PILE FOUNDATION ANALYSIS AND DESIGNSERIES IN GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING Edited by 7. William Lambe Robert V. Whitman Professors of Civil Engineering ‘Massachusetts Institute of Technology BOOKS IN SERIES: Soil Testing for Engineers by T. William Lambe, 1951 Soil Mechanics by T. William Lambe and Robert V. Whitman, 1968 Soil Dynamics by Robert V. Whitman (in progress) Fundamencals of Soil Behavior by Jarnes K. Mitchell, 1976 Elastic Solutions for Soil and Rock Mechanics by H. G. Poulos and E. H, Davis, 1974 Soil Mechanics, $1 Version by T. William Lambe and Robert V. Whitman, 1978 ‘The aim of this series isto present the modern concepts of soil engineering, which is the stence and technology of soils and their application to problems in civil engineering. ‘The word “Soil” is interpreted broadly to inctade all earth materials whose properties and behavior influence civil engineering construction Soil engineering is founded upon many basic disciplines: mechanics and dynamics; physical geology and engineering geology; clay mineralogy and colloidal chemistry; and mechanics of granular systems and fluid mechanies. Prin ciples from these basis disciplines are backed by experimen: tal evidence from laboratory and field investigations and from observations on actual structures. Judgment derived from experience and engineering economics are central to soil enginzering. The books if tis series are intended primarily for use in university courses, at both the undergraduate end graduate levels, The editors also expect that all of the books will serve as valuable reference material for practicing engineers. T. Wiliam Lambe and Robert V. WhitmanA ZDNet PILE FOUNDATION ANALYSIS AND DESIGN G. POULOS E. H. DAVIS The University of Syqpayses-n mireCopyright © 1980 All rights reserved. Published simultaneously in Coad. Reproduction or tansation of any part of this work beysind that petmited by Sections 107 ana 108 of the 1976 United States Copy- Fight Act without the permission of the copyright owner is unlav= ful. Requests for pexmission of further infesmation should be aildvessed ta the Permissions Department (BSP Sas PSeSeseSeseSesesesesesegEsesesasaS: bE Rt +e + At ARAM RET —O— Be Bo Ara a roe fe Skt ak oF RB 10TH BG his &# e seme A Bie kw RAH IOT HE GM Hie he Rem eRe FORIRTWIL : SALW M2261 3d Fada, SeSeSiaseseSenesesesatesasasaqasacasagaayPREFACE ‘This book deals with methods of analysis that may be use ful in design of pile foundations. Many excellent text books are concerned with the more practical aspects of pile foundations, such as the factors influencing the selection of | the type of pile, the techniques of installation, and practical details of construction and maintenance of piles. No attempt has been made to duplicate this type of inform. tion. The aims of the present book are to 1. Present a consistent theoretical approach to the predic: tion of pile deformation end load capacity 2. Present parametric solutions for a wide cange of cases, 3. Demonstrate how such solutions can be used for design purposes, 4. Review the applicability of these approaches to practi cal problems, In any theory, a certain amount of idealization is neces sary to obtain a tractable mathematical solution; this is especially so when dealing with problems involving sol. In dealing with the deformations of pile foundations i this book, we have generally considered the soll as an elastic material, with allowances made for pilesoil sip and soil yield where appropriate. Although real soils possess few, if any, of the attractive attributes of an ideal homogeneous isotropic elastic material, they nevertheless can often be treated as elastic over a limited range of stress, provided that the “elastic” parameters are determined for this stress range. When used in this manner, with due discretion and a measure of engineering judgment, elastc-based theory has hhad considerable success in predicting the deformation of both shallow and deep foundations. Although other simple soll models have also been successfully used for various aspects of pile analysis (For example, the theory of subgrade reaction as applied to laterally loaded piles), elastic theory provides a unified basis for the analysis of all types of foundation; it also makes possible identification of the Parameters that exercise a significant influence on pile performance. Since elastic theory allows consideration of stress transmission through a mass, it can be used to analyze the Interaction between two or more piles and, therefore, to examine the behavior of groups of piles. ‘The material contained in this book is organized as follows: 1. The behavior of piles under vertical loads (Chapters 2106) 2. The behavior of piles under lateral Toading (Chapters 7 and 8) and under combined vertical and lateral loading (Chapter) 3, The behavior of piled rafts (Chapter 10) 4, Piles subjected to vertical of lateral soil movements (Chapters 111013), 5. Miscellaneous topics such as pile buckling, dynamic loading, and pile load tests (Chapters 4 to 16) Although the text deals with a relatively wide range of topics, it is by no means exhaustive, Furthermore, since geotechnical analysis is advancing ata very rapid rate, there may well be cases in which the analytical techniques we describe may have been superseded by more versatile methods capable of modeling real soil behavior more realistically. Nevertheless, we feel that the techniques and solutions presented in this book can be usefully applied to ‘most practical problems and provide a basic series of results against which the results of more sophisticated analyses ray be checked, Some worked examples are given to illustrate the appli cation of the solutions to practical problems. Because units are by no means standardized as yet, some of the examples are worked in’SI units, some in British units, and a few in the Continental metric system, We thank the: many people who have conteibuted to this book and in particular Dr. N. S. Mattes, of the Elec: tricity Commission of New South Wales, who obtained a considerable number of the elastic solutions presented, Dr. J. R, Booker and Dr. P. T. Brown of the University of Sydney, who provided a great deal of assistance with various aspects of the theoretical analyses, Mr. P. J. N. ells, who provided valuable information on the subject of piles,wi PREFACE. to rock, and Dr. T.J. Wiesner, who obtsined some of the solutions presented in Chapter 10. The Civil Engineering Graduates Association of the University of Sydney gave financial support for the postgraduate .course on pile foundations that formed the basis of this book. Grateful acknowledgement is given to Professor J. W. Roderick, former Head of the Department of Civil Engineering, who made the facilities of the Department available to us, to C. J. Peiti, B. Crook, J. Kilpatrick, $.Picken,J. Knight and B, Rocke who undertook the typing and assembly of the ‘manuscript, and R, Brew and H. Papallo who prepared many of the diagrams. HG. Poulos EH. DavisCONTENTS 1 GENERAL PRINCIPLES 11 Introduction 1.2 Structural Approach 1.3 Basie Theory Required 13.1 Failure Theory 1.3.2 Blastic Theory 1.3.3 Changes in Soll Type 1.3.4 The Role of Idealization 14 Examples of Theoretical Pile Calculations 14.1 Vertically Loaded Foundations on Deep Clay 1.42 Vertically Loaded Foundations on Clay over Gravel 1.4.3 Foundations Subject to Rotation 2. EFFECTS OF INSTALLATION OF PILES 2.1 Introduction 2.2. Effects of Pile Driving ia Clays 2.2.1 Influence on Soil Shear Strength and Pile Capacity 2.2.2 Pore Pressures Developed During Driving 2.2.3 Dissipation of Excess Pore Pressures 2.2.4 Displacements due to Driving 2.3. Effects of Pile Driving in Sands 23.1 Single Piles 23.2 Pile Groups 24 Bifects of Installing Bored Piles 24.4 Clay Soils 24.2 Sands 3 ULTIMATE LOAD CAPACITY OF PILES 3.1 Introduction 3.2. Ultimate Load Capacity of Single Piles 3.2.1 General Expression 3.22 Piles in Clay 3.2.3 Piles in Sand 33 Pile Groups 3.3.1 Pile Groups in Clay 10 B rf 4 1s 1s i 18 18 18 18 19 24 30 30 3.322 Pile Groups in Sand 34 Piles to Rock 34.1 Point Bearing Capacity 3.42 Pile Rock Adhesion 3. Use of In-Situ Tests 3.5.1 Static Cone Penetromeser 3.5.2 Standard Penetration Test 3.6 Special Types of Pile 3.6.1 Large Bored Piers 3.6.2 Under-Reamed Bored Piles 3.6.3 Screw Piles 3.7 Uplift Resistance 3.7.1 Singie Piles 3.7.2 Pile Groups 3.8 Load Capacity of Bent Piles 4 LOAD CAPACITY BY DYNAMIC METHODS. 