HYDRAULIC MACHINES

These are machines and tools that use liquid fluid power to do simple work. For example
converting hydraulic energy into mechanical energy and vice versa.
Hydraulic fluid is transmitted throughout the machine to various hydraulic motors and hydraulic
cylinders and which becomes pressurized according to the resistance present. The fluid is
controlled directly or automatically by control valves and distributed through hoses and tubes.
A very large amount of power can be transferred through small tubes and flexible hoses, and the
high power density and wide array of actuators can make use of this power.
Hydraulic machinery is operated by the use of hydraulics, where a liquid is the powering
medium.
Examples of energy conversions:
Pumps: Convert mechanical energy (often developed from electrical source) into hydraulic
energy (position, pressure and kinetic energy).
Water turbines: Convert hydraulic energy into mechanical energy and mechanical energy is
used to drive generators that develop electricity.
Water turbines are generally designed and manufactured to each power stations own conditions
of water head, discharge, and water and power demands.
Electrical energy (Input) MOTORS Mechanical Energy (Shaft power) PUMPS
Hydraulic Energy (Output)
Mechanical Energy (Water, Input) TURBINES Mechanical Energy (shaft power)
GENERATORS Electrical Energy (Output)

Small electric pump

Gear pump

Pump Efficiency
e= output/input = water power /shaft power
Pump Efficiency = QH/TN
Where Q = flow rate capacity
H = total head (static head + losses)
T = torque (rotation) of shaft
N = speed (rpm,rad/sec)
Pump performance characteristics
The actual head rise is always less than the ideal head rise by an amount equal to the head loss.
Head Term in Pumping

Static suction lift: The vertical distance from the water level in the source tank to the
centerline of the pump. If the pump is located at a higher level than the source tank, the
static suction lift is negative
Static discharge head: The vertical distance from the centerline of the pump to the water
level in the discharge tank.
Total static head: The sum of static suction lift and the static discharge head, which is equal
to the distance between the water levels of discharge and source tanks.

System head curve

Total static head is used for selection of a pump and it represents the behavior of the piping
system. For any piping system there are losses. Head in pump, Hp is used to calculate the power
requirements for the pump.
Hp = Hs + hf + hm
Hs = static head
hf = friction loss
hm = minor loses
Power, P = QHp/e
Note: Hs is the total suction head on the sketch and not static suction lift (see the figure).

For any pumping system, the friction loss hf, by darcys equation is given by; h f

And for minor losses, hm is given by;

hf

kv

fLv 2
D2g

2g

Head in Pump for a system head curve can be expressed in terms of Q and D as:
2
0.81 fLQ2 KQ
H p Hs

g D5
D4

The plot of the above equation Hp and Q gives the system head curve. This curve represents the
behavior of the piping system and is important in pump selection.
Example 1: What will be the discharge in this water system if the pump has the characteristics
shown below?

Q (m3/s)
Hp (m):

0
55

0.05
57

0.10
55

0.15
52

0.2
48

0.25
40

0.3
25

0.35
10

Assume that Ke = 0.5, Kb = 0.35 and Ke = 1.0

Solution,
Determining Hp for system head curve, first determine the local losses and friction losses.
For Q = 0, Hs = 230 200 = 30m. Giving Hp as 30m.
Plot a graph of Hp against Q for both pumping and the system head curve. The point of
intersection is the discharge required.

First determine Hp for system head curve the plot all curves.
Power = 65*32/68 = 30KW.

HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES
DAM ENGINEERING

A dam is a hydraulic structure of fairly impervious material built across a river to create a reservoir
on its upstream side for impounding water for various purposes.
A dam and a reservoir are complements of each other.
Dams are generally constructed in the mountainous reach of the river where the valley is narrow
and the foundation is good.
Generally, a hydropower station is also constructed at or near the dam site to develop hydropower.
Dams are probably the most important hydraulic structure built on the rivers. These are very huge
structure and require huge money, manpower and time to construct.

CLASSIFICATION OF DAMS
Based on function served

Storage dams
Detention dams
Diversion dams
Debris dams
Coffer dams - a temp dam constructed for facilitating construction. It is an enclosure constructed
around a site to exclude water so that the construction can be done in dry.

Based on Hydraulic Design

Overflow dams
Non-overflow dams

Based on Materials of Construction

Masonry dam
Concrete dam
Earth dam
Rock fill dam
Timber dam

 Steel dam
Combined concrete-cum-earth dam
Composite dam.
*****And others******
Based on Rigidity
Based on structural action

SELECTION OF TYPE OF DAM

Selection of the most suitable type of dam for a particular site requires a lot of judgment and
experience.
It is only in exceptional cases that the most suitable type is obvious.
Preliminary designs and estimates are usually required for several types of dams before making the
final selection on economic basis.
Various factors govern the selection of type of dam including:
Topography and valley shape
Geology and foundation conditions
Availability of construction materials
Overall cost
Spillway size and location
Earthquake hazards
Climatic conditions
Diversion problems
Environmental considerations
Roadway
Length and height of dam
Life of dam
Miscellaneous considerations

SITE SELECTION FOR A DAM

A dam is a huge structure requiring a lot of funds.

