisal of a childs level and mode of functioning
21. There is a widely held belief that public education could:
Assimilate children of aliens into American culture as quickly as possible. unite society
22. Instructional success with children from diverse population depends largely on the teachers ability
to:
Construct meaningful pedagogical bridges
Develop instruction that is compatible with the childs culture
Avoid inadvertently demeaning the childs culture and heritage
23. While attention to instructional strategies is crucial, effective programs for culturally and
linguistically diverse children with exceptionalities should NOT consider:
the neighborhood the student lives in
24. The notion of United States as a melting pot has gradually given way to:
cultural pluralism

Additional Exercises

Explain how cultural and linguistic diversity is affecting Americas classrooms.

What insights does Dr. Janette Klinger offer with regard to the testing of students who are English
learners?
Identify and explain some of the recommendations made by Dr. Klinger.
What role does Response to Intervention play in the assessment of English learners?
Explain how cultural and linguistic diversity is affecting Americas classrooms.
Based on the information from the document, identify the four principles that provide a basis for
best practices when assessing culturally and linguistically diverse students. Explain the
significance of each.
Describe the challenges confronting educators when assessing students from culturally and
linguistically diverse groups.

Chapter 6: individuals with Learning Disabilities

PowerPoint and class notes

Defining Learning Disabilities
Criteria for Diagnosis includes
o Child does not achieve at expected age and ability levels
o A severe discrepancy is present between a childs achievement and potential in one or
more of the following areas:
Oral expression
Listening comprehension
Written expression
Basic reading skills
Reading comprehension
Mathematics calculation
Mathematic reasoning
o Student does not respond to Response to Intervention (RTI) strategies

Prevalence of Learning Disabilities

Estimates range from 1 to 30% of the school population
The federal government suggested that approximately 2.52 million students ages 6 to 21 were
identified as having learning disabilities

The federal government now counts preschoolers with learning disabilities

The number of students identified with learning disabilities has increased over the years

Suspected Etiologies of Learning Disabilities

Acquired trauma to the central nervous system
Genetic/hereditary influences
Biochemical abnormalities
Environmental possibilities
Characteristics of Individuals With Learning Disabilities
Disorders of attention
Poor motor abilities
Psychological process deficits and information-processing problems
Lack of cognitive strategies needed for efficient learning
Oral language difficulties
Reading Difficulties
Written language problems
Quantitative disorders
Social skills deficits
Language Difficulties
Comprehension
Decoding
Word recognition
Phonological awareness
Dyslexia
Spelling
Writing
Speaking
Organizing thoughts into words (written or spoken)
Written Expression
1% of 4th graders and 8% of 8th graders could write a well-developed narrative.
Generally, we often only provide information on whether the student is correct of incorrect.
Little attention given to the student or the environment
o 1% of 4th graders and 8% of 8th graders could write a well-developed narrative.
o Written Expression (WE) surface early and stay with children throughout their education.
o In terms of WE, teachers often only provide information on whether the student is correct
of incorrect. There is little attention given, if any to the student, the environment in which
the student is working, and the assignment. Only if the student is correct of incorrect. Not
terribly helpful.

o SEE THE IPF ON PAGE 721. Here the teacher and consultant can sit and discuss the
specific strategies to address the writing deficit. As a school psychologist you have a
means to ensure that the teacher is doing what she/he is supposed to be doing.
o While problems solving with the teacher, be aware of three traditional classroom problems:
o Allocation of insufficient opportunities to practice over-reliance on published writing
curriculum. These canned approaches focus on conventions, and students dont show
much growth by just looking at grammar or punctuation.
o No attention is given to the critical thinking skills, everything that the students score is
based on is outcome product. Must look at how the story is connected, arranged and
thought out, not just the finished product.
o Since there is limited data on what makes a good writing from a poor writer, the literature
suggests looking at a convergence of information among multiple measures of student
performance.
Mathematics Difficulties
Computational skills
Word problems
Spatial relationships
Writing numbers
Copying shapes, patterns
Understanding mathematical concepts
Dyscalculia
Mathematics: applied solutions
64% of fourth graders were performing at a basic skill level (e.g., partial mastery)
21% of fourth graders were rated as performing at a proficient level (e.g., demonstrated mastery)
The percentage of eighth graders who can add, subtract, multiply, divide and solve one-step word
problems (i.e., 2nd grade skills) was 79%.
Social and Emotional Difficulties
Lower self-esteem
Poor self-concept
Frustration
Difficulty understanding and interpreting social cues and social situations
Difficulty making and maintaining friendships and relationships
Assessment of Students with Learning Disabilities

IDEA requires a multidisciplinary evaluation:

o Tests are administered by trained professionals
o Tests are reliable and valid
o Tests are not discriminatory
o Tests are administered in the students native language
o A single measure cannot be used to determine eligibility

Assessment Decisions
Assessments are conducted to determine if a discrepancy exists between the childs potential and
achievement.
o Includes a variety of intellectual, achievement, and other assessments to determine the
childs potential and actual achievement.
o Discrepancies formulas and eligibility vary by state.
Response to Intervention (RTI)
States have the option to use a discrepancy model to determine eligibility or they may implement
RTI strategies.
RTI is generally a process that increases the levels of instructional interventions provided in the
regular classroom. Students who do not meet with success with intensive interventions may have
a learning disability.
Provides instructional support without waiting for a special education label.

Assessment Strategies
Norm-referenced assessment

Criterion-referenced assessment
Curriculum-based assessment
Portfolio assessment

Common Characteristics of Preschoolers Who Are At-Risk for Later Classification of a Learning Disability
Poor depth perception
Toe walking
Distractibility
Impulsiveness
Hyperactivity
Poor motor control
Delayed speech
Limited vocabulary
Memory problems
Immaturity (?)

Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills

Introduction and Overview
Importance of Reading Skills
Societal factors
o Social
o Economic
o Survival
When to begin reading?
o Baby Einstein and Baby Mozart
o Overcoming environmental factors
o Early and Dynamic
Early and Dynamically
Early
o Where does literacy Begin?
Assess Dynamically.
o Prevention-oriented, school based assessment
o Prevention-oriented interventions designed to monitor growth and development
Why DIBELS?

Learning

Objectives:
Summarize the key components of the IDEA definition of learning disabilities.
Outline the four phases in the development of the field of learning disabilities.
Identify possible causes of learning disabilities.
List representative learning and social/emotional characteristics of individuals with learning
disabilities.

Explain the concept of response to intervention.

Describe the following instructional approaches: cognitive training, direct instruction, and learning
strategies.
Summarize educational services for persons with learning disabilities across the life span.

Lecture Outline:
I.
Defining Learning Disabilities
a.
b.

The term learning disability represents a fairly new concept- a disability that is not
physically apparent and cannot be seen.
In 1977, to comply with the Education for All Handicapped Children Act, a specific learning
disability was determined to mean a disorder that manifest itself in childrens inability to
perform certain tasks in specified ways. This disability excludes children who have other
disabilities that contribute to their learning delays. This definition remained largely
unchanged in later legislation. Current federal criteria for diagnosing a learning disability
includes:
Student does not achieve at expected age and ability levels when compared to
age-level norms on standardized assessment measures
Current IDEA definition
i.

c.

A team determines that a severe discrepancy is present between a childs actual

levels of achievements and their potential for achievement in one or more of the
following areas:
1.
Oral expression
2.
Listening comprehension
3.
Written expression
4.
Basic reading skill
5.
Reading comprehension
6.
Mathematics calculation
7.
Mathematic reasoning
ii. OR Student does not respond to Response to Intervention (RTI).
iii.
The problems are not the result of sensory impairments, intellectual disability,
emotional problems, environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage
(exclusionary clause).
d.
Association for Children with Learning Disabilities (Learning Disabilities Association of
America) definition
A Brief History of the Field
i.

II.

a.
b.
c.
d.

Foundation Phase: Brain research conducted on adults with brain injuries

Transition Phase: Scientific research applied to childrens learning
Integration Phase: Legislation fostered educational changes based on research findings
and introduced the new term learning disability in 1963.
Current Phase: Educators face new challenges, and embrace new educational advances,
to meet the needs of their students with learning disabilities

III.

Prevalence of Learning Disabilities

IV.

a. The largest category in special education

b.
Gradual steady decrease in numbers of identified students in recent years
c. More common in boys than girls
Etiology of Learning Disabilities
Acquired trauma to the central nervous system: Such as prenatal, perinatal, or postnatal
injuries
b.
Genetic/hereditary influences: Family and twin studies seem to indicate that learning
disabilities run in families
c. Biochemical abnormalities: Current research does not support allergies or vitamin
deficiencies as the cause of learning disabilities
d.
Environmental possibilities: Factors such as poverty, malnutrition, lack of access to health
care and other factors may contribute to learning disabilities
Characteristics of Individuals with Learning Disabilities
a.

V.

a.

VI.

A variety of characteristics that may impact:

i. Language Skills (reading, writing, speaking)

ii. Mathematics skills
iii.
Social and emotional factors
b.
Lifelong disability but may present itself differently at different ages
Assessment of Learning Disabilities
a.

b.

IDEA requires a multidisciplinary evaluation to determine whether a student meets the

criteria for a learning disability and specifies that:
i. Tests are administered by trained professionals
ii. Tests are reliable and valid
iii.
Tests are not discriminatory
iv.
Tests are administered in the students native language
v.
A single measure cannot be used to determine eligibility
States may opt to use a discrepancy model or a Response to Intervention (RTI) model for
eligibility purposes.
RTI is a fairly new concept that aims to keep students in the regular education
classroom and provides intensive assistance.
ii. RTI is generally a process that increases the levels of instructional interventions
provided in the regular education classroom.
iii.
Students who do not meet with success with these intensive interventions may
have a learning disability and are referred for formal assessment.
iv.
Provides instructional support without waiting for a special education label.
Assessment methods include:
i.

c.

Norm-referenced assessment: An individuals performance is compared to the

performance of a normative group
ii. Criterion-referenced assessment: Measures a students ability to meet or master
specific criteria
iii.
Curriculum-based assessment: Assessment of the curriculum that the child has
been taught
iv.
Portfolio assessment: Displays students progress over a period of time
Educational Considerations
i.

VII.

a.
b.

Controversy about what the LRE is for students with learning disabilities even though
many are placed in inclusive classrooms.
Individualized instruction is most effective but three approaches are commonly used

Cognitive training: Help students learn new ways to complete tasks and think
about their learning
ii. Direct instruction: Teacher-directed lessons that provide step-by-step explicit
instruction
iii.
Mnemonic strategies: Aids with recall by creating an association that is easily
remembered
iv.
Learning strategies: Teach students how to find and learn new information
Services for Young Children with Learning Disabilities
i.