4.1. Introduction 4.2 Pie Driving Formulas 4.2.1 Derivation of General Formula 4.2.2 Practical Driving Formulae 4.23 Realiability of Dynamic Formulae 4.3 Pile Driving Analysis by the Wave Equation 4.3.1 The Wave Equation 4.3.2 Smith’s Idealization 4333 Basic Equations 4.3.4 Values of Soil Parameters 43.5 The Effect of Set-Up" 44. Typical Solutions from Wave Equation Analysis 4.4.1, Resistance versus Set Curves 4.4. Pile Stresses 4.5. Reliability of Wave Equation 4.6 Pile Impedance 5 SETTLEMENT ANALYSIS OF SINGLE PILES 5.1 Introduction 5.2. Theoretical Methods of Analysis 5.2.1 Load Transfer Method 3s 38 38 40 41 4l 43 a 43 “4 44 45 45 48 49 32 2 33 33 54 s4 58 39 59 61 63 65 66 66 68 68 0 n n n nwil CONTENTS: 5.2.2 Analysis Based on Elastic Theory 5.2.3 Finite Element Analysis 5.2.4 Comparison between Solutions from Mindlin Approach and Finite Element Analysis 523. Theoretical Solutions for Settlement and Load Distribution 5.3.1 Stress and Load Distribution in Pile 5.3.2 Load Transferred 10 Pile Tip 5.333 Settlement of Pile 5.34 Settlements in a Soil Mass Resulting From a Pile 5.3.5 Immediate and Final Settlements 54 Simplified Method for Constructing Load- Settlement Curve to Failure 5.5. Determination of Soil Parameters SS.1 Laboratory Triaxial Tests 5.5.2 Pile Loading Tests 5.5.3. Empirical Correlations 5.5.4 Typical Values of K 5.6 Some Compsrisons between Observed and Prodicted Pile Settlements, 6 SETTLEMENT OF PILE GROUPS 6.1 Introduction 62. Analysis of Group Settlement 6.2.1 TwoPile Interaction Analysis 6.22 Interaction Factors 623 Analysis of General Groups 6.3. Theoretical Solutions for Freestanding Groups 6.3.1 Settlement of Floating and End- Beating Groups 63.2 Load Distribution in Groups with Rigid Cap 63.3 Groups with Equally Loaded Piles 6.38 Approximation of Group as 2 Single Pier 64 Settlement of Groups Caused by Compres- sible Underlying Strata 65 Preparation and Use of Design Charts 646 Surface Settlements Around a Group 6.7 Observed and Theoretical Group Behavior 62.1 Settlements 672 Load Distribution 6.73 Group Behavior Predicted feom Single Pile Test Results 7 ULTIMATE LATERAL RESISTANCE OF PILES 7.1 Introduction " 83 83 84 84 85 86 94 96 99 101 102 102 102 103 109 109 nie 110 no nv 120 120 126 128 129 132 133 135 135 135 139 141 143 143 7.2 Single Piles 7.2.1 Conventional Statical Approach 72.2 Broms’s Theory 7.2.3 Plane Strain Solutions 7.24 Piles with Significant Base Resis- tance 728 Socketed Piles 7.26 Piles Subjected to Inclined Loading 7.2.7 Battered Piles 73 Pile Groups 73.1 Groups of Vertical Piles 7.3.2 Groups Containing Battered Piles 74 Use of Pies to Increase Slope Stability 7.5. Methods for Increasing the Lateral Resis- tance of Piles 8 LOAD-DEFLECTION PREDICTION FOR LATERALLY LOADED PILES 8.1 Introduction 8.2. Subgrade-Reaction Analysis 82.1 Basic Theory 8.22 Solutions to Linear Theory 8.23 Modulus of Subgrade Reaction 8.2.4 Nonlinear Analysis 8.3. Elastic Analysis for Single Piles 8.3.1 Basic Theory 8.3.2 Solutions for Floating Pile in Uni form Soil 8.3.3 Soluvions for Floating Pile in Soil with Linearly Increasing Modulus 83.4 Solutions for Socketed Files 84 Analysis of Pile Groups 84.1 Introduction 8.4.2 Elastic Analysis of Interaction Between Two Piles 8.4.3 Solutions for TwoPile Interaction 8.444 Elastic Analysis of General Pile Groups 8.4.5 Elastic Solutions for Square Groups 8.4.6 Approximate Prediction of Load- Deflection Curve for a Group 8.5. Determination of Soit Modulus 8.6 Comparisons Between Theoretical and Ob- sesved Load Deflection Behavior 9 GENERAL ANALYSIS OF PILE GROUPS 9.1 Introduction 9.2. Simple Statical Analysis 9.3. Equivalent-Bent Method 9.3.1 Principle of Method \3 144 146 152 153 153 134 156 157 157 159 160 161 163 163 lea 64 166 m 175 7 7 182 192 199 209 209 au 216 217 21 223 2s 233 233 233, 24 2494 9s 10 PILE. 101 102 103 104 105 9.3.2 Determination of Equivalent Bent 9.3.3 Torsional Response of Piles Elastic Analysis of Pile Behavior 9.4.1. Analysis of Single Battered Pile 94.2. Analysis of Pile Groups 9.4.3 Parametric Studies of Pile Groups ‘Comparison of Methods of Pile-Group Analysis -RAFT SYSTEMS Intcoduetion Analysis Elastic Solutions for Square Groups 10.3.1 Influence of Poisson's Ratios ¥, 10.3.2 Influence of Pile Arrangement 10.3.3 Systems Containing Large Numbers of Piles 10.3.4 Effect of Pile Compressibiity and Raft Flexibility Simplified Analysis for Load Settlement Curve to Failure Other Analytical Approaches 11 NEGATIVE FRICTION ON END-BEARING PILES 11.1 Introduction na 113 na Field Studies on Instrumented Piles 11.2.1 Observed Downdrag Forces 11.2.2 Development of Downdrag with Time 1123 Effect of Pile Driving on Negative Friction 11.24 Methods of Reducing Negative Frievion Analysis of Downdrag Forces 113.1 Introduction 11.3.2 Analysis of Final Downdrag Forces 11.3.3 Development of Downdrag with Time 11.34 Modifications to Elastic Analysis ‘Theoretical Solutions for Single Pile 11.4.1 Final Maximum Downdrag Force 11.4.2 Rate of Development of Downdrag Force 11.43 Pile Settlement 114.4 Rate of Development of Settlement L145 Effect of Pile Crushing 235, 237 237 237 242 243 248 250 250 250 253 237 257 287 258 259 262 265 265 269 269 269, 269 269, 271 271 272 273 278 274 274 28 279 282 283 3 lus 116 CONTENTS ix 11.46 Pile in Soil Subjected to Variable Loads 11.4.7 Data on Pile Soil Parameters Pile Groups ‘Comparisons Between Measured and Pre- dicted Pile Behavior PILES IN SWELLING AND SHRINKING SOILS 121 122 123 124 125 126 12.7 Introduction Existing Methods of Analysis Analysis Based on Elstic Theory 123.1 Basic Analysis 123.2 Pile Soil Slip 12.3.3 Compression Failure of Pile 12.34 Tension Failure of Pile 123.5 Nonuniform Soil 12.36 Variation with Time ‘Typical Solutions for Pile Movement and Load 124.1 Purely Elastic Pile Soil Interface 12.4.2 Solutions Incorporating Pile Soil Slip 12.4.3 Effect of Tensile Failure of the Pile 124.4 Differences Between Piles in Swelling and Consolidating Soils Design Curves Application of Theoretical Analysis to Practical Problems 12.6.1 Prediction of Soil- Movement Profile 12.6.2 Pile-Soil Interface Strength 12.63 Soil Modulus Observations of Pile Behavior and Compati sons with Theory PILES IN SOIL UNDERGOING LATERAL MOVEMENT 13 32 133 134 Bs Introduction Analysis Typical Results 13.3.1 Effect of Relative Pile Flexibility 13.3.2 Effect of Boundary Condicions 13.3.3 Effect of Soil Movement Distribu. tion 13.34 Effect of Magnitude of Soil Moves ment 13.3.5 Effect of Pile Diameter 13.36 Effect of E, and p, Distributions Application of Analysis to Practical Problems Comparisons with Field Measurements 284 285 288 289 294 294 295 296 296 297 297 297 297 298, 298 298, 299 303 304 304 306 306 307 au 31 312 314 315 316 316 316 318 318, 319 319contents 14 BUCKLING OF SLENDER PILES 1s 4a 142 43 144 145 Introduction Fully Embedded Piles 14.2.1 Basie Subgrade Reaction Theory 14.2.2 Solutions for Constant ky 14.2.3 Solutions for Linearly Varying ky Partially Embedded Piles 14.3.1 Theoretical Approach 14.3.2 Solutions for Constant ky 14.3.3 Solutions for Linearly Varying ky Effect of Practical Complications 144.1 Axial Load Transfer Along Pile 14.42 ‘Initial Imperfections 