2.3.

Digital Bandpass Modulation Techniques

Introduction

Bandpass modulation is the process by which an information signal is

converted to a sinusoidal waveform.
The sinusoid has just three features that can be used to distinguish it form
other sinusoids: amplitude, frequency and phase.
The general form of the carrier wave is as follows

st At cos t
where A(t) is the time-varying amplitude and (t) is the time-varying angle.
It is convenient to write

t 0t t
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2.3. Digital Bandpass Modulation Techniques

So that

st At cos0t t
Where 0 is the radian frequency of the carrier and (t) is the phase.
When the receiver exploits knowledge of the phase of the carrier to detect
the signals, the process is called coherent detection; when the receiver does
not utilize such phase reference information, the process is called
noncoherent detection.
Ideal Coherent Detection
There is available at the receiver a protoype of each possible arriving
signal. These prototype waveforms attempt to duplicate the transmitted
signal set in every respect even RF phase.
The received is the said to be phase locked to the incoming signal.
During detection, the receiver multiplies and correlates the incoming signal
with each of its prototypes replicas.
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2.3. Digital Bandpass Modulation Techniques

Under the heading coherent modulation/demodulation we have

*PSK: Phase Shift Keying
*FSK: Frequency Shift Keying
*ASK: Amplitude Shift Keying
*CPM: Continuous phase modulation
And hybrid combinations. There are some other specilaized formats as
*OPSK: offset quadrature PSK
*MSK: minimum shift keying belonging to the CPM class.
*QAM: quadrature amplitude modulation

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2.3. Digital Bandpass Modulation Techniques

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2.3. Digital Bandpass Modulation Techniques

Noncoherent Demodulation
Refers to a system employing demodulators that are designed to operate
without knowledge of the absolute value of the incoming phase of the
signal, therefore phase estimator is not required.
Thus the advantage of noncoherent detection over coherent systems is
reduced complexity and the cost is the increased probability of error.
The noncoherent modulation/demodulation types are
*DPSK: Differential Phase Shift Keying
*FSK: Frequency Shift Keying
*ASK: Amplitude Shift Keying
*CPM: Continuous phase modulation

And hybrids combinations. However, how do you account for the fact that
there is a form of phase shift keying under the noncoherent heading?
DPSK utilizes phase information of the prior symbol as phase reference for
detecting the current symbol.
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2.3.1. Phase Shift Keying

The general analytic expression for PSK is

0t T
2E
si t
cos0t i t
i 1,..., M
T
where the phase term, i(t) will have M discrete values, typically given by

i t

2i
M

i 1,..., M

For the binary PSK (BPSK) as we can see in the Figure M=2. The
parameter E is the symbol energy and T is the time duration, 0tT.
In BPSK the modulating data signal shifts the phase of the waveform, si(t),
to one of two states, either zero or (180).
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2.3.1. Phase Shift Keying

The signal can be represented as a vector, whose length corresponds to the
signal amplitude, and the vector direction for the general M-ary case,
corresponds to the signal phase relative to the other M-1 signals in the set.
For the BPSK illustrated we have two 180 opposing vectors.
Signal sets that can be depicted with such opposing vectors are called
antipodal signal sets.

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2.3.2. Frequency Shift Keying

The general analytic expression for FSK modulation is

0t T
2E
si t
cosi t
i 1,..., M
T
where the frequency term, i, will have M discrete values, and the phase
term, , is an arbitrary constant.
In the figure example M has been chosen to be 3. Note that this value
choice for FSK has been selected to emphasize the mutually perpendicular
axes. In practice, M is usually a nonzero power of 2 (2,4,8,16,).
The signal set is characterized by Cartesian coordinates, such that each of
the mutually perpendicular axes represents a sinusoid with a different
frequency.

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2.3.2. Amplitude Shift Keying

For the ASK the general analytic expression is

0t T
2 Ei t
si t
cos 0t
i 1,..., M
T

where the amplitude term, 2 Ei t T , will have M discrete values, and

the phase term, , is an arbitrary constant.
In the figure example M has been chosen to be 2, corresponding to two
waveforms types. The ASK waveform sketch in the figure can describe a
radar transmission example.
Here we see a vector corresponding to the maximum-amplitude state, and a
point at the origin corresponding to the zero-amplitude state.