VIII.

a.
b.
c.
d.

IX.

Controversial to test for learning disabilities at this age due to variations in growth and
development
Label developmentally delay is often used for young children instead of learning disability.
Curriculum models:

i. Developmental/cognitive model
ii. Behavioral curriculum model
iii.
Functional curriculum
Transition into Adulthood
a.

Transition planning must occur via the IEP and must consider:

Vocational training, preparation for post secondary education, employment

possibilities, independent living, social skills, and self-determination skills.
Adults with Learning Disabilities
i.

X.

a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.

Learning disabilities impact independent living, employment, social relationships, and

satisfaction with life.
Supports and modifications needed for college and adult success
Time management issues
Organizational skills
Self-discipline
Self-advocacy

Family Issues

XI.

Families with a child with a learning disability may experience a wide range of concerns
and often rely on a support network made up of friends and family members in addition to
parent organizations and professional groups. Many organizations offer support for families
of children with disabilities.
Issues of Diversity
a.

XII.

a. Differentiating learning disabilities from cultural and linguistic differences

b.
Evidence of disproportionate representation in certain racial/ethnic groups
Technology and Individuals with Learning Disabilities

XIII.

a. Assistive technology can help with learning efficiency and effectiveness

b.
Content area learning
Assistance with memory issues
Trends, Issues, and Controversies
a. Full Inclusion Movement
i.
ii.

Inclusion is a controversial concept and many professionals have strong beliefs

about inclusion or segregated educational practices for students with disabilities.
Data do not support that full inclusion is the best placement for students with
learning disabilities

Vocabulary

Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): A disorder characterized by symptoms of

inattention, hyperactivity, and/or impulsivity. Frequently observed in individuals with learning
disabilities.
authentic assessment: An evaluation of a students ability by means of various work products,
typically classroom assignments and other activities
Criterion-referenced assessments: An assessment procedure in which a students performance is
compared to a particular level of mastery.
Curriculum-based measurement (CBM): A formative assessment procedure for monitoring student
progress in core academic subjects that reflect the local school curriculum.
Direct instruction (DI): A teacher-directed instructional technique used to produce gains in specific
academic skills; emphasizes drill and practice along with immediate feedback and reward.
Discrepancy: In regard to learning disabilities, the difference between the students actual
academic performance and his or her estimated ability.
Dyslexia: A severe reading disability; difficulty in understanding the relationship between sounds
and letters
Exclusionary clause: In regard to learning disabilities, the elimination of possible etiological factors
to explain a pupils difficulty in learning.
Familiarity studies: A method for assessing the degree to which a particular characteristic is
inherited; the tendency for certain conditions to occur in a single family.

Heritability studies: A method for assessing the degree to which a specific condition is inherited; a
comparison of the prevalence of a characteristic in fraternal versus identical twins.
learned helplessness: A lack of persistence at tasks that can be mastered; a tendency to expect
failure
Learning disabilities: A disability in which there is a discrepancy between a persons ability and
academic achievement; individual possesses average intelligence.
learning strategies: instructional methodologies focusing on teaching students how to learn;
designed to assist pupils in becoming more actively engaged and involved in their own learning
Metacognition: The ability to evaluate and monitor ones own performance.
Mnemonic strategies: A cognitive approach used to assist pupils in remembering material; the use
of rhymes, pictures, acronyms, and similar aids to help in recall.
Norm-referenced assessments: Refers to standardized tests on which a pupils performance is
compared to that of his or her peers.
outer-directedness: A condition characterized by a loss of confidence in ones own capabilities and
a reliance on others for cues and guidance
Phonological awareness: Possible explanation for the reading problems of some students with
learning disabilities; difficulty in recognizing the correspondence between specific sounds and
certain letters that make up words.
Phonemes: Smallest unit of sound found in spoken language.
Phonemic awareness: The ability to recognize that words consist of different sounds or phonemes.
Portfolio assessment: A type of authentic assessment; samples of different work products gathered
over time and across curriculum areas are evaluated.
Pragmatics: A sociolinguistic system involving the use of communication skills in social contexts.
progress monitoring: The frequent and systematic assessment of a pupils academic progress
Response to intervention (RTI): A strategy used for determining whether a pupil has a learning
disability. Student is exposed to increasing levels of validated instructional intervention;
responsiveness to the instruction is assessed; a lack of adequate progress typically leads to a
referral for possible special education services.
self-instruction: A cognitive strategy for changing behavior; pupils initially talk to themselves out
loud while performing a task and verbally reward themselves for success.
Short term memory: The recall of information after a brief period of time.
Summary of performance: required by federal regulation for each student who exits secondary
school, a summary of the individuals academic achievement and functional performance with
recommendations for supports and services aimed at assisting the adolescent in achieving his or
her transition goals.
Working memory: The ability to retain information while also engaging in another cognitive activity.

Quiz
1. Individuals with learning disabilities are a very heterogeneous group. True
2. Individuals with learning disabilities have normal intelligence. True
3. The definition of learning disabilities and its accompanying regulations describe a student rather than a
particular syndrome. False
4. Fernald developed the multisensory approach to instruction. True

5. Response to Intervention (RTI) gives educators another way of discovering whether a child has a
learning disability. True
6. The medical literature uses the term acquired trauma when describing injury or damage of the central
nervous system which may result in a learning disability. True
7. The concept of learning disabilities covers an extremely narrow range of characteristics. False
8. Boys are four times as likely as girls to be identified as learning disabled. True
9. Currently, there is a nationally agreed upon mechanism for determining a discrepancy. False
10. Although support for RTI is growing in some educational circles, the research evidence is limited and
some professionals still adhere to the traditional discrepancy model. True
11. To be identified as an individual with a learning disability, an eligibility team determines that a child has a
severe discrepancy between achievement and intellectual ability
12. Which of the following is not considered an exclusionary item under the definition of learning
disabilities? Number of siblings in the home
13. The term learning disability was coined by: Sam Kirk
14. An alternative referral procedure that determines if the pupil responds to empirically validated,
scientifically-based interventions is known as: response to intervention
15. Which of the following is not one of the possible causes of LD? Poverty
16. Some children are incorrectly identified as learning disabled when in fact their learning deficits are the
result of: poor teaching
17. Behavioral characteristics of individuals with learning disabilities generally include all but which of the
following? Sub average intelligence
18. Dyslexia refers to: reading problems
19. Metacognition is defined as: the ability to evaluate and monitor ones own performance
20. Learned helplessness is best described as: easily gives up or not attempting a task
21. Utilizing the phrase Never Eat Soggy Waffles to remember the points on a compass is an example of:
Mnemonic devices
22. Direct instruction focuses on a concept to be learned.
23. This technique focuses on teaching students how to learn: learning strategies
24. One suggestion for teaching students with learning disabilities would include: using short sentences
and clear vocabulary
25. A major disagreement among special educators is: the actual existence of a learning disability
Additional exercises
List representative learning and social/emotional characteristics of individuals with learning
disabilities.

Individuals with Emotional or Behavioral Disorders

Emotional Disabilities

Condition exhibiting one or more of the following characteristics over a long period of time and to a
marked degree, that adversely affects a students educational performance:
o An inability to learn
o An inability to build or maintain interpersonal relationships with peers and adults
o Inappropriate types of behavior/feelings under normal circumstances
o Pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression
o A tendency to develop physical fears or symptoms or fears associated with personal or
school problems
o Includes children who are schizophrenic
Includes Socially Maladjusted if the student is also determined to be emotionally disturbed
Behavioral or emotional responses so different from appropriate age, cultural, or ethnic norms that
they adversely affect educational performance
o Unresponsive to direct intervention

Common Characteristics
Two primary behavioral excesses
o Externalizing behaviors (most common behavior pattern)
Noncompliance
Temper tantrums
Property destruction
Threats of violence or violence toward peers and/or teachers
o Internalizing behaviors
Overly shy or immature
Withdrawn
Easily upset and difficult to calm
Behavioral deficits
o Academic achievement
Low GPA
High absenteeism
At risk for school failure and early drop out

o Social skills
Less participation in extracurricular activities
Lower quality peer relationships
Juvenile delinquency
Expressed less desire to relate to other the student
Fewer social skills
Concomitant with ADHD and CD, depression
More likely to be arrested while in school
Approximately 75% of students with ED also have clinically significant language
deficits.
In Summary
To qualify:
o Must present one of the following five classes of behaviors and for the duration and
intensity stipulated AND the behavior must impact their education.
o Students, who do not qualify under IDEA 2004, may still qualify under Section 504.
Social or Scientific Construction?
Are the decisions influenced by
o our personal beliefs
o our standards and values
o our impressions of what is or is not normal behavior
o the context in which the behavior occurs
Criticisms of the ED definition
Implied empirical basis for the five ED criteria
Interpretation that educational performance includes academics but excludes social and
behavioral performance
Exclusion of socially maladjusted children
Possible Purpose of the SM clause
Exclude children who are juvenile delinquents
SM closer to CD not ED
Milder form of problematic behavior
SM behaviors are generally volitional and may be manipulated via contingency management
SM students usually can learn
SM behaviors are typically able to be manipulated by contingency management
SM behaviors are learned
More on Socially Maladjusted
A socially maladjusted student behaves in socially unacceptable ways for socially unacceptable
motives.
To distinguish between SM and ED: Is the student unable or unwilling?

o SM kids display behavior that have been reinforced in the past

They tend not to feel or express empathy for others.
Educational Caveat:
o The law does not require that the school treat a students emotional problems

Focus of ED assessment
Viewed as child psychopathology, or as within-child variables
Viewed as behavioral-environmental interactions.
o Emphasis is placed on the interplay of child / parent or teacher interactions. Coercive
patterns are illustrated and addressed.
Viewed as resistant to interventions
o The environment in which the child is placed as disordered and consequently
handicapping the child.
Multidimensional Assessment
Drawn from at least three sources:
o Parents, teachers and student
Using a variety of tools: rating forms, standardized testing, cba, interviews, observations
o Must consider RTI
o Across a variety of settings
o Under a variety of conditions (preference v. non-preference activities).
Identification and Assessment
Screening tests
o Used to determine if intervention is warranted
Projective tests
o Limited usefulness for education planning
Direct observation and measurement
o Directly focuses on the childs problems
o Useful for educational planning
Functional Behavioral Assessment
Systematic, data-driven process
o Informal assessment
School records, parent interviews, teacher checklists
o Direct observation and measurement
o Hypothesis development
Data used to develop intervention based on probable cause of the behavior
o Intervention
Teaching functional replacement behaviors
o Evaluation and modification
Curriculum Goals