Extreme care shall be taken while selecting the site of a dam.
A wrong decision may lead to excessive cost and difficulties in construction and maintenance.
Various factors should be considered when selecting the site of a dam including:
Topography
Suitable Foundation
Good Site for reservoir (i) Large storage capacity (ii) Shape of reservoir basin (iii) Water
tightness of the reservoir (iv) Good hydrological conditions (v) Deep reservoir (vi) Small
submerged area (vii) Low silt inflow (viii) No objectionable minerals
Spillway site
Availability of materials
Accessibility

Healthy surroundings
Minimum overall cost
o Other considerations

EMBANKMENT DAM
Is a massive artificial dam. It is typically created by the placement and compaction of a complex semiplastic mound of various compositions of soil, sand, clay and/or rock. It has a semi-permanent
waterproof natural covering for its surface and a dense, waterproof core. This makes such a dam
impervious to surface or seepage erosion. The force of the impoundment creates a downward thrust
upon the mass of the dam, greatly increasing the weight of the dam on its foundation. This added force
effectively seals and makes waterproof the underlying foundation of the dam, at the interface between
the dam and its stream bed. Such a dam is composed of fragmented independent material particles. The
friction and interaction of particles binds the particles together into a stable mass rather than by the use
of a cementing substance.
Types
Embankment dams come in two types: the earth-filled dam (also called an earthen dam or terrain dam)
made of compacted earth, and the rock-filled dam. A cross-section of an embankment dam shows a
shape like a bank, or hill. Most have a central section or core composed of an impermeable material to
stop water from seeping through the dam. The core can be of clay, concrete, or asphalt concrete. This
dam type is a good choice for sites with wide valleys. Since they exert little pressure on their
foundations, they can be built on hard rock or softer soils. For a rock-fill dam, rock-fill is blasted using
explosives to break the rock. Additionally, the rock pieces may need to be crushed into smaller grades to
get the right range of size for use in an embankment
dam.

CONSIDERATIONS DURING THE INVESTIGATION & EVALUATION OF BOTH PROPOSED AND EXISTING
DAMS

The embankment must be safe against excessive overtopping by wave action especially during preinflow design flood conditions.
The slopes must be stable during all conditions of reservoir operations, including rapid drawdown,
if applicable.
Seepage flow through the embankment, foundation, and abutments must be controlled so that no
internal erosion (piping) takes place and there is no sloughing in areas where seepage emerges.
The embankment must not overstress the foundation.
Embankment slopes must be acceptably protected against erosion by wave action and from
gullying and scour against surface runoff..Hydraulics
The embankment, foundation, abutments and reservoir rim must be stable and must not develop
unacceptable deformations under earth quake conditions.

Earth dams
An earth dam is made of earth (or soil) and resists the forces exerted upon it mainly due to shear
strength of the soil. These are the common dams constructed. They are usually built in wide valleys
having flat slopes at flanks (abutments). Can be homogeneous when the height of the dam is not great
and are of zoned sections, with an impervious zone (called core) in the middle and relatively pervious
zones (called shells or shoulders) enclosing the impervious zone on both sides.

N.B: Read about Advantages and disadvantages of earth dams and concrete dams

DESIGN OF DAMS
A survey is done to present on paper a contour map of the reservoir up to and exceeding the maximum
flood level, and to provide details for the location of the embankment, spillway and outlet works.
From the contour map, the capacity of the reservoir can be assessed for varying dam heights. A depthcapacity curve can then be drawn up to provide a quick and easy method for the dam designer to
choose the optimum full supply level. A simplified example of a depth-capacity curve is shown in Figure
below.

Catchment Yield, Y
Is based on the expected annual runoff from a catchment and is used in assessing the feasibility of a
dam and in determining the required height of the embankment. The latter is important to allow the
dam designer to size the dam to suit expected inflow and estimate the area that can be irrigated. It is
estimated as follows:

Where the average percentage of runoff is not known, use as a guide, a figure of 10 percent of the
mean annual rainfall for the catchment area. If more information is known, take the rainfall on a
return period of 1 in 10 years as a guideline.
Calculate the annual runoff for the catchment, in mm, based on the percentage determined above.
This is Rr.
Measure the catchment area A in km2, upstream of the proposed embankment. Ignore any
upstream dams (as these may already be full at the time of a flood event often at the end of a
rainy season and thus offer no retardation of any flood moving downstream) and calculate the
area of the whole catchment.
The annual runoff for the catchment (the catchment yield in an average year), Y, in m3, is given by:
Y = Rr x A x 1000

Determining the capacity of the reservoir without knowing the area of reservoir
This is obtained from Q

LTH
6

Where:
Q is the storage capacity in m3 and should not exceed Y above.
L is the length of the dam wall at full supply level (FSL) in m.
T is the throwback, in m and approximately in a straight line from the wall.
H is the maximum height of the dam, in m, at FSL.

Determining the capacity of the reservoir knowing the area of reservoir

This is obtained from; Q

HA
3

Where;
Q is the reservoir capacity in m3
A is the reservoir area in m2
H is the maximum depth of the reservoir in m
For example:
Give the maximum depth if 3.25m and areas if 327,000m2, the reservoir capacity becomes 354,250 m3