Industrial Instrumentation Module - 1

Industrial
Instrumentation
Lecture 1
Measurement of Temperature
Module-1
Definitions and standards calibration Thermal expansion methods, Bimetallic,

Liquid-in-glass, Pressure thermometers. Thermocouples-Law of
thermocouple–Common thermocouples–Reference junction considerations–
measuring circuits, thermopiles. RTDs – RTD materials– 3 lead and 4 lead
RTDs – Junction semiconductor sensors – Digital thermometers. Radiation
thermometry– radiation fundamentals – total radiation type– optical
pyrometer – Ratiometric type. Quartz crystal thermometer.
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Definitions and Standards
Temperature is a measure of stored or

potential energy in a mass of matter. It
is the state of agitation, both lateral and
rotational oscillation, of the molecules of
the medium

Heat is thermal energy. The quantity of

heat in a body is proportional to the
temperature
The heat capacity multiplied by its
absolute temperature.
Heat is measured in joules. One calorie
is approximately 4.2 joules

Heat capacity, or more usually the specific heat, of a

substance is the amount of heat which, when
absorbed by 1 kg of that substance, will raise its
temperature by 1◦C
Pressure ,flow ,level etc are calibrated in terms of
Mass ,Length and Time
Temperature is not independently definable
PV=nRT

Accuracy The difference between a
measurement reading and the true value of that
measurement
Calibration The comparison of a device with

unknown accuracy, to a device with a known,
accurate standard to eliminate any variation in
the device being checked

Precision is the resolution with which a

measurement may be made
Repeatability is the difference between

successive measurements of the same quantity
Sensitivity The smallest change in a

measurement that an instrument is capable of
detecting
Techniques
Longitudinal change – solids
Volume change – liquids at constant P
Pressure change – gas at constant V
Resistance change – Conductors, Semiconductors
Thermocouple ( dissimilar metals)
Change in magnetic properties
Frequency change – Crystal Oscillators
Velocity change – SAW
Optical radiations at high temperatures
Performance specifications
Technique Range (◦C) Scale
Solid Expansion -150 to 500 Nonlinear
Liquid Expansion -125 to 500 Linear
Gas and Vapour pressure -120 to 450 Nonlinear
Resistance -200 to 700 Approx. linear
Thermistor -50 to 300 Nonlinear
Thermocouple -150 to 1500 Approx. linear
Optical/Radiation 700 to 3000 Nonlinear

Solid expansion type
Solids tend to expand when heated
Depends on size, material and
Temperature
l = l 0 (1 + α∆T)
l = length after heating

l 0 = Original length
α = Coefficient of linear expansion
∆T = Change in Temperature
Coefficient of linear expansion α

Bi Metallic Strip
Coefficient of linear expansion α is too

small
To amplify, bond two dissimilar metals
together

Bi Metallic Strip

Bi Metallic Strip
Usually radius ρ is large and the
deflection of the tip is small
If the difference of the coefficients are
large, the deflection can be increased
Materials with large differences in
coefficients are chosen
The deflection of the free tip is
proportional to temperature for small
deflections
Bi Metallic Strip
The linearity region is too limited
and depends on materials

Bi Metallic Strip
Spiral or helix shape gives larger
deflection
Reduction in thickness increases the
deflection further
Accuracy is fairly good
Repeatability is low
Poor frequency response

Bi Metallic Strip
Used mostly as
thermostats
Relays and cutouts
Temperature
compensation

Filled in Systems
Types Filled in Volumetric expansion

Class 1 Liquid (Volume) Liquid and gas
Class 2 Vapour (Pressure) thermometers
Class 3 Gas (Pressure) Rugged, cheap and
Class 4 N.A
very less
maintenance
Class 5 Mercury (Volume)
Good response

Liquid expansion type
Molecules in a fluid exerts large pressure on
the walls of the enclosing vessel, when
heated
By measuring this pressure, and/or by
allowing the fluid to expand under constant
pressure, the temperature of the fluid can
be measured
Self contained and self operated
Clinical thermometer
Accuracy and sensitivity
lower , limited range V2 = V1[1 + β(T2 − T1)]
Remote indication with
longer capillaries V 2 = Final Volume
(industrial type) V1 = Initial Volume
β = Coefficient of volumetric
expansion
T2 = Final Temperature
T1 = Initial Temperature

Pressure spring,
capillary and bulb
Change in volume
due to expansion
Pressure spring
expands

 n
j
Vt = Vi 1 + ∑ γ jt 
 j=1 
Vi = Volume at initial temp
Vt = Volume at final temp
γ j = Coefficient of volumetric
expansion
t j = Temp difference

Sl.No Liquid Range (◦C) Response
1 Mercury -40 to 650 Linear
2 Ethyl Alcohol -45 to 150 non linear
3 Xylene -40 to 400 non linear
4 Ether 20 to 90 non linear
5 Toluene -80 to 250 non linear
Mercury range is almost linear ( class V )