Social skills
o Cooperation skills
o Appropriate ways to express feelings
o Responding to failure
Academic skills
o Direct, explicit instruction
o High rates of teacher praise
Behavior management
o Clear school-wide expectations
o Positive proactive classroom management strategies
Self-management
o Self-monitoring
o Self-evaluation
Peer mediation and support
o Peer tutoring
o Positive peer reporting

Behavioral Development

Externalizing Behaviors
o Yell, talk out of turn
o Disturbing peers
o Fighting
o Ignoring teacher
o Destroy property
o Lie

o Breaking the law

o Torturing Animals
o Non-compliant
o Behaving without regard for others
Internalizing Behaviors
o Abusing drugs/alcohol
o Excessive diet or exercising

o Bingeing and purging (laxative

abuse)
o Antisocial behaviors
o Not a lot of friends

o Retreat to daydreams/fantasies
o Complain about being sick/hurt
o Go into deep bouts of depression

Social/Emotional Development
Externalizing
o Express feelings in the form of anger
o Rage
o Lack of empathy
o Low quality relationships
Internalizing
o Feelings are turned in on the self, creating feelings of sadness
o Excessive worry & anxiety
o Worthlessness
o Feelings of helplessness and hopelessness
o Thoughts of suicide
Academic Development
Externalizing
o Attention Seeking
o Disruptive
Internalizing
o Daydreaming, inability to finish tasks
o Average or sub-par performance on tasks
o Often overlooked by instructor

Students with Emotional Disturbance

Depression in the Classroom
o A serious mood disorder which if left unidentified and untreated can lead to life threatening
behaviors
o Majority of depressed students go unidentified
However, a depressed child is more likely to exhibit lower performance on general
classroom tasks
Definitions of Depression
As a symptom: A sad mood or unhappiness
As a syndrome or constellation of behaviors and emotions not associated by chance
As a constellation of behaviors and emotions, which occur for a minimum duration of time.
Three major diagnostic categories of unipolar depressive disorders
o Major depression
o Dysthymic disorder
o Depressive disorder NOS
Anxiety Disorders
Definition:
o When fear/anxiety significantly interferes with a childs daily functioning, interrupting their
normal routine (such as school and social relationships), an anxiety disorder may be
present (DSM-IV-TR)
Examples of Phobias Beginning with A

Acrophobia- insects, mites

Achluophobia-darkness, night
Acousticophobia- sounds
Acrophobia- heights
Aerophobia- air currents, drafts, wind
Agoraphobia- open spaces
Agyiophobia- crossing the street
Aichmophobia- sharp, pointed objects, knives, touched by finger
Ailurophboia- cats
Algophobia- pain
Amathophobia- dust
Amychophobia- laceration, being clawed/scratched
Androphobia- men
Anthropophobia- human society

Factors that increase Emotional Behavioral Issues

Environment- Attachment to School
o Academic functioning
Parenting style- unpredictable, inconsistent and overprotective parenting leads to poor sense of
control and coping skills
Genetics- family member has an anxiety disorder

Risk and Protection

Risk Factors
o Low academic performance
o Poor relationships with peers
o Insecure attachment to caregivers (Brumariu & Kerns, 2007)

o Exposure to violent environments

Protective Factors
o Reading skills, creativity, number skills
o Having adequate social skills with peers
o Secure attachments to caregivers
o Safe communities and neighborhoods
o Resilience (Masten, 20o1)

Effective Interventions
School based programs
o Children have access to services for 9 months/year
Summer based programs
o Children are not in school, may not have access to resources
o May prevent falling behind/maintain skills
Sports components (Hupp & Reitman, 1999)
o Context for practice and observation
o Incorporates other activities
Social skills training
o Use manualized curriculums to teach children about social skills
Attachment
Dearth of research in this area
o However, the available research does suggest that secure attachments are related to
adaptive social functioning as measured in middle childhood
Issues with adequate measurement of construct during middle childhood
Insecure attachment to caregivers is related to the development of psychopathology
o Insecure attachment is considered a risk factor
Methods and Procedure
Participants
o 19 students at St. Thomas Aquinas School
o Volunteer
Measures
o BASC-2
o Attachment Security Scale
o Direct Behavioral Observations (DBO)
Procedure
o 4-week program
o Strong Start/Strong Kids
o Observed during sports activities
o Parent and child report of behavior and attachment status
Analyses
Pro-Social Behaviors

o Improvement Rate Differences (IRD) (Parker, Vannest, & Brown, 2009)

Based on DBO
Supportive behaviors toward peers
o To assess pre and post program performance
Paired Samples T-Tests
Based on average frequency of pro-social behavior
o Attachment Status and Pro-Social Change
Correlation between attachment score and pro-social change

Results: Paired Samples T-test

Paired Samples T-test

o Based on average frequency of pro-social behaviors
Compared Baseline average to DP average
Significant increase in the frequency of pro-social behavior from baseline to the
end of the program, t (8) = -1.99, p < .05.

Results: Attachment and Pro-Social Behavior

No relationship was found between the variables
o r = .157, p > .05
Possibly due to little variation in attachment status within this sample
Only one measure of attachment utilized
Much to my dismay, I did not find a relationship between the childrens attachment status as
measured during the program and the increases of pro-social behavior during the program.
I did a correlation to see if the variables were related, if I found a relation I would have done a
regression to see if I could predict the direction of the relationship, however the variables were not
related so no subsequent analyses were run.
REASONS WHY??
o Only one measure of attachment utilized
o It is likely that children who have caring parents that sign them up for programs may be
more securely attached. This sample was on the high end of attachment, the average
score was 3.03 and the range of scores was from 2.5 (min) and 3.5 (max) (the scale goes
from 1-4, 4 being the most securely attached). So it is likely that there just was not enough
variability to detect differences. More diverse samples would likely help this problem.
STARSS 2010
A Summer Based Tier II Intervention for At-Risk Students
Bruce P. Mortenson, Ph.D., Towson University

Participants
o Age of Students
Range: 5 years, 1 month to 11 years, 2 months
o Grades Served (frequency):
o K (5) 1st (10) 2nd (2) 3rd (8) 4th (6) 5th (1)
o All from General Education Setting
Reading Level
o Pre-K Grade 5
o 60% of students read at Pre-K or Kindergarten level

Description of Treatments: Academic

Evidence based, and measurable
o STEEP, DIBELS, Fluency
To address academic skill deficits
o Guided reading

o Stepping Stones to Literacy

To address academic performance deficits
o Goal setting and contingency management

Description of Treatments: Social Emotional

Social Skills, Self-Esteem
o Group Counseling
Strong Start: University of Oregon
Why Try: Elementary Extension
Individual Counseling
o REBT
o Goal Setting
o CBT
Description of Treatments: Behavior /Communication
Behavior in the Classroom
o Point Sheet
o Response Cost
Parent Training
o Weekly coaching in key skills
o Parents as treatment agents (yr. 2 pilot)

General Thoughts and Limitations

PRIDE
o Served as an excellent opportunity for our pre-service graduate students
o Parent support is evident in repeaters and support at board meetings
Methodology
o Needs attention to fidelity
o Teacher BASC Data
o Fewer tasks, greater depth
Teaching Social Skills to Preschoolers: An Evaluation of the Strong Start Program
Karena S. Rush, Bruce P. Mortenson, Heather Garman, & Melissa Horger
Introduction
Social skills deficits in children are becoming more prevalent in todays society (Merrell, 2002).
Children with social skills deficits are more likely to experience academic, social, and emotional
problems that may lead to aggression and criminal behavior as teens and adults (Caldarella &
Merrell, 1997).
Children with social skills deficits can be identified in preschool.
Thus prevention and early intervention of social skills deficits are desirable.
Most preschool programs use childrens literature and performance feedback to teach social skills.
However, few studies have examined the effectiveness of such techniques.
Strong Start Program Pre-K (Merrell, Whitcomb & Parisi, 2008)
o Teaches identifying feelings, anger and worry management skills, and friendship skills
o Techniques:
Instruction, model, practice, feedback

books and activities

Purpose
To evaluate the effectiveness of the Strong Start Program (SSP) with a preschool population
Hypotheses:
o Children in the SSP group will evidence greater social skills compared to a control group
o Children in the Literature group (non-SSP) will evidence greater social skills compared to a
control group
o Across dimensions, SSP will be more effective than literature in enhancing social skills in
preschoolers
Method
Participants
o Eighteen preschoolers (aged 3-5) participated in the study.
o All students were considered typically functioning.
o The students were randomly assigned into the treatment groups.
Procedure
One 30 min session/week for 8 weeks
Literature Procedure:
o Read and discuss book about specific emotion
o Art activity
Strong Start Procedure:
o Literature procedure
o Plus specific skill instruction, modeling, and practice of skill
Control Procedure:
o No intervention
o Assessments conducted at week 1, 4 and 8.
After each session, students were assessed individually on the targeted skills including:
o Emotion Identification
o Anger Management
o Worry Management
Correct & incorrect responses were recorded and percentage of correct responses was calculated.

Discussion
SSP was effective in enhancing all three skills assessed
Reading childrens literature was effective in teaching children how to identify emotions but not for
teaching anger and worry management skills
This finding is clinically relevant:

o Most preschool programs use books to teach children socially appropriate behaviors
o Data from this study suggest that a more formal method may be necessary.
Learning Objectives:
Outline the issues surrounding our understanding of emotional or behavioral disorders.
Define socially maladjusted and conduct disorders.
Distinguish between clinically derived and statistically derived systems for classifying emotional or
behavioral disorders.
Explain how society has historically dealt with persons with emotional or behavioral disorders.
Identify biological and psychosocial risk factors of emotional or behavioral disorders.
List the learning and social characteristics typical of students who exhibit emotional or behavioral
disorders.
Describe contemporary approaches for assessing pupils with emotional or behavioral disorders.
Provide examples of academic and behavioral interventions often used with individuals with
emotional or behavioral disorders.
Define time management, transition management, proximity and movement management, and
classroom arrangement.
Summarize educational services for persons with emotional or behavioral disorders across the life
span.
Lecture Outline:
I.
Defining Emotional or Behavioral Disorders
a.

b.

c.

