Saudi Arabia

Saudi Arabia
Translated by
Prof. A. Homiedan
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INTRODUCTION : --------------------------------------------- ١١
ABSTRACT :-------------------------------------------------- ١٢
CHAPTER ONE: THE LAND ------------------------------------- ١٥
NATURE --------------------------------------------------------------- ١٥
THE GEOGRAPHY OF THE PLACE -------------------------------------- ١٥
The Red Sea ---------------------------------------------------------- ١٥
The Coastal Plain of the Red Sea (The Tihâma Plains) ----------------------- ١٦
The Tihâma Mountains ------------------------------------------------- ١٧
The Western Heights --------------------------------------------------- ١٧
CLIMATE ------------------------------------------------------------ ٢٦
THE ELEMENTS OF CLIMATE ---------------------------------------------- ٢٧
Solar Radiation ------------------------------------------------------- ٢٧
Temperature --------------------------------------------------------- ٢٧
The Winds ----------------------------------------------------------- ٢٩
Rain ----------------------------------------------------------------- ٢٩
Humidity ------------------------------------------------------------- ٣٠
Evaporation ---------------------------------------------------------- ٣٠
GEOLOGY ------------------------------------------------------------- ٣١
OIL ------------------------------------------------------------------ ٣٢
WATER RESOURCES----------------------------------------------------- ٣٣
THE MINERAL RESOURCES ----------------------------------------------- ٣٣
THE NATURAL HABITAT IN THE KINGDOM OF SAUDI ARABIA------------------- ٣٦
MAMMALS ------------------------------------------------------------ ٣٨
Sea Mammals --------------------------------------------------------- ٣٩
WHALES AND DOLPHINS (CETACEA) --------------------------------------- ٣٩

FISH ----------------------------------------------------------------- ٤٠
BIRDS IN THE KINGDOM ------------------------------------------------- ٤١
Birds of Prey --------------------------------------------------------- ٤٢
Vultures ------------------------------------------------------------- ٤٢
Eagles --------------------------------------------------------------- ٤٣
Falcons -------------------------------------------------------------- ٤٣

Coastal birds --------------------------------------------------------- ٤٤
Wading Birds --------------------------------------------------------- ٤٤
Stock Doves and Pigeons ------------------------------------------------ ٤٥
Ducks and Geese ------------------------------------------------------ ٤٥
Sea Birds ------------------------------------------------------------- ٤٦
Other Birds----------------------------------------------------------- ٤٦
REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS ---------------------------------------------- ٤٧
Serpents ------------------------------------------------------------- ٤٧
Turtles and Tortoises--------------------------------------------------- ٥٠
CAMELS ------------------------------------------------------------- ٥١
PLANTS ------------------------------------------------------------- ٥٨
Environmental Factors Affecting the Growth and Distribution of Plants -------- ٥٩
PLANT ENVIRONMENTS: -------------------------------------------- ٦٥
SOCIAL SCIENCES -------------------------------------------------------- ٦٨
POPULATION ---------------------------------------------------------- ٦٨
Specifications and Distributions ------------------------------------------ ٦٨
HISTORY ------------------------------------------------------------ ٧٦
Introduction: --------------------------------------------------------- ٧٦
Special Education ----------------------------------------------------- ٩٠
Illiteracy and Adult Education ------------------------------------------- ٩١
Higher Education------------------------------------------------------ ٩٢
Technical Education and Vocational Training ------------------------------ ٩٧
Other Kinds of Education ----------------------------------------------- ٩٨
CULTURAL MOVEMENT -------------------------------------------------- ٩٩
Cultural organizations: ------------------------------------------------ ١٠٠
Seasonal Activities ---------------------------------------------------- ١٠٣
Literary and Cultural Prizes: ------------------------------------------- ١٠٤
King Faisal Charitable Foundation -------------------------------------- ١٠٤
Developments in Organization, Authentication, and Preservation ------------- ١٠٥
The King Fahad National Library --------------------------------------- ١٠٥
The Printing of the Holy Qur’an ---------------------------------------- ١٠٦
Cultural Information -------------------------------------------------- ١٠٧
ARCHAEOLOGY ------------------------------------------------------- ١٠٩
THE FINE ARTS ------------------------------------------------------- ١١٩

The Local Heritage --------------------------------------------------- ١٢٠
The Arab Heritage ---------------------------------------------------- ١٢٠
The Islamic Heritage -------------------------------------------------- ١٢١
General Humanitarian Subjects and Issues ------------------------------- ١٢١
INFORMATION -------------------------------------------------------- ١٢٤
Historical background ------------------------------------------------- ١٢٥
TOURISM ------------------------------------------------------------ ١٣١
HUNTING ------------------------------------------------------------ ١٣٦
HORSEMANSHIP ------------------------------------------------------- ١٤٠
JANADRIYA ---------------------------------------------------------- ١٤٣
KING ABDULAZIZ CITY FOR SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY (KACST) -------------- ١٤٥
WOMEN ------------------------------------------------------------ ١٤٧
Women in the Islamic Era --------------------------------------------- ١٤٧
Women in the Arabian Peninsula during the Modern Era ------------------- ١٤٨
Women's Education--------------------------------------------------- ١٤٩
Working Women ----------------------------------------------------- ١٥٢
Clothes ------------------------------------------------------------- ١٥٤
Marriage Customs ---------------------------------------------------- ١٦٥
Women’s Charitable Societies ------------------------------------------ ١٧٠
Health Services ------------------------------------------------------- ١٧١
SOCIAL SERVICES -------------------------------------------------- ١٧٤
SPORTS ------------------------------------------------------------ ١٨١
General Objectives: --------------------------------------------------- ١٨١
The Sports Unions and Associations:------------------------------------- ١٨٢
International Sports Participation: -------------------------------------- ١٨٢
CHAPTER ٣: THE CIVILIZATION ------------------------------- ١٨٦

THE HOLY PLACES ------------------------------------------------------١٨٦
THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE HOLY KA‘BA ---------------------------------- ١٨٧
MAKKAH, UMM AL-QURÂ ----------------------------------------------- ١٨٧

ABRAHAM'S SEAT ----------------------------------------------------- ١٨٨
THE ZAMZAM WELL --------------------------------------------------- ١٨٩
THE BLACK STONE ---------------------------------------------------- ١٩٠
THE ANCIENT ISLAMIC MONUMENTS IN MAKKAH ---------------------------- ١٩٠

The Home of the Prophet (PBUH) --------------------------------------- ١٩٠
Al-Arkam al-Makzumî's Home ----------------------------------------- ١٩٠
The Hujra Home ----------------------------------------------------- ١٩٠
Abû Sufyân's Home --------------------------------------------------- ١٩١
Dar al-Nadwa -------------------------------------------------------- ١٩١
Hirâ ‘Mountain: ----------------------------------------------------- ١٩١
Nûr Mountain ------------------------------------------------------- ١٩٢
Thûr Mountain ------------------------------------------------------ ١٩٢
Mina Valley --------------------------------------------------------- ١٩٢
Arafat -------------------------------------------------------------- ١٩٢
Al-Tana‘um: -------------------------------------------------------- ١٩٣
Al-Ju‘rânî ----------------------------------------------------------- ١٩٣

Al-Hudaibiya -------------------------------------------------------- ١٩٣
Mahsir Valley -------------------------------------------------------- ١٩٣
The Ka‘ba Covering -------------------------------------------------- ١٩٣
The Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques, King Fahad Ibn Abdulaziz,
Expansion of the Holy Mosque in Makkah. ------------------------------- ١٩٥
The First Expansion of the Holy Mosque --------------------------------- ١٩٥
The King Fahad ibn Abdulaziz Project for Construction and Expansion
of the Two Holy Mosques ---------------------------------------------- ١٩٥
URBANIZATION -------------------------------------------------------١٩٩
ARCHITECTURE----------------------------------------------------- ١٩٩
Traditional Architecture of the Najd Region ------------------------------ ١٩٩
Traditional Architecture of the Western Region --------------------------- ٢٠١
Traditional Architecture of the Southern Region--------------------------- ٢٠٢
Traditional Architecture of the Eastern Region ---------------------------- ٢٠٤
Modern Architecture -------------------------------------------------- ٢٠٥
URBAN AREAS AND CITIES ---------------------------------------------- ٢٠٧
Development of Urbanization ------------------------------------------- ٢٠٧
The Stage of Limited Traditional Urbanization before the Unification of
the Kingdom. -------------------------------------------------------- ٢٠٨
The Stage of Slow and Gradual Urbanization: ١٩٣٠-١٩٧٠ ------------------- ٢٠٨
The Stage of Rapid Urbanization: ١٩٧٠-١٩٩٠ ----------------------------- ٢٠٩
The Stage of Urban Stability (١٩٩٠- present) ------------------------------ ٢١٠

Levels of Urbanization in Administrative Regions -------------------------- ٢١٠
ECONOMY AND DEVELOPMENT--------------------------------------------٢١٤
TRADITIONAL FOLK PROFESSIONS AND CRAFTS ------------------------------ ٢١٤
Pottery ------------------------------------------------------------- ٢١٤
Calligraphy ---------------------------------------------------------- ٢١٤
The Khûs ( Palm leaf crafts) -------------------------------------------- ٢١٥
Carpentry ----------------------------------------------------------- ٢١٥
Smithery ------------------------------------------------------------ ٢١٥
Weaving Crafts( Sadû) ------------------------------------------------ ٢١٥
Leatherwork --------------------------------------------------------- ٢١٦
Goldsmithery -------------------------------------------------------- ٢١٦
Examples of Some Traditional Folk Craft Products ------------------------ ٢١٧
Herding ------------------------------------------------------------- ٢٢٠
MODERN INDUSTRIES -------------------------------------------------- ٢٢١
The Industrial Cities -------------------------------------------------- ٢٢١
The General Stock Companies of the Petroleum Industry Sector ------------- ٢٢٢
PERCENTAGE AND CLASSIFICATION OF SHARES PER COMPANY-----------------٢٢٣
The Light Industries -------------------------------------------------- ٢٢٣
AGRICULTURE -------------------------------------------------------- ٢٢٧
Trade --------------------------------------------------------------- ٢٢٧
AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT: PRESENT AND FUTURE ----------------------- ٢٢٨
The Traditional Stage (before ١٩٧٠) ------------------------------------- ٢٢٨
The Large-scale Stage (١٩٧٠-١٩٨٥) -------------------------------------- ٢٢٩
The Balanced and Specialized Stage (١٩٨٥-١٩٩٥) -------------------------- ٢٣١
The Arabian Palm ( Phoenix Dactyfifera) -------------------------------- ٢٣٥

Exploration for Oil --------------------------------------------------- ٢٣٨
Oil Pipelines --------------------------------------------------------- ٢٣٩
Joint International Projects -------------------------------------------- ٢٤٠
Gas Accumulation Program -------------------------------------------- ٢٤٢
The Contribution of the Oil Sector to the Total Local Production ------------- ٢٤٣
TRADE IN THE PAST ---------------------------------------------------- ٢٤٥
Onland Trade -------------------------------------------------------- ٢٤٥
The Sea Trade ------------------------------------------------------- ٢٥٠
Modern Trade ------------------------------------------------------- ٢٥٤

Finance Programs and Insurance of Trade-------------------------------- ٢٥٤
Seaports ------------------------------------------------------------ ٢٥٥
Exports ------------------------------------------------------------- ٢٥٧
THE BANKING SECTOR ------------------------------------------------- ٢٦٣
The first stage: ------------------------------------------------------- ٢٦٤
The Second Stage: ---------------------------------------------------- ٢٦٥

The Third Stage: The Saudiization of Foreign Banks ----------------------- ٢٦٦
The Instruments of the Monetary Policy in the Kingdom -------------------- ٢٦٨
THE PRIVATE SECOR AND DEVELOPMENT ----------------------------------- ٢٧١
SAUDI FOREIGN AID --------------------------------------------------- ٢٧٩
Loans --------------------------------------------------------------- ٢٧٩
Capital Funds -------------------------------------------------------- ٢٨٠
Aid to Social, Economic and Development Sectors ------------------------- ٢٨١
Construction of Islamic Centers and Institutions --------------------------- ٢٨٣
CHAPTER FOUR --------------------------------------------- ٢٨٨

COMMUNICATION --------------------------------------------------- ٢٨٨
TRANSPORTATION ------------------------------------------------- ٢٨٨
The General Foundation of Saudi Railroads ------------------------------ ٢٨٩
Roads -------------------------------------------------------------- ٢٩٠
Transportation Foundations -------------------------------------------- ٢٩١
Sea Transportation --------------------------------------------------- ٢٩٢
The Airlines --------------------------------------------------------- ٢٩٤
Air Transport -------------------------------------------------------- ٢٩٧
THE SAUDI TELECOMMUNICATIONS -------------------------------------- ٢٩٩
The Microwave and Satellite Systems ------------------------------------ ٣٠٠
Telephone (Telecommunications) --------------------------------------- ٣٠١
The International and Long-Range Communications ----------------------- ٣٠١

INTRODUCTION:
Saudi Society has been trying to achieve comprehensive social, cultural and
economic development. Since unification by its founder King Abdulaziz,
the Kingdom has developed using all human and material resources
available. The Kingdom spares no effort to exploit any intellectual
development that might contribute to the achievement of this goal. The
motivation for this has to do with the status of the Kingdom. In religion, the
Kingdom hosts the holy places. Holy Makkah is the center for Islamic
propagation and is the direction of prayer for more than one billion
Muslims all over the world. In Madina there is also the Mosque of the
Prophet (PBUH).
The land of the Kingdom also witnessed the establishment of the first
Islamic State, which spread Islam and established moral values. Thus, the
land of the Kingdom was the center of a civilization that contributed to the
development of other civilizations. It has a strategic position among the
continents of the ancient world. It also has strong economic, technological,
and cultural relations with the civilizations of the New World. The climate
and geographical features of the Kingdom are diverse. The Kingdom has
also tremendous oil and mineral resources that form the basis of its modern
economy. At the international level, the Kingdom has its political and
economic power. The Saudi people have achieved remarkable development
within a civilization based on a system of noble thought and human values.
Thus there has been a need for a comprehensive and objective book about
the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Along these lines, this book aims at relating
the past with the contributions of the present in its social, cultural and
economic context. In doing so, we have been interested in including data
and figures in a clear and simple language that will hopefully match the
diverse cultures of the readers.

ABSTRACT:
Area: The Kingdom covers four-fifths of the Arabian Peninsula or

٢،٤٢٠،٠٠٠ km٢). The West Coast is ١،٨٠٠ km long and the East Coast ٥٠٠
km long.
Topography: The Kingdom comprises very high mountains and very wide
valleys. It also has the biggest sand desert in the world at about ٦٠٠, ٠٠٠
km٢.
Population: According to the ١٩٩٢ census, the Kingdom’s population is ١٧
million.
Climate: It is dry and hot in summer, though mild in the southwestern
cliffs. On the coasts, the climate is hot and humid. In the winter, the
temperature drops below zero in the center, the east, the north, and the
south of the Kingdom.
Currency: The Saudi Riyal is the currency unit, and it consists of ١٠٠
halala. There are bank notes of one riyal, five riyals, ten riyals, fifty riyals,
one hundred riyals and five hundred riyals. Coins, on the other hand, are of
five halala, ten halala, twenty-five halala, fifty halala and a hundred
halala. The American Dollar equals ٣٫٧٥ Saudi Riyals.
Transport: Air transport is considered one of the best means of transport
between the cities of the vast Kingdom. Therefore, there is a network of
local flights connecting the Kingdom’s cities together. There are also a
large number of international airlines serving the country. There are twenty-
four local airports and three international airports as well: King Abdulaziz
Airport in Jeddah, King Khalid International Airport in Riyadh and the
Eastern Region Airport in Dhahrân.
Limousine, bus and taxi services are available in most areas. There are six
trains daily between Riyadh and Dammâm. There is also a modern network
of roads connecting the Kingdom’s regions and facilitating the process of
transportation.

Communication: The telephone communication system in the Kingdom is
considered one of the most sophisticated systems. One can make national
and international phone calls without resorting to the operator. Direct phone
calls to ٢٠٢ countries through ٥،٢٣٢ pay phones are possible in the
different cities of the Kingdom.
Animal Resources: Animal resources are available in the Kingdom both
on land and at sea. The most important of these are camels, Arabian horses,
sheep, cows, poultry, fish, hawks, partridges, addaxes, bustards, wild goats
and rabbits.
Oil: The Kingdom has a quarter of the world reserves of crude oil, while its
reserve of natural gas is ١٩٢ million cubic feet.
Education: The number of schools for boys and those for girls in the
Kingdom is ٢٣،٧٥٢ accommodating ٤،٠٨٨،٦٣٧ male and female students.
There are seven universities with sixty-eight colleges accommodating
١٥٥،١٨٢ male and female students. There are also sixty-one colleges for
girls accommodating ١٠٠،٠٠٠ students. In addition, there are fifty-six
technical colleges with specializations in health, technology and teacher
training.
Health: There are ٢٩٦ hospitals in the Kingdom, ١٧٩ of which belong to
the Ministry of Health, thirty-nine to other governmental sectors, and
seventy-eight to the private sector. There are also ٣،٥٣١ clinics and health
centers, ١٧٣ of which belong to the Ministry Health, ٤٤٣ to other
governmental sectors, and ١،٣٥٣ to the private sector. There are ١٣٥،٢٥٩
employees in the health sector, ٣٢،٢٧١ of whom are physicians, ٦٤،٣٤٥
nurses, ٥،٢٦١ pharmacists and ٣٣،٣٨٢ technicians.
The Holy Places: The Two Holy Mosques in the Holy cities of Makkah
and Madina are located in the Holy cities of Makkah and Madina in the
Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. More than one billion Muslims face the Holy
Ka‘ba five times a day when praying.
١٠

Archaeology: There are a number of archeological sites in the Kingdom.
The most important of these sites are ‘Ulâ, Madâ’in Sâlih, Taimâ’, Dûmat
al-Jandal, Rabda, Faw Village, Ukhdûd and Dir‘iya.
Plants: The Kingdom’s flora is known for its diversity. There are more
than ٢،٧٠٠ species in more than ١٣٠ families, most of which grow in the
southern area.
Agriculture: The most important agricultural products available in the
Kingdom are dates, wheat, and barley. In addition, there are fruits such as
pomegranates, apples, citrus fruits, peaches, as well as different kinds of
vegetables.
١١

CHAPTER ONE: THE LAND
NATURE
THE GEOGRAPHY OF THE PLACE

The Arabian Peninsula can be categorized into various geographical
regions. We will briefly deal with these regions from the West to the East,
i.e. we will start with the Red Sea in the West and move on to the Arabian
Gulf in the East.
THE RED SEA

The Red Sea separates the Arabian Peninsula from the Northeast of Africa.
It is connected with the Indian Ocean from the South and almost connected
with the Mediterranean Sea through the Suez Canal. The Red Sea is
important for international trade because it reduces the distance between
Europe and the Indian Ocean. The area of the Red Sea is about ٤٥٠،٠٠٠
km٢ and its average depth is ٤٩١ m. The highest recorded depth of the Red
Sea is ٢٨٥ m, while the average depth of oceans is ٣،٧٠٠ m.
The Red Sea is a narrow oceanic ridge extending for ٢،٠٠٠ km, beginning
with Bâb al-Mandab, which links the Indian Ocean with the Red Sea
through the Gulf of Aden. The Red Sea is located between the latitudes of
thirteen and twenty-eight degrees north. Both the Suez Canal and Arabian
Gulf in the North are extensions of the Red Sea. The width of the Red Sea
in the North is about ١٨٠ km, while in the South it is about ١٨٠ km. Then it
becomes as narrow as thirty kilometers at Bâb al-Mandab.
Various types of the coral reefs are scattered in five areas on the Eastern
Shore of the Red Sea. This does not mean that the other areas do not
contain such coral reefs since the development of these reefs depends on the
natural circumstances of the environment.
The distribution of islands along the Eastern Shore of the Red Sea varies
depending on the factors that contribute to the formation of these islands.
١٢

However, most islands consist of either above-the-surface coral reefs or
submerged coral reefs. Volcanic rocks, on the other hand, rarely exist
though many of the coral reef islands were formed on volcanic rocks. Thus,
two types of these islands can be identified and examined with respect to
the surface forms and factors that contributed to their formation. These
types are (١) the muddy submerged reef shoals and (٢) the above-the-
surface reef islands such as Jazâ‘ir, Farasân, Sinâfir and Tirân.
THE COASTAL PLAIN OF THE RED SEA (THE TIHÂMA PLAINS)

The word tihâma is locally used to refer to the coastal plains along the Red
Sea and the neighboring hills. These coastal plains are very narrow in the
north, and they disappear at the latitude of ٢٧ degrees north. They are the
widest near the Jâzân, where they are forty kilometers wide. The Tihâma
Plains are referred to by the local names ‘Tihâma Asîr’ and ‘Tihâma al-
Shâm’, which are separated by the ‘Hura al-Birk.’ The other lava fields or
huras in the Tihâma Plains are Hurat Idâm and Hurat Shâma.
Along the coast of the Red Sea, the hot climatic conditions help form salt
marshes, as well as other relief formations like coastal lagoons and soluble
calcareous rocks. Floodwaters collect in areas of coastal sands, too. Along
the coast of the Red Sea, there are small openings called shurûm, meaning
‘small bays’ or ‘inlets’, sometimes called akhwâr, having the same meaning
as shurûm, or marâs, meaning ‘anchorages’. Some of these openings are
linked to the valleys that extend along the coastal mountains, while others
are not linked to any valley.
The top of the Sarawât Heights is considered as a clear boundary between
the valley waters running to the east and the valleys extending to the west
toward Tihâma Plains. The valleys extending to the west are steep, narrow,
and they have a lot of rain. Among the most important Tihâma valleys are
the Jâzân Valley, the Baish Valley, the ‘Utud valley, the Halî Valley, the
١٣

Yaba Valley, the Qanûna Valley, the Ahsiba Valley, the Laith Valley and
the Yalamlam Valley.
THE TIHÂMA MOUNTAINS

These mountains are located between the Tihâma valleys and are therefore
called the Tihâma Mountains. They are called foothills because they are
located at the foot of the Sarawat Heights. Tihâma Mountains consists of
hills and mountains formed as a result of the geological changes which led
to the separation of the Arabian Peninsula from Africa. Among these
mountains are Faifa Mountain at ١،٨١٤ m, Qahar Mountain at ١،٩٤٧ m,
Tharyân Mountain at ١،٧٤٦ m, Higher Shadâ Mountain at ٢،٢٠٢ m, Lower
Shadâ Mountain at ١،٥١٣ m, and Nâtif Mountain at ١،٢٥٨ m.
THE WESTERN HEIGHTS