Bulb size, coefficients of expansions determines the
range
High Pressure filling improves the range
Gas expansion type
Constant volume
thermometer
Pressure developed
expands the
bourdon/bellows
Volume of the tube
connecting the sensing
bulb to the indicating
element must be
minimal
Gas expansion type
Since, bourdon tube expands substantially,
bulb volume is chosen 100 times larger than
capillary and bourdon element
Nitrogen gas is commonly used with a range
from -120 to 450 ◦C
At high temperatures, the gas may leak

Vapour pressure thermometer
Vapour pressure of the

liquid (Class II)
Vapour pressure is a
function of surface
temperature of the
liquid
Bulb must hold the
entire liquid at low
Wednesday, June 17, 2009
temp 26
At higher temperature, volume of the liquid
completely fills the entire system
Free surface of the liquid should be available, at
the lowest as well as highest temperature
Vapour pressure must be large through out the
range to operate the bourdon/bellows
Range is limited by the critical point of the lquid
( -25 to 250 ◦C )


The scale of the vapour pressure thermometer is
nonlinear and cramped at lower sides
Different liquids are used for different ranges



Errors in filled in systems
Ambient temperature effect : Change in ambient
temperature cause volume change
Head or elevation effects: Thermometer bulb placed at

different height w.r.t bourdon tube
Barometric effect: Error due to atmospheric pressure

change
Immersion effect: Error due to improper immersion
Radiation effect: Error due to temperature difference

Electrical type
Thermocouples
Resistance Temperature Devices

(RTDs)
Thermistors

Electrical type
Seebeck effect states that the voltage produced in a
thermocouple is proportional to the temperature
between the two junctions.
Peltier effect states that if a current flows through a
thermocouple one junction is heated and the other
junction is cooled.
Thompson effect states that when a current flows in a
conductor along which there is a temperature difference,
heat is produced or absorbed, depending upon the
direction of the current and the variation of
temperature.
Thermocouple
When two dissimilar metal wires are joined
together at one end, a voltage is produced at the
other end proportional to temperature

Thermocouple
Seebeck effect is bulk property
∆E
= α s ∆T
q
E
= Electrochemical potential
q
α s = Seebeck coefficient
∆T = Temperature difference
Thermocouple Types

Thermocouple Types

Laws of Thermocouple
Law of homogeneous
circuit: No current flows
in a circuit made of
single metal by applying
heat alone

Law of intermediate metals: If between any two points a
number of junctions appear but all at the same
temperature, emf between these two points is
independent of intermediate metals

Law of intermediate metals: If between any two points a
number of junctions appear but all at the same
temperature, emf between these two points is
independent of intermediate metals

Law of intermediate temperatures: EMF for a couple with junction

temperature T1 and T3 is the sum of two emfs of two couples of same metals
having junction temperature T1 and T2, and T2 and T3 respectively

Law of intermediate temperatures

Thermocouple
To find the
temperature at
J1, we must
know the
temperature at
J2.
To compensate
EMF due to J2, it
should be
maintained at
0oC.
Thermocouple

Thermocouple

Thermocouple
We haven’t changed
the output voltage
V. It is still

Thermocouple
This is a useful conclusion, as it completely eliminates the
need for the iron (Fe) wire in the LO lead:
V = α (TJ1 - TREF),
where α is the Seebeck
coefficient for an Fe-C
thermocouple.
Junctions J3 and J4, take the
place of the ice bath.
These two junctions now
become the Reference
Wednesday, June 17, 2009
Junction. 48
Thermocouple
Software Compensation:

Thermocouple

Thermopiles

Resistance Temperature
Detectors (RTD)
•A metallic resistance element changes its resistance

with temperature
•Pure elements have been used for measurement of
temperature by this effect
• The method is one of the most accurate ones
Detectors (RTD)
•The relation between resistance and temperature
change ∆t is, thus, expressed by,
•Where αj ‘s are temperature coefficients of resistance.

In the narrow ranges of operation αj ‘s are negligible,
then Rt is given by,

Detectors (RTD)
•The αj ‘s are positive for a metallic
resistance elements
• And is often determined experimentally
• Platinum with a range -190°to 660 °C

• Copper with a range -150°to 250 °C
• Nickel with a range 0°to 325°

Detectors (RTD)
The choice of the materials are governed by
•High temperature coefficient ( larger sensitivity)

•High resistivity of the material ( ensures small length of the wire
for a high resistance value )
•Linearity of resistance-temperature relation (adds to the
convenience in measurement )
•Stability of electrical characteristics of the material and
resistance to contamination (for good repeatability )
•Sufficient mechanical strength

Detectors (RTD)

Detectors (RTD)

Detectors (RTD)
•Resistance thermometers
are the most accurate of all
the temperature measuring
systems
• Accuracy of 0.0001 °C can
be obtained
•Very convenient for
measurement of a small
temperature difference
( compared to T.C )
•Bridge circuits are preferred
for the measurement of the
Wednesday, June 17, 2009 resistance 58
Lead Configurations of RTD
Probes
Lead configuration 1
• Provides one connection to each

end of the sensor
•This construction is suitable where

t he r e s i s t a nc e o f the r un o f lea d
wire may be considered as an
additive constant in the circuit, and
p a r t i c u la r ly wher e the chang es in
lead resistance due to ambient
temperature changes can be ignored.

