2016

UPSC Civil Services Exam

[ENVIRONMENT AND ECOLOGY]

A Brief Ready Reckoner

Nitin Sangwan
Beginners Note:
For Environment and Ecology portion, many areas will be covered in the geography portion of the
syllabus.
Secondly, newspaper is the best source of the content for this portion. Always read thoroughly about the
events and summits or the government actions and policies in the news. You may not have to read about
every smallest event or technological development, but cover the basics thoroughly. For example, there
are some historically important events (say Montreal Protocol, Kyoto Protocol, Earth Summit) that you
should know. Keep an eye on such events as they had been decisive in setting the path of our current
efforts for environment conservation and promotion.
Now a days many books are available in the market (as well as online material is there), pick any one or
two of them and read thoroughly.
Finally, do read past years papers of both pre and mains (and even other exams conducted by UPSC), to
get an idea about the kind of topics and questions that UPSC may ask. You may prepare a chronological
set of events based on these questions and then link them and develop your own understanding.
Always keep things manageable. It is not so important that how much you read, but how well you read.
Keep in mind that whatever you read, you have to revise that also at times of mains exam. So, limit your
study material.

Best of luck!
Nitin Sangwan
AIR 28 (2016), AIR359 (2015), AIR 320 (2014)
Drop me a comment at: www.meandupsc.blogspot.in if you need some further help in the exam,
suggestions or any major discrepancies in these notes for benefit of others.
*Glossary
450 SCENERIO Recent scientific research has proved that we have a very narrow window of
opportunity before GHG emission peaks in 2020. IPCC has warned that a temperature rise of 2 degree
Celsius before pre-industrial levels can wreak havoc. This corresponds to 450 ppm of CO2 equivalent.
(termed as 450 Scenerio).
ANTHROPOCENE It is used to refer a new epoch in human history which begins with start of Industrial
Revolution when human activities became so intense that they outplay the effect due to natural
activities.
BIODIVERSITY UNEP defines it as the totality of genes, species and ecosystems in a region. It means
three things Genetic biodiversity; Species Biodiversity; Ecosystem Biodiversity (variations in the
features and abundance of habitats). There are two basic approaches of biodiversity conservation In
situ and ex-situ approaches.

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BIODIVERSITY HOTSPOTS These are the regions that have both high endemic species variety and high
threat to the species due to habitat loss as a result of anthropogenic activities. This concept was given
by British biologist Norman Mayers in 1998. It is generally a species rich area which has faced 70%
habitat depletion. India has 3 such hotspots out of around 34 global hotspots Himalayas, Northeast as
a part of Indo-Burman hotspot and Western Ghats. They reflect a need to start an aggressive
conservation and biodiversity promotion in such areas. Abrupt rise of Himalayas results in high
biodiversity variations.
BIOME It is a natural ecosystem on global scale having almost similar biotic and abiotic conditions. For
example tundra, temperate and tropical biomes.
BIOSPHERE It is the global sum of all ecosystems on the earth. Biosphere is that part of the earth
which contains living organisms.
BLUE CARBON Blue carbon is also the name of a new strategic approach to make use of the large
carbon capture and storage potential of coastal ecosystems. Mangrove forests, seagrass beds and salt
marshes cover only around 0.5% of the seabed, but account for some 70% of the ocean's carbon storage
capacity. These three marine environments soak up and store carbon dioxide in their biomass and
sediments, where they keep it locked up for centuries. Together with the carbon held in the rest of the
ocean, this is known as 'blue carbon'.
DEEP SEA TRAWLING Deep Sea trawling is often referred as the Industrial methods of fishing in which
large nets with heavy weight are dragged across the seafloor to scoop up to catch marine animals such
as fishes, shrimp, cod etc. It is considered as an effective method of fishing and being practiced at large
scale. However, the deep sea trawling also has devastating effects on the marine diversity and it is now
threatening the existence of several varieties of flora and fauna. The fishing net attached with the
trawler invariably catches everything it encounters including the corals, as well as turtles and other
unsolicited life which includes many endangered and endemic fishes as well. The deep sea trawling
often end up in overthrowing many undesirable catches for dying and which significantly reduces the
marine ecosystem as well as environment pollution.
DIOXINS Dioxin is a generic term that is given to 100 or so chemicals that are produced by burning of
municipal solid waste, medical waste and in some chemical processes. They are not dissolved in water
and are absorbed by plants in totality and travel up in food chain. They cause many diseases in humans
like cancer, liver failure etc. They are under the list of Dirty Dozens and are classified as Persistent
Organic Pollutants. Instead of inceneration, gasification is a more viable solution as reactions in
gasification take place at high temperatures at which dioxins get broken into simpler and non-toxic
components.
ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINT The ecological footprint is a measure of human demand on the Earth's
ecosystems. It is a measure of human demand on the earth's resources standardized in terms of
biologically productive area used in making a product and to assimilate its waste. Using this assessment,
it is possible to estimate how many planet earths it would take to support humanity if everybody
followed a given lifestyle. For 2007, humanity's total ecological footprint was estimated at 1.5 planet

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Earths. Qatar, Kuwait, UAE, Denmark and US are biggest footprint countries.
ECOLOGICAL NICHE It refers to the functional role and position of a species in relation to other species
in a given ecosystem. Species of a niche are usually adapted to that particular habitat and may not
survive in other niches.
ECOLOGICAL PYRAMID It is a concept associate with food chains and food web representing different
trophic or feeding levels. Usually autotrophs (who make their own food) are at the bottom and
carnivorous heterotrophs at the top.
ECOLOGY It is the science which studies the biotic and abiotic components of an ecosystem and their
inter-relationship.
ECOSYSTEM It is the fundamental unit of ecological study and is a relative term. It is a system in which
organisms interact with each other and with their environment in a given unit of area and unit time.
Thus, it has two components biome consisting of all living beings and habitat as their physical
surroundings. Since it is a relative term, it can be as small as a microscopic to the whole earth.
ECOTOURISM It refers to the responsible travel to the natural areas that conserve the environment
and improve the well being of the environment. It traces its origins in the environmental movements of
1970s when awareness towards environment also increased in wake of events like Stockholm Summit.
Though this has marked advantages over conventional tourism practices, there is no standard definition
and environmentalist call for a cautious approach for this approach as well.
ENDOSULFAN Endosulfan is an off-patent organochlorine insecticide and acaricide that is being
phased out globally. Endosulfan became a highly controversial agrichemical due to its acute toxicity,
potential for bioaccumulation, and role as an endocrine disruptor. Because of its threats to human
health and the environment, a global ban on the manufacture and use of endosulfan was negotiated
under the Stockholm Convention in April 2011. The deadline for the ban is 2012 (extendable upto 5
more years).
ENVIRONMENTAL REMEDIATION Environmental remediation deals with the removal of pollution or
contaminants from environmental media such as soil, groundwater, sediment, or surface water for the
general protection of human health and the environment or from a brownfield site intended for
redevelopment.
GENE POOL It refers to the total genetic diversity found within a given area or population of species.
LIMITS to GROWTH This term became popular in 1970s with the launch of a book with same title.
Authors used computer simulation to show that if the trend which has continued in past, continues in
future also, there will be enormous catastrophic consequences of industrial growth as earth has limited
capacity to bear unnatural changes.
MICROPLASTIC Microplastic is plastic material of size less than 5 mm, originally generated by
degeneration of used plastic, cosmetic and personal industry etc. This is emerging as a major threat to
the entire ecosystem in general and marine ecosystem in particular. Microplastic is often consumed by

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mammal, reducing actual food intake due to false satiation, leading to starvation. Inability to digest this
might lead to death. Respirational intake is fatal to both animals and humans causing suffocation. Its
impact on marine life is really adverse. It transfers toxin into the food chain, often reaching human
bodies if they are at the top of it.
RED DATA BOOK is the source book which keeps a record of all the endangered animals and plants.
There are different red data books for different species viz, plants, animals etc.
SOCIAL FORESTRY It means raising fast growing trees near the habited areas so as to serve the needs
of the local population (timber, fodder etc.) and thus relieve pressure on the forests. Initially the
selection of trees was done by the government and had no local inputs. So eucalyptus were planted and
it failed to relieve pressure on the forests. But subsequently the planning, execution and monitoring was
handed over to village panchayats. It can include farm forestry (individual farmers planting trees in their
fields to meet domestic family needs), agro forestry (trees being planted at field boundaries) and area
extension forestry (trees being planted on road sides, canals etc).
SPECIES is a group of populations which are capable of interbreeding.
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT It has been most popularly and perhaps most aptly defined by
Brundtland Commission as Development that meets the needs of present without compromising on
the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. The concept has also been included as one of
the goals of Millennium Development Goals.
As per this definition components of sustainable development can be seen as
I.