The Western Heights region is known as Hijaz because it is located
between Tihâma and Najd. Yâqût mentioned in his Mu‘jam al-Buldân that
the Hijaz were mountains separating Najd from Tihâma and that their
highest point was known as Sarât. The Western Heights are considered one
of the most important topographic features in the Arabian Peninsula. They
extend from Aqaba in the North to the south of the Republic of Yemen. The
Western Heights consist of three parts: the Sarawât Mountains in the South,
the Hijaz Mountains in the center, and Madyân Mountains in the north.
They are terraced mountains, steeply inclined towards the Red Sea and
gently sloping towards the interior regions. The highest mountain is this
area is Sawda Mountain at ٣،٢٢٥ m, which is near the city of Ahbâ. The
principal parts of the Western Heights are:
The Sarawât Mountains
The Sarawât Mountains extend from the Kingdom’s borders with the
Republic of Yemen in the south to the city of Tâ’if in the north. The
Tihâma valleys mentioned before extend toward the West. Many valleys
١٤

extend from these mountains toward the East. Among these valleys are
Najrân Valley, Hubûna Valley, as well as tributaries of the Dawâsir Valley,
i.e. Tathlîth Valley, Bîsha Valley, Ranya Valley, and Turaba Valley.
The Sarawât Mountains are divided into five main sections usually after the
tribes that inhabited them. The following are these divisions (from north to
south):
١. Sarât Thaqîf, which is adjacent to Arafât and extends toward the south
٢. Sarât Bani Mâlik at Jilaya
٣. Sarât Ghâmid and Zahrân
٤. Sarât al-Hajar which is linked to Sarât Asîr from the Southeast
٥. Sarât Asîr, which is located around the city of Abhâ.
The Hijaz Mountains
The Hijaz Mountains extend from the north of Makkah and end at the
latitude of ٢٨ degrees north where the Madyan Mountains begin. They
include a series of mountains such as Subh Mountain, Radwî Mountain, Râl
Mountain, Dubbagh Mountain and Shâr Mountain. Many valleys originate
at these mountains. Examples are Fâtima Valley, Qadîd Valley, Qâha
Valley, Safrâ’ Valley, Hamad Valley, and Jizl Valley. These mountains also
include many hurât or lava fields such as Hura Rahâ (or Rahât), Hura
‘Uwaiyridh, Hura Khaibar and Hutaim, Hura Lunayyir, Hura Kuramâ’,
Hura Ruhât, Hura Kushub, Hura Hadhan, and Hura Nawâsif and Buqum.
The Madyân Mountains
The Madyân Mountains are located in the towns of Madyan at the latitude
of ٢٨ degrees north. They include groups of very high mountains like
Fayhân Mountain at ٢،٥٤٩ m, Qulûm Mountain at ٢،٣٩٨ m and Lawz
Mountain at ٢،٤٠١ m. There are also many big and small valleys in this
area, the biggest and best known of which is ‘Ifâl Valley.
١٥

The Western Plateaux
Toward the east of the Western Heights, there are very large areas of
plateaux extending from the north to the south. These mountain ranges can
be categorized into five distinct plateaux: The Asîr and Najrân Plateau, the
Najd Plateau, the Hijaz Plateau, and the Hismâ Plateau.
The Asîr and Najrân Plateau
The Asîr and Najrân Plateau is located in the eastern part of the Asîr
Heights. It is considered as a transitional area between the high mountains
in the West and the Najd Plateau in the Northeast. The height of the Asîr
Plateau ranges between ٩٠٠ and ١،٧٠٠ m. Floods in the Asîr plateau are
drained into Tathlîth Valley and Bîsha Valley. On the other hand, floods in
the Najrân Plateau are drained into Hubûna Valley and Najrân Valley.
The Najd Plateau
The Najd Plateau is known by the Arabs as the Najd Heights. The Najd
Plateau is so vast that its width is about ٦٠٠ km. The surface of this plateau
gradually slopes towards the East and the South from about ١،٠٠٠ to about
٨٠٠ m). The Ruma Valley drains the water in the northern parts of the Najd
Plateau, while the valleys of Bîsha, Tathlîth, and Randya combine to form
the Dawâsir Valley and drain the southern part.
Ruma Valley is one of the great valleys in the Arabian Peninsula. It drains
the waters of most of the Najd Plateau, as well as the waters of many large
and small valleys. In the past, it used to be a river running toward the
Arabian Gulf across Bâtin Valley. After the drought period, however, that
river was filled with sands and consequently Bâtin Valley was separated
from Ruma Valley. It used to terminate at Sinâm Mountain near the Shatt
al-‘Arab.
There are prominent groups of mountains in the vast area of the Najd
Mountain Range extending from the Shamar Mountains (Ajâ and Salmâ) in
the North to the southern part of the Dawâsir Valley. Among these
mountains are the Majâmi‘ Mountains, the Hadhb Mountains, the Nair
١٦

Mountains, the Abânât Mountains (Abân al-Asmar and Aban al-Ahmar),
the Sha’bâ’ Mountains, Aja Mountain and Salma Mountain. These chains
of mountains are separate from one another but they are also close to one
another. The Najd Plateau also includes a number of small and large sandy
accumulations such as ‘Urûq Subai’, Nufud al-Surra, and Nufud al-‘Uraiq.
The Hijaz Plateau
The Hijaz Plateau is located to the south east of Hismâ Plateau and extends
from the Tubaiq Mountains in the north to Hura Khaibar in the south. It also
extends to al-Nufûd al-Kabîr in the east. Because the Hijaz Plateau slopes
towards the east and north, the valleys in it take the same direction. Among
these valleys are Qû Valley, Matrân Valley and Silsila Valley, which
extends to the far west of the plateau. The height of this plateau ranges
between ٩٠٠ and ١،٤٠٠ m.
The Hismâ Plateau
The Hismâ Plateau is located in the northeast of the Kingdom to the east of
the Madyân Mountains and to the north of Hura al-Rahâ. It is bordered by
Ra’s al-Naqb in Jordan to the north, the northern parts of Hura al-Rahâ to
the north, and the Tabûk Lowland in the east. This plateau consists of
Cambrian and arenaceous sandstone. The surface of this plateau is divided
into several parts due to the valleys. As a result, there is a complex network
of small plateaux and hills.
The Najd Sedimentary Plateau
It is located directly to the east of Najd Crystallized Plateau. This area is

characterized by mountainsides and is sometimes known as the Region of
Sides.
١٧

The Sand Accumulations
Sand accumulations due to winds are very common in the Arabian

Peninsula. Most of these accumulations exist in four main seas of sand, the
Empty Quarter or Rub’ al-Khali, al-Nufûd al-Kabîr, Dahnâ’ and Jâfûra.
These sand seas cover about half of the sedimentary part of the Arabian
Peninsula. They are also other sandy areas connected with the main valleys
of the vast alluvial plains. In addition, there are small sandy areas in
Tihâma. The area of sand in the Arabian Peninsula is almost one third of the
whole Peninsula.
Al-Nufûd al-Kabir
The desert of al-Nufûd al-Kabir is located in the northern part of the
Kingdom between the region of Hâ’il in the south and the region of Jawf
i.e. between the latitudes of ٢٩٫٥ north and ٤٠٫٢٩ degrees north. It extends
for thirty-four kilometers, while its width is ٥٧٢ km. However it gets
narrow in the east where its width is no more than ١٢٨ km. Thus, al-Nufûd
al-Kabîr is like a triangle, the base of which is in the west and the top of
which is in the east. The total area of al-Nufûd al-Kabîr is ٦٣،٦٣٠ km٢.
Dahnâ’
Dahnâ’ is a sandy desert shaped like a bow. It extends for ١،٢٠٠ km
between the region of Jâlât in the east and the Plateau of Summân in the
west. It also connects the desert of al-Nufûd al-Kabîr in the north with the
Empty Quarter in the south. As to its width, it varies from one area to
another. However, its average width towards the north of the Bâtin Valley
is only twenty m. It is also connected with Nufûd al-Madhhûr and Nufûd al-
Thuwayrât through ‘Urûq al-Sayyâriyât. The reason for the sand
accumulations in this area is that it is located to the east of the old Ruma
Valley (the Ajrudî Valley), which is lower than the areas surrounding it.
The width of Dahnâ’ is about sixty kilometers, while its total area is ٤٠،٧٨٩
km٢.
١٨

Jâfûra
Jâfûra is located to the east of the Summân Plateau along the coast of the
Arabian Gulf. It extends toward the south near Jabail until it merges with
the sands of the Empty Quarter. Many problems are caused to the cultivated
lands in Ahsâ’ by the Jâfûra sands.
The Empty Quarter (Rub’ al-Khali)
The Empty Quarter contains the biggest sandy desert in the world. The area
of this desert is more than ٦٠٠،٠٠٠ km٢. The length of the Empty Quarter is
about ١،٢٠٠ km between the longitudes of ٣٠٫٤٤ and ٧٤٫٠٠ degrees east.
Its width is about ٦٤٠ km between the latitudes of ١٥٫٠٠ to ٢٣٫٠٠ degrees
north. It extends between the United Arab Emirates to the Yemen
Mountains and from Hadramawt Plateau in the south to Jâfûra and Dahnâ’
in the north. The northeastern part of the Empty Quarter was known as
Yabrîn or Jabrîn, while the part that is located to the north of Hadramawt
Plateau was known as Ahqâf. The northwestern part of the Empty Quarter
that is located to the south of Dawâsir Valley was known as Jaz’, while the
western part that is adjacent to Yemen was known as Wabâr. The
contemporary divisions of the Empty Quarter are the dunes in the eastern
part, Dakâka, ‘Urûq (Dunes) al-Mawârid and Qa’âmiyât in the southern
part of the Emply Quarter, Shaqa al-Kharîta, Ramlat Ya’m and Ramlat
Dahm in the southern western part, ‘Urûq (Dunes) Bani Mu‘ârid and Bani
Hamrân, ‘Urûq al-Remliyah in the western part, as well as Turâ‘îz, Hibâka,
Kursû‘, and Sanâm in the middle and the northern part.
The Northern Plateaux
The northern plateaux in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia are divided into two
parts,
The Hamad Plateau
The Hamad Plateau is located to the northeast of Hurra al-Hurra. The height
of this plateau ranges from ٨٠٠ to ٨٥٠ m. There are many plains and flood
plains in this plateau.
١٩

The Hajara Plateau
The Hajara Plateau is located to the east of the Hamad Plateau, i.e. between
the longitudes of ٤٠٫٣٠ degrees east and ٤٥٫٠٠ degrees east, where the
Dibdiba Gravel Plain starts. This plateau extends for about ٦٠٠ km, sloping
towards the northeast. There are hundreds of valleys and tributaries
throughout this plateau.
The Summân Plateau
The Summân Plateau is located between the coastal plain on the Arabian
Gulf in the east and Dahnâ’ in the west. It is a rocky oblong plateau with a
width ranging between ٨٠ and ٢٥٠ km. Ghawâr, which is the biggest
petroleum field in the world, is located below this plateau to the west of
Hofûf.
The beginning of the Summân Plateau is the end of the Dibdiba Gravel
Plain between the longitudes of ٢٠٫٠٠ and ٤٥٫٠٠ degrees east. It ends in the
south in the Empty Quarter at the latitude of ٢١٫٠٠ degrees north. Thus the
Summân Plateau extends for ٩٩٦ km, and it is given a number of local
names.
The Eastern Plains
The Eastern Plains are located to the east of the Summân Plateau and
stretch from north to south. The following is a presentation of two major
divisions of the Eastern Plains. These are The Ahsâ’ Plains and the Coastal
Plain, which comprises sea terraces and high shores.
The Ahsâ’ Plains
The Ahsâ’ Plains are located about seventy kilometers from the Arabian
Gulf coast between the Coastal Plain and the edge of Shadqam. The
elevation of these plains ranges from ١٣٠ to ١٦٠ m above sea level. They
slope gently towards the Arabian Gulf and extend to parts of Jâfûra.
٢٠

The Coastal Plain of the Arabian Gulf
The Coastal Plain of the Arabian Gulf extends from northwest to southeast
between The Summân Plateau in the west and the Arabian Gulf in the east.
Its width is between ٥٠ and ١٠٠ km. Many Parts of this plain are covered
with sands and salt terraces. It extends along the whole of the Arabian Gulf
Coast. In the Kingdom, this plain extends between Um-Qusbah to the north
of Khafjî and Dûha Duwaihin to the south of the Gorge of ‘Udaid. Some of
these parts contain the petroleum riches of the Kingdom, such as Ghawwâr,
Buqaiq and Qatîf.
The Arabian Gulf
The Arabian Gulf is characterized as shallow, semi-closed and surrounded

by a dry environment. It extends from the north of the western north
towards the south of the eastern south between latitudes of ٢٤٫٠٠ and ٣٠٫٣٠
degrees north and the longitudes of ٥٦٫٠٠ and ٤٨٫٠٠ degrees east. Its length
is about ١،٠٠٠ km, while its width ranges between ٢٠٠ and ٣٠٠ km. The
average depth of the Arabian Gulf is ٣٥ m, though in some areas in the
north its depth could reach to ١٠٠ m or even a little more. About ١٨٪ of the
Arabian Gulf is considered shallow, i.e. less than ٥m deep. About ٧٤٪ of
these shallow areas is internal, while the rest consists of coastal shores and
coral reefs. The areas that are five to ten meters deep constitute ٨٫٥٪ of the
Arabian Gulf, while the rest is more than ten meters deep. The total area of
the Arabian Gulf is ٢٢٦،٠٠٠ km٢. Among the most important islands in the
Gulf are Karân, Janâ, Juraid, Kurain, Hurqûs (Hurqûsh), and ‘Arabiyya.
References:
١. al-Jâsir, Hamad. Fî Sarât Ghâmid wa Zahrân (Riyadh: ١٣٩١H, Manshûrât Dâr al-Yamâma li’l-
Bath wa al-Tarjuma).
٢. al-Ghunayim, Abdullah ibn Yûsif. Aqâlîm al-Jazîra al-‘Arabiya bain al-Kitâbât al-‘Arabiya wa al-
Qadîma wa al-Dirâsât al-Mu‘âsiriya, (Kuwait: ١٩٣١AD, Jam‘iya al-Jughrâfiya al-Kuwaitiya).
٣. Cole, R. U., et al. al-Jiyûmûrfûlujiya li-Tanmiya al-Ardî fî al-Sahrâ ’ ma ‘a tarkîz ‘alâ al-Mamlaka al-
‘Arabiya al-Sa ‘ûdiya, translated and annotated by Abdullah ibn Nâsir al-Walai‘î (Riyadh: ١٤١٥H, al-Jam‘iya
al-Jughrâfiya al-Sa‘ûdiya).
٤. al-Walai‘î, Abdullah ibn Nâsir. Ashkâl al-Arâdî fî al-Mantiqa al-Sharqiya min al-Mamlaka al-‘Arabiya al-
Sa ‘ûdiya: Dirâsa Jiyûmûrfûluyia (Riyadh: ١٩٩٤, Islamic University of Imam Muhammad ibn Sa‘ûd).
٥. al-Walai‘î, Abdullah ibn Nâsir. Bihâr al-Rimâl fî al-Mamlaka al-‘Arabiya al-Sa ‘ûdiya (Kuwait: ١٩٩٤,
Jam‘iya al-Jughrâfiya al-Kuwaitiya).
٢١

٦. al-Walai‘î, Abdullah ibn Nâsir. Sahrâ ’ al-Rub‘ al-Khâlî: Mawtin Mahmiya ‘Urûq Banî Ma ‘ârid (١٩٩٤, al-
Hay’a al-Wataniya li-Himâya al-Hayât al-Fitriya wa ‘Inmâ’ihâ).
٧. al-Walai‘î, Abdullah ibn Nâsir. Jiyûlûjiya wa Jiyûmûrfûlujiya al-Mamlaka al-‘Arabiya al-Sa ‘ûdiya
(Riyadh: ١٩٩٥)
٢٢

CLIMATE
The climate is an important factor affecting the lives of people, animals and
plants. Due to the diversity of geographic environments and topography in
the Kingdom, climate conditions differ from one area to another. Thus the
weather conditions in coastal areas are different from those in the internal
plateaux and heights.
The climate in the Kingdom can be classified into three types: the climate
of coasts, the climate of internal plateaux and the climate of heights. These
climates vary in conditions such that a given division can have different
areas within the division, depending on its position in relation to the
Equator.
The types of plants and animals are determined by the type of climate. Thus
in the desert environment we find plants and animals that need little water
and food. Climate also affects the life of the people, health, food, cloth,
agriculture, industry, trade and education. It also affects the social and
economic life, as well as other activities. For instance, in the field of
agriculture the types and seasons of agricultural crops are determined by the
climate. Thus crops cultivated in internal plateaux are those that stand high
temperature and little water. A given crop can grow in different seasons in
different areas, and consequently, it will be available in the market
throughout the whole year.
In the field of tourism, climate affects people’s activities. For instance, in
winter, people living in cold areas like the north and middle of the Kingdom
move to the western coastal areas. In summer, people living in warm areas
move to the areas where the weather is mild.
Thus the Kingdom generally has a desert climate and a semi-desert climate.
Humidity, rains and temperature vary from one area to another. Coastal
areas have climatic conditions different from internal areas and high areas.
٢٣

THE ELEMENTS OF CLIMATE
SOLAR RADIATION
The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is located in the tropical and semi-tropical

area between the latitudes of ١٦ and ٣٢ degrees north. In summer, the sun is
vertical on the Tropic of Cancer (٢٣٫٥ degrees north), which nearly passes
through the middle of the Kingdom. These geographic and climatic factors
affect the amount and duration of the solar radiation. The average duration
of solar radiation is ٨٫٨ hours daily. This duration increases in the summer
season and decreases in winter. The average amount of the annual solar
radiation is about ١٥٥،٠٠٠ calories per square meter. This amount is
sometimes affected by local topographical features and weather factors such
as clouds and dust.
TABLE SHOWING THE DAILY DURATION OF SUN RADIATION IN SOME CITIES IN THE
KINGDOM.
City Average Temperature
Summer Winter Annual
Abha ٨٫٠ ٦٫٩ ٧٫٧
Aslayel ٩٫٤ ٨٫٧ ٩٫٩
Riyadh ١٠٫٢ ٧٫٨ ٨٫٨
Qateef ٩٫٩ ٧٫١ ٨٫٢
Skaka ٩٫٩ ٧٫٨ ٨٫٧
Taif ١٠٫٢ ٨٫٧ ٩٫٣
Hail ١١٫٦ ٧٫٨ ٩٫٤
Madinah ١٠٫٨ ٦٫٩ ٨٫٧
Azulfi ١١٫٢ ٦٫٩ ٨٫٧
TEMPERATURE
Temperature varies from one area to another depending on environmental

and geographic factors. With the exception of the mountain areas, the
temperature is high in the summer and mild in winter. The average daily
temperature in the Kingdom is ٢٤٫٥ Degrees Celsius. The lowest mean
temperature is ١٥٫٦ Degrees Celsius, while the highest is ٣٠٫٢ Degrees
٢٤

Celsius. These averages increase in low and coastal areas and decrease in
elevated areas.
Temperatures in the Kingdom vary also from one season to another. In
winter, the average temperature is ١٦٫٢ Degrees Celsius, while in summer it
is ٣٠٫٦ Degrees Celsius. The winter rate goes down towards the north and
in mountain areas, while the latter gets higher towards the south and lowers
towards northern and mountainous areas. In Riyadh, the mean temperature
in summer is ٣٢٫٩ Degrees Celsius, while in Abhâ and Nammâs at the Asîr
Heights, the rates are ٢٢٫٣ Degrees Celsius and ٢٠ Degrees Celsius
respectively.
TABLE SHOWING TEMPERATURE RATES IN SOME CITIES IN THE KINGDOM
Annual Seasonal Average
City Average Summer Range
Winter
Abha ١٧٫٨ ٢٢٫٣ ١٣٫٥ ٩٫٨
Al-Sulail ٢٦٫٢ ٣٤٫٣ ١٧٫١ ١٩٫٣
Yabreen ٢٥٫٧ ٣٥ ١٦ ٢٢
-Madina ٢٧ ٣٣٫٩ ١٨٫٩ ١٦٫٣
Riyadh ٢٤٫٦ ٣٢٫٩ ١٥٫٢ ١٩٫٧
Al-Zulfi ٢٤٫٣ ٣٢٫٨ ١٤٫٣ ٢٠٫٢
Al-Qatif ٢٥٫٦ ٣٣٫٧ ١٦٫٤ ١٩
Hail ٢٢٫٠ ٣٠٫٥ ١٢٫٢ ٢٠٫٤
Tabuk ٢١٫٦ ٣٠٫١ ١١٫٩ ٢٠٫٤
Due to its desert nature, high temperature during daytime and low
temperature at night, we notice that daily, seasonal and annual temperature
ranges in the Kingdom vary. The seasonal temperature range in the
Kingdom is ١٦ Degrees Celsius. This range varies from one area to another
and from one season to another. For instance, it gets lower toward the
western coast due to the effect of the Red Sea. This temperature range also
gets lower in the desert areas. It is ١٩٫٧ Degrees Celsius in Riyadh, in Abhâ
٩٫٨ Degrees Celsius, while in Madhlîf on the Red Sea only ٦٫٨ Degrees
Celsius.
٢٥

THE WINDS
The Kingdom is exposed to a variety of local and regional winds. The

winds that come from the north and the northeast are cold and dry in winter,
and hot and dry in summer. Winds from the northwest are cold and dry,
while the winds from the southeast and the southwest are warm and humid.
The Kingdom is also exposed to local winds that are hot, dry and dusty.
The speed and direction of winds in the Kingdom are different in different
days, months, seasonal years and different areas. This is due to the different
geographic conditions. The average speed rate of winds in the Kingdom is
٨٫٥ km/hr annually. In coastal areas it is ١٦٫٢ km/hr. This is the case in
Dahrân and Yanbu‘. In internal areas such as the Empty Quarter, it is ٩
km/hr. Wind direction also varies from one area to another due to the
different temperature rates in different months. The permanent and local
winds in the Kingdom always carry dust and sand due to the dry soil and
the scarcity of plants.
RAIN
Due to its desert and semi-desert nature, rainfall in the Kingdom is very
low. Rain in the Kingdom might fall heavily in one year and not at all for a
number of years. The annual amount of rain in the Kingdom is less than
١٥٠ mm, with the exception of the western and southern heights, where the
rate exceeds ٥٠٠ mm. This variation is due to the diverse topography and
the different winds in the Kingdom.
TABLE SHOWING RATES OF ANNUAL RAINS IN SOME CITIES IN THE KINGDOM
Baljarashi
Yabreen
Gurayat
Namass
Tabouk
Sulayel
Riyadh
Hardh
Bisha
Abha
City
Zulfi
Hail
Taif
Average
٣٧٥
٤٧١
٤٨٨
١١١
٣٦
١٢٤
٤٦
٤٨
٨٠
١١٣
١٢١
٢٠
٤٥
٢٦

HUMIDITY
The rates of humidity in the Kingdom vary according to the sources of

humidity such as seas and agricultural areas, as well as the directions of
winds. The annual rate of humidity in the Kingdom is ١٤٪. This rate gets
higher in the eastern and western coastal areas, as well as in elevated areas.
In general, humidity increases in winter and decreases in summer.
EVAPORATION
Due to such factors as topography, temperature and wind speed, the

evaporation rates in the Kingdom vary from one area to another. Water lost
due to evaporation is ٣،٦٧٩ mm annually. This rate varies from one area to
another. In Dawadmi it is ٥،٧٩٦ mm, in Nammâs ١،٩٠٤ mm and in
Baljarshî ٢،٣٢٢ mm.
٢٧

GEOLOGY
The western third of the Arabian Peninsula, the Arabian Shield (al-Dir‘ al-
‘Arabî) was a land parcel of Africa, made up of igneous rocks such as
granite, metamorphic rocks, such as schist, and which was a demarcation
line between Africa, on one hand, and the northeast regions of Europe and
Asia on the other.
The rest of the Arabian Peninsula has developed around Arabian Shield as
a result of constant sediments. The accumulation of sediments in this great
sea led to the creation of sedimentary rocks around the Arabian Shield for
more than ٥٠٠ million years of the Cambrian era to our present time. Since
that time, the Arabian Shield has been under the effect of up and down
movements in addition to cleavages, volcanic activities, denudation action,
and movement of sediments from the bottom to the precipitating basin
surrounding the Arabian Shield, creating a shield of lime, clay, and sand
sediments besides the organic and chemical sediments.
The sedimentary rocks look like curved belts around the Arabian Shield.
Their layers tilt eastward and northward. This now covers two thirds of the
Arabian Peninsula with the remains of sedimentary rocks and various
products scattered over all the rocks of the Arabian Shield (See Figure
One). Finally, the Arabian Peninsula was split from the African continent
by the Red Sea collapse during the last thirty million years.
The most important mineral resources in the Kingdom are the oil reserve
and underground water which are found in layers of sedimentary cover in
various depths in the Eastern Regions, the Empty Quarter (Rub‘ al-Khali),
and the Central Region.
The metallic and non-metallic mineral resources come second as
importance is concerned, and have been discovered in the area of the
Arabian Shield, the sedimentary area in the Arabian Peninsula.
٢٨