Binary ASK was one of the earliest forms at the beginning of century XX
and is no longer widely used in digital communication systems
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2.3.2. Amplitude Phase Keying

For the combination of ASK and PSK (APK) the general analytic
expression is

0t T
2 Ei t
si t
cos0t i t
i 1,..., M
T
The APK waveform implies simultaneous phase and amplitude changes at
the symbol transition times.
For the example M has been chosen to be 8, corresponding to eight
waveforms types (8-ary).
Here we see eight-vector signal set on the phase-amplitude plane.
Four of the vectors are at one amplitude, the other four vectors are at a
different amplitude; and each of the vectors is separated by 45.

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2.3.2. Amplitude Phase Keying

When the set of M symbols in the two-dimensional signal space are
arranged in a rectangular constellation, the signaling is referred to as
quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM).

Waveform Amplitude Coefficient

The waveform amplitude coefficient has the same general form, 2 Ei t T ,

for all modulation formats. The expression is derived as follows:

st A cost
where A is the peak value of the waveform. Since the peak value of a
sinusoidal waveform equals 2 times the root-mean-square (rms) value, we
can write
2
st 2 Arms cost 2 Arms
cost
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2.3.2. Amplitude Phase Keying

2
Assuming the signal to be a voltage or a current waveform, Arms
represents
average power P normalized to 1 ohm. Therefore we can write

st 2 P cost
Replacing P watts by E [joules]/ T [seconds], we get

2E
st
cost
T
We shall use either the amplitude notation, A, or the energy designation.
Since the energy in a signal is the key parameter in determining the error
performance of the detection process, it is often more convenient to use the
energy notation.

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2.4. Representation of Digitally Modulated Signals

In the transmission of digital information over a communications channel,
the modulator is the interface device that maps the digital information into
analog waveforms that match the characteristics of the channel.
The mapping is generally performed by taking blocks of k=log2M binary
digits at a time from the information sequence {an} and selecting one of the
M=2k deterministic, finite energy waveforms {sm(t), m=1,,M} for
transmission over the channel.
When the mapping from the digital sequence {an} to waveforms is
performed under the constraint that a waveform transmitted in any time
interval depends on one or more previously transmitted waveforms the
modulator is said to have memory.
When the mapping to the waveforms {sm(t)} is performed without any
constraints on previously transmitted waveforms, the modulator is called
memoryless.
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2.4. Representation of Digitally Modulated Signals

In addition, linearity of a modulation method requires that the principle of
superposition applies in the mapping of the digital sequence into successive
waveforms.
In nonlinear modulation, the superposition principle does not apply to
signals transmitted in successive time intervals.

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2.4.1. Memoryless Modulation Methods

Pulse Amplitude Modulated Signals (PAM)

In digital PAM, the signals waveforms may be represented as

sm t Re Am g t e

j 2f c t

0t T
Am g t cos 2f ct
m 1,..., M

where Am m 1,..., M denote the set of M possible amplitudes

corresponding to M=2k possible k-bit blocks or symbols. The signal
amplitudes take the discrete values

Am 2m 1 M d m 1,..., M
here 2d is the distance between adjacent signal amplitudes. The waveform
g(t) is a real-valued signal pulse whose shape influences the spectrum of
the transmitted signal. The symbol rate is R/k at which changes occur in the
amplitude of the carrier to reflect the transmission of new information.
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2.4.1. Memoryless Modulation Methods

The time interval Tb=1/R is called the bit interval, and the time interval
T=k/R=kTb is called the symbol interval.
The m PAM signal has energy
T

1
1
Em sm2 t dt Am2 g 2 t dt Am2 Eg
2 o
2
o
where Eg denotes the energy in the pulse g(t). Clearly these signals are onedimensional (N=1), and then are represented by general form

sm t sm f t
Where f(t) is defined as the unit-energy signal waveform given as

2
f t
g t cos 2f ct
Eg
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2.4.1. Memoryless Modulation Methods

and

sm t Am

1
Eg
2

The corresponding signal space diagrams for M=2, 4 and 8 are shown in
next figure. Digital PAM is also called amplitude shift keying (ASK).
M=2
0

M=4
00

01

11

10

M=8
000

001

011 010

110

111

101

100

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2.4.1. Memoryless Modulation Methods