14.43 Inelastic Buckling 144.4 Group Effects ‘Analysis Using Elastic Theory 14.5.1 Analysis 14.5.2 Typical Solutions 14.5.3 Comparison with Subgrade-Reaction Solutions DYNAMIC LOADS ON PILES 1s 152 Introduction Estimation of Dynamic Loads 15.2.1 Machine Loads 15.2.2 Wave Forces 15.2.3 Earthquake Forces Pile Response to Axial Loads 15.3.1 End-Bearing Piles 15.3.2 Floating Piles or End-Bearing Piles with Load Transfer 15.3.3 Pile Groups Pile Response to Lateral Loading 15.4.1 Equivalent Cantilever Systems 15.4.2 Finite Difference Analysis 15.4.3 Novak's Analysis 15.44 Pile Groups 336 336 337 338 338 338 339 339 341 345 347 348 348 351 351 155. Pile Response to Earthquake Forces 16 PILE LOAD TESTS 16.1. Introduction 16.2 Maintained Loading Test 162.1 Procedure 16.2.2 Interpretation of Load Tests 16.3 Constant-Rate-of Penetration Test 164 Method of Equilibrium 16.5. Sources of Error in Settlément Measure- ‘ments in Pile Load Tests 16.5.1 Errors Resulting from Use of Re. ference Beam 16.5.2 Errors Resulting from Jacking ‘Against Anchor Piles 16.5.3 Enrots Resulting from Jacking Against Ground Anchors 16.6. Lateral Load Tests 16.7. Torsional Testing APPENDIX A. INTEGRATION OF MINDLIN'S EQUATIONS FOR PILE SETTLEMENT ANALYSIS APPENDIX B ELASTIC EQUATIONS USED FOR LATERALLY-LOADED PILE ANALYSIS REFERENCES AUTHOR INDEX SUBJECT INDEX 353 354 354 355 355 356 358. 358 359 359 360 363 365 365 366 369 a7 383 389PILE FOUNDATION ANALYSIS AND DESIGNGENERAL PRINCIPLES 1.1 INTROD TION ‘The use of pills is man’s oldest method of overcoming the difficulties of founding on soft soils, Although it dates back to prehistoric fake villages, until the late nineteenth cen: tury, the design of pile foundations was based entirely on experience, or even divine providence. Modern literature on piles can be said to date from the publication of Piles and Pile Driving, edited by Wellington of the Engineering News (later to become the Engineering News-Record) in 1893 in whick che widely known Engineering News pile-driving formula was proposed. Since this frst atiempt ata theoret: ical assessment of the capacity of a pie, a great volume of field experience and empirical data on the performance of pile foundations has been published. In recent years, the increasing demang on the foundation engineer to predict reliably the behavior of his pile designs has stimulated more-sophisticated theoretical research into the interaction between a pile or piles and the embedding soil, so that a Targe volume of empirical knowledge is now balanced by a comparable theoretical understanding This balance between empicicism and theory is a com- ‘mon feature of progress in many engineering fields, Any engineering design or solution to a practical problem can bbe imperfect in two ways. It can be imperfect because it is inadequate: that is, parts of the structure fail or deform excessively; in the present context, the design involws too few, too-slender, or too-short piles, But it can also be imperfect because it is more than adequate (too many, oolong, or too-substantial piles) and therefore is an excessively costly design, Design based on empiricism alone tends to focus attention on the former, because recorded experience gerierally only distinguishes between unsatis: factory and trouble-free pecformance and rarely between economical and uneconomical design. Only by under- standing the behavior of the engineering structure in an analytical as well as empirical sense can engineers reason- ably expect to achieve designs that are neither inadequate inor overadequate. In other words, to obtain the full benefit of experience of actual engineering behavior, it is important (o fiave a sound theoretical understanding of the problem. OF course, it is equally important that engineering theory should be based initially on oxperience and extended or ‘modified in the light of further experience, 1.2 STRUCTURAL APPROACH It is only too convenient to divide the design of major buildings into two components: the design of the structure and the design of the foundations. The structure for its own2 GENERAL PRINCIPLES reasons alone i assumed to produce certain column loads, and tie foundations are merely required to carry these predete mined loads. In reality, for complicated structures, the load: on the foundations determine their movernent, but this movement affeots the loads imposed by the struc: ture; thete is inevitably, iteration between structure and foundation. tn fact, the whole complex of structural frame, foundation components (footings, piles, pile caps, raft, etc. and soll or rock forming the founding material, together comprise one interacting structural system, The interaction between a pile and its embedding soil, and that between one pile and another pile, provide subsets of the lager set of all interacting structural components. If an overall structural approach is to be successful, we need to know much more about a particular pile than that it can be classified as, say, a 50-ton pile, We need to know its load-settlement behavior up 0 failure, possibly its behavior under lateral load and moment, and how its behavior is modified by adjacent piles. This is analogous to saying that we need the complete load-deformation characteristics of beams and columns, not just their load capacities, before we can analyze complete. strvctural frameworks. Most of this book is concerned with bringing the ana- lytical treatment of the losd-deformation and the failure behavior of pile foundation systems to the same level of sophistication as similar analytical treatments available for systems of structural frames. With this achieved, it is a relatively simple matter with modem computer programs to combine the structural and foundation systems into ‘one—but that matter is outside the scope of this book. 1.3 BASIC THEORY REQUIRED Piles embeded in soil provide a reinforcement to the soil, increasing its load capacity and modifying its deformation ‘behavior in much the same way as the steel reinforces the concrete in reinforced ot prestressed concrete members, Unfortunately, although a sufficiently accurate analysis of the effects of reinforcement in concrete members can usually be obtained by adaptation of the simple theory of bending, the extended-continuum nature of the emived- ding soil around piles makes the corresponding analysis of the reinforcement effect of piles much more difficult 13.1 Failure Theory In the present state of knowledge, it is generally only possible to consider failure as something that ogca7s mainly at the interface between the sides of the pile and the soil, ignoring the detalls of failure within the sol, although for the pile base, ordinary bearing-capacity theories may be applicable. Thus for vertical failure, the shear stress at the shaft-soil interface attains a limiting value (possibly varying with depth and soil type), and for horizontal failure result ing from lateral load or moment, the normal stress at the interface attains a limiting value (again, possibly varying with depth). In such a simplified approach, any reduction in failure load for a particular pile because of the presence of a nearby pile cannot be taken into account, except that the failure load for a group of closely spaced piles ‘can sometimes be calculated from bearing-capacity theory for buried footings on the assumption that the piles and soil between them act as one solid block. This load can be taken as the answer if itis less than the um of the failure loads for the piles, calculated individually, 13.2 Elastic Theory Soil and rock are not ideal elastic swaterials in that stress and strain afe not linearly related, strains are not fully recoverable on reduction In stress, and strains are not independent of time, However, at east it can be said that strains in soil increase as styesses