OIL
Oil holds a main position in the economy of the Kingdom, a virtue that
makes the Kingdom one of the largest and the biggest producers and
exporters of oil in the world. It has the biggest known oil reserve, though it
was in ١٩٤٥ the fourth in world oil production. When the oil market was
unstable, some countries including the Kingdom made great efforts to
destabilize it by either increasing or decreasing their oil production. The
Kingdom’s oil production was about eight million barrels a day in ١٩٩٣,
making up ١٣٫٤ % of the world production. New discoveries led to an
increase in oil reserves in the Kingdom to reach ٢٦١٫٤ billion barrels in
١٩٩٣. The reserve of natural gas also increased to reach ٥٢٦٥٫٨ billion
cubic meters. Nowadays the Kingdom holds a front position in world oil
industry.
Oil fields in the Kingdom are found in the sedimentary continental shelf,
especially in the Eastern Region, the Empty Quarter, and the Central
Region, and in the Kingdom’s territorial waters in the Arabian Gulf. Fifty-
seven oil fields have been discovered (Figure Two), each containing several
layers (oil reservoirs).
The main oil fields are Gawâr, Baqaiq, Dammâm, Qatîf, Kharsâniya, Abû
Hadriya, Harmaliya (east of Gawâr), Fâdilî, Barrî, Safâniya, Munîfa, Abû
Su‘fa, Dhulûf, Marjân, Kirîn, Janâ, Mazâlîg, Karân, Jarîb‘ân, Shîba, and
others.
New fields have been discovered in the Central Region, southeast of
Riyadh, in the Hawta area, south of Kharj. These discoveries have been
very important because their new oil is the lightest oil yet discovered in the
Kingdom, for it contains a very small proportion of sulfur.
New hydrocarbon reserves have also been discovered in the coastal plain of
the Red Sea in Waja, Madîn, Jizân, the northern region of the Kingdom,
particularly in Kahif Region, near Jawf.
٢٩

WATER RESOURCES
Water in the Kingdom, regarding environment and weather, is the most
important natural resource. Water resources can be classified into four
kinds: the deep underground water, and the processed seawater, water
pumped out of sixteen main and secondary sedimentary layers. The deep
underground water has been constantly decreasing, because of the constant
pumping for drinking as well as for agricultural purposes, and because of
the limited amount of rainfall necessary to feed these layers. The
underground water provides about ٨٢٪ of the Kingdom’s needs of water.
Surface ground water, found in the beds of valleys and broken rocks, runs
out and renews constantly because of rainfall in certain seasons.
Some parts of the Kingdom suffer either from want of drinking water or
from its bad quality. Therefore, the government created water purification
plants (water processing stations) to compete with the increasing population
and construction development. They provide some coastal or inner cities
such as Riyadh, Makkah, and Medina with fresh drinking water, which will
be an extra resource for the groundwater already existing in these cities.
The Kingdom, with the help of Allah, has become one of the pioneering
countries in the field of refining seawater. There are now twenty-three
desalination plants, nineteen on the coast of the Red Sea, and four on the
coast of the Arabian Gulf. Refined water production has rose in ١٩٩٤ to
about ٥٢٠ million gallons a day. The total production of all water refineries
makes up about ٧٠٪ of the home water supply. Processed sewage water is
used for irrigating farms near cities.
THE MINERAL RESOURCES

The discovery of mineral resources in the Kingdom goes back to the olden
days. However, mining activities became larger during the Umayyid era
and the early days of Abbasid era. There were mines for gold, silver,
٣٠

copper, for example in the Arabian Shield area in places such as Mahed al-
Dhahab, Umm al-Damâr, Nuqra ,Safra, Samra, Musîn‘a and others.
In modern times, King Abdulaziz (may Allah bless him) was interested in
searching for natural resources. Mahed al-Dhahab mine was reopened to be
exploited. In a period between ١٩٣٨ and١٩٥٤, twenty-three tons of gold
and thirty-one tons of silver had been extracted. Since then the Kingdom
has started really mining its natural resources to enrich its economy.
These natural resources are regarded as the main support for various kinds
of industries and uses.
In the Kingdom there are precious metals such as gold and silver, in
addition to other minerals such as copper, zinc, lead, iron, aluminum,
chrome, tin, nickel, manganese and others.
There are about ٩٣٥ well-known sites for gold, and in ٧٨٢ of them, gold
comprises the main metal. In ١٥٣ sites, gold is a secondary metal. Flint
rocks carrying gold ore have been discovered in an area stretching from
Najrân and Dhulm to Hâ’il. Places such as Mahed al-Dhahab, Sukhîbarât,
Âmâr, Hajjâr and Hamdha are of the most important regions for gold ore in
the Kingdom. Now gold has been dug out in two main areas: Mahed al-
Dhahab and Sukhîbarât.
In the area called the Arabian Shield, there are more than ٥٠٠ sites for
silver ore, which usually accompanies ores of lead, zinc, copper and iron.
The Duwâdmî area is the most important area of silver, with more than ١٠٠
sites, such as the Samra mine, Sumîra, and Mutîra. The most important sites
for copper are Sâyid Mountain, Katâm, Shazam Mountain, and Umm al-
Damâr.
Iron has been discovered in many places such as the Sawâwîn valley area in
the northeast of the Kingdom, Fâtima valley near Makkah, Adsâs Mountain
west of Riyadh, and other small places having no economic value spread
throughout the Arabian Shield.
٣١

Zinc is an important metal found in about ٤٠٠ sites, such as Khanâqiya,
Masâni‘, Shu‘aib, Nuqra, Rudîna, and Âmâr. Small precipitates of chromate
have been discovered in sixteen areas in the Arabian Shield, such as the
Wâsik Mountain in ‘Is Valley.
Nickel is available in small quantities in a number of places, such as Kamâl
Valley and Qatan Valley in the south of the Kingdom. The non-metallics
that have been discovered play an important role in the industrial and
architectural development of the Kingdom. Of these are materials of the
ceramic industries (feldspar, bauxite, argillite) and construction materials
such as cumulative materials for cement industries, plaster, glass, building
and decorating stones (granite, limestone, marble, green-stone, and
sandstone and industrial metals such as asbestos, glass, mica, salt, and
phosphate.
There are sites for precious stones. Table One shows the most important
places of minerals in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
٣٢

The Natural Habitat in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
In the history of Arabian Peninsula there have been periods of heavy rain
that helped to create better life conditions for many and varied kinds of
creatures. At the same time there had been other dry periods that led to
extinction of many kinds of animals and plants. In the Pleistocene age,
twenty to thirty-two thousand years ago, the Empty Quarter (Rub‘ al-Khali)
and areas around it used to have enough rainfall to form many lakes.
Excavations show remains of hippopotamus teeth, buffaloes, wild cows,
zebras, hyenas, sheep and camels.
The last rainy period in the Arabian Peninsula was that which happened in
the first half of the Holocene Era (Low Holocene) exactly ٨،٥٠٠ years ago.
Lakes had been naturally established in many areas such as the Empty
Quarter and the Nofowz al-Kobra. Water flowed again all over the valleys,
and vegetation spread to make life for many animals such as camels, zebras,
hyenas and predators such as leopards, wolves, hyenas, and Asian cheetahs.
Weather changes in Pleistocene era brought about four consecutive Ice
Ages alternating with warm periods. The last Ice Age in the area of the
Arabian Peninsula was called al-Farm during which areas of woods of
temperate climate spread south, together with many living things in the
Arabian Peninsula. This also brought about a decrease in the Red Sea level
of ١،٠٠٠ m compared with its level today. At the same time the Arabian
Gulf was dry, and Shat al-Arab (Arabian Coast) used to pour out into the
end of the Oman Gulf near Hermosa Strait.
The Red Sea level subsidence and the dryness of Gulf made it easy for
many animals from East Africa and Southeast Asia to come to the Arabian
Peninsula area. This consequently led to the gathering of a variety of
animals that may not have been found in many other places in the world.
This great variety of creatures did not last long, and as a result of drought,
which began ٦،٠٠٠ years ago, the life of many animals and plants had
begun to deteriorate. A decrease in the level of the lakes took place after
٣٣

subsidence of rain caused by seasonal wind which had been dominant
during the rainy eras. This situation caused the death of many kinds of
plants and animals, especially those in constant need of water such as the
hippopotamus, buffalo and wild ass (zebra) and some predators, except for
a few animals that could stand the drought.
The number of animals in the flat areas, valleys, and mountainous regions,
went down as the result of constant drought and the change in seasonal
wind movements in the Arabian Peninsula. However, some kinds of
animals such as the Arabian antelopes, hyenas, ostriches, wild cats, and
some birds and reptiles which could stand the harsh circumstances of
environment and the scarcity of food and water continued their lives. Some
animals, with lower ability to stand drought, living in the mountainous
regions, where water and suitable temperature were available, could
survive. There were animals like the Arabian cheetah, antelope and the wild
leopard and some kinds of birds as well as the other small mammals. In
spite of weather changes, there are still rich resources of plants and animals
peculiar to the Arabian Peninsula such as mammals, sea and wild birds, a
number of reptiles and a few amphibians in addition to a great number of
arthropods and insects.
This natural life variety went on steadily with its environmental variety,
increasing during periods of much rain, and going down during drought and
water scarcity. The Arabian antelope and hyena herds were seen on the
outskirts of the Empty Quarter and in the northern plain region. Hyenas,
wolves, and ostriches have been mentioned in many books of travelers who
crossed the outskirts of the Arabian Peninsula from east to west or from
north to south.
As a result of competition among the European countries such as Britain,
France, Germany and others which had started to manufacture hunting
weapons and export them to various parts of the world including the
Arabian Peninsula, the number of wild animals had begun to drop. This was
٣٤

followed by the introduction of four-wheel-drive vehicles by the oil
companies and then by individuals. Consequently, hunters were able to
pursue animals very deep into the desert. These factors brought about the
extinction of many kinds of animals such the Arabian antelopes, ostriches,
ibexes, leopards and many kinds of surviving birds.
The Kingdom has a great animal natural resource, varied according to
environment as land, sea or wet regions. There are many wild sea mammals
in addition to domestic or migrating birds which cross Arabia in summer or
winter. The environment gives an opportunity for reptiles and unlimited
number of amphibians to survive in the east and the southeast area of the
Kingdom.
MAMMALS
In the Kingdom there are eight classes of mammals, comprising twenty-five
families and seventy-six species, living in various environments. The
dhalafiyât class or shafiya al-hâfir which makes a single family, namely
bakariya, is regarded as the most important and distinguished class of the
environment of the Arabian Peninsula. The Arabian antelope or wadhî is
regarded as a symbol of the sandy desert of the Empty Quarter. However,
with international help, the cattle have been recollected and taken back to
their previous habitat in the Kingdom. Omani and Jordanian antelopes are
smaller and more efficient than those which live in South Africa.
Deer of the Arabian Peninsula such as the rîm or rimâl are regarded as very
efficient with unique beauty. Such beautiful gazelles proved fit enough to
suit the sandy environment where they live. Some of these animals can be
found in the wildlife preserves and others are still at large in the Empty
Quarter.
Common or mountain gazelles can be found in the southwest parts and
some northern regions.
٣٥

Ibexes can be found in abundance in the Sarawât Mountains side by side
with a small number of Arabian leopards, desert lynx (caracal) and
baboons, especially in the southwest part of the Sarawât Mountains.
Mountain slopes and their surrounding areas provided a habitat for a
number of wolves, striped hyenas, red foxes, hyraxes, large numbers of
insect-eating bats and some varieties of rodents.
SEA MAMMALS
The Arabian Gulf and Red Sea environment are among the richest sea
regions regarding the variety of plants and animals. There are many kinds
of fish, reptiles, sea birds and mammals.
Two types of sea mammals: Sirenae and Cetacea are found in the Arabian
Gulf and the Red Sea.
Sea Cows (Sirenae)
These animals were called sea cows (manatee) and legends have described
them as half fish and half man in form. These sea cows are mammals and
herbivores living in the waters of the Arabian Gulf and the Red Sea as well
as in other warm seas.
They differ from cetacea in the form of the front flipper and the form of the
jaw. There also lack a back flipper. They live near the seashores in the
shallow water, and are distinguished by their slow movement and their
ability not to be disturbed by man. This made them easy victims for hunters.
Due to their small number, they are subject to extinction, for they need ten
years to reach maturity, and on the other hand, the female gives birth to a
single baby only once every three years.
WHALES AND DOLPHINS (CETACEA)

The waters of the Arabian Gulf accommodate up to twenty-five varieties of
dolphins and whales, making up a third of all the kinds known
internationally. There are ten varieties of dolphin in the Red Sea.
٣٦

Cetacea are divided into two classes: whales and dolphins. The toothed
whales consist of two families, the sperm whale and the dwarf sperm whale.
The sperm whale is the biggest of the toothed whales, about eighteen meters
long for males, with a large head making up about a third of the body.
These are found in the Arabian Gulf and the Red Sea. The dwarf sperm
whale is different from the sperm whale, smaller in size, not more than
three meters and a half long. This kind of whale can be found abundantly in
the Gulf of Oman.
The dolphin family has many varieties, such as the killer whale, the false
killer whale and the pilot whale. The killer whale can be distinguished by
the black on its back and white on the belly. It is also distinguished by its
sharp dorsal fin, which can be as long as ١٫٨ meters in the male. The body
is eight meters long and weighs eight tons.
The baleen whales include a number of kinds such as the blue whale, the
biggest of all creatures, about thirty meters long and weighing ١٥٠ tons. Its
color is blue and gray with white spots. The fin whale is not very much
smaller in size than the blue whale. Its length is about twenty-four meters
and its color is dark gray. There are many kinds of whales in the Arabian
Gulf and the Red Sea, such as the sei whale, Baird’s beaked whale, and the
Minke whale. These creatures feed on the organisms floating over the
surface of the water.
FISH
The environment of the Red Sea and Arabian Gulf provides areas with
many kinds of fish with economic value. There are more than fifty families
containing about ٢٠٠ kinds of commercial fish. The famous fish families of
commercial value, preferred by the Saudi customers are the emperor fish,
grouper, jack, red snapper, barracuda, pomfret, Spanish mackerel, and bugle
fish.
٣٧

There are eight of these kinds in the Red Sea, and three in the Arabian Gulf.
Some of the important ones are emperor fish, abûkiya, karsît, mahîsini, and
abû zahwa.
Groupers usually live in shallow water around coral reefs and are predators.
They belong to a group of excellent quality fish. Among the best known of
these are various kinds of grouper, milkfish, and nâjil.
There up to twenty-seven kinds of jack fish, the majority of them found in
the Red Sea. They are mostly predatory and living near the coral reefs. It is
known that they stay in their environment for a long time. They have
excellent commercial value. Of these kinds are the large and small jack fish,
the jedbâ, the qaza, and the trevally. Spanish mackerel can be as long as
١٣٠ cm and usually live in a fixed place. This particular kind of fish is
preferred in the market for its good taste and lack of small bones.
In addition to the great number of fish in the waters of the Red Sea, there
are many kinds of shellfish, such as prawns, shrimp and crayfish.
There are also in the Gulf and the Red Sea a number of gristly fish such as
sharks.
BIRDS IN THE KINGDOM

Birds in the Kingdom form a unique legacy of natural animal resources
where a varied environment helps to make a home for ٤٥٠ kinds of sea,
coastal and wild birds. ٢٣٦ kinds of birds live and breed in a constant or
temporary situation in the region. The location of the Kingdom in the
Arabian Peninsula has its own effect on the variety of birds. There are many
kinds of African origin inhabiting the southwest part of the Kingdom,
whereas kinds of Eastern origin can be found in the southeast part, and
those of European origin in the northwest. The Kingdom is located on two
important migratory routes. The migrating birds from Western Europe fly
over the outskirts of the Mediterranean and the coast of the Red Sea to East
Africa. The other route is from Eastern Europe across the Euphrates and
٣٨

Tigris Rivers and then to the northern outskirts of the Gulf and across the
middle of Arabian Peninsula to Ethiopia and East Africa. During these
journeys, some of these birds settle down in the Kingdom during winter, or
when they are back in summer.
BIRDS OF PREY
Predatory birds such as eagles, falcons and many others fly during daylight.
They have sharp curved beaks, and large, strong wings to help them fly and
soar for many hours. Usually males are bigger in size than females. They
usually have similar colors. These predators usually feed on meat. Some of
them choose to kill their victims, while others live on the flesh of other dead
animals. The Kingdom accommodates more than eighty-two kinds of these
birds.
VULTURES
Vultures are big birds distinguished by a featherless neck and head. Their
long wings enable them to soar high in the sky to check the region either in
search of dead animals or to identify the other flying eagles which usually
soar over the dead bodies of animals. Males and females are similar in color
and size.
The griffon vulture is regarded as one of the biggest vultures in the
Kingdom. Its wings, which are large with straight edges on the front, are
١٫٥ m long. The tail is short if compared with the size of the body. It prefers
to live on tops of mountain and in deep slopes. The Egyptian vulture
(rakhma), which can be found in the Kingdom, is smaller in size than the
griffon vulture and is usually distinguished by its white color and black-
edged wings. It lives near cities and settlements. There are also other kinds,
such as the black vulture.
٣٩

EAGLES
These are large strong birds, brave enough to kill animals for food. They do
not eat the meat of dead animals. They have long wings and long tails and
are distinguished by their head, neck, and legs that are covered with
feathers. Males usually are bigger than females, and their color is dark
brown. These birds like to live on mountains or in the tops of trees. The
biggest eagles in the Kingdom are the royal eagle and the plains eagle.
The royal eagle’s wingspan can reach ١٨٥ cm. This kind usually lives near
water. The plains eagle’s wingspan is ١٧٠ cm, and it is usually found in the
open desert areas.
There are other kinds such as the nasârî or fish eagle (osprey) which can be
found in abundance in some areas of Hijaz as well as near the Gulf coast.
Its wing span is ١٦٠cm. It can be distinguished by its white head and the by
the black line behind its eye. Its back is covered with brown feathers, while
the belly is white. Being a good fisherman, this bird feeds on what it
catches.
FALCONS
From olden times, falcons have been associated with the life of the Arabian
Peninsula. They have been a part of the sport of hunting that the people of
Arabia love. They are fond of hunting with a special kind of these birds,
namely the peregrine falcon, the sunset falcon or the gazelle falcon. The
peregrine falcon is fifty-five centimeters in length with a wingspan as wide
as ١٢٥ cm. Its body is covered with dark brown feathers on the back and
wings, while its head is white. The color of these birds varies according to
their environment.
The peregrine falcon is an migrant bird and can be seen in the Kingdom in
winter. It lives and breeds in mountain areas in central Asia and Eastern
Europe. This bird spends winter in some parts of the Arabian Peninsula
where it falls victim to hunters who can catch it by using nets. The shahîn
٤٠

falcon is also another bird that usually stays in the region during winter.
This falcon is a bit smaller than the peregrine falcon. It is forty-eight
centimeters in length with wings that can be stretched as wide as ١١٠ cm. It
is distinguished by the dark brown color on its head and back. It is light
brown on the belly. The shahîn is regarded as a skillful hunter, quick in
attacking its prey.
There are many other kinds of falcons such as the long-legged falcon and
the honey falcon. There are also some kinds of hawks, such as the common
hawk and the manshad hawk in addition to the black kite and kestrel. There
are also five kinds of predators, such as the owl, a nocturnal bird feeding on
rats, small birds, frogs and other animals. There is also the store owl or
white owl, the eagle owl and the little owl, which is known as umm quwîq
(see the section on hunting).
COASTAL BIRDS
The Kingdom hosts a variety of large coastal birds, especially of the heron
family, such as the brown balshûn, or heron.
These are regarded as migratory birds, usually coming to the country in
winter when salty or fresh water has accumulated. The purple heron also
can be found near water with a heavy cover of vegetation. This also is
regarded as a migratory bird.
The small bittern, sea heron, and rock heron are regarded as coastal birds.
The coastal bird called the ibis is reddish on the neck and back and dark
green on its wings. It is also a winter migratory bird.
WADING BIRDS
There are many kinds of the wading birds in the Kingdom. The most
important of these kinds are plovers. Sandpipers and plovers are medium
and small size birds distinguished by their short and wide beaks. Of the
wading and migratory birds we can find the ringed and the sandy plovers as
well as the brown plovers. The kinds of sandpipers are dunlins, the small
٤١

dunlins, the sandpipers with curved beaks, the green legged sandpipers, the
red legged sandpipers, and the common sandpipers. Other kinds are
curlews, kingfishers, and skylarks.
STOCK DOVES AND PIGEONS
There are about ten kinds in the dove family. Some of these kinds are
migratory others settlers. There are wild and domestic birds. The wild kinds
are stock doves. The birds of this family are distinguished for their thick
feathers, small heads, and weak short beaks. They live in groups in orchards
and around cities. The most famous of these are the rock pigeons, which in
the Hijaz region are called mosque pigeons (al-haram) for their large
numbers in Makkah and Madina, where they win the protection of the Two
Holy Mosques on one hand and enjoy the care and feeding of visitors. This
kind also is widespread internationally, in northern Europe and Africa. Of
the other kinds are the collared doves, distinguished by their brown color
and the black collar surrounding the back of the neck and live in wild trees.
Palm pigeons are reddish brown or rosy in color and the edges of their
wings are blue. They live on farms. There are also other kinds such as the
stock doves and the long tailed stock doves.
DUCKS AND GEESE
The duck family contains many kinds of ducks and geese. Ducks are
distinguished by being smaller in size with shorter legs. Feathers also vary
according to the breed. Usually they have distinguishing colored spots on
their wings. Some ducks coming to the damp regions in the Kingdom
during their migration are mallards. The male of this kind is distinguished
by a green head and white color round the neck, gray body, and white and
black tail, whereas the females are brown speckled. There are other kinds of
ducks such as the green-eyed ducks, seasonal visitors with a green line
around the eyes. Also there are other kinds of ducks called the long-tailed
ducks.
٤٢

Kinds of geese visiting some parts of the Kingdom during their migration
are the gray geese, big in size with gray or relatively brown color and wide
pink beaks. The country is also visited by another kind of goose, (wâqî), a
white bird with a long neck and yellow beak and relatively short legs.
SEA BIRDS
The most common widespread sea birds in the islands near the eastern
seashore of the Kingdom are the cormorants or sea crows. More than
٧٠،٠٠٠ birds gather in the islands. They are black birds with long and beaks
curved at the tip. They can be found in abundance in the Arabian Sea and
Socotra Island.
Terns (sea swallows) can be found in large numbers in some coral islands in
the Gulf, such as Karîn and Kârân Islands, which have about ١٠،٠٠٠ birds
of this kind. There are other kinds such as black-faced and white terns.
The white pelican is one of the spring migratory birds, distinguished by its
large beak, about forty-five centimeters long, which is used to catch fish.
The common gull, a winter visitor, and the coal gull, found in some Gulf
islands, are members of the sea gull family. Terns that breed in the Gulf are
of many kinds, such as the swift tern, the undulatory tern, and the Bahraini
tern, which is among the winter visitors to the region.
OTHER BIRDS
Other birds, which characterize the Kingdom’s environment, are the bustard
birds. There are only two species of these birds in the Kingdom.
The Arabian bustards, which can be found in the southwest regions of the
Tihâma plain, are regarded as indigenous birds. The Asian bustards,
migrant birds from Southeast Asia, come to the northeast region during
winter and spring, while some of these birds settle in the northern regions.
This kind was subject to severe hunting in the past years, and as a result its
numbers had fallen and it was near extinction. This matter concerned the
people interested in the wildlife in the Kingdom to take necessary measures
٤٣

to help breed these birds in captivity and then reintroduce them in the
preserved areas.
The partridge is another kind of game bird in the Kingdom. Of this family
we can find the gray-headed partridge, the sandy partridge, quail and
turkey. There are also three kinds of grouse: the striped sand grouse. And
the speckled sand grouse. Other birds forming an important element of the
wildlife in the Kingdom are nightingales, sparrows, skylarks, hoopoes, bee-
eaters, warblers, and various kinds of parrots and crows.
REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS

Reptiles and amphibians are an important part of the wildlife in the
Kingdom. In spite of drought, the scarcity of greenery, and the high
temperature, there can be found nine kinds of amphibians in addition to a
large number of snakes (land or water), lizards, sea reptiles, fresh water
reptiles and land reptiles.
SERPENTS
Fifty kinds of serpents can be found in the Kingdom, nine of which are sea
serpents usually living in the water of the Arabian Gulf. The rest can be
found in various areas such as sandy areas, mountains, villages, open plains
and agricultural regions. Twenty-three different kinds of these serpents,
about ٤٥٪, are poisonous. Also all sea serpents are regarded as poisonous.
THE ARQAM FAMILY - TRUE SERPENTS

In the Kingdom, there are about twenty kinds, most of them poisonous. The
lacertine snake (abû al-‘uyûn) is most common in the open desert regions,
usually distinguished by a very dark spot behind the eye. This snake is
forty-one centimeters long.
Other members of the serpent family are the zârûq or abû-siyûr al-shajarî,
which takes its first name from to its fast movement. Abu al-siyûr is noted
٤٤

for the bright-colored stripes on both sides of its body. It is a back-toothed
snake, common in the agricultural regions and forested areas.
Another common serpent, especially in the agricultural areas, is the arqam,
about one and a half meters long, sandy-brown in color with dark-colored
spots, from which its name is derived. It is a non-poisonous serpent.
TABLE SHOWING THE FAMILIES AND KINDS OF REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS IN THE
ARABIAN PENINSULA
Family Group No. of No. of
Families Types
Snakes ٨ ٥٥
Reptiles Lizards ٧ ٩٨
Turtles ٥ ١٠
Amphibians Frogs – Water ٢ ٣
Frogs – Land ١ ٦
THE SALÂL FAMILY

This family contains very poisonous serpents. They inject their poison into
their prey through their front teeth in the upper jaw. The poison mainly
effects the nervous system. The most common and well known of this
family are the cobras, which have the ability to create what is known as a
hood to cover themselves to scare their enemies. The Arabian cobras are
common in the southwest region near agriculture areas and watery places as
well as dams. These are two meters long, brown on the back and yellow on
the belly. There is also another kind not less dangerous than the cobra,
common in deserts in the central and northern regions. The desert cobra is
one of the most dangerous kinds and is distinguished by its dark black
color. It is two meters long. What makes it very dangerous is that it preys
on the lizards which live underground so that the lizard hunters usually are
subject to its fatal bite.
THE SERPENT FAMILY (VIPERS)

This family contains very poisonous snakes. Most of its members are
commonly distinguished by their triangular-shaped heads, narrow necks and
short tails. They have many front teeth in the upper jaw. Their poison
affects the blood system in particular, causing coagulation. Other kinds of
serpents common in the sandy areas are horned snakes, known as
٤٥

“centipedes” for the way they run on land. The other kinds of serpent are
the gharîba, nawâma or nâfitha, and the eastern carpet or raqtâ’ (speckled)
snake.
THE ABTAR FAMILY

This family contains very limited number of serpents living in Africa and
Southeast Asia. They are poisonous serpents with short teeth. They are able
to move sideways, which makes them more dangerous and difficult to
catch. The black libertine snake, a member of this family, is common in the
areas close to the Kingdom and is distinguished by its glittering black color.
It is about eighty centimeters long and is regarded as one of the species
which cause a lot of fatal bites.
SEA SERPENTS
The sea serpents are supposedly rooted in the salâl family, but later adapted
to life in water due to changes in the shape of the body and tail, as well as
the positions of some organs such as the nose hole. These poisonous
serpents live in warm water and the Arabian Gulf hosts about nine kinds of
them. These serpents are often peaceful and do not attack human beings.
They are distinguished by vivid colors that can be easily seen. Their kinds
are: the yellow-bellied sea serpent, the ringed sea lacertine, and the twisted
sea lacertine.
THE LACERTILIA FAMILY (LIZARDS)

Lizards comprise two-thirds of the reptiles found in the Arabian Peninsula.
There are about one hundred kinds of them spread throughout the sandy
areas, stony plains, valleys and mountain regions, in addition to a number of
kinds living in the moist areas and farming regions in particular. Lizards
usually feed on insects, except for the dhabb lizard. Some of them are
active during the day, others at nighttime only.
The lacertila family is known to most people, and the best known member
is the lizards which are prevalent in the Arabian Peninsula. The most
٤٦

common is the one called the Egyptian lizard, also the biggest in size,
which weighs an average of more than one and a half kilograms. This kind
is common in the central and northern regions of the Kingdom. However, it
has recently been the subject of a large-scale hunting campaign. It has been
hunted for both food and for sport. The Yemeni lizard is another member of
this family. It is sometimes called the wahir and is an average sized lizard
common in the southeast of the Kingdom and Yemen. It is distinguished by
its blue color, which sparkles in the sun, and usually lives among rocks.
Two members of the monitor lizard family can be found in the Kingdom.
The monitor lizard is a small creeping animal, with a long body and tail,
living in the open plain areas and feeding on small mammals, lizards and
snakes.
The gecko family, especially the house gecko, is well known to people. A
mountain version of this family lives in the rocky areas and is different
from the house gecko in its very dark body. It is the subject of many
legends saying that it is poisonous and contaminates food. However, there
are no poisonous lizards in the Kingdom. Some kinds of geckos feed in the
desert at night, others feed on trees.
In the southeast part of the Kingdom there are three kinds of chameleons.
There are also a number of true lizards and skinks.
TURTLES AND TORTOISES
The best known turtles living in the Kingdom are the green turtles and the
hawksbill turtle. There are two kinds in the Red Sea and the Arabian Gulf.
Three other kinds can be found in the Gulf and the Arabian Sea.
Two kinds of fresh-water turtles can be found, one living in the Ahsâ’ and
Qatîf oases called the bark turtle, and the other kind, called the sided-neck
turtle, is common in the Jizân and Qanfadha regions.
There are also two kinds of tortoises, one living in the eastern region, and
the other living in the Jizân region.
٤٧

It is noteworthy that the National Assembly for Natural Habitat
Preservation and Development, since its establishment in ١٩٨٦, has made
great efforts to reintroduce some animal species that have suffered
extinction in their natural habitat. These are Arabian antelopes, gazelles,
ostriches, and bustards. This assembly has created twelve wildlife preserves
in different parts of the Kingdom to help preserve plants and native animals
and to carry out the necessary research for this purpose. It also plays an
important role in stimulating public opinion on issues of environmental
protection. This is achieved by constant arrangements with the concerned
authorities in the Kingdom, on one hand, and by cooperation with the
international corporations and organizations on the other.
CAMELS
Camels are of two types, the Arabian camel and the Bactrian camel. The
Bactrian camels have two humps and they live in cold areas in the middle
of Asia and the east of Europe. They have long and thick hair and they can
stand the cold and the snow. However, these camels walk slowly and
cannot carry as much weight as the other type. The Arabian camel (the
dromedary), on the other hand, has only one hump. It has an elegant body,
moves easily, runs fast, can stand thirst and can carry a lot of weight.
Arabian camels live in mild and hot areas such as the Arabian Peninsula,
fertile regions in Iraq, Syria, Jordan, Palestine, Lebanon, the north of Egypt,
Sudan, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Somalia, Libya, Tunis, Algeria, Morocco,
Mauritania, the Moroccan Sahara, Chad and other places as well.
The male Arabian camel is known in Arabic as the jamal, and its female
counterpart is known as the nâqa. Arabian camels are known for their light
hair, their height (٢-٣ meters), and their ability to live in the desert.
Scholars believe that Arabs domesticated this useful animal between ٥،٠٠٠
and ٤،٠٠٠ BC Other scholars believe that this was long before this date
٤٨

based on evidence from drawings and inscriptions found on some rocks in
the Arabian Peninsula.
The camel constitutes one of the main bases of the Arabs’ life. It is one of
the four dimensions of the Arab’s personality, namely the person himself,
his horse, his camel and his tent. The horse is the protective power an Arab
resorts to at the time of hardship, while the camel is the base on which his
whole life is founded. An Arab relied on camels in travelling and carrying
his food, water, and clothes. He used its milk as a main source of food and
its hair for making his clothes, his bed and parts of his tent.
Camels have been companions of the Arab since a long time ago. No other
animal has the same linguistic status as the camel. In one of the Arabic
dictionaries, there are in excess of ١٠،٠٠٠ words for the camel! Moreover,
many current Arabic words are etymologically related to “camel”. For
instance, the word i‘tiqâl, which means “internment”, came from ‘iqâl
which means the “shackles of the camel.” Similarly, the words zimâm al-
umûr, which mean “control of matters” came from the word zimâm, which
means “camel reins.” Thousands of poems about camels have been
composed by Arab poets since the beginning of the Arabic poetry and until
fifty years ago. Camels are mentioned in almost all poems, as well as in
prose, whether in colloquial or standard Arabic.
During the Islamic conquests around the world camels were used as shields
to protect warriors from the attacks of the enemies and in attacks against
enemies. In the economic field, camels were used as a means of transport.
They were also put to use to power the water wheels that brought up
underground water for use in drinking and irrigation of farmland in the
Peninsula.
٤٩

Camels have come in many colors and combinations of color. Two are very
common in the Kingdom, the maghâtîr and the majâhîm. The former
includes white and off-whites as well as blond, moonlight, flame and red,
while the latter includes black and its different shades as well as blue,
smoke and yellow. These colors are sub-categorized into various colors
with a different name for each.
The most common camel diseases are scabies and coughing. Camels’ feet
can also get sore or galled from walking on rough ground.
There are many ways to tame or control camels. The most common is the
use of the ‘iqal to tie the camel’s front leg or both legs when it is sitting.
The word i’tiqal which means internment is derived from the camel’s ‘iqal.
The shackle is a kind of rope known in Arabic as qayd. It is tied around the
camel’s legs while standing in order to restrict its movement and steps. The
Arabic word quyûd, meaning restrictions, is etymologically derived from
the camel’s qayd. Another rope is used to control camels is known as the
hujâr which is used to tie up the front leg of the camel with its back
counterpart so that it allows the camel to walk and look for food but
prevents it from running away. Camels can also be tied up with a rope
above the front knees and below the thighs. This kind of rope gives the
camel more freedom to move and it is known in Arabic as al-ta ‘dhîd.
Another rope is tied to the camel’s groin at the bottom of the abdomen
while its other end is tied to one of the camel’s thighs so that it can move
freely but it cannot run away. Another rope is tied to the bottom of the
camel’s legs and the end of its back. The Arabic for this rope is the hijâz
from which the Arabic word ihtijâz, meaning detainment, was derived.
Thus, when the camel is tied by the ‘iqâl and the hijâz, it cannot move at
all. Any one type of the ropes mentioned above can be used alone except
for the ‘iqâl and the hijâz, which have to be used together for specific
purposes.
٥٠

The camel’s halter is called rasan or qarârîs, and it is fixed on its head and
is used for leading the camel. The camel halter consists of the noseband,
which is fixed around the camel’s muzzle, the headstall, which is fixed
around the back of its head, the halter ring and the halter rope. Arabic
expressions such as sa ‘b al-qiyâda, meaning difficult to lead, and sahl al-
qiyâda, meaning easy to lead, were developed from the camel’s halter.
Another word called khuzâm, meaning nose ring, refers to another type of
rope which goes through the camel’s nose and is used with camels which
are difficult to control.
People can ride camels without using anything to sit on, though this would
not be comfortable. Therefore, certain devices such as the saddle (shadâd)
and the litter (hawdaj) for women were developed to used for riding camels.
Camels water at different intervals of time and each interval is known in
Arabic as wird. If camels are offered water every day and whenever they
like, this is known in Arabic as raffa from which the Arabic word rafâhiya,
meaning luxury, was derived. If water is offered every other day, this is
called raghab. If offered every fourth day, this is called in rub’ (i.e. fourth),
and if offered every fifth day, this is called khums (i.e. fifth), etc.
To ascertain a camel’s age, one should know that camels have different
names at different ages. One should also know about the development of
camel’s teeth. For instance, the word jid‘ refers to a camel which is four
years old and getting into the fifth, the word thunî refers to a camel which
has completed the fifth year and is getting into the sixth. At this age, a
camel loses its two incisors and develops two bigger ones instead. When a
camel is six years old and starting the seventh, it is called ruba. At this age,
a camel loses two teeth and grows bigger ones instead. When completing
seven years old and getting into the eighth, camels lose the rest of their
٥١

teeth and get new ones. At this age, a camel is called sudâs. At the age of
nine, camels’ canines come out and at this age camels are called fâtir or
shârif. The peak of the camel’s strength is between the age of six and eight.
When they start growing canines, camels start to get weak and slow.
There are many words in Arabic referring to the camels’ walking and
running at different speeds. The Arabic word rafîf refers to slow walking,
next to this in speed is khabab. Other Arabic words referring to camels’
walking and running are jamz, na ‘q, tazayyud, dhamayl, rasîm, ramal,
irqâl, ranf, and kab‘, which refers to the camel’s running while lifting his
front and back legs simultaneously.
Camels also have different titles such as “God’s gift,” “whose milk is
sweet,” “whose steps are long,” “whose necks are bent,” “whose hocks are
bent,” etc.
Groups of camels that differ in number have different names. For instance,
the word dhawd is used for a group of camels consisting of three to ten,
sirmah for a herd from thirty to fifty, the word hajma for a group of ٥٠-٩٠,
and next is hanîda for a group of ١٠٠ camels.
Camels which carry litters, women and provisions are called tha ’n. Those
carrying luggage and other things while traveling are called madhhûr. The
number of camels a person owns is the measure of his wealth. The Arabic
word na ’am, meaning cattle or livestock, is exclusively used with camels.
Camels are nicknamed “hoof” just as sheep are nicknamed “cloven hoof”.
A caravan is a number of camels carrying goods and other things.
Camels reproduce through mating. The male camel is called in Arabic

jamal, while the female is called nâqa. Male and female camels have also
٥٢

many nicknames such as mitfal and dhi’r. Among all animals, the female
camel has the strongest band of affection towards its offspring. If it loses its
baby, it will become uncontrollable and it might die because of this. When a
baby camel dies, its skin is taken and stuffed with grass and other things, so
that its mother will smell it. This stuffed baby camel is called baww.
Mating between male and female camels takes place at specific times
during the year. When the male camel approaches its female (for
intercourse), it gets wild and aggressive, particularly if it sees another male
camel near its female. If anybody tries to take it away from its female, he
might even kill this person. This wild behavior of the male camel begins
with what is called hadîr, meaning “growl”. There are many words in
Arabic referring to the different phases of this hadîr. It begins with what is
called the kashîsh, then it develops into the katît, then the zaghd, then the
rijs, and finally the badhakh. The badhakh is the highest degree of hadîr,
when foam comes out of the male camel’s mouth like a balloon. The word
badhakh, which means sumptuous mode of life, is etymologically related to
the camel’s phase of badhakh.
Arabs used to mark their camels by using certain drawings to identify them.
The device was similar to what we know now as logos and trademarks,
which are used by companies and institutions. These marks and drawings
were usually done either by using a knife or branding on obvious areas of
the neck or cheek. Marking could also be done by notching the ear.
Arabs used to live on the camels’ meat and milk. It has been shown by
analysis that camel’ milk contains the following ingredients: ١٠٫٤ – ١٤٫٤ %
solid substances, ٢٪ fat, ٢٫٥٪ protein, ٣ - ٧٫٥٪ lactase, ١٤ – ٢٧٪ sodium
chloride and the rest is water.
٥٣

Camel meat contains a lot of protein, iron, and fat. The meat of young
camels is the best. When camels are old, their meat consists of solid tissue
and muscles that are difficult to digest.
٥٤

PLANTS
The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is located between the latitudes of ٢٢٫٣
degrees north and ١٦٫٣ degrees south of an area of ٢،٤٢٠،٠٠٠ km٢, about
four fifths of the Arabian Peninsula. It used to be bordered on the west by
the African continent and on the east by Iran. The topographic changes
which resulted in the formation of the Red Sea and the Arabian Gulf area
had its impact on the type of plants that grow in the Arabian Peninsula. As a
result, the types of plants in the Arabian Peninsula are identical with those
in Africa, Asia and the Mediterranean region. Due to the climatic changes
over the ages, certain geographic areas underwent formal changes to adjust
to the environmental conditions and consequently certain indigenous plants
grew in these areas. These indigenous plants do not grow outside this area.
In the Arabian Peninsula, there are about ٣٥٠ types of indigenous plants,
from which about sixty types are in the Kingdom.
Generally, plants that grow in the Arabian Peninsula are adapted to such
difficult conditions as drought, high temperature, and very salty soil. Thus,
most of these plants are desert plants with particular characteristics.
Despite the difficult conditions mentioned above, the plants growing in the
Kingdom are quite diverse. There are more than ٢،٧٠٠ types of plants in the
Kingdom, which can be classified into more than ١٣٠ categories. Most of
these plants grow in the southern region, while small trees grow in the
mountain areas and valleys. Annual plants, on the other hand, grow in the
desert plains after rainfall.
The inhabitants of the Kingdom have relied on wild plants for raising their
cattle and sheep. Some of these plants were used as food. There are about
١٠٠ plants that are edible, either as cooked or fresh food. Among the plants
that are still used in daily meals are ruma vesicavius, trigovellla stallata,
spina-christi, zizyphus nummularia, launea capitatea, oleo vera, capparis
spirosa and mesembryanthenum forsskaler.
٥٥

Muslim scholars have pointed out that some of the wild plants can be used
to cure many diseases. Many wild plants in the Kingdom are still used in
medicine. Scientific studies have shown that many wild plants in the
Kingdom can be used for pharmaceutical products to cure many diseases.
Among these plants are artimisia herba-alba, cassia senna and
cymbobopagon schoenathus. Other wild plants are used as perfumes and
food flavor. Among these plants are publicaria undulata, pulicario arabica
and ocimum.
In the past, the Saudi people used tree woods in constructing houses, water
wells, and kitchen facilities. Nowadays the use of these woods is confined
to traditional wooden industries such as wooden plates, food containers and
beehives. Among the trees that produce this wood are junaperus polycarpos
and zizyphus nummularia. However, the consumption of the wild wood is
threatening for the life of such plants as calligonum comosum, acacia seyal,
acacia lacta, acacia raddiana, ochrademus baccatus, retama raetam and
haloxylon persicum.
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS AFFECTING THE GROWTH AND DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS
Plants are closely related to the environment where they grow, since the
environment provides the plants with the factors necessary for their growth.
These environmental factors are, in turn, interrelated, and they affect one
another. Thus plants that grow in any area are conditioned by the
environmental factors of that area. These plants also constitute an organic
unity where they depend on one another. Among the factors affecting the
growth and distribution of plants are the following:
TEMPERATURE:
Temperature is the main source of energy for plants. However, each plant
needs a minimum and a maximum of temperature. If these limits are
٥٦

exceeded the plant will die. Thus temperature controls the type of plants
and their growth.
Due to the vast area of the Kingdom, the climate conditions are very
diverse. Most areas in the Kingdom have hot and dry weather in the
summer, while the winter is characterized with cool weather and a little
rain. The Southern Region, however, is mild and rainy in summer, and cold
in winter. This type of weather is reflected on the type of plants in this area
where forests of pulicario arabica grow. Other plants such as acacia seyal,
acacia raddiana and haloxylon persicum are adapted to the difficult
environmental conditions and grow in other areas of the Kingdom.
RAIN
Water plays an essential role in the growth and development of plants.
Thus, the appropriate amount of water is among the main factors that affect
the growth of plants. For instance, trees need more water than herbs. This
means that the amount of water determines the type of plants and their
characteristics. The amount of annual rainwater in the Kingdom ranges
between a few millimeters in the Empty Quarter to ٦٠٠ mm in the mountain
areas of the Southern Region. Most rains in the Kingdom arrive in winter
and the rate of rains does not exceed ٢٠٠ mm. These rains are often like
heavy showers for a short period of time. As a result, surface floods are
drained in valleys and lowlands. This affects the distribution and growth of
plants. Thus, plants are rather dense in valleys and lowlands where water is
plenty, while herbs grow in the sloping areas. Rains may not fall at all in
some years.
SOIL
All types of plants, with the exception of the water plants, get all they need
for growth from the soil. Thus plants cannot grow without a certain amount
of soil. Also the distribution and categorization of plants depend on the
physical and chemical characteristics of the soil. These characteristics
٥٧

determine the ability of the soil to preserve the water necessary for the
growth of plants. Chemical features also affect the growth of plants, since
different plants need different chemical substances.
The Kingdom hosts different types of soil. In sandy soils, there are certain
types of plants such as haloxylon persicum, artemisia monosperma and
panicum turgidum. In valleys where the soil is muddy there exist such trees
as acacia seyal and acacia raddiana. In salty soil, we find plants like
suaeda monoica, zygophyllum coccineum and hypericum chrysostrictum.
GEOGRAPHIC RELIEFS:
In the Kingdom, the areas which are higher than the sea level affect the
growth of plants. For instance, the Sarawât Mountains along the Red Sea
are separated from the sea by a narrow plain, which in certain areas could
be ١٠ km wide. Areas that are above the sea level are affected by many
factors such as low temperature, water availability, the direction and
strength of winds and exposure to sun. Thus, in an area ranging between
zero above sea level and ٣،٥٠٠ft. as it is the case with the mountain cliffs in
the Southern Region, one finds that such an area comprises a very diverse
variety of plants. Among these plants are: juneperus polycarpos, olea
chrysophylla, acacia seyal, acacia raddiana, solvadora persica, alyssum
homalocarpum, hyphoena thebaica, zizyphus nummularia, and avicennia
mariany.
THE BIOLOGICAL FACTOR:

Living beings, whether they are plants or animals, usually seek a kind of
equilibrium based on mutual benefit. For instance, bees use the flower
nectar for producing honey, and at the same time the flowers use the bees
for pollination. This kind of equilibrium between plants and animals
continues as long as man does not interfere.
٥٨

In the Kingdom, man has tremendous impact on the environmental
equilibrium between plants and animals. The reason for this is that the
Saudi people raise a lot of cattle and sheep, and they consume a lot of tree
woods. Consequently, many plants and trees are eradicated. Modern
methods of agriculture also have a role in this regard, since these methods
affect the natural environment that contains many types of plants. For
instance, the agricultural terraces in ‘Asîr Mountains and the big farms in
most parts of the Kingdom have resulted in a shortage of underground
water which plants need. Due to all these factors, more than fifty types of
plants are subject to extinction.
THE GEOGRAPHIC REGIONS:

The world is classified into six plant kingdoms based on the different
latitudes and environmental factors. Each plant kingdom is divided into
geographic regions depending on the type of plants in each region.
According to this classification, the Kingdom is located between two
geographical regions. The southern part of the Arabian Peninsula belongs to
the Sudanese Region which is known for seasonal rains, while the rest of
the Arabian Peninsula belongs to the North African Sahara Region which is
known for very little rains, and consequently plant’s density is very low.
THE NATURAL PLANT REGIONS:

Any natural plant region in the world comprises a variety of certain trees,
bushes, and herbs that are distinctive of that region. However, no clear-cut
boundaries distinguish one region from another rather there are transitional
plant areas between one region and another. Any natural plant region in the
world comprises a variety of certain trees, bushes, and herbs which are
distinctive of that region. However, no clear-cut boundaries distinguish one
region from another rather there are transitional plant areas between one
٥٩

region and the other. In other words, it is more like a continuum containing
a variety of distinct plant regions.
In the Kingdom the distribution of natural plant regions depends on such
factors as the geographic position, the geological structure, and the surface
level. Therefore, the Kingdom is divided into two main regions: (١) The
Western Region and (٢) East of the Hijâz Mountain region.
THE WESTERN REGION:

It includes the Hijâz Mountains that extend from the north to south. It is
composed of volcanic rocks sloping sharply toward Tihâma Plain and
gradually toward the east.
EAST OF THE HIJÂZ MOUNTAIN REGION:

It includes the Eastern, the Middle and the Northern Region. Geologically,
it is different from the Western Region since it is composed of sedimentary
rocks.
The Western Region is divided into two parts depending on the geographic
and climatic factors that affect the growth of plants.
SOUTH OF THE WESTERN REGION:

This includes the Western southern region which begins at the latitude of
٢١٫٣٠ north until the Yemen borders in the south. This part is characterized
by hot weather and seasonal rains that are due to the clouds accumulating
over mountains during August and September. These rains fall on ‘Asîr and
Bâha, while winter rains fall on the northern parts. In the beginning of
summer, some rains fall on some parts of this region such as Faifa
Mountain. Normally, rainy seasons are characterized by lower temperature
and higher rates of humidity.
The southern part of the Western Region is characterized by high
mountains. These mountains are as high as ٣،٧٠٠m near Abhâ in the south;
they get less high towards the north. Mountains are sharply sloping
westward. There are also tributaries where water is gathered to form big
٦٠

valleys from which water passes to the Tihâma and the sea. The Tihâma
Plain, which is from two to ten kilometers wide, separates the mountains
from the sea.
Among the tropical trees which grow on the mountain foot in this region
are: juneperus polycarpos, olea chryophylla, zizyphus spino-christia,
comiphara mulmul, rumex nervosus, dodonea viscosa, ficus sycamorus, and
arnebia hispidissima. The plants that grow in Tihâma Plain are hyphaene
thebacia, acocio syyol, alyssum homalocarpum and solvadora persica.
NORTH OF THE WESTERN REGION:

This part is located outside the hot area, and consequently rain falls in
winter. This part is also less rainy and hotter than the southern part.
Mountains get less high northwards; they do not exceed ١،٥٠٠m high
except for few mountains such as Radhwî Mountain and Lawz Mountain.
Plants in this part are less dense than in the southern part. They are also
different plants in each part. The plants growing on mountain foot are
phanterium suaeveolens, acacia raddiana, and acacia asak, while the
plants growing in the valleys are acocio seyal, retama raetam, and acacia
asak.
THE EASTERN, MIDDLE AND NORTHERN REGIONS:

It is located to the east of the Hijâz Mountains. It is a plateau of ١٠٠٠m
high containing a series of mountains. These mountains are formed of
crystallized granite rocks, and they are about ١،٥٠٠m high. This region is
also characterized by sandy areas such as Nufûdh Al-Dahnâ to the west of
which there are the Tuwayq Plateau and the Samân Plateau.
In this region, winter is cold and rainy, while the summer is hot and dry.
Rains usually fall between October and April, and the annual rate of rain
does not exceed ١٣٠mm. As a result, plants grow only in valleys, meadows
and mountain foot. Among the plants growing in this region are: lycium
shawii, haloxylon persicum, hansada elegans, acacia seyal, colotropis
٦١

procera, rhaterium eppaposum, frocoria crispa, capparis cartilaginea,
rhazya stricta, and plantago albicans. After the fall of rain, annual plants
increase. Among these annuals are: harwoodia albicans, authemis voblis,
medicago spp, launea spp, rumex vesicarius, trigovella stallata and
neurada procumbens.
PLANT ENVIRONMENTS:
MOUNTAINS
Among the most important plant environments in the Kingdom are
mountains. For instance, the Sarawât Mountains along the Red Sea are
higher in the south at ٣،٧٠٠ m, while in the north they go down gradually to
١،٥٠٠ m with the exception of few mountains that are ٢،٠٠٠ m high.
In the middle and the north of the Kingdom there are some mountains that
are not very high, but they are known for particular plants, e.g. the
mountains of Ajâ and Salmâ in Hâ’il. On the other hand, the mountains of
the Western Region are known for heavy rains, low temperature and high
humidity. Consequently, there are certain plants know to be different from
other plants in the Kingdom. Among these plants are juneperus polycarpos,
olea ehrysophylla and acacia raddiana, which grow at the top of
mountains. At the foot of the mountains, we find such plants as ziziphro
nummularia, comiphora mulmul and lycium shawii. In the rest of the
Kingdom’s mountains, we often find plants such as morinya peregrina,
rhanterium suaeveolens, moltkiopsis, acacia seyal, acacia lacta and ratama
ratam.
VALLEYS
Valleys are formed from the runoff of heavy rains. A main valley usually
has a number of tributaries that provide it with rainwater. A valley could be
as long as ١٠٠ km, while its width might range between ١٠ and ١٠٠ m. The
valley floor is usually covered with sedimentary deposits that are delivered
by water. As a result, valleys are richer in plants than the neighboring areas.
٦٢

Trees, bushes and annuals, also grow on both sides of the valley. Among
the most important valley plants in the Western region are zizyphus spina-
christia and acacia lacta. In the north of the Western region, grow plants
like acacia seyal, acacia raddiana, renama raetam, zizyphus nummularia
and alyssum homalo. In the rest of the valleys in the Kingdom, we find
plants such as acacia seyal, panicum turgidum, rhanteriam appaposum,
tamarix aphylla, zizyphus nummularia, rhazya stricta, capparis
cartilaglnea, artemesia herba, achillen fragrantissina and zilla spinosa.
SANDS
Sands constitute about a third of the whole area of the Kingdom of Saudi
Arabia. Among these sandy areas are the Empty Quarter in the southeast of
the Kingdom, al-Nufûd al-Kabîr in the north of the Kingdom and the
Dahnâ’ in the east of the Kingdom. These sandy environments are very dry
due to the rarirty of the rains there, and to the fact that sandy soil cannot
hold water. Thus plants growing in the areas are of the type that can survive
under these conditions. Among these plants are calligonum camosun,
haloxylon persicum, artimisia monoperma and hamada elegans. After
rainfall, the following annuals grow: picris abyssinica, picris cyanocarpa,
cyperus conglomyratus, asphodelus fistulosus, aristida plumsa, stipagrostis
scoparia, neurada procumens and cornulaca movacantha. No plants grow
in the migrating sand dunes.
MEADOWS
Meadows are lowlands where water accumulates via the tributaries. These
meadows are known for sandy, muddy lands. As a result, plants in these
meadows are so dense that they look like big farms in the middle of the
desert. Among the trees that grow in these meadows are acacia seyal,
zizyphus spino-christia, frocaria crispa, artimisia herba-aba, achillea
fragrantissina, calotropis procera and capparis cartilaginea. Annuals that
grow in these meadows during the spring season are plantago albicans,
٦٣

authemis voblis, launea spp. and mint. In the middle region, there are plenty
of meadows, such as Khuraym Meadow, Sabla Meadow and many
meadows in Samân.
MOORLAND
Moorland is salty land, and can be classified into two types in the Kingdom:
coastal moorland near the Red Sea and the Arabian Gulf and internal
moorland in the Middle and Northern Regions. Plants growing in these
moorlands are of the type that can put up with the high concentration of salt
in the soil. Among these plants are suaeda monoica, zygophyllum
coccineum-album and hypericum chrysostrictum. Other plants grow in
moorlands where soil has a lower concentration of salt. Examples of these
plants are tamarix aphylla and zizyphus nummularia. Other areas of
moorland are too salty for plants to grow at all.
DESERT PLAINS
The desert plains are vast areas varying in height and containing some small
tributaries and meadows. Desert plains are plentiful in the Kingdom,
particularly in the middle and northern Regions. Among the plants growing
in these plains are rhazya stricta, hamada elegans and rhanterium
oppoposum. In rainy seasons, annual plants grow in these plains, and
consequently these plains turn green instead the usual khaki. Among these
plants are horwoodia diksonea, plantago albicans and echinosciadium
arabicum.
٦٤

CAHPTER ٢ : THE PEOPLE
Social Sciences
POPULATION
SPECIFICATIONS AND DISTRIBUTIONS
The Kingdom’s prosperous economy is the result of stable security and the
discovery of oil, for oil revenue is used to carry out joint infrastructure
projects and provide general services all over the country. These important
historical accomplishments have led to a flood of foreign workers and to
internal population movement towards the main developing industrial and
trading centers in large cities. Consequently, there have been constant and
great changes in the number of the inhabitants, their distribution and their
demographic structure as well as their social and economic situations.
The number of inhabitants in the middle of the Arabian Peninsula was very
small if we compare it with the number today. Some of them were settled at
oases and in small villages, while others were spread over the vast desert.
The population growth was rather slow during the period before the Saudi
era. This situation was due to scarce natural resources and unstable political
situations, especially after the administration of the Islamic state weas
moved to Syria and then to Iraq. The spread of diseases, pestilence and
starvation, too, killed a large percentage of the population. This harsh
reality naturally led to a constant emigration out of Peninsula before and
after the advent of Islam.(١)
Some sources point out that the population in the central part of the
Peninsula, the area of the Kingdom today, was about one million people at
the time of Jesus’ revelation. The population grew to reach two million in
the period of the Four Rightly Guided Caliphs. However, due to the
constant emigration referred to previously, the population started to go
down(٢) and afterwards, the number fluctuated according to the
٦٥

circumstances of the Arabian Peninsula. For example, according to some
sources, a period of drought struck the country between ١٦٣٧ and١٨٧٤. The
same source points out that diseases, starvation and pestilence also hit the
country repeatedly, exemplified by the strong freezing cold wave of ١٧٤٩,
and the spread of the damgha pestilence known as oasis fever from ١٧٦١-
٢.(٣)
It is to be regretted that an estimation of number of inhabitants is not
available for past centuries, except a few references to population figures to
be found in books of western travelers in the second half of the last century.
These figures were mostly confined to particular areas or provinces.
THE POPULATION GROWTH FROM ١٩٦٢ TO١٩٩٢

During the last two or three decades, the Saudi population has been
increasing as a result of the stable political situation, the stable security all
over the country, and to the improvement of the standard of living and the
availability of basic health services. These factors had led to the termination
of diseases and pestilence and a general improvement in the health
condition of the population. Death rates in general, and infant and mother
death rates in particular have decreased. Table ١ shows an increase in
number of inhabitants from about three million in ١٩٦٢ to about seven
million people. Seven millions was the figure according to the census
carried out in ١٩٦٢. This number went up to about ١٧ million people in
١٩٩٢. It was a period of a very prosperous economy, when workers from all
over the world and especially form Arab countries and Southeast Asia
poured into to the country to carry out the development projects during the
٧٠’s and the ٨٠’s.
٦٦

Chart (1) Shows the Population Growth in the Kingdom from 1962 to 1992
٢٠
٤٫٩%
١٥ population growth rate

١١٢٫٥٦
١٤١٫٧٩
Year Population
١٠
١٩٦٢ ٣٢٩٧٦٥٧
٦٫٢٨
١٩٧٤ ٧٠٠٩٤٦٦
٥
١٩٩٢ ١٦٩٤٨٣٨٨
The annual growth rate of Saudi population is ٣٫٧٩ %. It is a relatively high

rate in comparison with many other world growth rates (٤). Figure (٢)
shows differences in rates from one region to another (look at table ٢). The
fast growing population and the sharp geographical differences in growth
were due to emigration from inside or outside in addition to the natural
increase. No doubt, the high rates in the Eastern Province were due to the
oil industry, other economic activities which attracted workers from inside
and outside the country and all other political and administrative centers
with ministries and government establishments, which are located together
with many other economic institutions. These reasons justify the high
growth population rates in these two provinces.
TABLE (2) - THE GROWTH RATE IN GENERAL AND OF THE SAUDI POPULATION IN
PARTICULAR DURING 1974/1992
Total Pouplation Growth Saudi Population Growth
Region Rate Rate
Riyadh Region ٦٫١٨ ٤٫٧٢
Makkah ٥٫١٧ ٣٫٨٣
Gizan Region ٤٫١٧ ٤٫١٧
Eastern Province ٦٫٧٦ ٥٫٧٦
Aseer Region ٣٫٧٧ ٣٫١٩
Quaseem Region ٤٫٦٥ ٣٫٧٤
Hail Region ٢٫٤٣ ١٫٥٨
Madinah ٤٫١١ ٣٫١٤
Al-Baha Region ٣٫٢٢ ٢٫٦٢
٦٧

It is noteworthy that the Saudi woman gives birth to an average of six
children during her life. Death rates are forty cases out of a thousand
people. Infant mortality went down from twenty-four per thousand, i.e.
every year twenty-four babies out of a thousand die. This figure is a result
of the improvement in health services that have been made available to all
people throughout the country.(٥)
THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION

Population distribution varies from one province to another, according to
the area, nature and human living types (look at figure ٣). Makkah province
provides more than the quarter of the Kingdom’s total population. Riyadh
province is second, accommodating ٢٣٪. The Eastern province comes third,
accommodating ١٥٪ of the Kingdom’s population. (Look at Table No. ٣),
the fourth is ‘Asîr, ٨٪, Madina, ٦٪, Jizân, ٥٪, and Qasîm, ٤٪. The cities
with the lower figures on the scale are located on the northern borders.
They are Jawf at ١٫٦ % and Najrân at ١٫٨٪.
According to nationality, in ١٩٩٢ statistics reveal that the non-Saudi
population constitutes more than one quarter of the Kingdom’s total
population (٢٧٪). Table number (٣) shows that the non-Saudi population
rate is growing fast in the Makkah region (about ٣٨٪), the Riyadh region
(about ٣٢٪), the Eastern region (٢٦ %). This is true, because these three
regions are the centers of most religious, political and economic activity.
TABLE 3 SHOWING POPULATION DISTRIBUTION IN 1992 ACCORDING TO NATIONALITY.
Percentages of populations
Administrative Region % of Population Saudi Non-Saudi
Riyadh Region ٢٢٫٦٣ ٦٨٫١٦ ٣١٫٨٤
Makkah ٢٦٫٣٦ ٦٢٫٢٥ ٣٧٫٧٥
Gizan Region ٥٫١١ ٨٤٫٧٦ ١٥٫٢٤
Eastern Province ١٥٫٢٠ ٧٣٫٨٤ ١٨٫٢٦
Aseer Region ٧٫٩١ ٨٥٫٨٢ ١٤٫١٨
Al-Quaseem Region ٤٫٤٣ ٨١٫٣٠ ١٨٫٧٠
Hail Region ٢٫٤٣ ٨٤٫١٧ ١٥٫٨٣
Madina ٦٫٤٠ ٧٧٫٢١ ٢٢٫٠٢
Al-Baha Region ١٫٩٦ ٨٧٫٢٩ ١٢٫٧١
Northern Borders ١٫٣٥ ٧٧٫٩٨ ٢٢٫٠٢
Tabuk Region ٢٫٨٦ ٨٢٫٧٣ ١٧٫٢٧
Najran Region ١٫٧٨ ٧٩٫٩٣ ٢٠٫٠٧
Al-Jouf Region ١٫٥٩ ٨٣٫٢٠ ١٦٫٨٠
Total of the Kingdom ١٠٠ ٧٢٫٦٣ ٢٧٫٣٧
٦٨

POPULATION DENSITY AND TYPES
Population density in the Kingdom has been growing rapidly for the recent
three decades. It has risen from ١٫٧٤ people per square kilometer in ١٩٦٢ to
three people in ١٩٧٤. It rose again to seven people per square kilometer in
١٩٩٢.
The highest population density can be found in the Jizân region about fifty-
four people per square kilometer in ١٩٩٢. Makkah has thirty people per
square kilometer, Bâha twenty-four per square kilometer, ‘Asîr seventeen
per square kilometer and Riyadh about ten per square kilometer. A low
population density can be found in the Qasîm and Madina regions (Look at
Table ٤). Najrân and the northern borders come in the end of the list
regarding the density population rate in the Kingdom in١٩٩٢. The low-
density population rate in Najrân and the north borders is because the
former includes parts of the non-populated quarter area, whereas the latter
does not include large populated centers.
TABLE (4) SHOWING POPULATION DENSITY IN THE PROVINCES IN 1992
Administrative Percentage of Population
Region in ١٩٩٢
Gizaan Region ٥٤٫١٦
Makkah ٢٩٫٦٠
Al-Baha Region ٢٤٫٤٤
Aseer Region ١٦٫٤٩
Riyadh Region ٩٫٦٢
Quaseem Region ٩٫٤٦
Madina ٦٫٧٦
Eastern Province ٣٫٦١
Tabuk Region ٤٫٢٢
Al-Jouf Region ٢٫٢٣
Hail Region ٣٫٣٨
Najraan Region ٢٫٠٥
Northern Borders ١٫٧٧
Total Kingdom ٧٫٥٣
THE CHANGE OF LIVING PATTERNS

The Bedouin way of life is still dominant in the Arabian Peninsula, and the
civilized centers are limited in size and number. However, the number of
Bedouin has started to go down, and their ways of life have started to die
٦٩

out as the majority of them are emigrating to cities and villages for jobs or
to benefit from public services and free health services.
According to an estimate in ١٩٣٢, the unsettled Bedouins made up more
than half of the total population of the Kingdom. However this figure went
down to ٢٥٪ in ١٩٧٤, because of large-scale emigration from villages to
cities in the previous two decades.
This influx of people helped the main cities to grow rapidly. For example,
the annual growth rate in Riyadh is estimated at ٨٪. Its population went up
from ٨،٠٠٠ in ١٩٣٢ to about three million people in ١٩٩٢.
In the recent decades, the number of urban people went up as a result of the
economic transformations and population movements in the Kingdom. So
the urban population rate has gone up sharply during recent decades. In
١٩٣٢, the urban population constituted about ٢٠٪ of the Kingdom’s total
population. In ١٩٦٢, this figure went up to ٢٤ % and to ٤٦ % in ١٩٧٤. In
١٩٩٦, it was estimated at ٧٩٪ (Look at figure No. ٤) (٦).
POPULATION, AGE AND TYPE

Age composition means the number of inhabitants, their relative age or
their different age section. Type composition means classification of people
as females or males.
Type Composition
Though the number of males is a little bit greater than that of the females, in
general one can say that females and males are equal in number at ١٠٢
males to ١٠٠ females. (Look at figure No. ٥.) In other words, Saudi females
are ٥٠٫٤٩٪ and males ٤٩٫٥١ % of the population.
The balance between males and females in the Kingdom varies from region
to another. The rate is highest in Tabûk at an estimated ١١٠, in the Easten
region at ١٠٨, and in the north border region at ١٠٧. The lowest rate at ٩٦
can be found in the Jizân and Hâ’il areas. In the ‘Asîr region, it is ٩٧. It is
noteworthy that the number of males is greater in the former regions, while
٧٠

we have the opposite in the latter regions. (Look at Table No. ٥ and Figure
No.٦).
Age Composition
The Kingdom’s population is generally young. Young people, less than ١٥

years old, make up ٤٠٪, while people of ٦٥ years or more, make up a small
portion, not more than ٢٪ in ١٩٩٦. (See Figure No. ٧). This is due to high
birth rates, with women giving birth to an average of six children.
It is noteworthy that such population compositions are not confined to the
Kingdom. It is common in most developing countries that have high birth
rates. There is no doubt that such a population composition creates
economic problems, e.g. the sufficient provision of necessary services such
as education, health, etc. to a great number of people. This became the
situation when the Saudi economy boomed drawing foreign manpower in
large numbers into the country. (Figure No. ٨ shows the make up of the
young population).
٧١

TABLE (5) - THE TYPICAL MAKE UP OF THE SAUDI AS WELL AS NON-SAUDI
POPULATION
Saudi population
Region
Percentage of Males Percentage of
Females
Riyadh Region ٥١٫٣٣ ٤٨٫٦٧
Makkah ٥٠٫٣٧ ٤٩٫٦٣
Gizan Region ٤٨٫٩٨ ٥١٫٠٢
Eastern Province ٥١٫٩١ ٤٨٫٠٩
Aseer Region ٤٩٫٢١ ٥٠٫٧٩
Quaseem Region ٤٩٫٦٧ ٥٠٫٣٣
Hail Region ٤٩٫٠٢ ٥٠٫٩٨
Madina ٤٩٫٧٤ ٥٠٫٢٦
Al-Baha Region ٤٦٫٨٣ ٥٣٫١٧
Northern Borders ٥١٫٦٢ ٤٨٫٣٨
Tabuk Region ٥٢٫٣٩ ٤٧٫٦١
Najran Region ٤٩٫٨٧ ٥٠٫١٣
Al-Jouf Region ٥٠٫٣٢ ٤٩٫٦٨
Total of the Kingdom ٥٠٫٤٩ ٤٩٫٥١
١. Al-Sâleh, Nâsir (١٤٠٢H) ‘ Population Cases in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia,’ Education Magazine, Um al-Qura
University (A special issue on Geography.
٢. McEvery, C. and Jones, R. (١٩٧٨), Atlas of World Population History.
٣. al-Ruwaithî, Muhammad (١٤٠٠ H.). The Population of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, as quoted from ibn ‘Issa and
Philpy.
٤. Statistics show that that normal world increase rate was ١٫٥ % in ١٩٩٦, not more than ١٪ in any country in Europe,
whereas in the Asian countries, for example, it is as high as ٤٫٩ % in Oman, and ٥٪ in the Gaza Strip, and ٣٫٧٪ in Syria and
Iraq. (See Population Reference 1996).
٥. Population Reference (1996) World Population Data Sheet, Washington: PRB.
٦. These statistics have been quoted from different sources as follows:
- al-Hammâd , Muhammad abdullah (١٩٨٣) “The Development of Saudi Cities: Between the Theory and Practice” A paper
presented at the Symposium on Saudi Cities : Spread and Inner-Composition,” ٢١-٢٣ March, at the Geography
Department, King Saud University, Riyadh.
- Nâsir al-Salah (١٤٠٢H.), op. cit.
- Muhammad al-Ruwaithî, op. cit. (١٤٠٠ H.).
- Atlas of the Population of Saudi Arabia (١٤٠١ H.), Department of Geography, King Saud University, Riyadh.
٧٢