Meeting the needs of Present Generation Economic Needs, Social, Cultural and Health
Needs and Political Needs

II.

Without Compromising on ability of future generation to meet their own needs Using

the Non-renewable resources judiciously, sustainable use of renewable resources.

TROPHIC CASCADE Trophic Cascade is ecological phenomenon arising due to addition or removal of an
apex predator in a food chain and resulting changes in the environment due to alteration of in
population of different species and related changes. Examples Removal of wolf in north America led to
increase in the population of herbivorous animals. Thus increasing strain on plants and leading to
decrease in vegetation cover.
VULTURE RESTAURANTS A new concept that aims to augment the population of the scavenging birds,
which help keep the environment clean by feeding on carrion. It has been successfully running in
Punjab. This concept has attracted four vulture species, including the Griffon Vulture and the Himalayan
Vulture, in large numbers at Dhar Kalan in Punjab. Dead cattle that have died a natural death are
collected from a village and fed to vultures. A veterinary conducts a post-mortem to unearth cattle died
naturally then it is fed to vultures.
WASTELANDS Degraded land which can be brought under vegetative cover, with reasonable effort,
and which is currently under-utilized and land which is deteriorating for lack of appropriate water and

Nitin Sangwan
soil management or on account of natural causes i.e. lands which produce a little as compared to a
normal fertile piece of agriculture land. Most of them are situated in the drier parts and hilly parts of the
country. In India the area under Wastelands is more than 6 Lakh sq km. National Wasteland
Development Board is the authority in India which works for the development of wasteland in India
*Global Developments and Efforts Taken
Environmental issues that we are facing today are largely a product of indiscriminant Industrialization,
burgeoning population, depletion of natural resources and so on. Emerging and developing countries in
South Asia and Africa, where there are greater needs for adaptation, particularly in view of the nature of
livelihoods, are most vulnerable to the adverse impacts of climate change.
Concerns about environmental problems emerged during 1960s and 70s and first major international
step was taken in form of Stockholm Conference of 1972.
HISTORY of INTERNATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL CONFERENCES and MECHANISMS
At international level, world has been divided into two groups International North and
International South or the Developed and Developing Countries. By virtue of their heavy
Industrialization and affluent lifestyle at the cost of environment, developed countries have
been termed as historical perpetrators by the Global South and this theme has echoed at every
international conference and has
been perhaps the biggest reasons
UNFCCC is a basic framework for coordinating global efforts
as well as providing guiding principles to such efforts in wake
for the deadlock over climate
of Earth Summit, 1992. This convention is the foundation of
talks also as Global North refuses
all global warming efforts and Kyoto Protocol was also signed
to accept all responsibility for
as a consequence of this.
mitigation just because it had
been a polluter in past.
It comprises of 26 articles. The most important of them are
Last 40 years have seen
considerable
environmental
activism at global level which has
resulted into following landmark
events
I.

IUCN

International

Union for Conservation of

Nature

and

Natural

Resources is one of the

Article 2 Provides objective of Convention as to achieve

stabilisation of GHGs in atmosphere i.e. global mean
o
temperatures should not be allowed to exceed 2 C above
the pre-industrial level that is the year 1850
Article 7 Establishes a mechanism called COP Conference of Parties. COP is highest decision making and
supervisory body under the convention
Article 3(1) is the Most Important and this article deals
with the principles of: CBDR Common, but Differentiated
Responsibilities, SD - Sustainable Development, and
Historical Responsibilities.

foremost and the oldest institutions formed in 1960s. It also publishes Red List of
Threatened Species to put special focus on preservation of endangered and threatened
species. Red List is the world's most comprehensive inventory of the global conservation
status of plant and animal species. The International Union for Conservation of Nature

Nitin Sangwan

(IUCN) is the world's main authority on the conservation status of species. There are 9
categories
II.

It classifies species in two broad groups

a. High Risk Critically Endangered, Extinct, Extinct in Wild
b. Low Risk It include Endangered, Vulnerable, Near Threatened

III.

UNESCO led UN Man and Biosphere Program, 1970 They are internationally
recognized, nominated by national governments and remain under sovereign
jurisdiction of the states where they are located and are a part of UN Man and
Biosphere program of 1970. Biosphere reserves serve in some ways as 'living
laboratories' for testing out and demonstrating integrated management of land, water
and biodiversity. Collectively, biosphere reserves form a world network: the World
Network of Biosphere Reserves (WNBR). Within this network, exchanges of information,
experience and personnel are facilitated. There are over 500 biosphere reserves in over
100 countries. In India there are 7 as a part of this chain (out of its total 17 biosphere
reserves). Functions of Biosphere Reserves
a. A conservation function - to contribute to the conservation of landscapes,
ecosystems, species and genetic variation;
b. A development function - to foster economic and human development which is
socio-culturally and ecologically sustainable;
c. A logistic function - to provide support for research, monitoring, education and
information exchange related to local, national and global issues of conservation
and development.
For the purpose of conservation
and balancing issues of tourism,
human habitations and research
and education, a biosphere is
divided into different zones. In the
core areas, only monitoring is
allowed and any type of human
activity be it research, tourism or educational activities are strictly prohibited. Human
habitations are allowed in buffer areas, but only with certain restrictions. As only core
area requires strict conservation, only this area comes under legal framework. Existing
National Parks, reserve areas etc may constitute this part.
UN Man and Biosphere Program, 1970

UNESCO natural World Heritage Sites,

1972
It is a representative ecological area with 3 It is a way of recognizing and providing
mutually
reinforcing
functions
support for conservation of such sites
conservation, sustainable development which embody outstanding universal

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and logistic support.

values and are hence of global

significance. Such sites are protected by
the member countries even in event of
war and are not attacked.
This is a part of UNESCOs scientific This is a part of UNESCOs preservation of
program
cultural heritage efforts
They form a part of global network under They are established in accordance of
UN Biosphere World Network
UNESCO Convention on the Protection of
World Cultural and Natural Heritage
Sometimes, a core area of a Biosphere is designated as a Natural World Heritage site.
IV.

UNITED NATION CONFERENCE on HUMAN ENVIRONMENT (UNCHE) or STOCKHOLM

CONFERENCE, 1972 This was the first multilateral UN led conference which for the
first time looked into the problem of environmental degradation and even suggested
many broad measures. Indira Gandhi was one of the only two head of governments who
attended it and she strongly defended Indian interests as We dont wish to impoverish
environment any further and yet we cannot for a moment forget the grim poverty of
large number of large number of people. Are not poverty and need greatest polluters?
and How can we ask those who live in the villages and slums about keeping the oceans,
rivers and air clean when their own lives are contaminated at the source?. The
conference also led to formation of UNEP (United Nations Environment Program).

V.

CITES, 1975 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species was signed in

1975after meeting of IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature) members. It
is a legally binding framework for national laws. It ensures that survival of the
endangered species is not threatened. Each protected species or population is included
in one of three lists, called Appendices 1,2,3. The Appendix that lists a species or
population reflects the extent of the threat to it and the controls that apply to the trade.