increase. Furthermore, the assumption of anything mote complicated than 4 linearly elastic material for the soil in the pile-soil contin- tuum situation would generally Jead to unduly complicated theory lacking useful generality. The use of linear elastic theory is therefore expedient and should be sufficiently accurate for engineering purposes, provided that elastic “constants” are employed that are appropriate to the patticular problem. That is, they have either been back- figured from field tests on piles in similar situations, or determined from laboratory tests employing stress changes similar to the average changes in the soil mass in the partic lar case. ‘The basic elastic sesponse of the soil from which the solutions for elastic piles in elastic soil can be derived is given by Mindlin’s set of equations for the stresses and displacements throughout an elastic half-space resulting from horizontal or vertical point load applied at a point beneath the surface, As will be explained in subsequent chapters, this basic response can be integrated to give the pile soil interface stresses in such a way that the displace- ments of the pile and soil are compatible, Modifications to take account of failure at some parts of the interface are then relatively easy to make. Alternatively, the elastic response can be assumed to be that of a series of unconnected springs, that is, a Winkler medium or the subgrade reaction assumption, In spite of what is said by some of the protagonists of this approach, it most Gundamentally be inferior to the elastic continuum approach of the Mindlin equations, since it ignores thevery real interconnection among elements throughout the soil mass. However, it does have the advantages of com. putational simplicity and perhaps moreeady adaptation to complications such as change in soil type. On the other hand, it can never take into account the important matter of interaction between adjacent pies, 1.3.3 Changes in Soil Type Appropriate idealization of actual subsurfate conditions frequently involves consideration of one or more distinct layers of material of different properties. Piles in soft clay are often driven to a stiffer stratum of sand, which may in turn overlie a different clay before encountering bedrock, Both the failure theory and the deformation theory should therefore be capable of coping with such changes in properties from layer to layer. The modification cof the failure theory for this matter presents litle diff culty, but the modification of the deformation theory may require a number of simplifying assumptions. 1.34 The Role of Idealization Engineering theory can only give the behavior in an ideal situation, It must start from assumptions with regard to the properties of the materials and their disposition. In complicated problems such as that of pile behavior, the engineering theory itself is often not fully rigorous, since approximations have to be made to obtain numerical answers even for the ideal situation. Thus, there is a judge: ment to make about the extent to which a particular set of numerical answers is an accurate enough answer to the ideal problem. This judgement is largely the job of the research engineer. There is also a judgement to be made on the practical side, of the accuracy with which the idealized situation fits the real situation, This judgement is largely the job of the practicing engineer. It is important that the difference becween these judgements should be recognized and that they should never be made as one. For example, the fact that predicted behavior is not verified by subse- quent observation can mean either that the prediction was based on inaccurate theory, or that it was based on an ‘unrealistic idealization, or even both, 1.4 EXAMPLES OF THEORETICAL PILE CALCULATIONS Asa foretaste of the types of prediction possible from the theory to be given in subsequent chapters, the results of caleulations are given for differentexample pile founda tions, and for comparison, a surface pad footing, GENERAL PRINCIPLES 3 Working Loods ene [tours |2towns | aeones | a Le! | eacare J fseo —_Shrs%0 1500 eee a Js coset | Ey 700K" 78 Ee seoket | Vsoa uu Cores foctng CS) gee re le FIGURE L.1 Example 1. Foundations or deep cay 14.1 Ver lly Loaded Foundations on Deep Clay The’ foundations considered are shown in Fig. 1.1. All carry the same load and have the same factor of safety TABLE 1.1 BEHAVIOR OF EXAMPLE FOUNDATIONS ON DEEP CLAY bea Pad Single Pile* 4Fite Fxample Tooting Pile pad Group Factor of Sufeny 222 tof Pad or cap 100 nM Shaft sw 8S « Pile base Boot 3 Percent of Pad or eap 100) seers working Shaft 2 38 Toad taken Pile base g 2 2 by Settlements Immediate 09 in? 231m. 08m at Percent of OR 36 OF working immed. resulting load fom yield Contolidation —4.2in. OL ip, Oj. 0.2m Total final 53in, 1.0in 27in_ 1.0%n, 6 See Fig. 1 Elastic shortening of ple as 9 columo = 0,04 in. © sti shortening f pile groupas columns = 0.11 in4 GENERAL PRINCIPLES against ultimate failure. The calculated behavior is given in ‘Table 1.1, from which it can be seen that the surface pad footing, an unlikely choice for a comparatively heavy load ‘on a soft clay, settles what would probably be an excessive amount. Furthermore, a high proportion of the settlement is inrecoverable, so that variations in load might produce further settlement. The single large-diameter pile and the fourpile group have similar behaviors and may even involve setilements that are more than satisfactorily small. The ‘ease of a pad with one small-diameter pile is unusual but represents an interesting intermediate case between pad only and piles only. At the working load, the pile is carrying its full faluredoad but nevertheless succeeds in reducing the settlement well below that of the pad on its own, 2 Vertically Loaded Foundations on Clay over Gravel The cases of a surface pad footing and a pile driven to a stiff gravel base under the soft clay are illustrated in Fig 1.2. Again, each foundation caries the same load and has the same factor of safety. The results of calculation ate given in Table 1.2, The behavior of the pad footing is unaffected by the gravel, since the clay has @ depth of Tne times the footing breadth. The pile, being “end bearing,” can be of smaller diameter than before; in fact, TABLE 1.2 BEHAVIOR OF EXAMPLE OUNDATIONS ON CLAY OVER GRAVEL? 2 2 Example Pad footing __"End-bearng” Pe Factor of Safety 2 (cones stuength rovers) Percent Pad 100) Foiture on Shaft 1B taken by: Pile base 87 escent Pad 100 : working Shatt 3 Toad taken Pile base 6 by Settlements Immediate 4.1, 03° in at Percent immed. 565% 0 working resulting load from yield Consol Lin, ° Tonalvinal 5.3 05 in © See Fi. 12. Ehustic shortening of pile 8 column = 0.25 in Working Loads pee per 29, soft Clay yf cut OS ket Ey +100 kst . £6 00 ket a ¥s03 (1 Pos Foetng (0)"Era Bearing FIGURE 1.2 Example 2. Foundations on cay over eave itis the strength of the concrete of the pile which deter- imines its diameter, rather than soil properties. The settle- meat of the pile is now even smaller, as would be expected, although still greater than the straight column compression, It is interesting to note that although the pile is classified as “end-bearing,” a third of the load is in fact taken by side shear on the shaft. For more slender piles, the pro- portion of the load taken by the shaft can be even higher. ‘The fact that “end-bearing” piles are far from 100 percent cend:bearing has been verified in the field in several instances, 1.43 Foundations subject to Rotation For the same vertical Iuad as in the previous examples, but also with a horizontal load and 4 moment applied, ‘a pad and pier are compared in the third example (Fig. 1.3), The results of calculations are given in Table 1.3, In order to carry even a relatively small moment, the