HISTORY
INTRODUCTION:
The agreement between Prince Muhammad bin Saud, Prince of Dira‘iya,

and Sheikh Muhammad bin Abdulwahhâb in ١١١٥ A.H. / ١٧٤٥ AD marks
the beginning of Saudi history on the basis of which many issues have been
resolved and the small town of Dira‘iya has become a powerful and
influential state. The Prince believed that the Sheikh was right in fighting
the false religious innovations and superstitions that dominated the feelings
and thoughts of many Muslims. The Prince was also convinced that
spiritual corruption and deviation from the right belief were the causes
behind the Muslims’ backwardness and disunity.
When the agreement between the Prince and the Sheikh took place, Najd
was divided between sheikhs of tribes and leaders of groups. Although the
Hanbali sect of thought, a prominent Sunni school, that lays much emphasis
on the purity of religion was dominant in Najd, and although scholars were
available in the town of this area, most Bedouins were ignorant of their
religious duties, and the false religious practices of Sufism were also
common.
To sum up, its situation in Najd was religiously, politically, economically,
socially and culturally unacceptable. Najd was in need of a spiritual
movement to get rid of the religious misguidance and deviation and teach
the ignorant people their religious duties. Najd was also in need of a
political movement to unify the area, unify the efforts of the people, utilize
its potentialities, establish security and get rid of the chaos and enmity
common among the various tribes and people of rural and urban areas.
THE FIRST SAUDI STATE:

The Dira‘iya agreement has led to a covenant consisting of one article,
namely Jihad in order to purify religion, spread the right religion, and fight
٧٣

the opposing powers whose concern is separation only. Their actions were
truly in accordance with this article. The reign of Muhammad bin Saud
lasted for twenty years after the agreement. Throughout his reign, he fought
against those who deviated from the right religion, as well as tribal and
village leaders who wanted to preserve their authority. He was able to bring
most of Najd under his control, even though there was some cases of
betrayal and hypocrisy during this period. He died before defeating his
toughest opponent Dahâm ibn Dawâs, who was the governor of Riyadh.
Thus the Prince deserved the title Imam.
After the death of the Imam in ١٧٧٣, his son Prince Abdulaziz succeeded
him as Imam. His son’s military power led to the conquest of Riyadh, and
thus Dahâm’s opposition, which had lasted for twenty-seven years, was
over. This facilitated the unification of Najd, which took place when
Shammar mountain was brought under the control of Dira‘iya in ١٧٩٢.
During the reign of Imam Abdulaziz, both Ahsâ’ and the Gulf region were
brought under his control. The only two parts of the Arabian Peninsula
remaining outside Dira‘iya’s authority were the Hijaz and Yemen. Finally,
the Hijaz and Yemen were brought under the authority of his successor,
Saud bin Abdulaziz, who succeeded his father after latter’s assassination in
١٨٠١.
Imam Saud was a partner with his father in the government. He was known
for his bravery and military skills. During his reign, the Saudi State reached
the climax of its power, and its authority extended to parts of Iraq and Syria
where many tribes were influenced by the Islamic teachings of the spiritual
movement. Consequently, after Ottoman authority had been undermined in
the Arabian Peninsula, the Ottoman State was concerned that the Saudis
were a threat to its interests in Arab countries. So the Ottoman Sultan had
no option but to ask the strong governor of Egypt, Muhammad Ali, to fight
the Saudis.
٧٤

The Sultan’s request appealed to the strong ambition of Muhammad Ali,
who wanted to take advantage of the bad circumstances of the Caliphate,
gain more power, and extend the territories under his authority. Thus he
sent a military expedition under the leadership of his son Tusun. In the
beginning, the military expedition was defeated. But finally, the Saudi’s
withdrew from the Hijaz due to the continuous military support for the
expedition, the big difference in materials and fighters on both sides, the
Imam Saud’s lack of leadership skills, and his death in ١٨١٤.
Abdullah succeeded his father as Imam. He was a righteous and brave man,
but he lacked the political and military experience of his father. It was clear
to him that the main objective was to destroy his state in Dira‘iya. The
resistance of Imam Abdullah ibn Saud to the invaders in the north and
middle of Najd lasted until Ibrahim Pasha managed to reach Dira‘iya and
besiege it. In ١٨١٨, Dira‘iya surrendered and Imam Abdullah was
imprisoned. He was taken to Egypt and then to Constantinople, where he
was executed.
THE SECOND SAUDI STATE

The fall of the first Saudi state did not stop its spiritual, political and
cultural power. It was natural that the Saudi determination would overcome
the setback. This is exactly what happened when Prince Turki bin
Muhammad bin Saud restored Saudi authority in Najd in ١٨٢٠. His son
Faisal was able to control some Gulf states besides Najd during the first
period of his reign, which began in ١٨٣٠ and lasted for four years. But
Muhammad Ali, who was planning to establish an Arabian Empire for
himself viewed the revival of the Saudi State as an obstacle in the way of
carrying out his plan. Therefore, he organized a military expedition that
resulted in the capture of Imam Faisal.
Prince Khalid bin Saud succeeded his father Imam Faisal, and he ruled Najd
for three years and some months, after which one of his cousins, Abdullah
٧٥

ibn Thenyen succeeded him. Abdullah’s tough nature and his killing of
people on the basis of mere suspicion spoilt the relative stability and the
gains he achieved. Thus, the people were looking forward to the return of
Imam Faisal, who was released by the governor of Egypt. Then he ruled
Najd for the second time in ١٨٩٣. During this era, Najd enjoyed political
stability, security, stability, and economic development. However, there
were cases of draught and cases of the disobedience common in tribal and
desert life.
THE KINGDOM OF SAUDI ARABIA:

The first step towards the establishment of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
was the brave and successful military operation through which Prince
Abdulaziz bin Abdurrahman regained Riyadh and the areas around it in
١٩٠٢. Two years later, the south of Najd became under his control. In ١٩٠٤,
he conquered Qasîm, the Ahsâ’ region in ١٩١٣, and Hâ’il, as well as its
neighboring areas in the north, in ١٩٢١. A year later, he gained Asîr.
On Thursday, December ١٦, ١٩٢٥, the Hijaz came under the Saudi
authority after the treaty of Jeddah. The name of the Kingdom of Saudi
Arabia was declared on the December ١٣. However, the September ٢٢,
١٩٣٢ AD was designated as the national day of the Kingdom.
After the declaration of the name of the Kingdom, there was a political
change that manifested itself by the international recognition of the
Kingdom. Security also developed, and the Hajj routes were made safe.
Culturally, emphasis was laid on education and literary journalism.
Socially, the geographical barriers and borders were eradicated. Finally,
economic conditions improved with the discovery of oil.
Thus the history of the Kingdom can be divided into three phases:
THE FIRST PHASE:
This phase covers the periods between the opening of Riyadh until the Qatîf
treaty with Britain in ١٩١٥. This period was known for series of wars and
٧٦

military expeditions. At that time, Abdulaziz thought of the settlement of
the Bedouins, so that they would be directed to Jihad instead of conquest.
He also thought of teaching them religion, agriculture and trade. Thus they
became obedient to him and ready to follow his instructions. Then the
Brotherhood Movement was established among the rulers of the Arabian
Peninsula. He also thought of restoring Ahsâ’. As an outlet to the sea, Ahsâ’
would also contribute with agricultural products as well as customs tax
revenues. Among the factors which helped in the restoration of Ahsâ’ are its
connection with Najd throughout its modern history, the weakness of the
Ottoman rule in this area, the attitude of the British, who supported the
Saudi rule of Ahsâ’, and the desire of the people there to get rid of the chaos
and tribal dictatorship.
THE SECOND PHASE: (From 1915 to 1932)
During this phase, the Sultan of Najd, King Abdulaziz, was powerful and
independent. He was also known for his skills in fighting and
argumentation. His object was to achieve his plan of unity despite the
confrontation with the Ottomans and the British, who wanted to prevent
him from conquering Hâ’il after the collapse of the Ottoman State in World
War I. However, he went on fighting Hâ’il until he liberated it.
At this phase, some Arab rulers who were frustrated because of occupation
viewed King Abdulaziz as a saving power. He was quite sure that reaching
a compromise with King Hussein was not possible. Therefore, King
Abdulaziz decided to unite the Hijaz with Najd. After doing this, he took all
responsibilities and handled all the consequences properly.
King Abdulaziz has practically proved that the unity of the Hijaz and Najd
from long ago could not be distorted by tribal disputes or enmity between
rulers. He was against the idea of considering the Hijaz as means for
establishing the Caliphate after it was banned by Kemal Ataturk. Nor did he
٧٧

accept the idea that the Hijaz would be ruled by organizations located in
occupied countries that might expose it to Westernization and
Christianization. After all, it was an Arab and Islamic country and it needed
independent and righteous leadership.
Thus King Abdulaziz became the master of the Arab Peninsula. The entire
Arab nation saw in him the potential for a comprehensive Arab union. In
fact, influential Arab leaders asked him to re-establish the Arab Empire.
This annoyed Britain, which tried to establish unity between two Arab
countries to compete with the state of King Abdulaziz. But it did not
happen.
ORGANIZATION AND REFORM:

After the union was completed, King Abdulaziz began to organize and
reform the united state. For this purpose, he selected a board of directors
whose members were sincere, experienced, and willing to work for the
public interest, so that reform would be based on solid ground and would
take into account the priorities, needs, and the obstacles. This board issued
the basic instructions that determined the international and external policies,
rights and duties, regulations and responsibilities. Among these
responsibilities were the passport and nationality system, political
representation, foreign relations and avenues of cooperation.
King Abdulaziz placed particular emphasis on security in the Hijaz for the
sake of pilgrims, and he was able to provide security for the pilgrims. He
was much concerned with education, and he established a council to
supervise the educational process. This council was concerned with
educational development, curricula and modernization. He also established
an educational administration to take care of schools, teachers, students and
employees. He established a modern financial system compatible with the
demands of the modern age. Military training and equipment were also
modernized. There were also administrations for health and mail services,
٧٨

as well as for Hajj. He was also concerned with the communication system
to connect the different parts of the Kingdom together. Routes were
modernized, cars were made available, and a telegram network throughout
the whole Kingdom was developed. The King was keen to modernize his
Kingdom, and in fact, development and social harmony became obvious in
the new Kingdom.
DISCOVERY OF OIL:
The King’s feelings of happiness due to stability, security, unity, and
reform were not complete until the oil was discovered in the eastern part of
the Kingdom in ١٩٣٣. At that time, there was a need for service
development, a need for huge potentialities, and a need for various
qualifications. It was very difficult for the King because the lack of all these
things would impede all the reform plans he had in mind.
Based on his intuition and his feeling that his country had to be similar to
Iraq and Iran when oil was discovered, the King always believed that his
country had to have the same natural resources. Even after a British oil
company announced that there was no oil in the Arabian Peninsula, the
King did not believe this. Later, the British company wanted to search for
oil in the Kingdom again, but the King refused so as not to spoil his
reputation for independence vis à vis the British Empire, which exploited
people. At that time the United States had not spoilt its history with
imperialism, so the King agreed that an American company would search
for oil. In ١٩٣٨, plenty of oil was discovered, and in ١٩٣٨, a celebration
under the patronage of the King was held in Dahrân for this occasion. In the
same year, Ras Tannura was designated as a harbor for oil export.
The impact of oil was obviously substantial in the late ١٩٤٠’s. Despite the
short period between the exportation of oil in the late ١٩٤٠’s and the death
of the King in ١٩٥٣, the King was able to establish a lot of development in
education, roads, railways between Riyadh and the Eastern region and
٧٩

electricity service. He also began to develop an air fleet that became the
biggest in the Middle East. Besides the existing ministers of Finance,
Foreign Affairs and Defense, the King also appointed a number of ministers
for different services.
After King Abdulaziz, his son the Crown Prince Saud succeeded him. He
became the King after the royal family selected him, and after he was
acknowledged by the masses. During his reign, there were many
developments in various services such as schools, routes, streets and
electric service. The first Saudi university was also established in ١٩٥٧.
In ١٩٦٤, King Faisal succeeded King Saud. King Faisal had a lot of
experience since his youth. He had been a fighter, a ruler, a minister, a
prime minister, and a crown prince. He was an expert on international
politics and was aware of the country’s affairs. He was known for deep
thoughts, his wisdom, and his far-sightedness.
During the reign of King Faisal, the economic system opened up, and its
objective was not just to meet daily needs. Emphasis was placed on national
industries and development programs. However, King Faisal was most
known for his foreign policy. Among his prominent contributions was his
attitude towards the Yemen situation, which led to the end of the civil war
there, and his support for the armed struggle in Palestine in the Khartoum
conference after the ١٩٦٧ war. He was able to influence the policy of
powerful countries such as that of the United States, which was biased for
Israel. After the war of ١٩٧٣, the King stopped the exportation of oil to the
United States, and all Arab countries supported that decision.
King Faisal supported the principle of Islamic solidarity, and he made visits
to many Islamic countries. First, the reactions to this varied but later there
was a strong response. In June ١٩٧٦, a conference for the Islamic countries
was held in Rabat, which paved the way for the establishment of an Islamic
Fund. Then, there were many Islamic conferences for political and
economic cooperation, as well as for condemning the Israeli actions.
٨٠

Due to his actions and his sayings, King Faisal forced his enemies, whether
they were Arabs or foreign, to respect him. In the Arab world, King Faisal
had a special status, while the Islamic world built great hopes because of
him. The Palestinians liked him because of his insistence that Jerusalem
was Arab, his call for Jihad, i.e. the liberation of the Islamic holy places, his
denial of the Israeli claims, his unlimited moral and material support for the
Palestinian struggle, and the economic and political pressure he put on the
countries that cooperated with Israel.
In ١٩٧٥, Crown Prince Khalid ibn Abdulaziz succeeded King Faisal. King
Khalid was pious, simple, lovable, brave and honest. His father used to
assign him some responsibilities, and King Faisal used to assign him certain
duties on his behalf. During King Faisal’s reign, he was the Deputy Premier
and the Crown Prince. King Khalid placed much emphasis on internal
affairs. He also emphasized Arab agreement and coordination of Islamic
countries. Among his achievements were resolving the disputes between
Iraq and Iran, between Iraq and Syria, and between Algeria and Morocco as
well as his attempt to end the Civil war in Lebanon in ١٩٧٣.
In ١٩٨٢, the Crown Prince Fahad ibn Abdulaziz succeeded King Khalid
upon his death. On ٢٤ October ١٩٨٦, King Fahad chose the title “Custodian
of the two Holy Mosques” instead of the title “His Majesty”.
Besides his distinguished education in his childhood and his youth, King
Fahad, as well as all of his brothers, was brought up in special religious,
cultural, and social environments which were also experienced by whoever
wanted to attend King Abdulaziz’s meetings. In addition, since his youth,
King Fahad was assigned some local responsibilities. Also, he participated
in a number of international activities such as the following:
× He was a member of the Saudi delegation for the establishment of
the United Nations in ١٩٤٥.
× He was the head of the Kingdom’s delegation for the crowning of
the British Queen in ١٩٥٣.
٨١

× He was the head of the Kingdom’s delegation for the exceptional
meeting of the Arab League in Lebanon in ١٩٦٠, as the ٣٢nd meeting in
Rabat in ١٩٦٥.
× He was the head of the Kingdom’s delegation for the discussion
of the Gulf situation in Britain in ١٩٧٠.
In the field of education, it was King Fahad who modernized the
educational systems, curricula and policies. He motivated parents and
students to follow up their studies by certain incentives. These incentives
also motivated the students to complete their higher education in different
specializations inside and outside the Kingdom, since education is the basis
for any development or progress.
When he was the Minister of the Interior, King Fahad emphasized the
modernization and sophistication of the security techniques. He also
emphasized the training and promotion of the personnel. The impact of the
King was quite obvious in both the internal and foreign policies, and his
responsibilities increased when he became the Second Deputy Premier and
Minister of Interior in ١٩٧٦.
Similarly, when King Fahad was the Crown Prince, his contribution was
quite obvious in all the achievements and developments that were carried
out. His economic directions were reflected in the progress and
development of the infrastructure. When negative aspects in the social
change began to appear, the cultural and scientific activities in the media
had a great role in distinguishing between the negative and positive
consequences of social change.
When he was the Crown Prince, King Fahad played a great role in resolving
disputes among the Arab countries. He also supported the Palestinian armed
struggle against Israel and proposed a peace plan in the Middle East in
١٩٨١.
There was also a lot of development in the Armed Forces, the National
Guard, and the standard of living in general. The private sector achieved
٨٢

great progress through big investments, its contribution in the development
processes, and its contribution at the international level. To achieve
integration among various sectors, the King relied on planning strategies
based on scientific rules to meet the economic, social, and cultural needs of
the country.
For the sake of fast and balanced development, integrative relations, and the
progress of the national economy, King Fahad placed particular emphasis
on both the heavy and light industries. The transformational industries
which are based on oil flourished in the industrial city of Yanbu‘ on the
Arabian Gulf.
In the field of agriculture, the land became fertile due to modern technology
and the drought problem was solved. King Fahad once stated that wheat
production was ١،٣٠٠،٠٠٠ tons, out of which ٩٠٠،٠٠٠ tons are consumed.
The King added that great countries that tried to dissuade us from growing
wheat had not reach this rate.
During King Fahad’s reign, routes connecting all the Kingdom’s cities were
established, the airline network improved, the railways renewed, bridges
and tunnels built, the telephone and electric services expanded, wells for
underground water developed, projects for water desalinization increased,
the problems of inflation and housing solved, banks Saudiized, loans and
financial aid made available and the cultural aspect of development
emphasized. The expansion of the two Holy Mosques was unprecedented:
The Haram Mosque now accommodates ١،٥٠٠،٠٠٠ pilgrims, while the
Prophet’s Mosque ١،٢٠٠،٠٠٠ pilgrims. The King did a great service for
Islam and Muslims, and now Muslims can perform Hajj and Umra in ease
and comfort.
The King has also established a center for printing the Qur’an known as the
King Fahad Complex for Printing the Qur’an, where various copies of the
Qur’an are accurately printed and distributed to mosques and institutions all
٨٣

over the world, translations of the meanings of the Qur’an available and
recitations of the Qur’an by well known reciters recorded.
King Fahad has issued three royal decrees that are considered as a re-
establishment of the State. The first deals with the basic system of the
government and consists of eighty-three articles. The second is concerned
with the establishment of the Shura Council, while the third has to do with
the system of regions.
٨٤

EDUCATION
Education in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia was, and still is, based on the
fundamentals of the Islamic heritage. The beginning was the first verse of
the Qur’an ever revealed to the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him),
“Read in the name of your Lord, who created, created man from a clot.
Read, and most bountiful is your Lord, who has taught with the pen, and
taught man what he did not know.” Reading is the best way to knowledge.
Before unification of the Kingdom by King Abdulaziz, education was
offered in some religious schools, in informal gatherings in mosques and in
private and charitable schools. The process of education was organized by
individual effort and was aimed at teaching basic reading, writing and
arithmetic, the reading, memorization and recitation of the Qur’an, the
study of the Prophet Muhammad’s traditions and biography and Islamic
history.
The first important thing done by King Abdulaziz was to meet with scholars
and men of religion in Makkah in order to discuss current efforts and
resources available in Makkah in particular, and in the Hijaz reign in
general. That meeting produced new and original ideas and instructions and
led a newly designed plan. The plan was for an educational base to help
King Abdulaziz fulfill his goals and aspirations for a strong and modern
state. This state would adopt science, progress and a strong connection with
correct Islamic learning. King Abdulaziz adopted two parallel policies in
support of the education process. The first was to preserve the existing
individual efforts, encourage them and support them morally and
financially. The second policy was planning the establishment of a strong
system for the educational process, for he thought that the educational
process was a very important factor in the building of his desired state.
٨٥

One of the outstanding efforts fulfilled was the Hijar Project. A sheik was
sent to every village to teach people the basic teachings of Islam as well as
basic reading and writing.
The Directorate of Education was created in ١٩٢٥. It was the first official,
governmental organization to supervise the education process in the
Kingdom. Many schools and institutes were established all over the
Kingdom. They included al-Ma‘had al-‘Ilmî al-Sa‘ûdiya (The Saudi
Scientific Institute), Madrasa Tahdîr al-Ba‘athât (he School of the
Preparation of Missions), Madrasa Dar al-Tawhîd (the School of the Home
of Monotheism) and Madrasa al-Umarâ’ (The Princes’ School) in ١٩٣٧, as
well as Kulliya Shari‘a (The College of Islamic Law) in Makkah, which
became the nucleus for university education. The first educational System
for private schools was issued in ١٩٣٨.
In the desire for a quantitative change in the standard of supervision over
educational development, a royal decree was issued for the establishment of
the Ministry of Education, and the Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques
was nominated the first Minister of Education in December ١٩٥٣. Thirteen
education directorates and eighteen teacher training Colleges were spread
all over the Kingdom and were also connected with the Ministry of
Education. The following tables show the development of the number of
schools, students, and teachers since the establishment of the Ministry of
Education till ١٩٩٤.
NUMBER OF SCHOOLS SINCE THE ESTABLISHMENT OF MINISTRY OF EDUCATION
Education
Second ٥-
Fourth ٥-
year Plan
year Plan
year Plan
year Plan
year Plan
year Plan
Third ٥-
Level of
Start of
١٤٠٠H.
Fifth ٥-
First ٥-
First ٥-
End of
End of
End of
End of
End of
١٣٧٩/
١٣٩٠-
١٣٩٤-
١٣٩٩-
١٤٠٤-
١٤٠٩-
١٤١٤-
٨٠H.
٩١H.
٩٥H.
٠٥H.
١٠H.
١٥H.
Year
Primary ٦٠٠ ١٤٥٦ ٢٠٦٧ ٣٦٣٨ ٤٤١٣ ٤٧٢٤ ٥٤١٧

Intermediate ١٧ ٢٤١ ٤٢١ ٨٩٦ ١٤٢٣ ١٦٣٥ ٢٣٤٩
Secondary ١٦ ٤٤ ٨٤ ٢٦٠ ٤٦٢ ٥٤٩ ٨٤٩
٨٦

NUMBER OF TEACHERS
Education
١٣٧٩/٨٠H
Second ٥-
Fourth ٥-
year Plan
year Plan
year Plan
year Plan
year Plan
year Plan
Third ٥-
Level of
Start
١٤٠٠H.
Fifth ٥-
First ٥-
First ٥-
End of
End
End
End
End of
١٣٩٠-
١٣٩٤-
١٣٩٩-
١٤٠٤-
١٤٠٩-
١٤١٤-
٩١H.
٩٥H.of
٠٥H.of
١٠H.of
١٥H.of
Primary .
١٢١٥ ١٢٤٢٢ ٢٠٤٥٤ ٢٨١٥٣ ٤٥٤٠٦ ٥٢٧٨٨ ٦٨٢٠٠
٧
Intermediat ٢٦٤٠ ٢٥٢٢ ٥٠٤٩ ١٠١٧١ ١٤٩٤٧ ١٨٩٧٨ ٢٨٤٠١
e
Secondary ٤٧٧ ٦١٠ ١٣٧٧ ٣٠٠٣ ٥١٤٠ ٧١٨٠ ١١٤٠٠
NUMBER OF STUDENTS
١٣٩٠-٩١H.
١٣٩٤-٩٥H.
١٤٠٤-٠٥H.
١٤٠٩-١٠H.
١٤١٤-١٥H.
١٣٧٩/٨٠H.
Education
Second ٥-
Fourth ٥-
year Plan
year Plan
year Plan
year Plan
year Plan
year Plan
Third ٥-
Level of
١٤٠٠H.
Start of
Fifth ٥-
First ٥-
First ٥-
End of
End of
End of
End of
End of
١٣٩٩-
Year
Primary ٢٦٧٥٢٩ ٢٨٤٦١٢ ٣٩١٦٧٧ ٥١٧٠٦٩ ٦٨٨١٧٠ ٨٦٩٧٥٧ ١٠١٥٤٠١
Intermediat ٣٨٠٠٤ ٤٣٤٥٢ ٨٠٦١٨ ١٤٣٧٢٥ ٢٠٣٢٥٢ ٢٥٨٣٤١ ٣٧٨٨٦٥
e
Secondary
٨٢٤٣ ١١٣٠٣ ٢٢٦٠٦ ٥٤٨٤١ ٧٩٩٩٠ ١١٥٩١٦ ١٧٥١٤٧
SPECIAL EDUCATION
The government was interested in the training and teaching of the mentally
and physically handicapped by establishing special schools and institutes
that offered programs of education and rehabilitation. The Nûr Institutes for
the Blind and the institutes for the education of the mentally handicapped
offered programs of education and rehabilitation for both males and
females.
The government started taking care of this class of society by establishing
the first two institutes for the blind in Riyadh, one for males in ١٩٦٠ and
one for females in ١٩٦٣. The progress continued, and now there are ten Nûr
Institutes for the blind, twenty-three institutes for the deaf and fourteen
institutes for the education of the mentally handicapped.
٨٧