VI.

BRUNDTLAND COMMISSION, 1983 sponsored by UN and its OUR COMMON FUTURE

REPORT, 1987 It for the first time gave the concept of Sustainable Development in
Concrete terms and defined it as Development that meets the needs of present
without compromising on the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

VII.

IPCC1988 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change was formed by UNEP and WMO.

VIII.

UNITED NATION CONFERENCE on ENVIRONMENT and DEVELOPMENT (UNCED) or RIO

EARTH SUMMIT, 1992 Rio Summit was organized to give a concrete shape to the
principles outlined in Stockholm Conference and Earth Summit. The summit was also
landmark for it reached several agreements for future action
a. Agenda 21 It was a declaration for future course of action. It also called for
setting up of a Commission on Sustainable Development to oversee the
implementation of Agenda 21.

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b. Two Global Treaties viz

i. UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) The convention
was put into force in 1994 and under it Kyoto Protocol was signed. Its prime
focus was global warming.
ii. Convention on Bio Diversity (CBD) It is an international legally binding
treaty for 3 goals of conservation, sustainable use and equitable sharing of
benefits arising out use of genetic resources. It aims at addressing the issue
of biodiversity conservation, habitat preservation, intellectual property
rights, bio-safety and indigenous peoples rights. For these reasons, it is
seen as a key instrument in promoting sustainable development. India
ratified it in 1994. It also covers issues related to bio-safety and
biotechnology through a supplementary protocol called Cartagena Protocol.

UN Man and
Biosphere
Program,
UNITED NATION CONFERENCE on HUMAN ENVIRONMENT
(UNCHE) 1970
or STOCKHOLM
CONFERENCE, 1972

Its governing body

is

CoP

or

Conference

of

Parties.

Nagoya

Protocol of 2010 is
a result of this

BRUNDTLAND COMMISSION, 1983 sponsored by UN and its OUR COMMON

FUTURE REPORT, 1987

convention

fulfill one of 3
goals

Montreal Protocol, 1987

to
of

convention of fair
and equitable use

EARTH SUMMIT, 1992

of

resources.

Three goals of the

UNFCCC, 1994
for Global Warming

CBD, 1992
for Biodiversity

convention are
Sustainable use of
biodiversity,

Kyoto
Protocol
CDM
REDD+

Cartagena Protocol
CITES

IUCN

GLOBAL INITIATIVES for

BIODIVERSITY and CLIMATE
CHANGE

conservation

of

biodiversity,

fair

and

equitable

sharing of benefits
arising from use of
genetic resources.
However,
Rio
Summit failed to

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bring rich and poor closer on same platform and also to devise a new international law
to protect environment. The global treaties (UNFCCC&CBD) have to still go a long way to
be really meaningful. A series of Conference of Parties (CoP) to take the agenda of Rio
Summit have been held despite any substantial result.
IX.

UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), 1994 It is the only legally binding

convention to fight desertification. It is a result of 1992 Earth Summit. This convention
also collaborates with CBD and UNFCCC. It addresses the issues related to arid, semiarid and dryland areas. Its prime focus is Africa along with areas in countries like India. It
had launched a 10 year strategy in 2008-18 which aims at forging a global partnership to
reverse and prevent desertification and land degradation and to mitigate the effects of
draught in affected areas to support poverty reduction and environment sustainability.

X.

KYOTO PROTOCOL, 1997 In a bid to curb carbon emissions and global warming, Kyoto
Protocol was signed among various countries and it entered into force in 2005 which
marked the beginning of its first commitment period till 2012 (second commitment
period was agreed from 2013-20). It was an extension of UNFCCC and a concrete plan to
bring GHG emission down in a legally binding manner.
Countries were divide into three groups Annex-1 countries (the Industrialized
economies and economies in transition) and Annex-2 (the developed countries
excluding economies in transition which will actually pay to developing countries for
their costs incurred in new projects under CDM and they are actually a subset of Annex
1 countries) and other developing countries or non-Annex countries. Annex- 2 countries
have binding targets under Kyoto to cut carbon emissions under principle of common,
but differentiated/historic responsibilities. It set legally binding targets for the Annex-2
countries (37 of them including individual countries of EU) to reduce their GHG levels to
an average of 5.3% of 1990 level during a seven year commitment period of 2005-12.
USA and Australia didnt sign it.
Two major instruments of this protocol were
a. Global Environment Facility It was established with the help of World Bank,
UND and UNEP to transfer environmentally friendly technologies from
developed countries to developing countries for checking the greenhouse gases
emissions.
b. Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) of UN It has been started in the
aftermath of Kyoto protocol under which Carbon Credits can be traded as per
Marrakesh Accord. The protocol came into effect in 2005 on the basis of
Common, but Differentiated Responsibilities. The principle of CBDR enshrined in
UNFCCC article 4(7) was formally operationalised through Kyoto Protocol. Under
CDM, Certified Emission Reduction certificate are traded and each certificate is

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equal to 1 tonne of CO2 reduction. One crucial pre-condition of CDM is that the
new projects should be in addition to those which were already planned, so as
to promote genuine new projects only which aim at reducing emission. This is
known as additionality clause. This mechanism on the one hand helps Annex 2
countries in meeting their targets, it also helps developing countries in adopting
new technologies which are environmentally more sustainable.
Apart from these, there were also other flexible mechanisms to help Annex 2 countries
in meeting their targets i.e. International Emission Trading (IET) and Joint
Implementation (JI). Out of all these, CDM has been the most successful.
Failure of Kyoto Protocol
a. Legal but not enforceable, though Kyoto was legal, it didnt have provision of
enforcing penalties, as a result developed countries failed to meet the target
and also got away with that.
b. Developing countries criticized this protocol from the beginning and they argued
against fixing 1990 as the baseline as it would virtually absolve the developed
nations of their historic responsibilities.
c. It also allowed developing countries to pollute unchecked, there should have
been some mechanism for check on greenhouse gases in developing countries
as well. The share of industrialized countries has come down from 70% to 43%.
d. The protocol failed to achieve the targets it set. The GHG emissions have
increased by about 17%. In its second proposed phase, many countries like
Japan are reluctant to re-join and non-participation of the biggest polluters like
USA has further jeopardized it.
e. Many dubious projects like Gas Based Powerplant were also brought under it
which were no less polluting.
f.

The protocol also raised ethical issues as developed countries were allowed to
pollute by paying a small price for it. Most of the CDM projects 80% - are
gobbled up by India and China leaving lesser developed countries dry of benefits
of this protocol.

g. Projects developed under CDM had dubious evaluation in terms of additionality

clause and many existing projects which would have come otherwise also were
also certified under CDM.
h. Its overemphasis on CDM and carbon trading shifted the focus from core
objective of ecological conservation and it became a CDM protocol rather than
an ecological protocol.

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i.

There is still an ongoing debate about right of developing countries to pollute.

There is still no agreement on post-Kyoto framework and developed countries

complain of not including developing countries under binding limits.

However, success of the protocol lies in the fact that there was an estimated 1 billion
tonnes of emission reduction overall till 2012 when the commitment period ended.
There was more than $20 billion invested in developing countries as a part of CDM and
there was significant technology transfer as well.
XI.

THE CARTAGENA PROTOCOL on BIOSAFETY, 2003 It seeks to protect biological

diversity from the potential risks posed by living modified organisms (LMOs) resulting
from modern biotechnology (for example hybrid seeds, genetically modified crops).It is
a supplementary protocol of CBD. It will ensure safe transfer, handling and use of LMOs
resulting from modern biotechnology. It follows the precautionary principle which
allows developing nations to ban imports of a living modified organism if they feel there
is not enough scientific evidence that the product is safe and requires exporters to label
such shipments. It will for example let countries ban imports of a living modified
organism if they feel there is not enough scientific evidence that the product is safe and
requires exporters to label shipments containing genetically altered commodities such
as corn or cotton. Information exchange is a must. For implementation of this,
Biosafety Clearing Houses are established in member nations for implementation of
the provisions under this protocol and to exchange information regarding LMOs. India is
a signatory of the protocol.