Federal definition of emotional disturbance: a condition exhibiting one or more of the

following characteristics over a long period of time and to a marked degree that adversely
affects a child's educational performance
i. Inability to learn not explained by other factors
ii. Inability to have interpersonal peer relationships
iii.
Inappropriate behavior or feelings under normal circumstances
iv.
Pervasive mood of depression or unhappiness
v.
Tendency to develop physical symptoms or fears
Since the passage of PL 94-142 in 1975, only two changes have been made to this
definition:
i. Autism became a separate disability category in 1990
ii. Prior to 1997, the term used was serious emotional disturbance.
CCBD definition
i.
ii.
iii.

Behavioral or emotional responses in school programs so different from

appropriate age, cultural or ethnic norms that the responses adversely affect
educational performance
More than a temporary expected response to stressful events in the environment
Consistently exhibited in two different settings at least one of which is school

Unresponsive to direct intervention applied in general education or general

education interventions would be ineffective
There are four common characteristics to most definitions of emotional and behavioral
disorders:
iv.

d.

e.
f.
g.
h.

i. Frequency
ii. Intensity
iii.
Duration
iv.
Age-appropriateness
Disturbed and disturbing behaviors based on context
Typical and atypical behavior
Variability in cultural and social expectations for behavior.
Classification systems

DSM-V
Externalizing behaviors
Internalizing behaviors
Quay and Petersons Dimensions of Problem Behaviors
1.
Conduct Disorder
2.
Socialized Aggression
3.
Attention Problems/Immaturity
4.
Anxiety/Withdrawal
5.
Psychotic Behavior
6.
Motor Tension Excess
Brief History of the Field
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.

II.

a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

Historical relationship between insanity and intellectual disability: In 1886, a legal

distinction was made between mental illness and intellectual disability. Until then, the two
fields were viewed as synonymous.
The Mental Hygiene Movement: Influenced the study of children and youth with emotional
disturbances in attempt to provide formal education and treatment.
Early research on emotional or behavioral disorders: Schools and hospitals developed that
were devoted to the care and education of children with emotional or behavioral disorders.
The birth of a specialized field of study: 1940-1960 marked the birth of special education
for children with emotional or behavioral disorders as a specialized field of study.
The emergence of conceptual models: In the 1960s, research began to appear in
professional literature regarding classroom programs, practices, and curricula for children
with emotional or behavioral disorders. Several models emerged to describe emotional or
behavioral disorders:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.

Behavioral
Psychodynamic
Psychoeducational
Ecological
Humanistic
Biogenic

III.

Prevalence of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders

IV.

Exact prevalence may be impossible to determine due to a variety of identification

procedures and lack of consensus regarding what constitutes acceptable behavior.
b.
Sixth largest category for children this age
c. This disability category may be the most under identified category due to social stigma and
variability in states identification procedures and definitions
Suspected Etiologies of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders
a.

a.

Biological risk factors

b.

Genetic influence: autism, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, obsessive-compulsive

disorder, Tourettes syndrome, depression
ii. Biological factors: infection, lead poisoning, toxin exposure
Psychosocial (environmental) risk factors
i.

Parental discord, poverty, maltreatment (abuse, neglect), rejection, poor health

care, poor nutrition
Prevention of Emotional or Behavioral Disorders
i.

V.

a.

Research on resiliency

b.

Resilient children do not develop emotional or behavioral disorders even under the
most adverse circumstances. They display four characteristics: they are socially
competent, have excellent problem-solving skills, are autonomous, and develop
clear goals and have high aspirations.
Research on positive behavioral support
i.

Positive behavioral supports are strategies that proactively reinforcement positive

behaviors rather than focusing on punishing negative behaviors.
Characteristics of Students with Emotional or Behavioral Disorders
i.

VI.

a.

Learning characteristics

b.

Range of intellectual abilities, chronic school failure, absenteeism, grade retention,

school dropout
Social characteristics

c.

Difficulty building and maintaining relationships, aggressive behavior, experience

rejection, externalizing and internalizing behaviors
Language/communication characteristics

i.

i.

Deficits in the areas of pragmatics, receptive, and expressive language and limited
or inappropriate language use
Classroom Strategies
i.

VII.

VIII.

a.

Assessing Students with Emotional or Behavioral Disorders

b.

i. Interviews with student, parents, and teachers

ii. Examination of student records
iii.
Parent, teacher, and student rating scales
iv.
Observations in multiple natural settings
v.
Medical evaluations
vi. Standardized academic and IQ testing
vii. Functional behavioral assessment (FBA)
viii.
Strength-based assessments
ix. Other measures as appropriate
Physical Environment Interventions

c.

i. Time management
ii. Transition management
iii.
Proximity and movement management
iv.
Classroom arrangement
v.
Classroom ambience
Academic and Instructional Interventions

d.

i. Academic curriculum
ii. Instructional delivery
iii.
Mnemonic strategies
iv.
Self-monitoring strategies
v.
Curriculum-based measurement
vi. Content enhancements
Behavioral and Cognitive-Behavioral Interventions

i. Social skills training

ii. Interpersonal problem solving
iii.
Conflict resolution
iv.
Provision of related services
v.
Crisis prevention and management programs/plans
Services for Young Children with Emotional or Behavioral Disorders
A difficult temperament and early antisocial behavior appear to be significant indicators of
later emotional or behavioral disorders. This is a persuasive argument for early intervention
programs.
Transition to Adulthood
a.

IX.

a.
b.
c.

Emotional or behavioral disorders are a predictor for school failure, delinquency, adult
psychiatric problems, and substance abuse
Absence of research on transition planning for adolescents with emotional or behavioral
disorders
Interventions, such as wrap-around programs, should be started early and may need to be
maintained throughout life

X.

d.
Support to graduate from high school and pursue higher education
Adults with Emotional or Behavioral Disorders

XI.

Adults with emotional or behavioral disorders are no longer protected by IDEA; they are
protected by Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act and the Americans with Disabilities Act
(ADA) that ensures reasonable accommodations in postsecondary education and in the
workplace.
b.
Adults with emotional or behavioral disorders may need supports and services to
successfully complete postsecondary training programs and obtain competitive
employment.
Family-Centered Interventions

XII.

Family-centered approach to planning for children with emotional or behavioral disorders

supports the familys needs.
b.
Recognize the familys strengths and concerns
c. Home-school collaboration is essential
Issues of Diversity

XIII.

Overrepresentation of African-American males in special education programs for children

with emotional or behavioral disorders. Over reliance on standardized tests that are not
sensitive to cultural differences may impact identification of minority students.
b.
Female students are underrepresented in special education programs for children with
emotional or behavioral disorders. Female students with emotional or behavioral disorders
tend to exhibit internalizing disorders that may go unnoticed as they tend not to be
disruptive.
Technology and Individuals with Emotional or Behavioral Disorders

XIV.

a. Content area assistive technologies

b.
Self-management
c. Self-monitoring
d.
Technology as a reinforce for behavior intervention plans
Trends, Issues, and Controversies

a.

a.

a.

a.
b.

Use of RTI and other prevention models

Use of restraint and seclusion

Vocabulary

Behavioral intervention plan: A characteristic common in persons with ADHD; impacts executive
functions. Typically affects the ability to (1) withhold a planned response; (2) interrupt an ongoing
response; and (3) protect an ongoing response from distractions
Child maltreatment: The neglect and/or physical, emotional, or sexual abuse of a child.
Classroom arrangement: The physical layout of the classroom and its dcor; a proactive
intervention technique designed to minimize disruptions while increasing pupil engagement.
Clinically derived classification systems: A system frequently used by mental health professionals
to describe childhood, adolescent, and adult mental disorders

Conduct disorders: A common psychiatric disorder among children and youth characterized by
disruptive and aggressive behavior as well as other actions that violate societal rules.
Conflict resolutions: Program designed to teach problem-solving skills along with strategies for
negotiation and mediation.
Content enhancements: Instructional aids designed to assist pupils in understanding major
concepts, ideas, and vocabulary in a way that aids the acquisition, organization, and recall of
material.
Crisis prevention and management programs: Techniques taught to teachers on how to effectively
and proactively deal with students violent, aggressive, and/or self-injurious behaviors; a proactive
preventative approach.
Emotional or behavioral disorders: A chronic condition characterized by behaviors that significantly
differ from age norms and community standards to such a degree that educational performance is
adversely affected.
Emotional disturbance: A term often used when referring to individuals with emotional or behavioral
disorders.
Externalizing disorders: A behavior disorder characterized by aggressive, disruptive, acting-out
behavior.
Family centered early intervention: A philosophy of working with families that stresses family
strengths and capabilities, the enhancement of skills, and the development of mutual partnerships
between service providers and families.
Functional behavioral assessment: A behavioral strategy that seeks to determine the purpose or
function that a particular behavior serveswhat is occasioning and maintaining the behavior.
Internalizing disorders: Behavior disorders characterized by anxiety, withdrawal, fearfulness, and
other conditions reflecting an individuals internal state.
Interpersonal problem solving: Teaching pupils the cognitive skills needed to avoid and resolve
interpersonal conflicts, peer pressure, and ways of coping with stress and their own feelings.
Mentally ill: A generic term often used by professionals outside of the field of special education to
refer to individuals with emotional or behavioral disorders.
Mnemonic strategies: A cognitive approach used to assist pupils in remembering material; the use
of rhymes, pictures, acronyms, and similar aids to help in recall.
Person centered planning: Useful when developing a students individualized education program;
creates a vision for pupils future based on an analysis of his or her strengths, needs, and
preferences.
Physical restraint: The restriction of a students freedom of movement, physical activity, or access
to his or her body.
Positive behavioral support: An alternative approach to punishment; a schoolwide, proactive way of
addressing problematic behaviors.
Primary prevention: Activities aimed at eliminating a problem or condition prior to its onset; may
also refer to reducing the number of new instances of problematic behavior.
Proximity and movement management: A classroom management strategy focusing on the
effective use of classroom space and the arrangement of the physical environment as a means of
minimizing disruptive behavior.
Response to intervention (RTI): A strategy used for determining whether a pupil has a learning
disability. Student is exposed to increasing levels of validated instructional intervention;

responsiveness to the instruction is assessed; a lack of adequate progress typically leads to a

referral for possible special education services.
Seclusion: The involuntary confinement of a student to a room or area from which he or she is
physically prevented from leaving
Secondary prevention: Efforts focusing on minimizing or eliminating potential risk factors in regard
to persons with emotional or behavioral disorders; refers to minimizing the possibility that
maladaptive or inappropriate behaviors will occur.
Self-monitoring strategies: A behavioral self-control strategy; pupils compare their performance to a
criterion, record their efforts, and obtain reinforcement if appropriate.
Socially maladjusted: Individuals whose social behaviors are atypical; often regarded as chronic
social offenders.
Social skills training: Using direct instruction to teach students appropriate social behaviors; goal is
to increase individuals social competency and acceptance.
Statistically derived classification systems: A system developed to analyze patterns of behaviors
based on statistical procedures that characterize children and youth with emotional or behavioral
disorders
Strength based assessment: An assessment model that looks at an individuals strengths, abilities,
and accomplishments rather than focusing on his or her deficits.
Tertiary prevention: Efforts that attempt to limit the adverse consequences of an existing problem
while maximizing a persons potential; in regard to persons with emotional or behavioral disorders,
refers to an intense level of intervention using strategies and supports designed for individuals with
chronic and intense behavior problems.
Time management: A proactive intervention strategy that attempts to maximize student
engagement time and appropriately schedule class activities in addition to instruction in time
management skills.
Tourette syndrome: A neurological disorder characterized by motor tics and uncontrollable verbal
outbursts.
Transition management: The regulating of students as they move from one assignment to another
or from one activity to another; a proactive behavioral intervention strategy
Wraparound plan: A coordinated interagency effort at providing supports and services to a student
and his or her family in the natural environmentschool, home, or community.