This mapping is called Gray encoding. It is important in the demodulation
of the signal because the most likely errors caused by noise involve the
erroneous selection of an adjacent amplitude to the transmitted signal
amplitude. In such case, only a single bit error occurs in the k-bit sequence.
We note that the Euclidean distance between any pair of signal points is
e

d mn

sm sn

Eg 2 An Eg 2

1
1
Eg Am An
Eg 2m 1 M d 2n 1 M d d 2Eg m n
2
2
Hence, the minimum Euclidean distance is
e
d min
d 2 Eg

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2.4.1. Memoryless Modulation Methods

The carrier modulated PAM signal represented in previous vector diagrams
is a DSB signal and requires twice the channel bandwidth of the equivalent
lowpass signal for transmission.
Alternatively, we may use single-side band (SSB) PAM, which has the
representation

sm t Re Am g t jg t e j 2f ct

m 1,..., M

where g t is the Hilbert transform of g(t).

The digital PAM signal is also appropriate for transmission over a channel
that does not require carrier modulation. In this case, the signal waveform
may be simply represented as

sm t Am g t

This is now called a baseband signal.

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2.4.1. Memoryless Modulation Methods

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2.4.1. Memoryless Modulation Methods

In the special case of M=2, the binary PAM waveforms have the special
property that

s1 t s2 t
Hence, these two signals have the same energy and a cross-correlation
coefficient of -1. As we mentioned previously such signals are called
antipodal.

1
1
E2

Re mn
s1 t s 2 t dt
s2 t dt
1

E
E

E1E2 0
2 0
2
T

Phase

Modulated Signals

In digital phase modulation, the M signals waveforms are represented as

sm t Re g t e j 2 m1 M e j 2f ct , m 1,..., M
2

m 1
sm t g t cos2f ct
M

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2.4.1. Memoryless Modulation Methods

sm t g t cos

2
m 1cos 2f ct g t sin 2 m 1sin 2f ct
M
M

where g(t) is the signal pulse shape and

2
m 1
m
M
are the M possible phases of the carrier that convey the transmitted
information. Digital phase modulation is usually called phase-shift keying
(PSK).
We note that this signals waveforms have equal energy
T

1
1
E sm2 t dt g 2 t dt Eg
2o
2
o
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2.4.1. Memoryless Modulation Methods

Furthermore, the signals waveforms may be represented as a linear
combination of two-orthonormal signals waveforms, f1(t) and f2(t)

sm t sm1 t f1 t sm 2 t f 2 t
where

2
f1 t
g t cos 2f ct
Eg
f1 t

2
g t sin 2f ct
Eg

And the two dimensional vectors sm=[sm1 sm2] are given by

Eg
2
sm
cos m 1
2
M

Eg
2
m 1
sin
2
M

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2.4.1. Memoryless Modulation Methods

Signal space for M=2, 4 and 8 are shown in next figure. We note that M=2
corresponds to one dimensional signals which are identical to binary PAM
signals.

M=2
0

011

010

01

001

110

000

M=8

100

111
101
11

00

M=4

10
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2.4.1. Memoryless Modulation Methods

The preferred assignment of k information bits is Gray encoding, so that
the most likely errors caused by noise will result in a single bit error in k-th
bit symbol.
The Euclidean distance between signals points is

d mn s m s n Eg 1 cos
mn
M

The minimum Euclidean distance in which m n 1

e

d min

Eg 1 cos
M

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2.4.1. Memoryless Modulation Methods

Quadrature Amplitude modulation

The bandwidth efficiency of PAM/SSB can also be obtained by

simultaneously impressing two separate k-bit symbols from the
information sequence {an} on two quadrature carriers cos2fct and
sin2fct. The resulting modulation technique is called quadrature PAM or
QAM and the corresponding waveforms may be expressed as

t ReA g t e

sm t Re Amc jAms g t e

j 2f c t

m 1,..., M
0t T

j 2f c t
j 2f c t

sm

jA
g
t
e
mc
ms
sm t Amc g t cos 2f ct Ams g t sin 2f ct

Where Amc and Ams are the information-bearing signal amplitudes of the
quadrature carriers and g(t) is the signal pulse.
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2.4.1. Memoryless Modulation Methods