XII.

REDD+, 2007 Reducing Emission from Deforestation and Degraded Lands + is a

mitigation program under Bali Action Plan which was conceptualized in 2007 to discuss
over post-Kyoto scenario. It was a mitigation plan for the developing countries due to
deforestation and degradation. It was India who proposed it. It aimed at sustainable
management of the forests and enhancing forest carbon stock in developing countries.
It is a set of steps designed to use market/financial incentives in order to reduce the
emissions of greenhouse gases from deforestation and forest degradation. Its original
objective is to reduce greenhouse gases but it can deliver co-benefits such as
biodiversity conservation and poverty alleviation. REDD is presented as an offset
scheme of the carbon markets and thus, will produce carbon credits. Forest degradation
accounts for 15% of greenhouse gas emissions, about the same as transportation sector.
Mitigation cannot be achieved without the inclusion of forests in an international
regime. Hence, it is expected to play a crucial role in a future successor agreement to
Kyoto Protocol. The quantity of carbon which is prevented from entering the earths
atmosphere because they have been sequestered by the conserved forests is estimated.

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These savings are converted into carbon credits and then sold to developed countries.
The revenue is then invested back into protecting the forest and improving life of
communities.
XIII.

Copenhagen Summit, 2009 In this CoP, for the first time 2o C limit was set for global
warming based on an IPCC report. BASICS countries also pledged voluntarily in this
summit that their emission levels will be reduced by 25-45% by 2020 and their emission
levels will never go above the levels of developed countries.

XIV.

NAGOYA PROTOCOL, 2010 The Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and
Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits has been negotiated under the aegis of CBD to
fulfill one of the objectives of CBD i.e. to promote equitable sharing of benefits arising
out of use of genetic resources. It was signed by CoP in Nagoya, Japan. Once ratified by
50 members, it will be a legally binding agreement for parties to follow rules related to
prevention of bio-piracy, and provide benefits including financial benefits to other
parties when their genetic resources are accessed. It also plans to reduce the
biodiversity loss by 20% and introduce measures to fight invasive species. The Nagoya
Protocol assumes importance in a globalized era of intensive exploitation of natural
resources for commerce. Several requests are made to governments for the transfer of
genetic resources abroad for research. Often these efforts are sponsored by corporates,
particularly in the area of plant genetics for agriculture. The danger of allowing onesided commercial exploitation of genetic resources, such as pathogens for vaccine
production, wrongful patents, is inequitable. When this protocol comes into force the
local communities like tribals will benefit. However, the flip side is that the United States
one of the largest users of such resources is not among the nearly 200 signatories
of the Access and Benefit Sharing rules of the Nagoya Protocol.

XV.

AICHI TARGETS and STRATEGIC PLAN for BIODIVERSITY, 2011-20 These targets were
set as a result of Nagoya Summit held in Aichi prefecture of Japan. They are a set of 5
goals with 20 targets. Targets are like at least halve, and where possible ring close to
zero the rate of loss of natural habitats including forests, establish a conservation target
of 17% for terrestrial and inland water areas and 10% for marine and coastal areas,
restore atleast 15% of degraded areas through conservation and restoration activities,
make special efforts for conservation of coastal areas.

XVI.

Durban Summit, 2012 In this Second Commitment period of Kyoto Protocol was
agreed from 2013-20. However, Second Commitment period also received a setback
when Japan, Canada and Russia withdrew from it. It was also agreed that a post-Kyoto
Protocol agreement will be finalized by 2015 and will be launched in 2020. CDM was
also retained meaning that developing countries will continue to benefit from carbon

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trading. An agreement was also reached on establishing a $100 billion Green Climate
Fund.
XVII.

UNITED NATION CONFERENCE on SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT or RIO+20 SUMMIT,

2012 In this conference, post Kyoto scenario was discussed. However deadlock
remained over issues of financial help and technological help from developed countries
to developing countries. Participants were encouraged to make voluntary cuts. Its
outcome was a report titled The Future that we Want. Its major outcomes were
a. Designating a body to operationalise a 10 year framework of program
b. Formulation of an Open Working Group on Sustainable Goals to be agreed by UN
General Assembly
c. UNGA was called upon to come up with an instrument under UNCLOS regarding

biodiversity in areas beyond national jurisdiction.

Other frameworks for environment related issues are
I.

Basel Convention on Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal, 1992
It aims at controlling trans-boundary movement of hazardous waste and their disposal.

II.

Rotterdam Convention on Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals
and Pesticides in International Trade, 1998 It aims at protecting from use of certain hazardous
materials. It calls for open exchange of information and calls on exporters of hazardous
chemicals to use proper labeling, include directions on safe handling and inform purchasers of
any known restrictions of bans.

III.

Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants or PoPs, 2001 Its aim is to protect
human health and environment from PoPs which includes the dirty dozen. They are a group of
pollutants which are harmful for their stickyness in biological cycle and hazardous effect on
human beings. Persistent organic pollutants are those organic compounds that are resistant to
environmental degradation. They therefore pose a danger of bio-accumulation and biomagnification. Some of the banned substances under Stockholm convention are Aldrin,
Hexachlorobenzene, DDT etc. Co-signatories agree to outlaw nine of the dirty dozen chemicals,
limit the use of DDT to malaria control, and curtail inadvertent production of dioxins and furans.

Endosulfan is also one of the PoPs. India is one of the signatories.

However, since the first UN Conference in 1972, same issues prevailed in Rio+20 as well and in these 40
years, condition of the poor countries has only deteriorated. Their debts have risen, terms of trade,
population and environment have all deteriorated.
The global climate community faces a deadline for reaching an agreement in 2015, bringing in more
than 190 countries to pledge emission cuts for the post 2020 period There is need to limit the increase
in global average temperature to below 2C above pre-industrial levels (as prescribed in the 5th
assessment report of the IPCC) is required. 2015 will be a landmark year for sustainable development

Nitin Sangwan
and climate change policy, 2014 is the last chance for all stakeholders to introspect to be able to wisely
choose the world they want post 2015.
*Indias climate policy and its change
It can be broadly divided into two phases one in which it strictly adhered to Historical Responsibility
slogan and the other when it diluted it as it became a bigger economy and bigger polluter. India has
become third largest emitter of GHG in absolute terms only behind China, which is at top, and the USA.
Share of India is around 6%, share of China is 20% in global GHG emissions.
India believes that accumulated stocks of GHGs is mainly the result of carbon based industrial activities
of Industrialized countries and hence it endorses the UNFCCC stipulated deep and substantive cuts by
developed countries, as a measure of fulfilling their
due responsibility bestowed upon them by history.
Traditionally, India has been a strong activist in
International climate change negotiations and has in
fact represented the Global South as other bigger
countries like China showed little enthusiasm during
that time. It gave many important ideas and
suggested various norms.
Continuing its original stance, it still maintains that
developing countries cannot be burdened for the sins
of pasts of developed countries and historical
responsibilities must be borne by the developed
countries.
I.

The 8 National Missions under National Action

Plan on Climate Change, 2008

I. National Solar Mission

II. National Mission for Enhanced Energy
Efficiency
III. National Mission on Sustainable Habitat
IV. National Water Mission
V. National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan
Ecosystem
VI. National Mission for a Green India to
increase forest cover by 20-30%
VII. National Mission on Sustainable Agriculture
VIII. National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for
Climate Change

In 1992 Rio Summit, India played a key role in ensuring that west accept certain principles, the
most important being Common, but differentiated responsibilities (CBDR), technology and
resources transfers. These were also included in UNFCCC. Common, but differentiated
responsibility
exempted

clause
developing

countries from taking any

uncompensated

mitigation

actions.
II.