Quiz
1. The definition of emotional or behavioral disorders is universally accepted. False
2. The definition of emotional disturbance includes schizophrenia. True
3. The current IDEA definition of emotional disturbance is controversial. True
4. Social maladjustment behaviors are often equated with conduct disorders. True
5. The federal definition of emotional disturbance includes individuals with conduct disorders as part of the
definition. False
6. In general, there are multiple tests available to medical professionals to diagnosis emotional or
behavioral disorders among children and youth. False
7. One major reason given for the under identification of emotional or behavioral disordered students is the
marked variability across states in identifying pupils with the disorder. True

8. A behavioral intervention plan is a rarely used assessment strategy to evaluate students with emotional
and behavior disorders. False
9. Currently, a majority of students with emotional or behavioral disorders receive a special education and
related services in environments that segregate them from their nondisabled peers for all or part of the
school day. True
10. Early antisocial behavior has been identified as an antecedent to such negative long-term outcomes as
dropout, delinquency, violence, and drug abuse in adolescence and adulthood. True
11. Which of the follow is NOT one of the dimensions of behavior common to most definitions of emotional
or behavioral disorders? The geographical region in which the behavior occurs
12. Individuals with an emotional disturbance exhibit unique characteristics that: exist over a long period of
time, are to a marked degree, and adversely affects a childs educational performance.
13. Many professionals outside the field of special education incorrectly equate emotional or behavioral
disorders with mental illness
14. the most widely used classification system for students with emotional or behavioral disorders is the:
DSM-5
15. An example of an externalizing behavioral problem is: a temper tantrum
16. An example of an internalizing behavioral problem is: withdrawal
17. Initiatives that have recently strengthened the assessment process as it relates to students with
emotional or behavioral disorders are: person-centered planning, strength-based assessment and
functional behavioral assessment.
18. A functional behavioral assessment is a required component of the assessment process for students
with disabilities who present behavioral challenges.
19. In developing a behvarial intervention plan, the IEP team must consider the use of positive behavioral
interventions, strategies, and supports to address the problematic behaviors.
20. Positive behavioral support is a school-wide approach designed to prevent problems and to intervene
early to prevent behaviors from escalating.
21. It is generally believed that corporal punishment is ineffective as a preventive strategy
22. Poverty has been shown to be a significant risk factor for the development of emotional or behavioral
disorders.
23. This strategy focuses on teaching students the thinking skills necessary to avoid and resolve
interpersonal conflicts. Interpersonal problem solving
24. Conflict resolution programs are designed to teach not only problem-solving skills but skills related to
negotiation and mediation.
25. System of care is defined as an integrated, community-based system that addresses the multiple
domains of challenges encountered by children and youth with emotional or behavioral disorders and their
families.
Additional exercises
Provide examples of academic and behavioral interventions often used with individuals with
emotional or behavioral disorders.

An Introduction to Deafness

PowerPoint and class notes

The middle ear performs two functions.

o (i) Impedance matching - vibrations in air must be transmitted efficiently into the fluid of the
cochlea. If there were no middle ear most of the sound would just bounce off the cochlea.
The middle ear helps turn a large amplitude vibration in air into a small amplitude vibration
(of the same energy) in fluid. The large area of the ear-drum compared with the small area
of the stapes helps to achieve this, together with the lever action of the three middle ear
bones or ossicles (malleus, incus, stapes).
o (ii) Protection against loud low frequency sounds - the cochlea is susceptible to damage
from intense sounds. The middle ear offers some protection by the stapedius reflex, which
tenses muscles that stiffen the vibration of the ossicles, thus reducing the extent to which
low frequency sounds are transmitted.

Linda Bove (1945 - )

Linda Bove is widely known as one of the main characters on Sesame Street. She grew up in a
D/deaf family and attended Gallaudet University.
In addition, Linda has made successful videos, such as Sign Me a Story. She has also been
featured in children's sign language books such as Sesame Street Sign Language Fun with Linda
Bove.
Marlee Matlin (1965 - )
Marlee was born in Morton Grove, Illinois and became deaf at 18 months old, but it was not
identified until the age of 2. She participated in the National Theater of the Deaf as well as many

movie and television programs. Her biggest role was in the movie Children of a Lesser God in
which she won an Oscar for her performance. Marlee is a famous actress in deaf and hearing
culture and has continued to appear in different television shows such as ER, Desperate
Housewives, the West Wing, and Law and Order.
Heather Whitestone (1973 )
Heather Whitestone was born in Dothan, Alabama and became deaf when she was 18 months old.
In 1995, she won the Miss America pageant.
Since the age of 5, she loved ballet and performed a dance in the pageant to help her win.
Definitions
Deaf: Those persons whose hearing loss makes it impossible for them to understand speech and
language with or without the use of hearing aids
Hard of hearing: Those persons whose hearing loss makes it difficult, but not impossible, for them
to understand speech and language with or without the use of hearing aids
IDEA Definition
A hearing impairment which is so severe that the student is impaired in processing linguistic
information through hearing, with or without amplification, which adversely affects educational
performance.
Categories of Deaf Community
Hearing Impaired
Hard of Hearing
Late deafened (Advantageously)
Culturally Deaf
Oral Deaf
Supports and Technologies
Interpreters
o Interpreters have increased the ability of students to perform well in school
Speech-to-text translation
o Computer devices that translate speech to text
Television captioning
o Captioning helps students comprehend more
Text telephones
o Helps teachers communicate with deaf students
Alerting devices

Hearing Loss Simulation

This is a simulation of what it might sound like to have a hearing loss with progressively increasing
degree of loss.
There is no way to truly listen through a child's ear to determine the amount of distortion they have
in their ability to hear and understand speech sounds.
Mild hearing loss - Even this type of loss can significantly impact a child's ability to hear and
understand within a classroom.
Same as above, amplification does not give you back clarity, only makes things louder.
Hearing loss in any degree significantly impacts their ability to hear and understand speech
accurately or overhear what is happening around them. If you can't hear words correctly or hear
only some of the sounds, how will that impact every moment of your education?
How We Hear
The auricle funnels sound waves into the auditory canal
o Variations in sound pressure cause the eardrum to move in and out
o The vibrations of the bones of the middle ear transmit energy to the inner ear
o The inner ear is the most critical and complex part of the hearing apparatus
Sound waves are collected by the outer ear and channeled along the ear canal to the eardrum.
The impact of sound hitting the eardrum creates vibrations that cause three bones in the middle
ear -- the malleus, incus, and stapes (hammer, anvil and stirrup) -- to move. The smallest, the
stapes, fits into the oval window between the middle and inner ear.
When the oval window vibrates, fluid in the inner ear transmits the vibrations into the hearing
organ, called the cochlea.

In the inner ear, thousands of microscopic hair cells are bent by the wavelike action of fluid inside
the cochlea.
The bending of these hairs sets off nerve impulses that are then passed through the auditory nerve
to the hearing center of the brain. This center translates the impulses into sounds the brain can
recognize.

One belief
Deafness isolates a student from the world of the majority language as well as from the world of
sound
o To the hearing student, the world is his classroom
o To a deaf student, education stops when he steps out of the classroom
Problems with Low Incidence
Deafness occurs in low incidence (1.5%)
o Students can be isolated in rural areas
o Families are isolated and far from services and education
o Adequately trained providers are rare, hard to find, costly for only 1-2 students in a school
o Intensive training programs for teachers of the deaf and educational interpreters are few in
the nation
Impact of Low Incidence
Young children are far from needed therapy and learning environments that provide rich language
development
o Preschool providers dont know sign language
o Parents dont know sign language
o Neither understand the principles of building language skills
o Learners arrive in Kindergarten with language skills at the age 2-3 year level
o School age children lack appropriate services despite good intentions
o Most children are in regular education settings with support services

o Interpreters often lack sufficient skills to convey the curriculum content

o Regular education teachers misunderstand deafness, the difficulties of interpreted
instruction, and lack skills themselves
Impact That Last a Lifetime
It all connects to language development
o American Sign Language (ASL)
o Parent Child relationships
o Socialization skills
o Mental health issues greater than general population
o Self-esteem and identity
o Community interaction skills
o Self sufficiency
o Academic understanding
o Poor performance (reading level 3-4th grade)
o Vocational outlook (90% unemployment and 40% of those employed are underemployed)
Differences within the Deaf Population
Profoundly deaf students hear very little
o Visual learning is paramount
o Discovery activities, functional applications, cause and effect, conclusions, hands on
materials, and video clips add to meaning
o ASL leads to comprehension
o ASL is the foundation for acquiring English
o Everything must be taught explicitly
Differences
Severely deaf students may have some hearing ability with amplification; amplification may not
necessarily be helpful for academic learning, but rather for environmental awareness
Mild or moderate hearing loss may allow for some auditory learning with amplification
Confusion or assuming understanding can be problematic
Similar words (Sue, shoe; but, putt; mat, pat, bat)
Deaf children of deaf parents have early language access
Deaf children of hearing parents (90%) often lack early access to language
Late amplification and later or non-existent exposure to ASL during early years
Hearingsomething.
Hearings amplify sound ALL SOUNDS
o Signal is not pure the result is muffled, altered, mechanical, and intermittent
o Students have to learn to listen to interpret the signal and recognize different signals as
different words
o Background noise interferes with the signal
Speechreading (or lip-reading) is an arduous and educated guesswork for deaf learners.

o Sixty-seven (67%) per cent of the English sounds are INVISIBLE on the lips
o Examples:
Jane shade chain
5:15 5:50
Cochlear implants
Best success when implanted at an early age (before age 2 years)
Requires 3-5 years of intensive therapy to learn to interpret sound accurately as speech
Allows about 25% of those children implanted before age 5 years sufficient listening skills to
depend on spoken language alone
50% will need support through ASL for schooling
25% use the implant for environmental awareness only and require ASL for instruction
Students implanted later than 2 years tend to have less auditory success

Mental Health Issues and Deafness

What are the general mental health issues?
What are the developmental issues related to Mental Health?
What can School Psychologists do?