pad footing has vad to be enlarged to an inordinate size, and in view of the movements and rotations at the working loads, it woulé unlikely to be considered a satisfactory solution, The Iength and diameter of the pier have been selected so that the factor of safety against failure resulting from the vertical load is the same as that against failure resulting from the horizontal load end moment.Working Losds 240 ws 340 Kips Fra ep tt 700 kip 81 hi 2) spe GENERAL PRINCIPLES 5 ‘TABLE 1.3 BEHAVIOR OF EXAMPLE FOUNDATIONS SUBJECT To ROTATION 3 3b i Example Pad Footing Single Pier c J Factor of Safety 2 2 a | Sauare Settlement Mnmediate 27a Lin | Consol. asin, 0.2% fe) Pad Fasting {rea Touafieal —_3.3in Lin Soft cloy 50 Horizontal Immediate 14 in 08 pera i Gisplacement Consol o3in A2in | Total final 17m Lin es eh Per ET 6 80 kst Rotation Immediate 0.45" os" virag Consol og oot" Tota final 055° 0.20" FIGURE 13 Foundations subject to tation Percent immediate movement 56% o resulting From loca yield see Fig.EFFECTS OF INSTALLATION OF PILES 2.1 INTRODUCTION Piles may be classified in a number of ways, the common methods being (@) By the material of which they are formed. (b) By the method of installation. ‘The commonly used materials for piles are concrete, steel, and timber; discussions on the relative practical merits of cach type of pile for various applications mey be found in many references, for example, Chellis (1962), Tomlinson (1975), Bowles (1977), and Whitaker (2970). In terms of installation method, piles may be classified as (2) Deiven piles, (b) Bored or castin-situ piles, (c) Driven and castinsitu piles (a) Screw pites, Detailed descrivsions of these methods and equipment used in installation may also be found in the above four references. ‘The method of installation of a pile may have @ pro- found effects on its behavior under load. It may also determine the severity of effect on nearby structures, including undesirable movements, vibrations, or even structural damage, Much of the available data on installa- tion effects is concerned with driven piles, since pile driving gererally creates more disturbance than other methods, Relatively little is known of the effects of constructing bored piles In this chapter, the effects of pile driving in clays are examined, with particular emphasis on the pore pressures developed around the pile and the resulting influence on the surrounding soil Piles driven into sand are then con: sidered, and finally, a brief review, largely qualitative, of the effects of installing bored piles is given It should be emphasized that this chapter is concerned with the extent to which installation changes the proper- ties of the goil surrounding piles from those existing prior to installation, which are presumably determinable by normal methods of site investigation, sampling, and labora- tory or insitu testing, Furthermore, it is concerned with the manner in which such changes, at least with clays, ‘may subsequently become modified the longer the loading of the installed pile is delayed, The change in bearing capacity of a loaded pile as a clay consolidates under the stresses produced by the load on the pile is not dealt with here, but is considered in Chapter 3, It is important to maintain a clear distinction between these two matters2.2 EFFECTS OF PILE DRIVING IN CLAYS ‘The effects of pile driving in clays have been classified into four major categories by de Mello (1969) (@) Remolding or partial structural alteration of the soil surrounding the pile. (©) Alteration of the stress state in the soil in'the vicinity of the pile (©) Dissipation of the excess pore pressures developed around the pie. (@ Long-term phenomena of strength-regain in the sol, Some data is available on al the above effects, although the state of knowledge, particularly in relation to (d), is gener- ally limited, 2.2.1 Influence on Soil Shear Strength and Pile Capacity Early investigations into the effects of pile driving on the properties of clays were made by Housel and Burkey (1948) and Cummings, Kerkhoff, and Peck (1950). Based fon the evidence from load tests to failure carried out on piles at different times after theic installation, it can be inferred that the undrained strength of a clay is initially decreased considerably because of driving, but that signif- icant regain of strength occurs with elapsed time between driving and pile testing. Generally, it may be expected that the driving of piles into clay will initially cause some (or even considerable) loss in undrained strength of the clay because of remolding at constant water content. Subse quently, the strength will usually increase because of a combination of two factors: thixotropic regain of ‘un- drained strength as the structural bonds destroyed by remolding are at least partially restored. and increase resulting from local consolidation of the clay produced by dissipation of excess pore-water pressures that arise from the increase in stress in the soil surrounding the pile. Conceivably, there would be situations in which the consolidation was negative (Le., a swelling with time), thus producing a weakening in addition to that caused by remolding—for example, for stiff, overconsolidated clays, Although investigations into the extent of the dis- turbance around a pile caused by driving have produced somewhat conflicting results, the available evidence (de Mello, 1969) suggests that immediately after driving, the amount of remolding decreased from about 100% at the pilesoil interface to virtually zero at about 1.5 to 2.0 iameters from the pile surface, Investigations by Orrje and Broms (1967) of concrete piles in a sensitive clay EFFECTS OF INSTALLATION OF PILES 7 of. 77 bx Howe! Io uton Gu £60 gs ang 20 ia sa 100 se 4 5 0 100 «1000 FIGURE 2.41 Increase: of load pacity with time (Soderberg, 1962) showed that the undrained strength had almost returned to its original value after nine months, except when piles were spaced at less than about 4.0 diameters, in which case little strength-cegain (and in some cases a further loss) was noted with time. Other than for thixotropic regain, the rate of increase of soil strength subsequent to pile driving is reluted to the rate of dissipation of excess pore pressure. Data presented by Soderberg (1962) showed that the increase in ultimate load capacity of « pile (and hence, shear strength of the soil) was very similar in character to the rate of dissipation of excess pore pressure with time (see Fig. 2.1). Some estimate of the “setup” time m.y be obtained from a knowledge of the excess pore pressures developed around the pile, and the rate of dissipation of these pore pressures. 2.2.2 Pore Pressures Developed during Driving A number of measurements of the excess pore pressure developed in a soil because of pile driving have been made; forexample, Bjerrum et al.