India also supported the cause

of Small Island Developing
States at CoP-1 and agreed to
their

proposal

of

20%

reduction in emission by Industrialized countries by 2000.

A shift in Indian stance occurred in mid 2000s when Indian PM on sidelines of G8 summit vowed

Nitin Sangwan
that Indian per capita emission will not go above the per capita emissions of the developed
countries average. This was a tacit acceptance by India towards a self-imposed limit. This is the
testimony of sincerity of purpose and sense of responsibility India brought to the global task at
hand.
III.

India had also been an active participant in the CDM mechanism setup under Kyoto Protocol.

IV.

National Action Plan for Climate Change launched in 2008 with 8 core missions is another
testimony of Indias commitment towards mitigating climate change and promoting sustainable
development.

V.

India also proposed and adopted REDD+ mechanism in 2007 during Bali Summit.

VI.

Again, formation of BASICS group, aimed at mitigating climate change accepting their collective
responsibilities as different from the rest of the developing countries. They unilaterally and
voluntarily announced cut in emissions. India also announced 20-25% cut in its emissions at

Copenhagen summit along with the other BRICS nations.

A new central-sector scheme titled Climate Change Action Program has been approved during the
Twelfth Five Year Plan. The objective of the scheme is to build and support capacity at central and the
state levels for assessing climate change impacts and formulating and implementing adequate response
measures.
The National Clean Energy Fund (NCEF) was set up in 2000 and was created from a coal cess of Rs 50
per ton for funding research and innovative projects in clean energy technology. The fund was raised on
the basis of the polluter pays principle. Ganga cleaning project and solar research are some of the
recipients of this fund.
At Rio+20 summit, India again reiterated the principle of Common, But Differentiated Responsibilities.
Indias stance to accept a changed role in climate policies and accept some mitigation limits can be
attributed to its aspirations of becoming global power. As only if it is ready to assume responsibilities, it
can be considered as a power by others.

Nitin Sangwan

Under mission National Mission on Enhanced Energy Efficiency under NAPCC, following achievements have
been made
Commencement of the first commitment period of PAT (Perform Achieve and Trade).
Expansion of the energy efficiency financing platform through memorandums of understanding (MoU) with
public-sector banks.
Implementation of the Compact Fluorescent Lamp Programme.
Green technologies Fiscal support, innovation, easier financing for green technologies.
Encouraging super critical thermal plants
Development in technology for Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS)
Under mission National Mission on Sustainable Habitat under NAPCC, following achievements have been
made
NMSH standards developed for six sub-sectors, namely (a) solid waste management, (b) water and
sanitation, (c) storm water drainage, (d) urban planning, (e) energy efficiency, and (f) urban transport for
integration in developmental activities in the state.
Energy Conservation Building Code 2007 made mandatory for new as well as old buildings and incorporated
in the Central Public Works Department (CPWD)
National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture
To develop climate resistant crop varieties and develop alternate cropping patterns.
To use traditional knowledge along with modern and make rain fed agriculture more resilient.

*Indias Steps towards Biodiversity Promotion

India, a large and diverse country with only 2.4 per cent of the worlds land area, accounts for 7-8 per
cent of the recorded plant and animal species of the world. It is estimated that India is home to about
one-sixth of the entire plant species of the world and of the 12 biodiversity hotspots of the world, 2 are
in India. Subsequent to becoming a party to the CBD, India has taken the following steps towards
maintenance of biodiversity
I.

Biological Diversity Act, 2002 was passed and notified in consequence of CBD. The act primarily
addresses access to genetic resources and associated knowledge by foreign individuals,
institutions or companies, to ensure equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the use of these
resources and knowledge to the country and the people.

II.

A National Biodiversity Authority set up at Chennai on 1st October, 2003 as per the provision of
the Biological Diversity Act, 2002, is mandated to facilitate implementation of the Act. In
compliance with the provisions of the Act, states have formed State Biodiversity Boards and at
local level,

III.

Subsequent to the approval of the National Environment Policy (NEP) by the Cabinet in 2006, a
draft National Biodiversity Action Plan (NBAP) in consonance with the NEP was finalized. The
National Biodiversity Action Plan was approved in November 2008 to augment natural resource

Nitin Sangwan

base and its sustainable utilization.

IV.

India has recently ratified the Nagoya Protocol and formalized our commitment to it. The
Nagoya Protocol on access and benefit sharing has been negotiated under the aegis of CBD

V.

India has, for the first time, hosted the 11th Conference of Parties (CoP-11) to the Convention
on Biological Diversity. This is also the first such Conference since the launch of the United
Nations Decade of Biodiversity in 2011. At the CoP-11, India has launched the Hyderabad Pledge
and announced that our Government will earmark a sum of US$ 50 million during Indias
presidency of the Conference of Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity to strengthen
the institutional mechanism for biodiversity conservation in India.

Climate change, global warming and its impact

Climate change refers to the change in average temperature of earths surface leading to atmospheric
changes in form of global warming. Primarily, it is because of increase in Greenhouse Gases and Ozone
depletion and increased exposure to UV rays.
It is estimated that percentage of CO2 has increased by 30% since pre-Industrialization period. It has
resulted into an increase in mean temperature of .6 degree Celsius. Present level of CO2 in atmosphere
is around 392 ppm which is just short of threshold limits predicted by IPCC, which is formed under
UNFCCC and constituted by UNEP and World Meteorological Organization, in its 4th assessment report.
Main Green House Gases include CO2, Methane, Nitrous Oxide, Ozone and Chlorofluorocarbons.
In 2013, share of major polluters is China 29%, USA 15% and India 6%.
OZONE DEPLETION
Ozone depletion refers to the phenomenon of reductions in the amount of ozone in the
stratosphere. The hole is widened by a combination of powerful wind patterns and intense cold
temperatures high up in the atmosphere creating the right conditions for already-present,
ozone-eating chlorine chemicals to damage the layer.
Ozone is formed and depleted as a natural process in presence of UV rays, but it is disturbed by
increasing human activities. The problem of ozone depletion is caused by high levels of chlorine
and bromine compounds in the stratosphere. The origins of these compounds are
chlorofluorocarbons (CFC), used as cooling substances in air conditioners and refrigerators, or as
aerosol propellants, Nitrous Oxide, and bromofluorocarbons (halons), used in fire extinguishers.
A large hole was witnessed over Antarctica, but it has been repaired to large extant as a result of
steps taken under Montreal Protocol.
Main effects of Ozone depletion are
I.

UV rays will reach earth surface leading to temperature rise

Nitin Sangwan

II.

UV rays also cause several skin diseases as well

III.

Acid rain instances are also likely to increase as ozone depletion will lead to increase in
amounts of hydrogen peroxide in troposphere

IV.

Increasing instances of photochemical smog

V.

Photosynthesis by plants will also be affected, leading to disturbance of whole food

chain
Steps taken by global community to combat Ozone depletion are
I.

Vienna Convention for the protection and maintenance of ozone layer, 1985

II.

Adoption of the Montreal Protocol in 1987 as a consequence of Vienna Convention

banning the use of chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) compounds, as well as other ozone
depleting chemicals such as carbon tetrachloride, trichloroethane (also known as methyl
chloroform), and bromine compounds known as halons. Target date was set as 1996,
with 10 years grace period for developing countries. India ratified it in 1992. Currently,
US wants India and other countries to agree upon to include HFCs as well and move
them from UNFCC framework to Montreal protocol. Under UNFCC developed countries
are required to pay in full for technology transfers, but not under Montreal and thats
why US wants them to be moved under Montreal as many of its companies mainly own
patents regarding HFC alternatives. Montreal Protocol is one of the most successful
climate change framework of all the initiatives in past few decades.