Approximately 30-40% of individuals with hearing impairments have an additional disability. This is
found in the literature and in a recent survey from Gallaudet.

What are the issues for Mental Health and Deafness?

Impact of severe and profound hearing loss, when the child uses ASL on social emotional
development

o Parents may not have the language skills to communicate effectively around the abstract
concepts of emotional and interpersonal issues.
o Students face challenges in building close social relationships with peers and staff
o Students cannot communicate directly with their hearing peers most must use an
interpreter
All these factors lead to ISOLATION

What are the issues?

Impact of mild and moderate hearing loss more subtle, yet equally important
o Students miss out on conversations between others (containing important social
information)
o Students miss social language cues how to initiate a conversation, turn taking, etc.
o Misunderstandings are common
o Assumptions that hearing aids fix the problem and students smile and nod response
o These students will also cope with ISOLATION
Mental Health Challenges result in a lack of:
Success in building meaningful friendships
Opportunities to build a healthy self-concept
Ability to understand and manage conflict
Opportunities to develop appropriate coping and problem-solving skills
Proactive support for Mental Wellness
Identify Environments that foster positive self-esteem in Deaf and Hard of Hearing
Provide access to deaf and hard of hearing role models
Recognize the value of direct access to communication and interaction
Ensure and support the students access and participate in school events, community events and
society-at-large
Increase awareness of mental health issues for these students and provide appropriate supports
Deafness and Development
Developmental Surveillance
o Surveillance = periodic assessments over time
o An on-going process (similar to growth curves).
o Screening tools used to enhance the surveillance process.
o Performed at set points in time.
o Differentiate children with no concern from those needing additional investigation
Why does it matter?
Identifying additional concerns early can allow for more effective intervention strategies.
Screening for developmental concerns allows for a pro-active approach to overall child
development.

The age of identification of an additional disability tends to be delayed in children who are
deaf/hoh.

Age of Identification and Developmental Needs

Hearing can delay the identification of an additional disability
o Autism is diagnosed 0.8 years later in children with HL*
An additional disability can delay the identification and intervention for children who are deaf/hoh.
Risk factors for Developmental Delay
Neonatal factors (prematurity, intraventricular hemorrhage, NEC, prolonged ventilation)
Symptomatic congenital CMV
Bacterial meningitis
Some syndromes
Family history of learning difficulties, attention problems
Development of Gross Motor Skills
Common misconception:
o Children who are deaf walk later because they cant hear.
Children generally walk between 9-15 months of age.
Family patterns are common (all children walking at 14-15 months of age).
Development of Gross Motor Skills
93% of Deaf/hoh children without vestibular abnormalities have normal or above average motor
development*
Deaf/HOH children walking later than 15 months warrant an evaluation of why they are delayed.
If children have significant vestibular abnormalities (cochlear malformations: mondini deformities,
cochlear hypoplasia), this can impact balance for walking.
Development of Gross Motor Skills
If children have significant vision issues, or Usher Type I, age of walking can be delayed.
Children with CHARGE Syndrome almost uniformly walk late and should receive PT early on
(vision and balance and tone affected).

Development of Fine Motor Skills

Fine motor development can mirror language development, however there are no good physiologic
reasons why fine motor skills should be delayed in children who are deaf/hoh.
Abstract on children with cochlear implants noted gross motor skills at chronological age, but fine
motor skills more consistent with language age equivalents.
Fine Motor Skill Development
SKILL
Median age
Object transfer
5.5 months
Neat pincer grasp
8.9 months
Holds crayon well
11.2 months

Range
4-8
7-12
8-15

Development of Problem Solving Skills

Although verbal problem solving can be delayed in children who are deaf/hoh related to language
development, non-verbal problem solving is typically preserved.
In children under 3, non-verbal problem solving typically relies on fine motor skill development
(stacking blocks, puzzles, matching).
Speech perception in children with cochlear implants with cognitive delays have shown delays in
comparison to children with CI and no cognitive delays.
1 year post implant, the group of children with MR (Mean IQ of 65) were performing at 65% of the
group with normal intelligence (Mean IQ of 100).
At 2 years post implant, the group of children with MR were performing within 70% of the group
with normal intelligence.
Children with delays in non-verbal problem solving may be at risk for on-going cognitive issues and
learn all skills at a slower rate.

They often require more hands-on approach to learning and repetition and rote strategies.
Some children are perceived as having memory problems as they seem to learn something and
need it re-taught.

Development of Communication/Language Skills

Possible Red Flags (matter of degree)
o Slow learning rate in spite of strong intervention; gap CA/LA widens
Can be hard to differentiate from limited opportunity (device use, parent
involvement, personal resources, second language use, quality of program,
program access, response to Rx)
o Learning rate does not match expectations (i.e., in relation to residual hearing or
communication access)
o Lack of synchrony of auditory, speech, language development
Possible Red Flags: Young Child
o Need for extended processing time
o Qualitative differences in comprehension
Over-reliance on comprehension strategies
o Extensive gaps between receptive & expressive language (in either direction)
o May acquire basic vocabulary, but especially slow in acquiring:
Relational concepts (perceptual vs. conceptual)
Diverse semantic classes
Question understanding
Basic grammatical relations
o Limited gesture development; motor imitation difficulties
o Difficulty combining modalities (receptive and/or expressive)need for chaining
May have shifting modality preferences
o Problems with retention and generalization of learned information
o Word learning differences (cannot assume same associations, classification skills)
o Auditory learners may focus on gestalt (giant words)
o Perseveration; Persistent echolalia in speech and/or sign; slow changes from imitation to
spontaneous productions
o Atypical play development
o Restricted range of pragmatic functions
Possible Red Flags: Preschool
o Expectation of non-understanding; weak meta-cognitive skills
o Difficulty attending to and integrating multiple pieces of information
o Atypical semantic errors (Daddy is holeing the ground with that big fork!)
o Difficulties processing sequentially & planning common routines
o Formulation challenges in expressive language (word storage and retrieval difficulties;
sequential planning)
o Social difficulties
In responding to cognitive-linguistic demands of classroom
Child temperament: mismatch?

Processing based on contextual, extra-linguistic or non-linguistic cues for understanding (key

words; predictions; global response strategy)
o Unusual focus of attention
o Behavioral responses increase when language is challenging
o Difficulty responding to questions at varied levels of abstraction &/or supports; tracking
topics in discourse

A Tangent
Teaching pre-lingual typically developing infants sign language is a good use of their (our) time
o Improve communication and emerging literacy skills
o Determine if tantrum behavior is altered as a function of sign communication
Data suggests that infants use their first purposeful sign at 6 months. They are using purposeful
signs and we are struggling to interpret what they mean. Rather than this, apply sign language and
create a more functional experience. Synchronous linguistic development benefits the child in a
number of ways discussed shortly.
Goodwyn, Acredolo and Brown (2000) remarked that the benefits of early sign presentation include
Increases in infant-directed speech which is correlated with accelerated language development
(expressive and receptive)
Related to this is the concept of scaffolding by Vygotsky. Goodwyn and her colleagues suggested
that this was a bit like scaffolding in the sense that the sign acquired by the infant narrows the gap
between the present communicative abilities and the task. Prior the kid cried when he wanted
more. Now presents the sign. They also argue that by earlier signing the infant is more likely to
explore other ways to communicate. At a more subtle level the infant begins to expand their
general understanding of the properties of the word. The sign airplane is a hand shape that moves
but it doesnt move down by your knees, but rather up in the air and it makes a noise and it goes
fast and so on and so on.
Payoff for parents may be fewer tantrums. In the research you will find sign language or gestured
communications used in studies with children with MR, Autism, and ED. Behavioral and academic
responding has been shown to improve with the addition of signs supporting efforts.
Sign Language and Hearing Infants
Beyond Katie Couric
Early Sign Studies
o Bilingual Students
Harford, CT.
Lower SES Students
o PG County, MD
Benefits of Early Sign Exposure
Academic Benefits
Linguistic Benefits
Social Benefits
Collateral Benefits

Acredolo and Goodwyn noted that in a horse race with a group who signed at 24 months and a
group who did not sign at 24 months, the sign group posted higher scores on general language
tasks. In addition they posted higher Bayley MDI scores than the no-sign group. The benefit of
sign endures
Four years into the future at age six, the sign and no sign kids were tracked down and tested with
the WISC-III
o Sign
No Sign
o VIQ
116
103
o PIQ
109
101
o FSIQ 114
102
There is a good amount of data to suggest that signs presented prelingually will emerge prior to
spoken language (typically 3-4 months earlier).
Bring and Jones (1974) noted that the earliest signs presented go through a maturation where they
pass through phases or approximations. As the infant becomes more facile with signs, the spoken
language production is developed as a separate systems (they are learning signs for some objects
and words for other objects and not necessarily a sign-word relationship).
Even in the best of controlled conditions when prelingual typical developing children are presented
both systems, the signs emerge first. One hypothesis is that signs are 100% visible and spoken
language only approaches 40% visual. Greater opportunity to learn in a visual modality. Infants of
deaf parents are known to babble with their fingers without babbling vocally.
Felzer noted that hearing students who learned sign improved reading skills, spelling scores (they
finger spelled the words to themselves and this aided their memory) and general site word
vocabulary. The benefits were replicated in subsequent studies for children with MR, LD and
Autism.
Children can effectively code switch between the two systems by 18 months.
The collateral benefits include the relationship between the mom and kid, the further development
of inquiry, general reinforcement principles.