Alternatively, the QAM signal may be expressed as

sm t Re Vme j m g t e j 2f ct Re Vm g t e j 2f ct m
sm t Vm g t cos2f ct m
where

2
2
Vm Amc
Ams

m tan

Ams
Amc

From this expression, it is apparent that the QAM signal may be viewed as
combined amplitude and phase modulation.
In fact we may select any combination of M1-level PAM and M2-levelPSK
to construct an M=M1M2 combined PAM-PSK signal constellation.
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2.4.1. Memoryless Modulation Methods

If M1=2n and M1=2m, the combined PAM-PSK signal constellation results
in the simultaneous transmission of m+n=log(M1M2) binary digits at a
symbol rate R/(m+n).
Examples of signal space diagrams for those combination are shown in the
next figure.

M=8

M=16

M1=2
M2=4

M1=4
M2=4
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2.4.1. Memoryless Modulation Methods

As in the case of PSK signals, the QAM signal waveform my be
represented as a linear combination of two orthonormal signal waveforms
f1(t) and f2(t)

sm t sm1 t f1 t sm 2 t f 2 t

where

2
f1 t
g t cos 2f ct
Eg
f 2 t
and

2
g t sin 2f ct
Eg

Eg
sm
Amc
2

Eg
Ams
2

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2.4.1. Memoryless Modulation Methods

The Euclidean distance between any pair of signal vectors is
e

d mn

Eg
Amc Anc 2 Ams Ans 2
sm sn
2

In the special case where the signal amplitudes takes the set of discrete
values

Am 2m 1 M d m 1,..., M

The signal space diagram is rectangular, as shown in the next figure. In this
case the minimum Euclidean distance between adjacent points is
e

d min

Eg

2m 1 M d 2n

C 1 M d 2ms 1 M d 2ns 1 M d

Eg
2
2
2
2
4d 2 mc nc 4d 2 ms ns 2 Eg d 2 mc nc ms ns d 2 Eg
2

e
d min

for

m n m n 1
2

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2.4.1. Memoryless Modulation Methods

The space diagram is rectangular as we can see on next figure.

M=64
M=32
M=16

M=8
M=4

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2.4.1. Memoryless Modulation Methods

Multidimensional Signals

If we wish to construct signal waveforms corresponding to higher

dimensional vectors, we may use either the time domain or frequency
domain or both in order to increase the number of dimensions.
Suppose that we have N-dimensional signal vectors and N subintervals T

T1 NT

2T

3T

NT

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2.4.1. Memoryless Modulation Methods

In each subinterval T, we may use binary PAM to transmit an element of
the N-dimensional signal vector.

2T

3T

NT

If N is even in one time slot (T) we can transmit simultaneously two

components by modulating the amplitude of quadrature carriers
independently by the corresponding components. In this manner the Ndimensional signal vector is transmitted in NT seconds (N time slots).

2T

3T

NT

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2.4.1. Memoryless Modulation Methods

Alternatively, a frequency band of width f may be subdivided into N
frequency slots. Care must be taken to provide sufficient frequency
separation f between successive carriers so that there is no cross talk
interference among the signals on the N carriers.

2f

3f

Nf

If quadrature carriers are used in each frequency slot the N-dimensional

vector may be transmitted in NT seconds, reducing the channel
bandwidth utilization by a factor of 2.

2f

3f

Nf

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2.4.1. Memoryless Modulation Methods

More generally, we may use both the time and frequency domains jointly
to transmit an N-dimensional signal vector. For example if we consider 12
slots,
*N=12 dimensional vector may be transmitted by PAM (in each slot).
* N=24 dimensional vector may be transmitted by QAM (in each slot).

f0+4f

f0+4f

f0+3f

f0+3f

f0+f

f0+f

f0

f0

2T

3T

2T

3T

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2.4.1. Memoryless Modulation Methods

Orthogonal Multidimensional Signals

As special case of the construction of multidimensional signals, let us

consider the construction of M-equal energy orthogonal signals waveforms
that differ in frequency, and are represented as

sm t Re s lm t e

j 2f ct

m 1,..., M
0t T

2E
sm t
cos2f ct 2mft
T
Where the equivalent lowpass signal waveform is defined as