III.

IPCC was formed in 1988 under UNEP and WMO which now works in close coordination

with UNFCCC.
GLOBAL WARMING
Global warming due to GHGs and Ozone depletion may have following adverse consequences
I.

Faster snow melting and glacier depletion Melting of glaciers will put close to half of
worlds population under threat from flooding in short term and draughts, water and
power shortages in long run. Siachin Glacier has retreated by around 1 km in past 25
years.

II.

Sea Level Rise Water levels will rise due to melting of glaciers and thermal expansion
of waters. Over the last century, a rise of 10-25 cm has been recorded and it put in
danger the low lying islands and areas. Small Island Developing States (SIDS) have
expressed strong concerns over this phenomenon. In India also 6,500 km area is low
lying and IPCC has identified India as one of the 27 most vulnerable countries to sea
level rise. Coastal paddy fields, onshore exploration and coastal infrastructure is most
vulnerable to the sea level rise. It is estimated that 12% of Bangladesh will submerge

Nitin Sangwan

with a sea level rise of just 1 meter.

III.

Water Stress Predictions of water wars in Asia has already been made. Global
warming is affecting the hydrological cycle and availability of fresh water. Variability in
monsoons (which causes rains over 100 odd days only) can lead to sever water stresses.
Ministry of Water Resources has already declared that nine states including Rajasthan,
Gujarat, Haryana and Punjab are already facing major water deficit.

IV.

Impact on Mangroves and Wetlands 8% of our coastline is occupied by Mangroves.

They are more prominent on eastern coast as it is wider and has many big rivers. They
act as carbon sinks, barriers against soil erosion due to sea waves, help in mitigating
tsunami waves and cyclones and provide a habitat to a large number of species. Climate
change affect salt content and hence affecting flora and fauna also.

V.

Desertification It is one of the key factors that may lead to enormous food security
issues. Frequent tilling of land without providing for the recovery leads to loss of
vegetation and soil erosion.

VI.

Food Insecurity The stress over water resources and the rising sea levels when
combined with increasing erratic rainfall will have a direct impact on food security. It is
estimated that a 2 degree rise in temperature will lead to 17% decrease in yield of
wheat.

VII.

Climate change is causing around 3,00,000 deaths every year in present scenario which
is expected to escalate to 5,00,000 deaths by 2030.

VIII.

It will also lead to change in composition of atmospheric gases, change in hydrological

cycle as well.

IX.

Global warming itself can cause further increase in ozone depletion in a vicious cyclical
manner.

X.

Deforestation Colonial policies did much harm to forests of India which were
exploited for wood. Among all forests, tropical evergreen forests are the one which are
the most exploited. Biggest harm was done to the temperate areas as they were the
ones which were cleared during Industrialization in European countries. Post
independence Forest Conservation Act 1980 was enacted to arrest this decline in forest
land. This act has been implemented to check diversion of forest land for other
purposes. Increase in temperature increases pest attacks and fire incidents. It is also
observed that vegetation mix changes due to climate change. For example in Nilgiri
Hills it is observed that Montane vegetation is declining and it is being replaced by
deciduous and semi-evergreen type vegetation. Currently forest cover stands at 19% in
India.

XI.

Coral Bleaching Corals are a result of symbiotic existence of coral polyps and

Nitin Sangwan

zooxanthellae. Zooxanthellae give colour to the polyps. Corals are bred in highly
temperature sensitive regions in the range of 18-30 degree Celsius. Due to rise in
temperature and dissolved carbonic acid due to higher concentration of CO2, corals start
to lose their color. Another reason of bleaching is increased exposure to UV rays due to
Ozone depletion.
XII.

Spread of Tropical Diseases As tropical climate expands with global warming, even
European countries will witness spread of tropical diseases like Malaria.

XIII.

Inconsistent Rainfalls, winter rainfall in polar areas

XIV.

Increase in fog days, variable sunshine and clouds

XV.
Biomes will shift polewards
Steps taken by global community to fight global warming are
I.

IPCC was formed in 1988 under UNEP and WMO which now works in close coordination
with UNFCCC.

II.

Earth Summit, 1992 Agenda 21 dealt with sustainable development while UNFCCC
was a legally bounding convention specifically addressing the issue of climate change.

III.

Kyoto Protocol, 1997 It was a specific legally binding agreement to address the
problem of global warming as a part of UNFCCC and emissions cutsby 5% by Annex 1
countries.

IV.

REDD+

Conservation (including biodiversity)

Conservation is a process of maintaining, managing and preserving the levels of biodiversity, species and
ecosystem at large. It is an effort for ecological balance in nature by way of sustainable activities,
restrictive usage and proactive preservation. It may involve various activities like species conservation
and preservation (e.g. project tiger, project elephant, project rhino), assemblage conservation for a
group of species (e.g. Bharatpur Bird Sanctuary) and habitat conservation (e.g. National Parks, UN
Biosphere Reserves).
Biodiversity is essential for ecological balance and for various economic services like food, fiber, wood,
drugs and medicines, industrial raw materials, tourism etc.
Biodiversity loss is due to both natural causes like volcanic eruptions, but predominantly from
anthropogenic causes. Anthropogenic causes include
I.

Habitat loss due to deforestation, urbanization, infrastructure activities, mining, pollution

II.

Unsustainable agricultural practices like clearing of forest lands, monoculture use of insecticides
etc

Nitin Sangwan

III.

Overexploitation of species like lions, tigers, cheetah etc

IV.

Introduction of new exotic species. Introduction of Water Hyacinth from Latin America,
Parthenium grass or Congress grass have hogged space of endemic species.

V.

Environmental pollution

VI.
Global warming
Broadly, two approaches are used for conservation In situ conservation within the habitat itself and
ex-situ conservation in artificially created habitat.
GLOBAL CONSERVATION and BIODIVERSITY PROMOTION MEASURES
Some of the important measures are
I.

Biosphere Reserve Program of UN, 1970

II.

Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, 1971 35 sites in India are under the Convention of
Wetlands of International Importance (Ramsar Convention). Chilka Lake is first to come
under it. The Montreux Record is a register of wetland sites on the List of Wetlands of
International Importance where changes in ecological character have occurred or is
likely to occur.

III.

CITES, 1975 Convention on Trade in Endangered Species. It aims to ensure that

international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten their
survival.

IV.

IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources is one of
the foremost institutions. It also publishes Red List of Threatened Species to put special
focus on preservation of endangered and threatened species.

V.

CBD, 1992 Convention on Biodiversity was one of the significant outcomes of Earth
Summit 1992. Government of India also passed Biodiversity Act as a consequence of it
and set up National Biodiversity Authority as well.

VI.

UN Convention to Combat Desertification, 1994

VII.

Bonn Convention on Conservation of Migratory Species

VIII.

Cartagena Protocol, 2003 on Living Modified Organisms. It has also established

Biosaftey Clearing Houses in member countries to check international transfer of LMOs.

INDIAN MEASURES on CONSERVATION and BIODIVERSITY PROMOTION
In India, various ex-situ and in-situ measures have been taken. It is a signatory of IUCN, CITES,
CBD, Cartagena Protocol, Ramsar Convention etc. At local level, it has taken following steps
I.

It enacted Wildlife Conservation Act 1972 as a first step towards conservation and
promotion of biodiversity

II.

Protected area network in form of Sanctuaries, National Parks and Biosphere Reserves

Nitin Sangwan

under Wildlife Protection Act 1972.

III.

India became a member of CITES in 1976. Species listed in CITES are regulated through
Wildlife Protection Act 1972 and Customs Act.

IV.

India is a member of Ramsar Convention since 1981 and has been implementing the
conservation programs for wetlands, mangroves and coral reefs.

V.