(1988), Bjerrum and Johannessen (1960), Milligan et al. (1962), Lambe. and Hom (1965), Lo and Stermac (1965), Orge and Broms (1967), Hanna (1967), Koizumi and Ito (1967), D’Appolonia and Lambe (1971). Results of measurements of pore pressure at the pile face in many of these papers have revealed that the excess pore pressures may become equal to or even greater than the effective overburden stress. However, the induced excess pore pressures decrease rapidly with distance from the pile and generally dissipate very rapidly A summary of some measurements of the variation with radial distance of the excess pore pressures around a single driven pile are given in Fig. 2.2. The excess pore pressure ‘hu is expressed dimensionlessly 28 Au/o'yo, where o'yo is the vertical effective stess in-situ prior to’ diving, while5 EFFECTS OF INSTALLATION OF PILES Lage © wnacebue (Lo ana termae 198) 18 Short ivr (La and Sermae 1086) 1 nb River (Lo aa Stermos, 13651129 f pan fas ber (Lo ana Stem, 1965197 deh there Clay (Bjrrom and Johannsen, '9601-17 5 apm) 1b Movie ley (jem and Jotonnesen, 1980-170. deh 19 Farm in fara 9691-160 doth) Berton Blum iy (D'Apsotoni ara Lambe 1970) 1 Vawved Clay fSoderronandfeligen 1961-120 dosh) 'F Vareed Gly (Soden and tin, 1961-125 f depth 1 Vaved Clay (Stem sea Reign, 138/130 Fe ep etsy FIGURE 22 Summary of measured pore pressures the radial distance r from the pile is expressed in terms of the pile radius a There is a considerable scatter in the points in this figure resulting largely from differences in soil type, the larger pore pressures being associated with the more sensitive sols. In the viein'ty of the pile, very high excess pore pres- sures are deveioped, in some cases approaching 1.5 to 2.0 times the in-situ vertical effective stress. Data presented by Aithart et al, (1969) suggests that near the pile tip, even greater pore pressures may be developed, amounting to 3 t0 4 times the insitu vertical effective stress. Beyond 7/a of about 4 for normal clays, and about 8 for sensitive clays, a rapid decrease in pore pressure with distance ocauts, and beyond [a = 30 the excess pore pressures are virtually negtiible. ‘A further consequence vf the development of pore pressures around a pile during driving has been reported by Fellenius and Broms (1969), who found thet sir icant negative frietion and downdrag forces were induced in a pile because of reconsolidation of the soil around the pile, This aspect is discussed further in Chapter 11 Estimation of Pore Pressures ‘A. umber of methods have been developed to predict, the excessporespressure distribution around a driven pile, For cases in which it is sufficient to estimate only the maximum pore pressure developed near the pile surface, Lo and Stermac (1965) derived an expression from the ‘consideration of failure of a radial zone of soil around the pile. D'Appolonia and Lambe (1971) derived an alternative form of Lo and Stermac’s equation, namely, en where uly, = maximum excess pore pressure K," = insite coefficient of earth pressre at ost u_= undead shear strength Ay ~ porepressure coefficient A at fallure Che inital vertical effective stres in soi Comparisons, seported by Lo and Stermac (1968) and, Lo (1968), between measured pore pressures and those calculated from Eq. (2.1), showed generally good agree- ment, Within the failure zone of the soil surrounding the pile, the pore pressures were a maximum and constant, and driving of adjacent piles only increased the pore pres- sure slightly, Outside the failure zone, the pore pressure decreased rapidly with distance and was negligible at a radial distance of about 16 diameters from the pile (see Fig. 2.2). Driving of adjacent piles developed pore pressures in this outer zone that added up directly until the m: ‘mum value was reached, Thus, the maximum pore pressures induced by driving a number of piles in a pile foundation may be predicted simply as the value of Auzq, from equa- tion (2.1). The data presented by Lo and Stermac (1965) suggests & radius of the failure zone of about 4-pile radii, Which is consistent with the extent of remolding around the pile, discussed in the previous section. ‘Theoretical methods of estimating the distribution of excess pore pressure with distance from the pile have been developed by Nishida (1962) and Ladanyi (1963). The former method is based on an elastoplastic analysis, while the latter is an adaption of the theory of expansion of a cylindrical cavity in a mass for use with the measured undrained stress-strain behavior of a soil. Although the latter method is versatile and relates to real soil behavior, it requires considerable computation. Furthermore, it relies fon the details of laboratory stress-strain curve, the accuracy ‘of which is liable to be affected by such factors as sampling disturbance and the inital stress sondition of the sample, |AS a rapid, practical means of estimating the excess. pore-pressure distribution, the following procedure is suggested:(@) The Lo and Stermac expression (Eq. 2.1) is used to ‘obtain the maximum pore pressure Au, from the face Of the pile to a distance R from the face. On the basis of Fig. 22 and also the analysis of Nishida (1962), R varies from 24 to 4a for insensitive clays, to 8¢ for sensitive clays. (b) Beyond the distance R, the excess pore pressure is ‘assumed to vary inversely as the square of the distance r from the pie, that is, su = ain (2) @2) ‘The inverse variation is predicted from clastic theory, as.utilized by Ladanyi (1963) and Nishida (1962). (©) For pile groups, the pore pressure distributions around Individual piles may be superposed, except that the pore pressure cannot exceed Au, as found by Lo and Stermac (1965). The excess pore pressures around 2 pile in sensitive clay as calculated by the above procedure, agree well with the average observed curve in Fig, 2.2. 2.2.3 Dissipation of Excess Pore Pressures A relatively simple solution for the rate of dissipation of excess pore pressures around a driven pile has been pro- posed by Soderberg (1962a). {tis assumed that dissipation ‘occurs radially only, the vertical dissipation that may occur EFFECTS OF INSTALLATION OF PILES 9 near the top and tip of the pile being ignored. The relevant equation of consolidation is then gol OG) co) ch is the two-dimensional coefficient of consolidation for horizontal drainage u_ isexcess pore pressure ‘The above equation may readily be written in finite difference form (€., #¢¢ Gibson and Lumb, 1953), and solved for.the appropriate drainage condition at the pile and initial pore-pressure distribution, Solutions for the excess pore-pressure dissipation at the pile face, for an impermeable ple, were obtained by Soderberg, who found that the form of the intial pore.pressure disttbution had «relatively small influence on this solution. ‘A reasonable measure of the rate of strength or adhe- sion-regan after driving appears to be to consider the rate of consolidation within a limited area inthe vicinity of the pile, Such solutions are shown in Fig. 2.3, assuming an initial excess pore-pressure distribution as suggested in Section 2.2.2 and a faluze zone having ratios of radius R to pile radiusa of 3 and 5. The degree of consolidation within a radius °F is shown for both a permeable and an impermeable pile tis interesting to compate these theoretical solutions with an empirical relationship suggested by Radugin (1969). oe 100 1900 o2t So taiure \ zone a) e/ 304 - osrek as o6| g oe Fl to FIGURE, 2.3 Theoretical solitons fot rate of consolidation near 2 driven pile.10 EFFECTS OF INSTALLATION OF PILES 0 200 02 aa Pecan a=6in) 7 os Degree of consnidation Op Rate of Adhesion Increase vl Empirical curve (Rewagin, 1569) FIGURE 2.4 Comparison between empirical and theoretical solutions for Assuming R/a = 5, cn = 0.04 sq in/min (typical of a medium clay), and 2 permeable concrete pile of Gin. radius, Fig. 2.4 compares the theoretical degree of consoll- dation versus time curve and Radugin’s empirical curve, assuming the rate of consolidation is the same as the rate (of adhesion increase in Radugin’s relationship. There is some difference between the shape of the curves, but they are generally in sufficient agreement to suggest that the simple consolidation analysis provides 3 reasonable ‘estimate of the rate of increase of load capacity. From a practical point of view, solutions such as those in Fig, 2,3 ae of most use in giving an estimate of the time that should elapse after driving before a load testis carried out, if a reliable estimate of the ultimate undrained load capacity and Joad-settlerment behavior is to be obtained, 'A more rigorous analysis of the stress changes, excess pore pressures, and subsequent consolidation around a driven pile in clay has been presented by Wroth et al (1979). The pile-driving process is modeled 8 the creation of a Jong cylindrical cavity by radial soil movement. Values of stress and pore-pressure change have been obtained using 2 finite-element analysis incorporating a work- ‘hardening soil model (the Cam-clay model). It is concluded that the total and effective stresses adjacent to the pile just after driving may be related directly to the original undrained strength of the soil, and are essentially indepen, dent of the overconsolidation ratio: The final stress state after consolidation is similar to that in an oedometer (Ko) test, except that the radial stress is now the major principal stress. tof adhesion increase. 