2E j 2mft
slm t
e
T
This type of modulation is called FSK (Frequency shift keying).
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2.4.1. Memoryless Modulation Methods

These waveforms are characterized as having equal energy

Em

1
1
2

s
t
dt

lm
2 0
2 0

2 E j 2mft
e
dt
T
2

2E
2E
cos 2mf j
sin 2mf dt
T
T

1
Em
20
1
Em
20

2E
2E

dt
cos
2

sin
2

f
T
T

E
Em cos2 2mf sin 2 2mfdt E
T 0

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2.4.1. Memoryless Modulation Methods

These waveforms are characterized as having cross-correlation coefficients

km
km
km

2 Em Ek

s
t
s
lm lk t dt

1 2 E j 2f mk t
t dt

2 E T

sin T m k f jT mk f

e
T m k f

The real part of the correlation coefficient

Rekm

sin T m k f
cosT m k f
T m k f

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2.4.1. Memoryless Modulation Methods

We observe that Rekm 0 when f 1 2T and m k. . Since
m k 1 corresponds to adjacent frequency slots then f=1/2T represents
the minimum frequency separation between adjacent signals for
orthogonality of the M signals.

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2.4.1. Memoryless Modulation Methods

For the case in which f=1/2T, the M FSK signals are equivalent to the Ndimensional vectors

s1 E 0 0 0 0
s2 0
E 0 0 0

sN 0 0 0 0
E

Where N=M. The distance between pairs of signals is

sm sk

E E
2

2E

Which is also the minimum distance. Next figure illustrates the signal
space diagram for M=N=2 and 3.
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2.4.1. Memoryless Modulation Methods

f 2 t

f 2 t

s2
2E

s1

2E

s1

s3

f1 t

f1 t
E
d12 2 E

2E

f 3 t

s2

M=N=3

M=N=2

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2.4.1. Memoryless Modulation Methods

Biorthogonal Signals

A set of M biorthogonal signals can be constructed from M orthogonal

signals by simply including the negatives of the orthogonal signals. Thus,
we require N=M dimensions for the construction of a set of M
biorthogonal signals.

We can show that the correlation coefficient between any pair of

waveforms is -1 or 0. The corresponding distances are d 2 E or

2E

f 2 t
s2

s2
- s1

s1
- s2
M=4

s1

- s1

f3 t

- s3

s3
f1 t

- s2
M=6
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2.4.1. Memoryless Modulation Methods

Simplex Signals

Suppose we have a set of M orthogonal waveforms {sm(t)}, or equivalently,

their vector representation {sm}. Their mean is

1
s
M

s
m 1

Now, let us construct another set of M signals by substracting the mean

from each of the orthogonal signals. Thus,

sm sm - s m 1,2,...,M
The effect of the substraction is to translate the origin of the m orthogonal
signals to the point s.
The resulting signals waveforms are called simplex signals and have the
following properties.
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2.4.1. Memoryless Modulation Methods

T

sm

sm

sm

sm

sm

2
s m - s dt s 2m 2s m s s 2 dt s 2m dt
M
0
0
0
2

2
E
M

1
E

M
m 1
0
T

1
2
s
dt

M
m 1 0
0
M T

m dt
m 1

M M 1
2ME 1 M 2

s
dt

2
s
s

m
n m dt
2 m
M
M 0 m1
m 1
n 1 m 1

T
M M 1 T

2ME 1 M 2

E
2 s m dt 2 sn sm dt
M
M m1 0
n 1 m 1 0

1
E 2E
M
0
T

M M 1
1 M 2

s
dt

2
E

2
s
s

m
n m dt
2 m
M 0 m1
m 1
n 1 m 1

1 M
1 M
E
1

E 2E 2 E E 2E 2 E E 2E
E 1
M m1
M m1
M
M

Second the cross-correlation of any pair of signals is

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2.4.1. Memoryless Modulation Methods