Development of Speech &/or Sign Production

Possible Red Flags:
o Limited repertoire of sound types or hand shapes which does not expand with time and
exposure
o Difficulties sequencing and coordinating movements
Different or limited oral motor movement (open lip posture; difficulty with
automated lip closure; non precise tongue tip, lingual mobility)
Difficulty coordinating voice and sign
Limited trunk stability; secondary reactions
Low intelligibility of word combinations
Drooling; asymmetry or one side weakness
Feeding/drinking issues; texture intolerance
Protracted jargon
Syllable complexity remains low
Chapter Summary

This chapter discusses individuals with hearing impairments. Definitions and concepts relating to hearing
impairment are reviewed as are classifications of hearing impairments. The chapter presents a discussion
of how hearing impairments are measured and assessed. Likewise assessments typically used to assess
other areas of educational relevance with students with hearing impairments are discussed. Differences in
pre- and post-lingual hearing impairments are summarized and a brief history of the education of students
with hearing impairments is given. Prevalence and etiologies of hearing impairments are presented along
with implications. Characteristics of individuals with hearing impairments are described in terms of
intelligence, speech and language abilities, social development, and educational achievement. Educational
considerations presented include placement decisions and instructional interventions such as methods of
communication and the use of audiologists and interpreters. Services for individuals with hearing
impairments of different ages (young children, those transitioning from school to adulthood, and adults) are
described. The chapter concludes with discussions of family and diversity issues; the use of technology
with this population; and trends, interests, and controversies involved in dealing with individuals with
hearing impairments.
Learning Objectives:
Define hearing impairment, deaf, and hard of hearing.
Distinguish between conductive and sensorineural hearing loss.
Explain the various assessment procedures used to measure hearing loss.
Describe the difference between prelingual and postlingual hearing impairments.
Outline the historical evolution of educational services for children and youth with hearing
impairments.
List possible causes of hearing loss.
Identify representative academic, social, and language characteristics of individuals with hearing
impairments.
Distinguish among oral, manual, and total communication approaches for instructing students with
hearing impairments.
Describe the concept of the Deaf culture.
Summarize educational services for persons with hearing impairments across the life span.
Explain how technology benefits individuals with hearing impairments.
Lecture Outline:
I.
Definitions and Concepts in the Field of Hearing Impairment
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.

Hearing impairment: disordered hearing

Hearing sensitivity loss: described in range from mild to profound
Deaf/deafness: nonfunctional hearing; federal definition refers to the educational impact
due to the hearing loss
Hard of hearing: residual hearing ability
Minimal hearing loss: difficultly hearing at a distance or with background noise
The term impairment may be offensive to some because it implies a deficiency. The Deaf
culture (with a capital D) asserts that deafness is not disabling, rather it is the social and
cultural factors surrounding deafness that are disabling.
Any hearing loss may cause difficulties with speech and language functioning.

II.

Anatomy of the Ear

III.

Outer ear: The outer ear functions to protect the middle ear, direct sound into the ear
canal, and enhance sound localization. In addition, the outer ear serves to enhance the
intensity of sounds in the mid-frequency range where the sound spectrum of speech is
located.
b.
Middle ear: Sound waves travel to the inner ear and cause vibrations that are converted in
energy.
c. Inner ear: This energy is transformed into electrical nerve impulses that are sent to the
brain for decoding.
d.
Central auditory nervous system: transmits energy to the brain for interpretation.
Classifications of Hearing Loss

IV.

a. Conductive hearing loss: Sound transmission is blocked in the middle or outer ear
b.
Sensorineural hearing loss: Involves the inner ear (cochlea) and/or the auditory nerve
c. Mixed hearing loss: Combination of conductive and sensorineural loss
d.
Central hearing loss: Dysfunction in the central nervous system
Measurement of Hearing Impairments

a.

a.
b.

Audiologist- professional who evaluates hearing loss; speech-language pathologists also

often assess hearing loss within schools
Audiometry/Audiogram- evaluation conducted to determine hearing loss. Includes:
pure-tone- determines hearing threshold (two types):
1.
air-conduction- thresholds in inner, middle, outer ear
2.
bone-conduction- inner ear vibrations
ii. speech recognition- assessed under multiple conditions
iii.
play observation- assesses response to sound in young or difficult to assess
children
iv.
inner ear acoustics- called evoked otoacoustic emissions
v.
acoustic transmission- called acoustic immittance
Age of onset significantly alters the language abilities of individuals with hearing loss.
Classifications include:
i.

c.

V.

i. Prelingual- present at birth or before speech onset

ii. Postlingual- deficit acquired after speech onset
Brief History of the Field
a.
b.
c.

1817: First school for students with hearing impairments (American Asylum for the
Education of the Deaf and Dumb)
1864: First college for the hearing impaired (today named Gallaudet University after
Thomas Gallaudet)
Communication methods:
i.
ii.

Manual communication- sign language/finger spelling

Oral communication- encouraged use of residual hearing and speech reading

VI.

iii.
Total communication- combination of spoken and manual communication
Prevalence and Etiology of Hearing Impairments
a.

Prevalence of Hearing Impairments by Age

b.

Marked increase with age. the number of people with hearing impairment has
doubled in the last 10 years
ii. Hearing loss affects nearly 28 million people and 1 in 22 infants born the United
States have some degree of hearing impairment.
iii.
69,300 students 6-21 identified as having a hearing impairment in the 2011-2012
school year.
Etiology of Hearing Impairments
i.

VII.

Genetic/Hereditary factors
1.
Recessive and dominant traits transmitted genetically
2.
X- linked: carried by the mother
ii. Infections
1.
Can occur before (pre-), during (peri-), or after birth (post-)
iii.
Developmental abnormalities
1.
Congenital abnormalities: abnormal development of the outer or inner ear
structure
iv.
Environmental/traumatic factors
1.
Loud noise, low birth weight, medication, etc.
Characteristics of Individuals with Hearing Impairments

VIII.

Intelligence: Intelligence is distributed similarly to individuals without hearing impairments.

Intellectual development for people with a hearing impairment is more a function of
language development than cognitive ability
b.
Speech and language: Most severely affected area due to a hearing impairment
particularly for children who are born deaf. Students who cannot hear the sounds of
spoken language may have difficulty learning the meanings associated to the sounds and
also may have difficulty using spoken language because they lack early experiences with
the sounds of language.
c. Social development: Social-emotional development relies heavily on communication skills
and children with a hearing loss hear less auditory information. Children with hearing
impairments may play differently due to a limited ability to share abstract ideas and often
prefer to work with pairs of children rather than large groups.
d.
Educational achievement: Educational achievement may be delayed although the student
may have average, or above-average, intelligence. Reading skills are often delayed due to
limited understanding of sound/word relationships. Educational environments often rely on
spoken words to transmit information.
Assessment of Individuals with Hearing Impairments

i.

a.

a.
b.

Cognitive achievement: Levels of academic performance

Communication assessment: Receptive and expressive language skills, Articulation, pitch,
loudness, quality, rate

Personal/social/behavioral assessment: Social adjustment, self-image, emotional

adjustment
Educational Considerations
c.

IX.

a.
b.

Impact of hearing loss of academic ability

Educational Placements

c.
d.

A large percentage of students with hearing impairments receive their education in

the regular education classroom in a public school rather than a residential
program for students with hearing impairments.
Classroom Strategies to maximize success
Communication methods

e.

i. Sign language
ii. Oral
iii.
Cued speech
iv.
Total communication
v.
Fingerspelling
vi. Interpreter
Signed language systems

f.

i. American Sign Language (ASL)

ii. Signing exact English
iii.
Signed English:
Educational Approaches

i.

Bilingual/bicultural: Considers American Sign Language (ASL) to be the natural

language of the Deaf culture and urges recognition of ASL as the primary
language choice with English considered a second language
ii. Total communication: Supports the belief that simultaneous use of multiple
communication techniques enhances an individuals ability to communicate,
comprehend, and learn
iii.
Auditory-Oral: Supports the belief that children with hearing impairments can
develop listening/receptive language and oral language expression (English) skills;
emphasizes use of residual hearing (the level of hearing an individual possesses),
amplification (hearing aids, auditory training, etc.), and speech/language training
Hearing Impairments Across the Lifespan
i.

X.

a.

Services for Young Children with Hearing Impairments

b.

i. Early identification importance

ii. Early identification procedures
iii.
Early intervention services
iv.
Family support
Transition and Individuals with Hearing Impairments

Transition planning includes:

1.
Family support: families may need support to deal with adolescents with
hearing impairments
2.
Higher education: the ADA requires institutions of higher learning to
provide accessible facilities and support; six postsecondary programs for
exist specifically for people with hearing impairments
3.
Employment: may involve support services or personnel
4.
Personal, social, community: communication difficulties may cause
difficulties as a person with a hearing impairment enters a new phase of
life
Services for Adults with Hearing Impairments
i.

XI.

a.

Two mandated types of services

i. State commission or office on deafness
ii. State vocational rehabilitation services
National Association of the Deaf
Alexander Graham Bell Association

XII.

b.
c.
d.
Family Issues

XIII.

a. Most children with hearing impairments have hearing parents

b.
Acceptance of the disability
c. Family relationships
Issues of Diversity

XIV.

Almost 50% of all students in programs for the deaf and hearing impaired are from
culturally diverse groups (Gallaudet Research Institute, 2011)
b.
Research is needed to address the needs of students with hearing impairments who come
from non-English speaking families
c. People who identify with the Deaf culture are proud of their heritage including their
language, history, values, and literature
Technology and Individuals with Hearing Impairments
a.

a.

Hearing aids

b.

There are different types of hearing aids. Hearing aids can be tailored to amplify
incoming sounds differently rather than amplify all incoming sounds equally.
Auditory training devices

c.

Sound amplification systems used in the classroom (such as the FM system worn
by teachers to amplify his/her speech)
Computers

i.

i.

i.

Opportunities for individualized learning, speech synthesizing programs

d.

Alerting devices

e.

Devices can be fitted with vibrating or visual alarm systems rather than auditory
alerts (doorbells, fire alarms, wristwatches, smoke detectors, etc.)
Captioning

f.

Many TV shows and movies provide a written transcription of the spoken words
across the bottom of the screen
Telecommunication devices

g.

Telephones can have the sound amplified

A telecommunication device for the deaf (TDD) is similar to a telephone but uses
types messages
iii.
Text messaging has become increasingly popular
Cochlear implants

i.

i.

i.
ii.

A device is surgically implanted into the cochlea to stimulate nerves in order to

make sounds audible. It is connected, by a special magnet, to a transmitter that
rests behind the ear. Not all individuals with hearing loss will benefit from a
cochlear implant.
Trends, Issues, and Controversies
i.