Interest is focused on the technology and equipment like the central sound
library, which provides the handicapped with talking books, and a printing
office to produce the textbooks in Braille for institutes of the blind.
The following table shows the growing number of institutes and students of
special education during the period from the beginning of the first ٥-year
plan in ١٩٧١/١٩٧٢, to the end of the fifth ٥-year plan in ١٩٩٣/١٩٩٤.
TABLE SHOWING THE NUMBER OF INSTITUTES AND STUDENTS OF SPECIAL
EDUCATION
١٣٩٠-٩١H.
١٣٩٤-٩٥H.
١٤٠٤-٠٥H.
١٤٠٩-١٠H.
١٤١٤-١٥H.
Second ٥-
Fourth ٥-
year Plan
year Plan
year Plan
year Plan
year Plan
year Plan
Third ٥-
١٤٠٠H.
Start of
Fifth ٥-
First ٥-
First ٥-
End of
End of
End of
End of
End of
١٣٩٩-
No. of Schools ١٠ ١٥ ٢٥ ٢٨ ٣٣ ٤٤
No. of Students ١٢٥٧ ١٧٨٤ ١٩٢٠ ٢٥٦٤ ٤٠١٧١ ٤٦٦٩
ILLITERACY AND ADULT EDUCATION
Illiteracy is considered a serious problem that hinders the progress of

nations. It cripples development in many fields of life. Through the
Ministry of Education, the government has persisted and will continue to
persist in offering programs aimed at giving chances to those who had no
education in childhood, until illiteracy totally vanishes. These efforts have
undergone different phases. In ١٩٤٩, the government opened some night
schools for illiterate. Then in ١٩٧٣, a new system was issued to deal with
illiteracy and adult education. Finally in ١٩٧٣, a new, comprehensive plan
was prepared to eradicate illiteracy within twenty years.
Statistics of the development of adult education and illiteracy for males
١٣٩٠-٩١H.
١٣٩٤-٩٥H.
١٤٠٤-٠٥H.
١٤٠٩-١٠H.
١٤١٤-١٥H.
Second ٥-
Fourth ٥-
year Plan
year Plan
year Plan
year Plan
year Plan
year Plan
Third ٥-
١٤٠٠H.
Start of
Fifth ٥-
First ٥-
First ٥-
End of
End of
End of
End of
End of
١٣٩٩-
No. of ٥٩٧ ١٠٢٠ ٢٢٠٨ ١٤٧٥ ١٢٨٦ ١٢٣٨

Schools
No. of ٤١٣٤٧ ٦٢٩١١ ٩١٢٨٠ ٧٠٧٥٥ ٦٣٥١٣ ٤٥٣٤٨
Students
٨٨

HIGHER EDUCATION
As mentioned above, university education was started with the

establishment of the College of Sharia in Makkah in ١٩٤٩. It remained
under the supervision of the Directorate of Education until the Ministry of
High Education was established in ١٩٧٧, and it began to supervise
university education directly. In the Kingdom, there are now seven
universities, including seventy-eight colleges, ٤١٤ academic departments
and ١٤٣،٤٩٥ students.
If one compares the status of the universities in the Kingdom at their
beginning with what was available for them in ١٩٩٥/١٩٩٦, the growth of
higher education is clear.
NUMBERS OF COLLEGES, DEPARTMENTS, STUDENTS AND GRADUATES SINCE THE
FOUNDATION OF THE UNIVERSITIES TO THE END OF 1995/1996
No. of No. of Male &

No. of Colleges Departments
Female Students Total
University and Date of University
Graduates
Its Foundation till ٩٥/٩٦
Univer-
Start of
Univer-
Start of
Univer-
Start of
١٤١٥-
In the
١٤١٥-
In the
١٤١٥-
In the
١٦H.
١٦H.
١٦H.
Year
Year
Year
sity
sity
sity
King Saud University ١ ١٧ ٣ ١١٨ ٢١ ٣٧٠٤٤ ٥٧٨٥٦

١٣٧٧H.
King Abdulaziz ١ ١٠ ٢ ٨٧ ٩٨ ٣٨٣٢٣ ٤٢٧٢٠
University ١٣٨٧H.
Islamic University ١ ٥ ١ ١٣ ٨٥ ٣١٤٠ ١٠٢٥٢
١٣٨١H.
Imam Mohammed bin
Saud Islamic ٣ ١٢ ٧ ٥٩ ٣٣٧٠ ٢٩٧٦٨ ٣٧١٩٤
University ١٣٩٤H.
King Fahd University
of Petroleum and ١ ٧ ١ ٢٥ ٩٧ ٦٤٩٤ ٨٨٥٨
Minerals ١٣٨٣
King Faisal University ٤ ٨ ٤٤ ٦٨ ١٧٠ ٨١٢٦ ٨٤١١
١٣٩٥
Ummal Quraa' ٢ ٩ ١٧ ٤٤ ٤٢٧٧ ٢٠٦٠٠ ١٥٢٢٢
University ١٤٠١H.
١٤٣٤٩
Grand Total ١٢ ٦٨ ٧٥ ٤١٤ ٨٠٨٨ ٥ ١٨٠٥١٣
٨٩

KING SAUD UNIVERSITY IN RIYADH
King Saud University in Riyadh was the first university to be established on
the Arabian Peninsula. It was founded in ١٩٥٧ in the lifetime of King Saud
ibn Abdulaziz. A fully integrated and modern campus was established,
including accommodation for staff and students. Three educational
hospitals are connected to this university, King Khalid university Hospital,
King Abdulaziz University Hospital and the Clinics of the College of
Dentistry. King Saud University has two branches, one in Abhâ’ in the
Southwest, the other in Qasîm to the North.
NUMBERS OF COLLEGES, DEPARTMENTS AND STAFF SINCE THE FOUNDATION OF
KING SAUD UNIVERSITY - TO THE END OF THE FIFTH FIVE-YEAR PLAN
Year ١٤١٦
Academic
١٣٩٤-٩٥H.
١٤٠٤-٠٥H.
١٤٠٩-١٠H.
١٤١٤-١٥H.
Second ٥-
Fourth ٥-
year Plan
year Plan
year Plan
year Plan
year Plan
Third ٥-
End of
١٤٠٠H.
Fifth ٥-
First ٥-
End of
End of
End of
End of
End of
١٣٩٩-
H.
M ٨ ١٠ ١٧ ١٨ ١٨ ١٨
Colle F - ١ - - - -
ges
T ٨ ١١ ١٧ ١٨ ١٨ ١٨
M ٥٨٩٢ ١٠١٩٩ ١٩٣٢٠ ٢١١٥٠ ٢٠٩٥٢ ٢٤٤٠١
Stude F ٨١٨ ٢٦٦٨ ٥٦٢٤ ١١١٠٤ ١١٢٥١ ١٢٦٦٧
nts
T ٦٧١٠ ١٣١٢٤ ٢٤٥٢٤ ٣٢٢٥٤ ٣٢٢٠٣ ٣٧٠٦٨
M ٥٣١ ١١٥١ ٢٠٦٧ ٢٢١٥ ٢١٣١ ٢١٧٣
Facul F ١٤ ١٥٢ ٤٦٠ ٥٨٠ ٥٧٩ ٥٩٥
ty
Staff
T ٥٤٥ ١٣٠٣ ٢٥٢٧ ٢٧٩٥ ٢٧١٠ ٢٧٦٨
THE ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY IN MADINA

The Islamic University of Madina was founded in ١٩٦١. It is an Islamic
university with students from all different Islamic countries, but it is Saudi
since it is located in the Kingdom of Saudi. Arabic is used as the medium of
instruction for all students of the University. It is the only university in the
Kingdom with its board of trustees chaired by the Custodian of the Two
Holy Mosques, King Fahad Bin Abdulaziz.
٩٠

NUMBERS OF COLLEGES, DEPARTMENTS AND STAFF SINCE THE FOUNDATION OF THE
ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY TO THE END OF FIFTH FIVE-YEAR PLAN
Year ١٤١٦
Academic
Second ٥-
Fourth ٥-
year Plan
year Plan
year Plan
year Plan
year Plan
Third ٥-
End of
١٤٠٠H.
Fifth ٥-
First ٥-
End of
End of
End of
End of
End of
١٣٩٤-
١٣٩٩-
١٤٠٤-
١٤٠٩-
١٤١٤-
٩٥H.
٠٥H.
١٥H.
H.
M ٣ ٦ ٦ ٦ ٥ ٥
Colleges F - - - - - -
T ٣ ٦ ٦ ٦ ٥ ٥
M ٩٠٢ ٢٢٧١ ٣٠٨٠ ٢٤٦٨ ٣٠٣٦ ٣٢٦٣
Students F - - - - - -
T ٩٠٢ ٢٢٧١ ٣٠٨٠ ٢٤٦٨ ٣٠٣٦ ٣٢٦٣
M ٤٢ ٢٣٩ ٣٧٠ ٣٨٣ ٣٤٧ ٣٣٦
Faculty F - - - - - -
Staff
T ٤٢ ٢٣٩ ٣٧٠ ٣٨٣ ٣٤٧ ٣٣٦
KING ABDULAZIZ UNIVERSITY IN JEDDAH

King Abdulaziz University in Jeddah was a private university, which was
founded in ١٩٦٧/١٩٦٨. It was changed into a governmental university in
١٩٧١. It has a university hospital and College of Education in Madina.
NUMBERS OF COLLEGES, DEPARTMENTS, AND STAFF SINCE THE FOUNDATION OF
KING ABDULAZIZ UNIVERSITY TO THE END OF FIFTH FIVE-YEAR PLAN
Year ١٤١٦
Academic
Second ٥-
Fourth ٥-
year Plan
year Plan
year Plan
year Plan
year Plan
Third ٥-
End of
١٤٠٠H.
Fifth ٥-
First ٥-
End of
End of
End of
End of
End of
١٣٩٤-
١٣٩٩-
١٤٠٤-
١٤٠٩-
١٤١٤-
٩٥H.
٠٥H.
١٠H.
١٥H.
H.
M ٥ ١١ ٩ ٩ ٩ ١٠
T ٥ ١١ ٩ ٩ ٩ ١٠
M ٤٥٨٦ ١٣٧٠٤ ١٤٢٤٩ ٢١٧٦٨ ١٨٢٤٥ ٢٢٥٥٩
Students F ١١٧٥ ٥٥٨٣ ٦٢٥٢ ١٥١٦١ ١٦٣٥٤ ١٥٦٥٦
T ٥٧٦١ ١٩٢٨٧ ١٩١٦٤ ٣٦٩٢٩ ٣٤٥٩٩ ٣٨٢١٥
M ٣٣٢ ٩٦٨ ١٢٥٦ ١٤٠٤ ١٤٧١ ١٢٤١
Faculty F ٩٤ ٢٣٨ ٤٠٤ ٣٤٠ ٦١٦ ٥٥١
Staff
T ٤٢٦ ١٢٠٦ ١٦٦٠ ١٨٣٤ ٢٠٨٧ ١٧٩٢
KING FAHAD UNIVERSITY FOR PETROLEUM AND MINERALS IN

DHAHRÂN
King Fahad University for Petroleum and Minerals in Dhahrân started with
the College of Petroleum and Minerals in Dhahrân in ١٩٦٣during the
lifetime of King Faisal ibn Abdulaziz. The university specializes in the
٩١

petroleum sciences and minerals, engineering, administration, architecture
and computer sciences. It has a fully integrated campus.
KING FAHAD UNIVERSITY FOR PETROLEUM AND MINERALS TO THE END OF FIFTH
FIVE-YEAR PLAN
Year ١٤١٦
Academic
Second ٥-
Fourth ٥-
year Plan
year Plan
year Plan
year Plan
year Plan
Third ٥-
End of
١٤٠٠H.
Fifth ٥-
First ٥-
End of
End of
End of
End of
End of
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١٤٠٩-
١٤١٤-
٩٥H.
٠٥H.
١٠H.
١٥H.
H.
M ١ ٥ ٦ ٧ ٨ ٨
T ١ ٥ ٦ ٧ ٨ ٨
M ١٤٧٥ ٢٧٩٤ ٣٨١٠ ٤٦٧٤ ٥٩٠٢ ٦٤٨٧
Students F - - - - - -
T ١٤٧٥ ٢٧٩٤ ٣٨١٠ ٤٦٧٤ ٥٩٠٢ ٦٤٨٧
M ٢٨٧ ٥٥٢ ٥٨٤ ٦٧١ ٥٦٥ ٧٣٦
Faculty F - - - - - -
Staff
T ٢٨٧ ٥٥٢ ٥٨٤ ٦٧١ ٥٦٥ ٧٣٦
KING FAISAL UNIVERSITY IN AHSÂ’

King Faisal University in Ahsâ’ was founded in ١٩٧٧. It has six colleges,
Medicine, Architectural Engineering, Rural (agricultural) Sciences,
Veterinary Science, Education and Administrative Sciences and Planning. It
has a special interest in the fields of agriculture and veterinary science, as
the Eastern Region in general, and Ahsâ’ in particular, is characterized by
agriculture especially in palm-tree cultivation. Connected with the
university are research centers such as the Center for the Research and
Study of Water, the Center of Palm-Tree Research, the Center for the
Research of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Products and the Center of
Camel Research.
Both the University hospital located in Khobar and a veterinary hospital in
Ahsâ’ are connected with King Faisal University.
KING FAISAL UNIVERSITY TO THE END OF FIFTH FIVE-YEAR PLAN
Year ١٤١٦
Academic
Second ٥-
Fourth ٥-
year Plan
year Plan
year Plan
year Plan
year Plan
Third ٥-
End of
١٤٠٠H.
Fifth ٥-
First ٥-
End of
End of
End of
End of
End of
١٣٩٤-
١٣٩٩-
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١٤٠٩-
١٤١٤-
٩٥H.
٠٥H.
١٠H.
١٥H.
H.
M - ٤ ٦ ٦ ٦ ٦
T - ٤ ٦ ٦ ٦ ٦
٩٢

M - ٩١٠ ١٩٤٦ ٢٤٢٤ ٣٠٨٥ ٣٨٩١
Students F - ٢٤٨ ١٤٠٨ ٢٤٢١ ٢٨٥٩ ٣٣٢٨
T - ١١٥٨ ٣٣٥٤ ٤٨٤٥ ٥٩٤٤ ٧٢١٩
M - ٣٢٦ ٦١٤ ٦١٥ ٦٢٥ ٥٣٢
Faculty F - ٥٩ ١١٧ ١٣٦ ١٥٣ ١٥٥
Staff
T - ٣٨٥ ٧٣١ ٧٥١ ٧٧٨ ٧٨٧
IMAM MUHAMMAD IBN SAUD ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY IN RIYADH

Imam Muhammad ibn Saud Islamic University in Riyadh was started with
the opening of two colleges, the College of Sharia and the College of
Arabic Language, in ١٩٥٣/١٩٥٤. In ١٩٧٤, approval of its by-laws was
issued. It offers worldwide education services since colleges and institutes
from outside the Kingdom as Islamic institutes in Ra’s al-Khaima,
Mauritania, Djibouti, Indonesia, Japan and the U.S.A. are affiliated with the
university. It also offers a good university education, high education in
Islamic Studies, Arabic language sciences, social studies and Islamic
history as well as translating and issuing the Islamic researches.
NUMBERS OF COLLEGES, DEPARTMENTS, AND THE STAFF SINCE THE FOUNDATION OF
IMAM MUHAMMAD BIN SAUD ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY TO THE END OF THE FIFTH FIVE-
YEAR –PLAN
Year ١٤١٦
Academic
Second ٥-
Fourth ٥-
year Plan
year Plan
year Plan
year Plan
year Plan
Third ٥-
End of
١٤٠٠H.
Fifth ٥-
First ٥-
End of
End of
End of
End of
End of
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١٤٠٩-
١٤١٤-
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١٠H.
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H.
M ٣ ٨ ١٢ ١٣ ١٣ ١٣
T ٣ ٨ ١٢ ١٣ ١٣ ١٣
M ٣٣١٦ ٥١٩٠ ١٠١٤٣ ١٢٢٦٩ ٢٤٨٤٣ ٢٥٣٢٨
Students F ٥٤ ٧٢٩ ١٣٧٣ ١٦٧٩ ٣٩٠٢ ٢٥٢٢
T ٣٣٧٠ ٥٩١٩ ١١٥١٦ ١٣٩٤٨ ٢٨٧٤٥ ٢٧٨٥٠
M ٢٠٤ ٥٠٧ ١٠٤٩ ١٤٩٦ ١٥٦٥
Faculty F - - - - ٦ ٢٥
Staff
T ٢٠٤ ٥٠٧ ١٠٤٩ ١٥٠٢ ١٥٩٠
UMM AL-QURA UNIVERSITY IN MAKKAH

Umm al-Qura University in Makkah was founded in ١٩٨١. Although it is
one of the newest universities, it has the oldest two colleges in the history of
higher education in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. They are the College of
Sharia (١٩٤٩), and the College of Education (١٩٥٢). It is located in the
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most holy and scared place in the whole universe. The establishment of a
full and modern campus was recently undertaken.
UMM AL-QURA UNIVERSITY TO THE END OF THE FIFTH FIVE-YEAR PLAN
Year ١٤١٦
Academic
Second ٥-
Fourth ٥-
year Plan
year Plan
year Plan
year Plan
year Plan
Third ٥-
End of
١٤٠٠H.
Fifth ٥-
First ٥-
End of
End of
End of
End of
End of
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١٤٠٩-
١٤١٤-
٩٥H.
٠٥H.
١٠H.
H.
M - - ٧ ٨ ٩ ٩
T - - ٧ ٨ ٩ ٩
M - - ٦٧٠٨ ٨٩٢٠ ٨٢٦٤ ١٠٠٠٤
Students F - - ٥٢٨٣ ٦٣٨٣ ٧٩٦٥ ٨٥١٢
T - - ١١٩٩١ ١٥٣٠٣ ١٦٢٢٩ ١٨٥١٦
M - - ٩٠٦ ٢٣٥ ١٠١٦ ٩٧٧
Faculty F - - ٢٢٢ ١٢٠٤ ٢٤٩ ٢٢٩
Staff
T - - ١١٢٨ ١٤٣٩ ١٢٦٥ ١٢٠٦
TECHNICAL EDUCATION AND VOCATIONAL TRAINING
Agricultural, commercial and industrial development, and the need of the

development plans for manpower led in ١٩٨٠, to the setting up of the
General Foundation for Technical Education and Vocational Training. The
foundation carries out the plans and designs programs to develop the
national vocational manpower within the limits of the policies made by the
Council of Manpower. The foundation supervises many of the specialized
colleges and institutes, which are of a very high level of preparation and
qualification.
The following figure shows the growth achieved by technical education and
vocational training since they the foundation was established.
TYPES OF COLLEGES AND INSTITUTES AFFILIATED WITH THE GENERAL
ORGANIZATION FOR TECHNICAL EDUCATION AND VOCATIONAL TRAINING
Fifth Five-Year Plan
Types of Establishments under the General ١٤٠٠ - ١٤٠١ H. /
Organization for Technical ١٤٠٤ -١٤٠٥ H.
Education and Vocational Training No. No. of Students No. of
Graduates
Technical Colleges ٩ ٨٥٥٨ ١٩٥٤
Higher Secondary Commercial Institutes ١٦ ١٠،٩٩٥ ١٨٩٥
Higher Secondary Agricultural Institutes ٣ ٧٣٧ ١٥٠
Institutes for Technical Inspectors ٥ ١،٧٣٨ ٣٣٦
٩٤

OTHER KINDS OF EDUCATION
There are other kinds of education affiliated with governmental sectors.