It has also launched species-specific projects like Project Tiger, Project Elephant etc in
in-situ mode and Vulture Conservation and Breeding in Pinjore, Haryana, Crocodile Park
in Chennai in ex-situ mode.

VI.

Project Tiger, 1973 It was launched in 1973 when population of tigers reached
critically low level under this tiger reserves have been set up. As a result population of
Tigers has slowly improved. Today there are more than 40 tiger reserves. National Tiger
Conservation Authority was set up in 2005. It is the apex body that works towards
conservation of tigers. The National Tiger Conservation Authority was established in
December 2005 following a recommendation of the Tiger Task Force, constituted by the
Prime Minister of India for reorganized management of Project Tiger and the many Tiger
Reserves in India.

VII.

Seeds and semens of critical species are preserved in seed banks to preserve them from
extinction. Techniques like cloning can also be helpful in saving the species from
extinction.

VIII.

According to CBD guidelines, it has formulated National Biodiversity Strategy and Action
Plan (NBSP).

IX.

It has enacted Biodiversity Act 2002 in wake of implementing guidelines and protocols
of CBD and has also established National Biodiversity Authority which is responsible for
promotion of biodiversity and look into issues related to benefits arising out of use of
genetic resources of ecosystem of India. The Act seeks to give effect to two key
principles of CBD the sovereign rights of countries of origin over their genetic and
biological resources and the need to share the benefits flowing from commercial

utilization of biological resources with the holders of indigenous knowledge.

*Water Conservation
National Mission on Monsoons It is a project that aims to improve the forecast of monsoon. It involves
a new comprehensive dynamic forecast.
National River Conservation Plan It includes work in 190 towns along polluted stretches of 39 rivers in
20 states. Sewage treatment capacity of about 4064 million liters per day has been created. River
conservation activities such as creation of civic infrastructure for sewage management and disposal are
also being implemented under other central schemes, such as Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban
Renewal Mission, Urban Infrastructure Development Scheme for Small and Medium Towns, as well as

Nitin Sangwan
under state schemes.
National Water Policy The salient features of the Draft National Water Policy (2012) are presented
below
I.

Emphasis on the need for a national water framework law, comprehensive legislation for
optimum development of inter-State rivers and river valleys, amendment of Irrigation Acts,
Indian Easements Act, 1882, etc.

II.

Water, after meeting the pre-emptive needs for safe drinking water and sanitation, achieving
food security, supporting poor people dependent on agriculture for their livelihood and high
priority allocation for minimum eco-system needs, be treated as economic good so as to
promote its conservation and efficient use.

III.

Ecological needs of the river should be determined recognizing that river flows are characterized
by low or no flows, small floods (freshets), large floods and flow variability and should
accommodate development needs. A portion of river flows should be kept aside to meet
ecological needs ensuring that the proportional low and high flow releases correspond in time
closely to the natural flow regime.

IV.

Adaptation strategies in view of climate change for designing and management of water
resources structures and review of acceptability criteria has been emphasized.

V.

A system to evolve benchmarks for water uses for different purposes, i.e., water footprints, and
water auditing be developed to ensure efficient use of water. Project financing has been
suggested as a tool to incentivize efficient & economic use of water.

VI.

Setting up of Water Regulatory Authority has been recommended.

VII.

Incentivization of recycle and re-use has been recommended.

VIII.

Water Users Associations should be given statutory powers to collect and retain a portion of
water charges, manage the volumetric quantum of water allotted to them and maintain the
distribution system in their jurisdiction.

IX.

Removal of large disparity in stipulations for water supply in urban areas and in rural areas has
been recommended.

X.

Water resources projects and services should be managed with community participation.

XI.

Wherever the State Governments or local governing bodies so decide, the private sector can be
encouraged to become a service provider in public private partnership model to meet agreed
terms of service delivery, including penalties for failure.

XII.

Adequate grants to the States to update technology, design practices, planning and
management practices, preparation of annual water balances and accounts for the site and
basin, preparation of hydrologic balances for water systems, and benchmarking and
performance evaluation.

Nitin Sangwan

*Sustainable Development
It is closely related to the issue of climate change, ecological conservation and biodiversity. The idea
evolved over a period of time when it slowly started to become apparent that human development
activities have an irreversible damage on environment.
Following are the key international events that marked the journey of evolution o idea of sustainable
development and subsequent measures that were taken by the global community
I.

STOCKHOLM CONFERENCE, 1972 It was the first global initiative in direction of sustainable
development. Its major outcome was formation of UNEP.

II.

BRUNDTLAND COMMISSION, 1983 sponsored by UN and its OUR COMMON FUTURE REPORT,
1987 It for the first time gave the concept of Sustainable Development in concrete terms and
defined it as Development that meets the needs of present without compromising on the
ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

III.

RIO EARTH SUMMIT, 1992 With this, attention on sustainable development peaked. It was
preceded by a series of incidents like Bhopal Gas Tragedy, Chernobyl Leakage Accident, Ozone

hole over Antarctica and so on.

Sustainable development is not only about environmental health, but also about economic prosperity
and social equity as well. It is about balancing the needs of nature and needs of man.
Over the years, the concept has been linked to several other ideas like alternative energy resources,
equitable global distribution of resources, lower consumption, poverty eradication, gender equality,
international cooperation and peace and so on.
Environmental pollution and degradation
CASE STUDY
Chipko Movement, which aimed at protecting forests in the Himalayas.
In Karnataka, a similar movement took a different name, Appiko, which means to hug.
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
The concept of sustainable development was emphasized by the United Nations Conference on
Environment and Development (UNCED), which defined it as in the seminal report - Our
Common Future as: Development that meets the need of the present generation without
compromising the ability of the future generation to meet their own needs.
THE BRUNDTLAND COMMISSION emphasizes on protecting the future generation. This is in line
with the argument of the environmentalists who emphasize that we have a moral obligation to
hand over the planet earth in good order to the future generation; that is, the present

Nitin Sangwan
generation should bequeath a better environment to the future generation.
Steps towards Sustainable Development

Use of Non Conventional Sources of Energy

LNG, Gobar Gas in Rural Areas

CNG in Urban Areas

Wind Power

Solar Power through Photovoltic Cells

Mini Hydel Plants Especially in Hilly Areas

Traditional Knowledge and Practices Medicinal Plants

Biocomposting Sustainability in Agriculture

Biopest Control Mixed cropping, Neem as a pesticide

Environmental impact assessment

Environment Impact Assessment is a cautious approach based on look before you leap to prevent
environmental hazards due to large scale human activities and industrial projects. It is a direct offshoot
of the idea of sustainable development. In the costs of development, it also includes future costs due to
environment degradation. It aims to provide a balance between environmental needs and
developmental needs.
EIA should use uniform scientific methodology. It should also take into account cumulative effect for a
wider area and future impacts as well. It should have wide public participation and should benefit from
the local traditional knowledge of a given area. It should also take follow up action at various stages of
project and in post-development phase as well. If possible, it should also outline mitigation strategies
and preventive strategies as well.
Ministry of Environment and Forestry initiated EIA with river valley projects in 1970s. First major
notification regarding EIA came up in 1994. Notification of 2006 is the basis of current EIA norms and it
also includes certain projects which were excluded earlier from EIA.
Recently introduced new land acquisition act also requires Social Impact and Environment Impact
surveys.
SHORTCOMINGS WITH CURRENT EIA FRAMEWORK
Madhav Gadgil, Chairman of Western Ghat Ecology Expert Panel has recently studied the EIA
Reports and Environmental Clearances given to mines of Goa and their subsequent impact. He
concluded that
I.

EIA and EC were conducted in a short span to hasten the approval of mining.

II.

Facts were deliberately misrepresented. Fraudulent data were used.

Nitin Sangwan

III.

Larger public and other stakeholders were not consulted.

IV.

Public Hearings were barely used.

V.