Probes
• Provides one connection to one end and

two to the other end of the sensor
• Connected to an instrument designed to

accept three-wire input, compensation is
achieved for lead resistance and
temperature change in lead resistance
•This is the most commonly used

configuration.

Probes

Probes
• Provides two connections to

each end of the sensor. This
construction is used for
measurements of the highest
precision

Probes

Probes

Probes

Probes
• Separate pair of wires are

provided as a loop to provide
compensation for lead
resistance and ambient
temperature changes in lead
resistance

Probes

Thermistors
•Thermistors are a class of metal oxide (semiconductor material)
•High negative temperature coefficient of resistance (NTC)
•Can also be positive (PTC)
•Thermistors have high sensitivity ( 10% change /˚C )
•Most sensitive temperature elements available
•Very nonlinear characteristics
•Shapes various – disks, rods, beads….
•Size – small, Cost – low, Stability - high

Thermistors

Thermistors
•Main disadvantage of a thermistor is its nonlinear scale
•Compensation with a resistor parallel to the thermistor
•This reduces the sensitivity but increases the linearity

Thermistors
•Positive Temperature Coefficient thermistors (PTC) are mainly
used as protective elements in electric machinery
•Made from titanates of barium, lead and strontium

Semiconductor sensors
•Semiconductors have a number of parameters that vary linearly
with temperature
•Reference voltage of a zener diode or the junction voltage
variations
•Range from –50 to 150°C
• Very linear with accuracies of ±1°C
•Can be integrated onto the same dye
•High sensitivity, easy interfacing to control systems
•Rugged with good longevity and are inexpensive
•AD590,AD592,LM334,LM335,LM34,LM35
Semiconductor sensors

Digital Thermometers

Summary of Sensor
Characteristics

Radiation Thermometry
•When thermometers cannot be brought in contact with
the process
•Or when the hot bodies are moving
•Any mass above absolute zero temperature will emit
electromagnetic radiation
•Measure the energy, directly or by colour comparison
•Total radiation type
•Optical type
•Ratio metric type
Radiation Thermometry
•Stefan-Boltzman Law

Radiation Pyrometers


Optical type
•Monochromatic brightness radiation

pyrometer
•Range between 700 and 3000 °C
•The most accurate among the pyrometers

Optical type

Optical type

Ratiometric type
•Ratio thermometer
•Two radiation pyrometers in single housing
•Lens, detectors are shared by both
•O/p wavelengths are ratioed
•Relatively independent of target size

Quartz Crystal Thermometer
•Properly cut quartz crystal

•Resonant frequency linearly depend on Temp
•Oceanographic studies
•Measure small temp differences
•Frequency shift is small 1KHz/˚C at 10MHz
•Direct digital read out possible

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Industrial

Definitions and standards calibration Thermal expansion methods, Bimetallic,

Wednesday, June 17, 2009 2

Temperature is a measure of stored or

Wednesday, June 17, 2009 3

Heat is thermal energy. The quantity of

Wednesday, June 17, 2009 4

Heat capacity, or more usually the specific heat, of a

Wednesday, June 17, 2009 5

Calibration The comparison of a device with

Wednesday, June 17, 2009 6

Precision is the resolution with which a

Repeatability is the difference between

Sensitivity The smallest change in a

Technique Range (◦C) Scale

Solid Expansion -150 to 500 Nonlinear

Liquid Expansion -125 to 500 Linear

Gas and Vapour pressure -120 to 450 Nonlinear

Resistance -200 to 700 Approx. linear

Thermistor -50 to 300 Nonlinear

Thermocouple -150 to 1500 Approx. linear

Optical/Radiation 700 to 3000 Nonlinear

Wednesday, June 17, 2009 9

l = length after heating

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Coefficient of linear expansion α is too

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Types Filled in Volumetric expansion

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1 Mercury -40 to 650 Linear

2 Ethyl Alcohol -45 to 150 non linear

3 Xylene -40 to 400 non linear

4 Ether 20 to 90 non linear

5 Toluene -80 to 250 non linear

Mercury range is almost linear ( class V )

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Vapour pressure of the

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Head or elevation effects: Thermometer bulb placed at

Barometric effect: Error due to atmospheric pressure

Immersion effect: Error due to improper immersion

Radiation effect: Error due to temperature difference

Resistance Temperature Devices

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Law of intermediate temperatures: EMF for a couple with junction

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