2.24 Displacement Caused by Drivi Pile driving generally causes a heave of the clay surrounding the pile, followed by consolidation of the clay. This move- ment caused by pile driving may have a significant effect fon adjacent structures and may also cause the piles driven eailige in a multiplepile installation to rise during the siving of the lates piles. Under these circumstances, redriving of the earlier piles is often considered necessary, ‘or may Jead to a decision to use bored rather than driven, piles. The limited data available on the magnitude of the heave is rather conflicting, although much of the conflict may arise from differences in soil types in the various investigations. The ratio of the (otal volume of initial heave 10 the total volume of driven piles within a founda- tion has been found to be about 100% by Adams and Hanne (19703 for steel H-piles in a firm till, $0% for piles in clay by Hagerty and Peck (1971), 60% by Avery and Wilson (1950), and 30% by Orie and Broms (1967) for precast concrete piles in a soft, sensitive, silty clay. The Iatter investigators found that the heave near the edge of the foundation was about 40% of the value at the center Outside the edge of the group, only very small heaves ‘were noted by Adams and Hanna, and Orrje and Broms. ‘Adams and Hanna measured radial and tangential move- ‘ments as well as vertical heave, and found that the maxi mum radial movement was about 15 in., and the maximum tangential displacement about 0.4 in.-both these values being considerably less than the average vertical heave ofabout 4.5 in, As with vertical heave, very small lateral movements occurred beyond the edge of the group. Measurements of the-movement of an existing building 4s a result of driving of plles for the foundations of @ new building were reported by Lambe and Horn (1965). It was found that, at the near corners of the existing building, a heave of about 0.3 in. occurred during driving, but that by the end of construction, a net settlement of about 0.35 in. had occurred. Despite the fact that the piles were preaugered to within about 30 ft of their final ‘elevation, high excess pore-pressures (maximum of about 40 {t of water) were measured near the comer of the existing building, even before a substantial building load was carried by the ples Figure 2.5 shows some measurements of heave and settlement of buildings caused by pile driving, 2s reported by D’Appolonia and Lambe (1971). The settlement data plotted are for net settlement one to three years after the end of construction. Larger movements than those me sured by Lambe and Horn were found, although the piles ‘were again preaugered to within 20 to 30 ft of the final tip elevation. From measurements of displacements resulting from pile driving in clays, Hagerty and Peck (1971) concluded that the soil displacements are less for piles driven in EFFECTS OF INSTALLATION OF PILES. 11 sensitive clays than for corresponding piles in insensitive clays, and that when piles penetrate alternating strata of fine-grained soil and granular materials, the observed surfacesheave may be much less than that which would hhave occurred in insensitive clay soils. It was also found that if the sequence of pile driving involved driving piles first along the perimeter of the foundation, the heave of the soil surface in the central area of the foundation is increased and that of the surrounding area correspondingly decreased. Observations also were made of lateral move- ments, and it was found that driven piles tended to be displaced away from subsequent driving, with movements continuing for a considerable length of time after com: pletion of driving. Where large differences in elevation existed within the foundation area, pile driving often displaced the soil preferentially toward the areas in which the lower elevations occurred. Estimation of Displacements Lambe and Horn (1965) proposed method of estimating the heave and subsequent sectlemest of the surface of soil neat a pile resulting from driving of the pile. Although the method was found to predict movements considerably larger than those measured, it appears to be a logical pro: cedure and worthy of further application. The method Distance trom Neorest Pile Cop (Ht) 0 0 % aa) yoos * | elma lice oh lhe de 5 Sages geese ce eo : | : Senatatemerie sn Hl tt i mo) ei ow asi | Z € 008s | Relrigaranen 045 | i FIGURE 2.5 Moversens of nearby buildings caused by Pledriving operations (D'Appolonia ané Lambe, 1971).12 EEFECTS OF INSTALLATION OF PILES ettectn EE Sn (aise a step Deposit formation Steps tay Undroinad.loodng and consolation ° ‘doef usd’ 8s gopuesnel step 2 Pie deovng_ suiotion Step 3 Dissipation suosequent to. drivng FIGURE 246 Test proveduee for displacement ealelation (Lambe and How. 1968) (© Canada, 1965 by Univesity of Toronto Press.) Js based on the stiess-path approach advocated by Lambe (1964). It consists of estimating the effective stress-path for an “aversge” element in the compressible soi layer, running a laboratory test on a sample of this sol such that the loading folloxs the stess path estimated for the field element, and using the laboratory-measured value of vertical stain to estimate the building heave and settle- sent. There are essentially three steps in the procedure, ‘which is shown diagrammatically in Fig, 2.6 1. Consolidation of the sample (usually under K, con: ditions) 10 the in-situ stresses in the layer prior to pile ziving, Where the clement under consideration is beneath fan existing building, as it was in the case described by Lambe and Horn, this first stage imolves simulation of the lundrained loading caused by constrection of the building followed by consolidation, after initial K, consolidation ‘of the element to the field stress state. 2. Increasing the total lateral stress at constant total vertical stress until the pore pressure in the element equals that measured by the field piezometers or that calculated fon the basis of Section 2.2.2. The vertical strin measured | paction around the pies was studied by means of radio- raphy techniques, 1t was found that in an initially very loose sand (telative density D, = 17%), soil movement extended 3 t04 pile diameters from the side ofthe pie and 2.5 (0 3.5 diameters below the ple tip. In a medium dense | + 6 03040 Varta! sine FIGURE 2.8 Displacements atound driven pile in sand (after Robinsky and Morzison, 1964). (Reproduced by peemisson of the National Research Council of Canada from the Canadian Geo- technical Journal, Vol. 1, 1968, p. 81.) FIGURE 2.9 Stains around deivon ple in sand (after Robinsky and Morrizon, 1968), (Reproduced by permission of the National Reseach Council of Canada from the Canadian Geotechnical Jour nal, Vol. 1, 1964, p. 81.)14 EFFECTS OF INSTALLATION OF PILES. Observey Rests: Estimated Rosusargie of treten &* O ‘Mopr perce! stress rot = =O Test Nom,Woreaster, Mass Penetration Resstance 0 FIGURE 2,39 Obseccd vs. computed compaction of sand near pile (after Meyerhof, 1959). around a pile driven in sand; atypical result compared with observitions is shown’ in Fig, 2.10. These results are in broad agreement with those of Rebinsky and Morrison (1964), but according to Meyethof, the amount of com- paction near the tip is greater, and that near the top of the shaft is less ‘A simpler method of estimating the effects of driving ‘pile in loose sand in the vicinity of the tip is that pro- posed by Kishida (1967). On the basis of field and mode! test-esults, he assumes that the diameter ofthe compacted zone around a pile is 7. Within this zone, he further assumes that the angle of friction ¢! changes linearly with distance from the original value of 6 at a radius r = 3.50 to a maximum value of ¢3 at the pile tip, as shown in Fig. 21 ‘The relationship between 6," and gs" is taken to be y= Hit 40" . 