XV.

a.

Appropriate educational methods

b.
c.

Debate continues whether children with hearing impairments should be taught oral
or signed language or use a combination of both. The childs level of hearing loss
and needs should be considered.
Move from child-centered to family-centered approach
Deaf culture
i.

i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.

vii.

The term Deaf (with a capital D) refers to individuals who identify with the Deaf
culture
The term deaf (lowercase d) refers to the physical condition
Culture is established through shared history, language, experiences
Deaf culture considers American Sign Language (ASL) to be the natural language
of the Deaf culture and urges recognition of ASL as the primary language choice
with English considered a second language
Advocates for the Deaf culture consider hearing loss to be nonpathological and,
therefore, not a condition requiring medical intervention. The Deaf culture asserts
that deafness is not disabling, rather it is the social and cultural factors
surrounding deafness that are disabling.
The Deaf culture does not view hearing loss as impairment and rejects the
term hearing impaired. Members of the Deaf culture are proud of their heritage
that includes language, history, values, and literature. The Deaf culture advocates
the use of ASL and rejects cochlear impacts as an attempt to correct something

d.

that they do not consider to be problematic or in need of a cure or medical

intervention.
Full inclusion

Key Terms

Acoustic immittance: A technical term for measurements of middle ear function

Adventitious (acquired) hearing loss: Hearing loss that is acquired after birth, not inherited.
Air-conduction audiometry: A procedure for measuring hearing sensitivity at certain frequencies
using pure tones presented to the listener through earphones or speakers.
Assistive listening devices: Devices such as FM or sound field systems that improve the clarity of
what is heard by an individual with hearing impairments by reducing background noise levels.
Atresia: The absence or closure of the ear canal; can be congenital or acquired from injury or
disease.
Audiogram: A graphic representation of audiometric findings showing hearing thresholds as a
function of frequency.
Audiologist: A professional who studies the science of hearing, including anatomy, function, and
disorders, and provides education and treatment for those with hearing loss.
Auditory evoked potentials: Neural impulses produced from within the auditory system in response
to stimulation of the auditory pathway and recorded as bioelectric events using a special computer.
Auditory trainers: Type of amplification system used by children with hearing impairments in place
of their hearing aids in educational settings.
Autosomal dominant: A genetic form of inheritance involving the nonsex-linked chromosomes in
which the individual has one normal and one abnormal gene in a gene pair.
Autosomal recessive: A genetic form of inheritance involving the nonsex-linked chromosomes in
which both genes of a gene pair must be affected for the trait to be expressed.
Bone-conduction audiometry: A procedure for measuring hearing sensitivity at certain frequencies
using pure tones presented through an oscillator placed on the forehead or mastoid bone of the
listener. Sound is conducted to the inner ear through the bones of the skull.
Central auditory nervous system: Part of the hearing mechanism connecting the ear to the brain.
Central hearing disorder: Difficulty in the reception and interpretation of auditory information in the
absence of a hearing loss.
Cochlea: Shell- or spiral-shaped structure in the inner ear that is responsible for hearing.
cochlea implant: A surgically implanted device that allows individuals who are deaf to hear
environmental sounds and understand speech
Conductive hearing loss: The loss of sound sensitivity produced by abnormalities of the outer ear
and/or middle ear.
Deaf: Limited or absent hearing for ordinary purposes of daily living.
Deaf culture: Refers to individuals who are deaf who share similar values, attitudes, and practices;
view American Sign Language as their natural language.
Decibels (dB): A unit of measure expressing the magnitude of a sound relative to the softest sound
to which the normal human ear can respond.

Evoked otoacoutic emissions: Sounds produced by the inner ear in response to auditory
stimulation and measured in the ear canal.
Fingerspelling: A form of manual communication; different positions or movements of the fingers
indicate letters of the alphabet.
FM systems: A wireless system that allows the transmission of a signal from the teacher wearing a
microphone to the student wearing a receiver, increasing the volume of the teachers voice over the
volume level of classroom noise.
Frequency: The number of vibrations per second of a given sound wave; typically measured as
cycles per second (cps) or hertz (Hz).
Hard of hearing: Refers to a person who has a hearing loss but uses the auditory channel as the
primary avenue for oral communication, with or without a hearing aid.
Hearing impairment: Less than normal hearing (either sensitivity or speech understanding)
resulting from auditory disorder(s).
Hearing sensitivity loss: Poorer than normal auditory sensitivity for sounds; usually measured in
decibels (dB) using pure tones.
Hertz (Hz): A unit of measurement for sound frequency, expressed as cycles per second (cps).
High-risk register: A list of factors placing infants at increased risk for hearing impairment, including,
but not limited to, low birth weight, congenital perinatal infections, a family history of childhood
hearing impairment, severe asphyxia, and bacterial meningitis.
Incus: The second of the three middle ear bones for conducting sound to the inner ear, located
between the malleus and the stapes; also called the anvil.
Inner ear: The snail-shaped part of the ear (cochlea) containing the organs of hearing and balance.
Interpreter: A professional who signs, gestures, and/or fingerspells a speakers message as it is
spoken to enable individuals with hearing impairments to understand spoken language.
Malleus: The first and largest of the three middle ear bones for conducting sound to the inner ear.
Also called the hammer, it is attached to the tympanic membrane.
Manual communication: Communication methods that utilize fingerspelling, signs, and gestures.
Middle ear: The air-filled space behind the eardrum that contains three tiny bones (ossicles) that
carry sound to the inner ear.
Mixed hearing loss: Hearing losses resulting from both conductive and sensorineural hearing
impairments.
Oral approaches: Methods of instruction for children with hearing impairments that emphasize
spoken language skills. Methodology attempts to use the childs residual hearing and employs
auditory training and speechreading.
Oral interpreter: A professional who silently repeats a speakers message as it is spoken so that a
hearing-impaired person can lip-read the message.
Organ of Corti: Organ of hearing found within the cochlea.
Ossicular chain: Three bones in the middle ear (malleus, incus, and stapes) that connect the
eardrum to the inner ear and help to amplify sounds
Otitis media: Infection of the middle ear space, causing conductive hearing loss.
Outer ear: The most visible (external) part of the ear, useful in funneling sound to the ear canal and
in localizing the source of sound
Oval window: The link between the inner ear and the middle ear.

Play audiometry: A method for measuring hearing sensitivity in young children by rewarding correct
responses; turning the evaluation situation into a game in order to maintain interest and
cooperation.
Postlingual: Referring to the period of time after a child has developed language.
Prelingual: Referring to the period of time prior to a childs development of language.
Pure-tone audiometry: A procedure for measuring hearing sensitivity at certain frequencies using
tones that are presented at various intensities.
Sensorineural hearing loss: The loss of sound sensitivity produced by abnormalities of the inner
ear or nerve pathways beyond the inner ear to the brain.
Sound field systems: A system to assist students with hearing impairments in which the teacher
wears a microphone that transmits a signal to a speaker strategically placed in the classroom
rather than to a body-worn receiver.
Speech audiometry: A set of procedures for measuring auditory perception of speech, including
syllables, words, and sentences.
Speech recognition threshold (SRT): A measure of threshold sensitivity for speech. The SRT
represents the softest sound level at which a listener can identify the stimuli 50 percent of the time.
Stapes: The third of the middle ear bones for conducting sound to the inner ear. It resembles a
stirrup in shape and is sometimes called the stirrup. It is the smallest bone in the body.
Telecommunication device for the deaf (TDD): An instrument for sending typewritten messages
over telephone lines to be received by a person who is deaf or severely hearing impaired as a
printed message. Sometimes called TT, TTY, or TTD.
Total communication: A method of communication for students with hearing impairments, designed
to provide equal emphasis on oral and signing skills to facilitate communication ability.
Transliteration: Altering an interpreted message to facilitate understanding by a person who is
hearing impaired.
Tympanic membrane: A thin, membranous tissue between the ear canal and the middle ear that
vibrates when struck by sound waves; also called the eardrum.
X-linked: A pattern of inheritance involving the X chromosome, one of an individuals two sex
chromosomes.

Quiz
1. To some individuals who are deaf and hard of hearing the word impairment is viewed as offensive
because it implies a deficiency. True
2. The term Deaf, used with a capital D, refers to individuals who want to be identified with Deaf culture.
True
3. Residual hearing describes the remaining usable hearing a person may have. True
4. Minimal hearing loss (MHL) is currently classified as a hearing impairment. False
5. A conductive hearing loss is caused by a blockage or barrier to the transmission of sound through the
inner ear. True
6. A sensorineural hearing loss is caused by disorders of the inner ear. True
7. Adventitious hearing loss is an acquired loss. True
8. A postlingual hearing impairment is present at birth or occurring before the development of speech and
language. False
9. Low achievement is characteristic of students who are deaf. True

10. Any hearing loss, whether mild or profound, appears to have detrimental effects on reading
performance. True
11. An individuals language is refined and speech is developed through a series of activities: observing,
listening, and imitating others
12. The federal definition describes deafness as a hearing loss that: adversely affects educational
performance
13. The ear is divided into four connected sections: outer ear, middle ear, inner ear, central auditory
nervous system.
14. The tympanic membrane is attached to: the malleus
15. The bridge of bones across which sound vibrations travel to the inner ear is called: the ossicular chain
16. A sensorineural hearing loss: may be congenital and may respond to medical or surgical treatment
17. The frequency of a particular sound is a measure of the rate at which the sound source vibrates and is
measured in: hertz
18. Disorders associated with hearing loss in children include: cytomegalovirus, meningitis, Ushers
syndrome, down syndrome and ototoxicity
19. The primary objective of an assessment of individuals with a hearing impairment is to: put together an
accurate picture of cognitive, communicative, and personal characteristics
20. Language assessment for individuals with hearing impairments should examine: both receptive and
expressive communication skills
21. Which of the following is an inappropriate setting for individuals with a hearing impairment? private
schools mental institutions
22. One method of classifying hearing impairment is by degree of the loss
23. Individuals with a moderate hearing loss may experience: significant delays in speech and language
24. Suggestions for teaching students with hearing impairments included all except: have the student leave
class early for the next class
Additional exercises

Define the concept of the Deaf culture.

Explain how technology benefits individuals with hearing impairments (i.e., cochlear implants).
Why you believe cochlear implants are a good idea or why they are a poor/bad idea.
Summarize educational services for persons with hearing impairments across the life span