T
sm sn
sm sn
1
1

Re mn

s
s
dt

m n
sm sn
Em En
Em En 0
Em En

sm s n sn dt

T
T
T
T

1
Re mn
s ms n dt s m sn dt sms n dt sm sn dt
Em En 0
0
0
0

T
T
T

1 1 M
1 M
Re mn
s ms n dt s ms n dt sm sn dt
M m1 0
Em En M n1 0
0

T
T
M M 1

1
1
1 M 2

Re mn
s
s
dt

2
s
s

m n

n m dt
2 m
Em En 0
n 1 m 1

E 1 M 1 M 0 m1
T
M M 1 T

1
1 M 2

Re mn
s dt 2 sn sm dt
2 m
E 1 M 1 M m1 0
n 1 m 1 0

Re mn

1
1
1
1
1
ME

1 M 1 M 1 M
E 1 M 1 M 2
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2.4.1. Memoryless Modulation Methods

Hence the set of simplex waveforms is equally correlated and requires less
energy by the factor 1/M-, than the set of orthogonal waveforms.

Since only the origin was translated, the distance between any pair of
signals points is maintained at d 2E .
Next figure illustrate simplex
signals for M=2,3, and 4.
Note that signal dimensionality is
N=M-1.

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2.4.1. Memoryless Modulation Methods

Signals Waveforms from Binary Codes

A set of M signaling waveforms can be generated from a set of M binary

code words of the form

Cm cm1 cm2 cm3 cm4 cmN m 1,2,..., M

Where cm1 0 or 1 for all m and j. Each component of a codeword is
mapped into an elementary binary PSK waveform as follows

2 Ec
cmj 1 smj t
cos 2f ct 0 t Tc
Tc
2 Ec
cmj 0 smj t
cos 2f ct 0 t Tc
Tc
Where Tc=T/N and Ec=E/N. Thus the M code words are mapped into a set
of M waveforms.
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2.4.1. Memoryless Modulation Methods

The waveforms can be represented in a vector form as

sm sm1 sm2

sm3 sm4 smN m 1,2,..., M

Where smj E N for all m and j. N is called the block length of the
code, and it is also the dimension of M waveforms.

We note that there are 2N possible waveforms that can be constructed from
the 2N possible binary code words. We may select a subset of M< 2N signal
waveforms for transmission of the information.
We also observe that the 2N possible signal points corresponds to the
vertices of an N-dimensional hyper-cube with its center at the origin.

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2.4.1. Memoryless Modulation Methods

f 2 t
s1

s2

f 2 t

f1 t

s3 -s1

s 4 -s2
s6
N=2, M=4

s3

s5

s4

f1 t

s7
s1

s7

s2

f3 t
N=3
M=8

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2.4.1. Memoryless Modulation Methods

When we have M=4 and N=2

sm sm1 sm2 m 1,2,...4

where

2 Ec

s1 t
cos 2f ct 0 t Tc
Tc
4

2 Ec

s3 t
cos 2f ct 0 t Tc
Tc
4

2 Ec
3

s2 t
cos 2f ct 0 t Tc
Tc
4

2 Ec
3

s4 t
cos 2f ct 0 t Tc
Tc
4

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2.4.1. Memoryless Modulation Methods

If we expand the cosine function we have

s1 t
s3 t
s2 t
s4 t

2 Ec
2 Ec cos 2f ct sin 2f ct

cos 2f ct

Tc
4
Tc
2
2

2 Ec
2 Ec cos 2f ct sin 2f ct

cos 2f ct

Tc
4
Tc
2
2

2 Ec
2 Ec
3

cos 2f ct
Tc
4
Tc

cos 2f ct sin 2f ct

2
2

2 Ec
2 Ec
3

cos 2f ct
Tc
4
Tc

cos 2f ct sin 2f ct

2
2

Ene-May 2006 INAOE

2.4.1. Memoryless Modulation Methods

And

s1 t
s3 t
s2 t
s4 t

We can obtain that

Ec
cos 2f ct sin 2f ct
Tc
Ec
cos 2f ct sin 2f ct
Tc
Ec
cos 2f ct sin 2f ct
Tc
Ec
cos 2f ct sin 2f ct
Tc
cos 2f ct
f1 t
Tc
f 2 t

sin 2f ct
Tc
Ene-May 2006 INAOE

2.4.1. Memoryless Modulation Methods

Finally

E
E
E
E

s1
s3
s2
s4

Ec

Ec

Ec

We can obtain that the distance between any adjacent pair of waveforms
e
d min

Ec Ec

2 Ec 4Ec 4 E N

Ene-May 2006 INAOE