Opinion of locals was ignored which is most important in environmental impact

assessment as they are familiar with the effect of the developmental activities on local
environment.

VI.

Cumulative impact was not assessed. EIA was restricted to mining area alone, while later
it was found that adjoining rivers, aquifers were also severely affected. Many aquifers

were punctured and water was drained leading to problems for farming community.
Shah Commission on Mining also made similar observations and according to the commission,
there were severe damages to environment due to mining.
Another big concern is the quality of EIA produced. Other shortcomings include lack of adequate
skilled manpower, lack of training facilities, red-tapism, industry-bureaucracy collusion and so
on.
Environmental impact assessment (EIA) studies and implementation of the EIA process have improved
over the years, institutional strengthening measures such as training of key professionals and staffing
with proper technical persons are needed to make the EIA procedure a more effective instrument for
environment protection and sustainable development. The Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF)
has recently taken a number of initiatives for streamlining environment clearance (EC) processes so as to
enhance capacity for environmental governance.
Setting up of Green Benches at Supreme Court and National Green Tribunal is also likely to complement
and strengthen EIA process as loopholes can now be addressed in expeditious manner and there will be
more incentives for a fair assessment.
Disaster and disaster management
A disaster is a sudden untoward incident which causes large scale disruption of life and property. It can
be both manmade and natural.
According to Disaster Management in India Status Report, 2004, India is highly vulnerable to disasters
due to its unique geo-climatic conditions and 85% of country is prone to one disaster or the another.
57% lies in high seismic zones, 68% area is prone to draught and so on.

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Yokohama Declaration of 1994 was first major declaration which led to a shift in approach towards
dealing with disasters. Earlier, disaster management was more appropriately defined by disaster relief

DISASTER

RISK
ESTIMATION &
MANAGEMENT

PREPAREDNESS

RESPONSE

MITIGATION

RECOVERY

PREVENTION

RETHINKING

DEVELOPMENT
DISASTER MANAGEMENT CYCLE
rather than management, with poor pre-planning and preparedness.
For man-made disasters, there are also many liability Acts like Nuclear Liability Act, Chemical Accident
Rules, Mines Act etc.
Traditional Disaster Management Architecture in India

At present, panchayats do not have the capacity to react in any effective manner and it is the
district administration with the Collector playing a pivotal role. He has the authority to mobilize
the response machinery and has been given financial powers to draw money.

All departments including the police, fire services, public works, irrigation etc. work under the
leadership of the Collector during a disaster, except in metropolitan areas where the municipal
body plays a major role.

The basic responsibility to undertake response measures rests with the State Governments.

The entire structure of crisis administration in the State Governments has been oriented
towards post disaster relief and rehabilitation.

CRISIS
MANA

Nitin Sangwan

Most of the states have Relief Commissioners. The Relief Commissionerate is usually an adjunct
of the Revenue Department. In some states, the Revenue Secretary is also the ex-officio Relief
Commissioner.

Every state has a Crisis Management Committee under the Chief Secretary, consisting of
secretaries of concerned departments, which reviews crisis situations on a day-to-day basis,
coordinates the activities of all departments and provides support to the district administration.

Role of Union Government It plays a key supportive role with resources and providing
complementary measures such as early warning and co-ordination of efforts of all Union
ministries, departments and organizations. At the apex level, a Cabinet Committee on Natural

Calamities reviews the crisis situations.

A shift in this approach occurred with enactment of National Disaster Management Act 2005. It is now
empirically proved that investment in disaster preparedness saves multiple times in the long run. For
every rupee invested 3-5 rupees can be saved. Difference in the death tolls during Orissa cyclone of
2013 and due to one about a decade back shows the impact of new approach. After enactment of
NDMA 2005, a 3-tier disaster management mechanism has been established. At national level, PM is
chairman of National Disaster Management Authority. National Policy on Disaster Management was
formulated by NDMA and approved by cabinet in 2009.
National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) has also been established by NDMA which is mobilized when
a situation is not handled by the local logistical and manpower support. It is a specialized agency which
also draws its manpower from paramilitary forces. At present, National Disaster Response Force consist
of ten battalions, three each from the BSF and CRPF and two each from CISF and ITBP. These NDRF
battalions are located at ten different locations in the country based on the vulnerability profile of
country and to cut down the response time for their deployment at disaster site.
The general superintendence, direction and control of the Force shall vest in the NDMA. It also calls for
proactive deployment during impending disaster situations. Impart basic and operational level training
to State Response Forces (Police, Civil Defence and Home Guards)
For capacity building, National Institute of Disaster Management has also been established at Delhi. It
will function within the broad policies and guidelines laid down by the NDMA. It will be responsible for
promoting research in the area of disaster management. It will be responsible for documentation of the
disasters and their management cases. It will be responsible for the development of a national level
information base.
Various other initiatives have also been taken like new National Building Code of 2005 provides
guidelines for regulating the building constructions to comply disaster mitigation rules.
Traditional Knowledge for Disaster Management If tribals in the Andamans could survive the
tsunami, it was because their existing warning systems worked well in comparison to our non-existent
modern systems. The fact that traditional houses of wood and stone survived the Uttarkashi earthquake
not so long ago while modern buildings collapsed offered a similar lesson.

Nitin Sangwan
Shortcomings in the current mechanisms

Disaster Management as a subject is not mentioned in any of the three lists under Schedule 7
of the Constitution

Disaster management doesn't figure in any of the 3 lists.

National Plan for Disaster Management has not been formulated till date as per NDMA
guidelines.

NDMA concentrates very comprehensive powers at the national level for dealing with disasters,
but disasters require local capacity building and community response which is still lacking. In
Japan, there are strong disaster response mechanisms at community level. So, Disaster
Management should continue to be the primary responsibility of the State Governments and
the Union Government should play a supportive role and the role of the local governments
should be brought to the forefront for disaster management.

None of the major projects taken up by NDMA have been completed.

NDMA as an organization is also not working properly and there is shortage of manpower and
officials.

Working of State Disaster Response Forces is abysmally poor. Only 7 states have raised such
forces.

National Disaster Response Fund is being used in many other purposes than those stipulated.

Less than 8 states have their flood emergency response plans ready.
Improving Disaster Management Plans

It has been noticed that the district plans are usually not based on proper hazard and
vulnerability analysis of the district.

Preparing Seismic Micro Maps

Use of GIS and GPS: It is also possible to use GIS tools to integrate various spatial data such as
topography, hydrology, land use, land cover, settlement pattern, built up structures etc and
non-spatial data such as demography, socio-economic conditions and infrastructure like road,
rail network, communication system, hospital etc. on a common platform. This can be
further integrated with GPS for real time monitoring of crisis.

Integration of Disaster and Developmental Planning

Environment management should be made an integral part of all plans.

National Building Code of India 2005 should also include comprehensive disaster management
guidelines for new buildings

Emergency Response Plans should be up-to-date and should lay down the trigger points in
unambiguous terms

3-D hazard maps can be created with the use of GPS and other GIS tools

Nitin Sangwan

Civil Defense should be strengthened to deal with Disaster Management

Civil Defense (Amendment) Act, 2010 was enacted to cater to the needs of disaster
management so as to utilize the Civil Defense volunteers effectively for greater
public participation in disaster management related activities.

HYOGO FRAMEWORK of ACTION It was adopted in 2005 according a UN backed action. The framework works
towards disaster management and risk mitigation. India is also a signatory of this framework. It has a fivefold
process viz
I. Policy level and legislative level action In India disaster management Act was passed in 2005 and NDMA
was setup with PM as its chairman
II. Technical level, by using scientific means Early Warning System etc has been deployed
III. Socio-Educational level Mock drills are conducted and disaster prevention is made part of curriculum
IV. Developmental Process by integrating disaster management at all level of developmental activities V. Humanitarian process

This is not a very comprehensive doc, please cover areas that you feel are not adequately covered here.