2 6) FIGURE 144 Etlect of diving on ¢ (Kishi, 1967), When ¢, = 40° in Eq, (2.6), there is no change in relative density dye to pile driving. 232 Pite Groups When groups of piles are driven into a loose sand, the soil around and between the piles becomes highly compacted, and if the ple spacing is sufficiently close (less than about Sx daniel), the ultimate load capacity of the group may be greater than the sum of the capacities of the indi vidual piles—that is, the efficiency of the group is greater than 1. On the other hand, if the sand is so dense that pile driving causes loosening rather than compaction, the group efficiency may be less than 1 ‘An estimate of the effects of driving a gsoup of piles into loose sand may be made by application of the approach suggested by Kishida (1967) for single piles, assuming that superposition of the effects of single piles is applicable. tn applying Eq. (2.6) the value of @ is the changed value caused by previous piles. By application of this approach, a rough estimate may be made of the effect on ultimate load capacity of the order of installation of the piles. It has been found in practice that piles driven later have a great Woad capacity than those driven earlier. Some field measurements of the amount of compc- tion caused by the driving of a group in a granular sol, in which standard penetration tests have been cattied out before and after driving of groups have been reported by Philcox (1962). The (est results ate shown in Fig. 2.12. In case (2), the standard penetration number, WV, neat the center of a foursile group, was more than doubled by driving. In case (b), the inetease in N for a point a little away from the center ofa ninepile group shows a relatively smaller increase (average about. 75%). Cases (6) and (4) show that the increase in NV becomes less as the point considered becomes moro distant from the center of the g10up. Another point apparent ftom Figs, 2.12 and 2.12¢ is that the effeet on driving on N, and hence on soil density, is greater below the tip than along the shaft, Im order to gelate the increase in 1V to the increase in 9, Kishida (1967) suggests that # and NV may be related by the following expression: = JRO 1s" en ‘The differences between the degree of densification at various points within a group, as shown in Fig, 2.12, suggest that the load capacity of piles near the center of the group may be greater than those eas the edge of the group, and that the load distribution, even at working, loads, may be-nonuniform, with lanjer loads being carried by the center piles-as predicted by Kishida’s approach.EEFECTS OF INSTALLATION OF PILES 13, ow mw | eo T i : Fed : z Fase oe a Tas seen Toit Siem Tao) Fen secan TAO™ 307 meri antl ave. Rowan Kerberiey Rd austin dag RoW FIGURE 2.12 A comparison of W Values before and after diving piles Phi Structural Engineers, London.) 1962), (Reproduced by permission of the Institution of ‘This behavior, which is in contrast to that usually doverved the soil. The adhesion has been found to be less than the for groups in clay, has been observed in tests carried out by _undrained cohesion before installation, mainly ‘iecause of Hanna (1963) and Beredugo (1566). As suggested by softening, of the clay immediately adjacent te the soil Kishida (1967), the effects of differing compaction may surface. This softening may arise from three causes: also explain the dependence of pileoad distribution on the order of driving piles in sand (@) “Absorption of moisture from the wet concrete (©) Migration of the water ftom the boty of the clay toward the less highly stressed zone around the borehole. edeencne Oc uer atin BOREL Eee (©) Water poured into the boring to facilitate operation 24.1 Clay Soils of the cutting too. ‘The effects of installing bored piles in clay have been stud- Factor (¢) may be eliminated by good drilling technique, ied largely in relation to the adhesion between the pile and and (b) can be minimized by carrying out the drilling and16. EFFECTS OF INSTALLATION OF PILES +0000 000 cox S000 coo é Bae 1000 Feadgton 00 Reva Green Erber soo Fry soa Sauna i Veta Gateay st Sta a a FIGURE 2.13 Relation between shear strength and wa concreting operations as rapidly as possible. Some effects from factors (2) and (b) are considered to be inevitable by ‘Skempton (1959), but their seriousness will depend largely ton the technique employed, whether or not casing or ‘driling fluid is used to support the walls during construc- tion, and the time taken for construction of the pile Palmer and Holland (1966) contend that softening in ver- consolidated London clay is minimized if drilling and con- creting is cartied out within one or two hours. Meyethof and Murdock (1953) measured the water contents of the clay immediately adjacent to the shaft of| a bored pile in London clay and found an increase of nearly 4% at the cantact surface, although at a distance of 3 in, from the shaft, the water contents had not altered. ‘This inerease should be a maximum value, as the hole was drilled by hand and took two to three days to complete ‘An estimate of the effect of the increase in water content ‘ean be made if information is available on the relation between shear strength and water content. Such a relation- ship for London clay has been presented by Skempton (1959) and is reproduced in Fig, 2.13. These results show that an increase in water content of only 1% results in a 20% change in the ratio eafcy, of undrained adhesion q t0 ofiginal undrained strength cy, while fora 4% increase jn, water content, ca/ey is reduced to about 0.3. Values of Caley for bored piles are discussed in detail in Section 32. mF aa ater content, 5 ‘content for London cay (L3quié Limit, 70-85} (Skempton, 1958). {A further effect of installing bored pile is that the clay just beneath the pile base may be disturbed and softened by the action of the boring tools. The effects of this distuxbance may result in increased settlements, espe- cially for belled piers, in which the base caries a major proportion of the load; hence, it is important to clean out the base thoroughly. However, as stated by Skempton (1959), base disturbance and softening should have a negligible effect on the ultimate bearing capacity of the base becasse of the comparatively large mass of clay involved when the base penetrates the clay. In contrast, the shearing process developed in the clay along the pile shaft is probably restricted to the narrow softened zone. Construction problems may also arise with bored piles, and a number of these have been described by Pandey (1967) in relation to the foundations for a heavy industrial building, including the Following (a) Caving of the boretiole, resulting in necking or misalign. rant of the pile. (b) Aggregate separation within the pile. (©) Buckling of the pile reinforcement, Such structural defects may be difficult to detect, since a load test may not reveal any abnormal behavior, especially if the load is only taken to the design load. Barker and Reese (1970) investigated the influence of | drilling fluids on the performance of bored piers. They