Examples are the institutes and colleges belong to the Ministry of Post,
Telephone and Telegraph devoted to education and training in
telecommunications. There are also institutes and colleges belonging to the
Ministry of Health. They specialize in education and training in health
fields like nursing, allied medical services. Commercial education, too, is
another area. It aims at preparing trained manpower to work in commercial,
administrative and financial departments in both the private and
governmental sectors. Finally there are the military colleges that are
affiliated with the Ministry of Defense and Aviation, the National Guard
and the Interior Ministry.
٩٥

CULTURAL MOVEMENT
The cultural movement in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, is a founder of the
cultural movement in the Arab world. At the same time, it is unique because
of the local characteristics of social, geographical and humanitarian factors.
The Saudi and Arab elements are joined by an Islamic frame, by which the
cultural movement in the Kingdom gains a great deal of depth and
uniqueness as it occupies the center of the Islamic world.
These three frames have existed together and exerted their influence
beginning with the political unification achieved by King Abdulaziz. By the
unification, the distant parts of the Arabian Peninsula were linked together
to form a nation for millions of people having different social and cultural
backgrounds. All of this formed a vital cultural entity, and in sixty years
built on what had been inherited from Arab and Islamic sources as well as
from more recent cultures. This new culture has been able to interact with
the changes and events of contemporary life and pave the way for the rise
of an effective cultural movement able to influence contemporary Arab
culture.
The cultural movement, during the last few years, has been able to stress its
uniqueness on a large scale and spread widely. One aspect of this activity
makes it excel another in depth and width. All activities run steadily
towards a higher level of perfection. Scientific activities and research,
literary movement, drama, singing arts, interest in folklore, printing and
publishing and other related cultural activities continue at the present time,
to influence life in the Kingdom through several channels in presence and
effect. The folkloric heritage, with all its content of literary types and
deeply rooted artistic activities have a different influence on the theater in
its modern meaning, which is still seeking a role to play in Saudi society.
Coordinated and activating efforts in these cultural fields, on the group and
individual levels, seek to reach and realize a balance among all fields,
٩٦

through organizations, seasonal activities and channels towards an
ambitious and thriving path.
The following are surveys of the most prominent organizations, seasons,
and channels.
CULTURAL ORGANIZATIONS:
UNIVERSITIES, RESEARCH CENTERS AND PUBLISHING HOUSES:

The seven universities, together with the research and publishing centers
spread in different parts of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, are pioneering
forces for the creation of a rich culture, based on a level of relatively exact
and deep knowledge. Through these organizations, a group of the most
active groups in the cultural fields are producing high quality types of work
in different scientific fields, effort marked by depth, exactness and
comprehensiveness. These works are published by academic councils,
research colleges and centers in the different universities, through
periodicals of the universities themselves, or through other Arab and
international universities where the research of professors is published. The
volume of books and other research produced by the Kingdom’s
universities is very large compared to what is published by other publishing
houses. In recent years, these scientific publications have occupied more
space. The number of Saudi faculty in the universities has increased. They
have been very active in authoring and in the translation of foreign works.
While most of it is not available to the majority of readers, it has had an
indirect effect through the graduates of these universities. The graduates are
carriers of specialized and exact scientific knowledge. The universities have
also been influential through other cultural means such as mass
communication, especially newspapers.
٩٧

LITERARY CLUBS:
To understand the nature of the cultural life in the Kingdom, one should
remember that the concept of literature is still influenced by its traditional
meaning in Arab culture. It considers literature as one type of general
cultural of knowledge. Literature is represented in poetry, novels, drama,
etc. The literary clubs in the Kingdom, amounting to twelve in number,
exercise their activities under this concept. Literature as a concept, is not
limited to creative artistic works of poetry, novels and criticism, etc.,
though that it is concerned with and more focused on these works of art is
obvious. Lecture series, organized by these clubs throughout the different
regions of the Kingdom, includes other fields such as humanities, history,
sociology and mass media. Lectures also present applied and pure research.
Such a trend has made the clubs to become effective cultural channels, and
this trend is unique at the pan-Arab level. To all these activities, one can
add their organizational role in the literary and cultural movement. They
serve as associations that link all members who are engaged in the cultural
movement, the literary in particular, and serve as publishing houses and
forums for dialogues and discussions.
The literary clubs are run under the General Presidency for Youth Welfare.
It serves as one of the principle organizations responsible for cultural life in
the Kingdom. The clubs are run by independent boards attached to the
Department of Clubs at the Presidency for Youth Welfare. Each club has an
annual budget received from the Presidency based on the types of its
activities during the year. ١٩٧٥ marks the beginning of the establishment of
the literary clubs. During that year, literary clubs were established in
Makkah, Madina and Jeddah. Later, other clubs were established in Riyadh,
Jizân, Tâ’if, Abhâ, Tabûk, Hâ’il, the Eastern Province, Bâha and Qasîm.
The Presidency for the Youth Welfare has plans to establish more of
literary clubs as the need arises.
٩٨

THE SAUDI ARABIAN ASSOCIATION FOR CULTURE AND ART:
The Saudi Arabian Association for Culture and Art, which was established
at the same time as the literary clubs, plays an important and vital role in
consolidating the cultural movement in the Kingdom through two types of
cultural activities, dramatic theatrical songs and painting. The first includes
songs and folk dances. The Association organizes them through formal
parties and shows. It also conducts courses and programs for amateurs. The
second activity includes individual exhibitions and group exhibitions held
within the Kingdom or abroad. The Association seeks to support cultural
and literary activities through “The Novel Club.” It encourages story
writing and creative works through meetings, publication of works of art.
One of its publications is an offering that came out at an early time under
the title of “Pamphlet on Cultural and Art Associations.” Later on, it was
published as a periodical under the title Al-Tabad.
The Association is run under the supervision of the General Presidency for
the Youth Welfare just as the other literary associations are. The
Association has a board, the members of which include a number of
scholars, literary figures and artists. The Association exercises its activities
through various branches spread all over the Kingdom according to a basic
plan prepared at the headquarters of the Association in Riyadh.
MONTHLY MAGAZINES AND PERIODICALS

Monthly magazines and periodicals play a very important role in the
cultural movement of the Kingdom. For instance, the magazine al-Manhal,
which wasissued in ١٩٣٦, can be considered as the source of the history of
the cultural movement in the Kingdom. After publication of al-Manhal,
other periodicals and magazines were established. Among these are al-
Arab, al-Majalla al-‘Arabiya, al-Faisal, ‘Âlam al-Kutub, al-Dârah and al-
Tûbâd. These are monthly magazines concerned mainly with cultural
issues.
٩٩

Toward the end of the ١٩٨٠’s and the beginning of the ١٩٩٠’s, with the
establishment of specialized periodicals, a new phase started. Among these
are ‘Usûr for history and archeology, al-Alâmât for literary criticism,
Qawâfil for literature and criticism, al-‘Imâra for architecture, al-Dirâsât
al-Amniya for security studies, and Qâfilat al-Zait (the Oil Caravans),
which ARAMCO distributes.
SEASONAL ACTIVITIES
The National Festival for Culture and Heritage, known as al-Janadriya, is

among the most important and comprehensive seasonal activities in the
Kingdom and the Arab world. This activity is no longer just camel racing
and poetry competitions. Now it focuses on two types of activities:
× Public artistic activities such as traditional dances, songs, and
other items of tradition and heritage in the Kingdom.
× Lectures and symposiums conducted by intellectuals from all over
the world. Major cultural issues are dealt with in this annual winter
activity.
CONFERENCES AND OTHER SYMPOSIUMS

In the Kingdom, many conferences and symposiums are organized annually
to deal with academic, scientific and technical issues. These conferences
and symposiums play a great role in encouraging and supporting the
different cultural activities. In recent years, focus of these conferences and
symposiums has been purely scientific and academic areas such as
engineering and dental medicine. However, many of these conferences and
symposiums deal with general cultural issues. Among these conferences
and symposiums have been the Conference of Saudi Men of Letters held at
King Abdulaziz University in Jeddah in ١٩٧٥ and the International
Symposium on the History of the Arabian Peninsula, which was organized
by King Saud University in Riyadh during the ١٩٧٠’s and ١٩٩٠’s.
١٠٠

Normally these conferences and symposiums issue proceedings that are
considered as references in different areas.
LITERARY AND CULTURAL PRIZES:
Some institutions in the Kingdom have established certain prizes as

incentives for the encouragement and support of the cultural movement.
Some of these prizes are local, and others are international. All of these
prizes have a great role in developing the cultural movement at the local,
Arab and international levels. Among these prizes are:
THE KING FAISAL INTERNATIONAL PRIZE

The King Faisal International Prize can be considered as the most important
achievement of the cultural movement in the Kingdom. In addition to
commemorating the late King Faisal, this prize has given the Kingdom, as
well as the Arab and Islamic world, a very good reputation. Many scholars
in various specializations all over the world compete for this prize, despite
the negative attitude of the Western media toward this prize.
THE AMÎN MADANÎ PRIZE

The Amîn Madanî Prize was established by the sons of the Saudi historian
Amîn Madanî. It is one of the most recent prizes in the Kingdom. It focuses
on research in the history of the Arabian Peninsula, and it is supervised by
the Literary Club in Madina. A committee of specialists selects the prize
winners.
KING FAISAL CHARITABLE FOUNDATION
King Faisal Charitable Foundation was established in Riyadh based by

Royal Decree #A/١٣٤ on May ١٨, ١٩٧٦. It commemorates the late King
Faisal and draws attention to his struggle, the values he promoted, and his
effort for the sake of the Arab and Islamic history.
The main objectives of the King Faisal Charitable Foundation are (١)
developing and financing programs in scientific and educational areas, (٢)
١٠١

developing and financing mosques, schools, institutes, universities, Islamic
centers, and scientific research centers, and (٣) providing technical
experience, financial support and scholarships in different fields of
knowledge.
This helps Muslims to acquire knowledge and participate in the
international scientific revival. In addition, the King Faisal Charitable
Foundation provides support for hospitals, medical centers, and other social
and economic activities both inside and outside the Kingdom.
DEVELOPMENTS IN ORGANIZATION, AUTHENTICATION, AND PRESERVATION
In order to promote the cultural movement in the Kingdom, the Saudi

government has taken a number of steps for the organization, authentication
and preservation of cultural activities. In this regard, the government has
had two recent achievements, i.e. (١) the establishment of the King Fahad
National Library to preserve documents, publications and other sources of
knowledge, and (٢) the joining of the International Copyright Convention.
Thus the Kingdom has preceded many Arab and non-Arab countries in the
efforts to promote cultural activities. In conjunction with the Saudi Ministry
of Information, King Fahad National Library has been playing a major role
in the authentication of cultural products, as well as in the preservation of
copyrights. All authors and publishers in the Kingdom have to provide the
King Faisal National Library with two copies of each publication.
THE KING FAHAD NATIONAL LIBRARY
The King Fahad National Library was founded in ١٩٨٨ for the purpose of
the organization, authentication and publication of the intellectual products.
In addition, this library is concerned with the preservation of heritage
books, manuscripts, as well as Arabic and Islamic literature. It has also
made major contributions in technological, informational and human
resources pertinent to librarianship.
١٠٢

In the field of printed information, this library contains ٣٦٧،٠٠٠ items of
printed matter, as well as audio-visual materials, microfilms, local
documents and rare manuscripts and books. Since the implementation of the
international indexing system in ١٩٩٣, the library has been able to register
٢،٠٠٠ Saudi publications, in addition to ٣٠٠ current magazines and
periodicals. It also contains about ١٠٠،٠٠٠ documents related to the
Kingdom. The authentication and registration systems adopted by the
library have played a major role in improving Saudi books, as well as the
way they are publicized through indexing and the use of standard and
international numbers. The library is also concerned with equipment,
information systems and maintenance of manuscripts and rare books. In the
field of information and libraries, this library has published seventy-five
books.
THE PRINTING OF THE HOLY QUR’AN
The King Fahad Complex for Printing the Holy Qur’an is one of the most
prominent Saudi accomplishments in the service of Islam and Muslims. Its
purpose is the printing and distribution of the Holy Qur’an. Madina was
selected as the center for this complex because it is the town of the Prophet
(peace be upon him), where the Qur’an was collected and writte. The
Prophet’s Mosque is also located in Madina. King Fahad Complex for
Printing the Holy Qur’an for printing the Holy Qur’an was founded on an
area of ٢٠٦،٠٠٠ m٢. It has ٩٠٠ employees, among whom are scholars,
technicians, administrators and workers. The purpose of this project is to
print the Holy Qur’an in different languages and different sizes to help
Muslims who belong to different languages and different nationalities.
The production capacity of King Fahad Complex for Printing the Holy
Qur’an for printing the Holy Qur’an is ٧،٠٠٠،٠٠٠ copies annually, of which
٥٠٠،٠٠٠ copies are translations of the meanings of the Qur’an. In addition,
the Holy Qur’an is also recorded on cassettes by prominent reciters in the
١٠٣

Kingdom and in the Islamic world. The King Fahad Complex for Printing
the Holy Qur’an for printing the Qur’an is also a specialized scientific
center for research in the Holy Qur’an and its sciences.
CULTURAL INFORMATION
THE PRESS
The Press has a great impact on the Saudi society due to the spread of
education and the concern of newspapers and magazines in meeting the
daily cultural needs of readers. Radio and television have had the same
impact. It is expected that the audio-visual media will have a greater impact
due to the utilization of satellites.
Popular literature and cultural sections in magazines and newspapers have
contributed a great deal to the cultural movement. Most daily newspapers
and weekly and monthly magazines contain cultural sections in standard
Arabic and other sections for popular literature. Thus by combining both
the formal and informal levels of language, the magazines and newspapers
help to develop both the formal culture, which is mainly implemented by
formal education, and the verbal culture, which is related to a previous
stage of the cultural life in the Kingdom. Thus at the Arab level, the
Kingdom is the most concerned with the popular culture and heritage in the
media. The National Festival for Culture and Heritage, Janadriya, is a good
case in point. Some people might think that such public cultural activities
would promote the colloquial Arabic at the expense of the standard.
However, the cultural experiment in the Kingdom has shown that these two
language levels can successfully co-exist and inter-relate to serve cultural
objectives.
RADIO AND TELEVISION

The same situation of combining both the formal and informal cultures is
found in radio and television. They focus on popular heritage through the
al-Bâdiya (The Desert) Program and the songs and music related to that
١٠٤

culture. These popular cultural items are in the colloquial language, even
though the official language in radio and television the standard language.
This helps in the development of diverse scientific, literary and leisure
activities prepared by people of diverse cultural backgrounds.
١٠٥

ARCHAEOLOGY
The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has a deep-rooted heritage from the ancient
cultures that thrived on the land of this good earth since the dawn of history.
These Arabian cultures have played important roles in the course of human
civilization. Detailed archeological evidence has proved that the Arabian
Peninsula in general, and the area of the Kingdom in particular, have hosted
human settlements during all periods of history.
Evidence has shown that areas of the Kingdom were inhabited during the
Lower Paleolithic (Old Stone Age), and that the inhabitants of those areas
spread into other regions of the land. Likewise it is very clear from
archeological maps that the land hosted a mosaic of cultures, including
those using pebble, Chellean and Acheulean tools. In the Middle
Paleolithic, the works of Mousterian artisans were represented by
Levalloisian and opposing and transverse knives, tools which were found to
be used mostly in internal and southern areas of the Kingdom. During the
Upper Paleolithic, denticulate, leaf-shaped tools were encountered in
different parts of the country. Archeological ruins of the Neolithic (New
Stone Age) in the South of the Kingdom, Wâdi ad-Dawâsir, Rub al-Khâli
(The Empty Quarter), as well as the Central, Eastern and Western Regions,
revealed periods of deep-rooted cultures lasting for several centuries.
Crescents, double-sided fine teeth having pressured flakes characterize
these ruins.
Archeological evidence also includes tens of stone buildings spread
throughout the Kingdom. The structures are thought to have been built at
the beginning of the third century B.C in the Chalcolithic (Copper Age).
They consist of stone circles, cairns, enclosures, tapered structures, pillars,
basins, podiums, and kites. It has been noticed that these sites are
characterized by common stability that resemble those of other sedentary
١٠٦

communities with stable economies, but they had disappeared completely
by the first half of the Middle Bronze Age (circa ١٨٥٠ BC).
Rock drawing is found in every region of the Kingdom and reveals a great
deal of information about the economic and social conditions of the peoples
of those times. These drawings and sculptures give elaborate details on
activities of their daily life, their beliefs and their religious practices.
Drawings or marks that are found on rocks, and especially on the bodies of
animals, reveal the existence of a system common to different tribes for the
telling apart of their belongings. These drawings indicate a high level of art.
This rock art was the origin of the early Arabic handwriting in which texts
were later written. Archeological evidence more particularly indicates that
writing started in the North and the Northwest of the Kingdom and did not
come from outside. It has also been noticed that the artists of pre-historic
periods, particularly in the Neolithic (New Stone Age), were more talented
and their artistic skills more developed. It was also evident that rock
drawing was a kind of communication system. The pre-historic artists seem
to have considered it a perfect means to high level aesthetics and thematic
art.
The early cultures of pottery indicate that they did not develop in the same
way or at the same time as the stone-tool cultures. The pottery findings, in
fact, reveal disparities in time and space for these cultures. Archeological
studies also revealed that the oldest pottery utensils found in the Kingdom
were collected from sites such as ‛Ayn Gannas in the Eastern Region. These
findings are believed to go back to the early era of the fourth-century-BC
slave cultures. Other sites such as Abu Khamîs, Ras Al-‛Amiya, Subkhân
Hammân east of Abqaiq, are also grounds for similar findings. Based on
decorative patterns, four different styles of pottery were distinguished: soft
non-decorated pottery, crude local pottery mixed with grass and hay and
١٠٧

glazed pottery. Dilmûn and Barbar type pottery encountered on Târût
Island.
A number of huge soapstone utensils that are believed to go back to the
third century BC have been discovered in different places including Târût
Island, Abqaiq, Khobar, Dhahrân, Thâj, the southwest of the Empty Quarter
and on the coast of the Red Sea. More evidence indicates that the raw
materials from which these utensils were manufactured were available in
the local areas and in big quantities.
Archeological evidence has confirmed that the Arabian Peninsula remained
the homeland of Semitic and Aramaean tribes, the source from which all
Arab tribes have sprung. The same archeological evidence indicates that
during pre-historic ages up until to the dawn of history, organized migration
in all directions from the desert of the Arabian Peninsula to other more
fertile regions has taken place. Historical literature about the Arabian
Peninsula as well as classical Arabic texts use the term Arabi and Arab to
refer to the inhabitants of Arabian Peninsula and to distinguish them from
inhabitants of other civilized regions.
The Ula site is located precisely in the Qurâ Valley, southeast of Harra al-
Oraifî between the east and west mountain ranges, where remains of walls
were found. In the same area, broken pottery and a chain of sculptured
petrified logs were dispersed over rocky slopes along more than a kilometer
distance across the region. Ula, or Dêdân, was inhabited by a group of Arab
tribes organized into small communities. They were believed to have lived
there between the third and the sixth centuries BC. These communities or
states were Dêdân, Lihyân, and Maîn, which fell by the hands of
Nabataeans in the North.
One of the most distinctive landmarks of Ula is a ruined temple along with
several sculpted paintings and writings in Lihyânic or Dêdânic bearing
names of kings or lords. They provide us with a great deal of information
about their makers’ social, commercial, religious and political orientation.
١٠٨

Madâ’in Sâlih, (the Cities of Salih) located fifteen kilometers away from
‘Ulâ, were mentioned in the Holy Qur’ân under the name of “Al-Hijr”.
They consist of completely built houses of the Qurâ Valley as well as of
several scattered dunes. These sand hills made it easy for the inhabitants to
build burial grounds for their dead. Many artistic styles were used in the
buildings of these burial grounds. A mixture of Pharaonic, Greek, Roman
and Arabian art made up an eclectic art style giving birth to a new school.
The oldest chain of archeological sites in this area, is a chain of sculptures
dating from the earliest years of first century BC to the first century of
Christian era. But it is almost confirmed that prehistoric human settlings
existed in these places.
Taimâ played a major role in the political and economic history of the
northern part of the Arabian Peninsula due to its location on a major trade
route between the north and south. Ancient archeological evidence indicates
that it has existed since the eighth century BC. Also, according to Assyrian
literature, the city goes back to the rule of King Tiglath-pileser III. It was
also mentioned in journeys mentioned in the Torah as an important business
and settlement center for some Arab tribes.
The famous Taimâ basket was found in Taimâ. Some Nabataean
inscriptions were engraved on one side while on its left side two pictures,
probably of a king and a magician, were painted. One of the most important
landmarks of Taimâ is Samuel Fortress (Ablaq Fortress) located in the
western part and having a square shaped perimeter enclosing a well in its
center. It is believed to have been built during the ruling period of the
Ghassânids, who shared the same time period with Samuel.
There is no doubt that Dûmat al-Jandal, currently Jawf, was one of the most
important shields against invaders from north and northeast. The Assyrians
and the Babylonians had business relations and political agreements with
them. Historic sources revealed that Dûmat al-Jandal was an important
religious center for Arab tribes at that time remained under the ruling of
١٠٩

succeeding queens, namely Zabîb, Samsî and Ba’tî(Batî) Tuglukhnû, who
were referred to as the queens of the Arabian Peninsula.
One of the most important archeological landmarks of Dûmat al-Jandal is

the Fortress of Mâred, considered as a city by itself, whose inhabitants are
believed to have been the Kindah Arab tribe. Its structure hosts mainly
Nabataean sculptures. One of the famous places of worship of this city is
the Temple of “ Wud”, which belonged to the clan Banî Wabra and was put
under the custody of the clan Banî Firâfsa ibn Ahwas ibn Kalb.
The town of Faw is considered an important archeological site of the pre-
Islamic period in the southern part of the kingdom. It is located on
northwest borders of the Empty Quarter, ٧٠٠ km southwest of Riyadh. On
the other hand, it represents one of the important cities of the pre-Islamic
Arabian Peninsula. The term “qarya” or town was mentioned in the
southern Arabic literature (written in the Musnad script). According to the
same source, it was the capital city of the first Kindi kingdom (from the
middle of the first century BC to the beginning of the fourth century of the
Christian era). This city existed for about eight centuries between the fourth
century BC and the launch of the first caravan going to Yemen, south to the
Arabian Gulf, and north to Sham (Syria and neighboring countries) through
the deserts. King Saud University’s twenty-year archeological excavations
revealed important details about the city. It was found that this city was one
of the biggest contemporary caravan centers of the Arabian Peninsula and
neighboring territories. It is five kilometers long and two kilometers wide
including the agricultural perimeters.
The most important architectural landmarks of the city are the residences,
the markets, the areas for worship, the cemeteries and the industrial zones.
The residential area represents a modal image of the pre-Islamic Arabian
city. This indicates that the city appears to have gone through two
architectural phases during its flourishing period. The market, the Big Tell,
١١٠

goes back to the second architectural phase as revealed by discoveries of
pottery from the area. The Big Tell holds a big rectangular building
surrounded by three consecutive continuous walls. It has three stories,
seven towers and a stone-lined, deep well in its center. On either side of its
entrance, small shops and houses were built along its interior walls.
Temples however, are distributed over several places of the site. The Ahwar
and Sin Shams temples are located in the west part of the market whereas
the Temple of “Wud” is situated in the middle of the residential area. It can
be recognized by its distinguished, complete architectural remains. They
consist of a sanctuary, a front hall followed by a back hall and then a
statute. However, no temple was found for the worshiped “Kahl”, despite
evidence of engravings and paintings that talk about it.
The cemeteries are divided into two parts. One of them is a general burial
ground for all kinds of people, and it extends outside the city from the west
edge of the valley of the gypsum zone to the north east of the city. The
other part is a special burial ground reserved for kings and lords. It extends
along the west and the southwest sides of the big hill. The industrial zone is
located to north of the residential area and to west of the market.
Faw is considered a historical site where extensive archeological findings
have been discovered. The most important of them are the writings and
engravings. These writings reveal the importance of the written expression
for Faw. Its strategic and political status imposed on it a great interest in
writing. The “South Musnad Pen” was the town’s official script. It is also
the same script used by the kingdoms of the south of the Arabian Peninsula,
i.e. Saba’, Ma‘în, Qatabân, Hadramawt, Awsân and Himyar. These writings
are found in important town sites such as the business centers and the
religious sanctuaries.
The town has a huge store of cultural artifacts. Local pottery is probably the
most significant. It consists of the local utensils and some imported ones,
particularly the glazed and the Nabataean. They both display clear link
١١١

between its inhabitants and the north and east of the Arabian Peninsula.
Moreover, other items such as the soapstone, glassware, jewelry and
ornamental and woodcraft materials have displayed more valuable
archeological evidence on the area.
In addition to its location and strategic status as a meeting point of all the
ancient civilizations of China, India, Persia, Mesopotamia, Syria, Egypt, the
Mediterranean and East Africa, Arabia was also honored as the birthplace
of Islam and the launching point for its spread to all parts of earth. Islam
took people from the doom and gloom of deviation and error to the bright
and light of guidance and good sense.
Archeological investigations and survey reports reveal that Islamic
archeological sites are distributed in every part of the Kingdom as cities and
seaports, where paintings, writings and the tools of the activities of daily
life are found. Just as the case was for the pre–Islamic era, trade played an
active and major role in the development of cities in the Islamic era. The
pilgrimage routes to the holy places of Makkah and Madina have played
another important role by establishing centers of Islamic culture in all areas
along these routes. One of the oldest centers in the north of the Kingdom is
the region of al-Jawf. This area has witnessed many events from the history
of Islam, from the Prophet’s (PBUH) famous campaign to Dûmat al-Jandal
in the fifth year of the Hejira, to its fall under the command of Khâlid ibn
al-Walîd during the caliphate of Abu Bakr al-Siddîq. Beside Dûmat al-
Jandal, the fortresses of Tuwair and Moweisen are two very important sites
of Islamic culture in al-Jawf. Archeological sites such as the Mârid Fortress,
the Dûmat al-Jandal old city (the Dir’ quarter), the Mosque of ‛Umar and
Qadir Fortress are also very important archeological landmarks of the area.
Among significant Islamic centers of the northern part of the country is the
town of Rabdha. It is situated southeast of Madina on the main route of
Iraqi pilgrims coming from Kufa on the Zubaida Road to Holy Makkah and
Madina. The town of Rabdha earned its importance as an Islamic city for
١١٢

three centuries from the start of early Islamic era, or even before, till the
end of Abbasid era in fourth century after the Hejira (٣١٩ H/ ٩٣١ AD. The
town is located in the heart of the Arabian Peninsula, half way between
Najd and Hijaz, and is in the middle of the famous mining areas of the
Arabian Peninsula such as the Naqra Mine in the North and the Ibn Salîm
Mine to the South. So the town has benefited from the constantly
commuting trade caravans, the yearly pilgrimage and the strength of local
mining and commerce. All made the town into one of the most important
and flourishing business centers of that time. The excavations of King Saud
University at this site produced discoveries of great importance, including
residential buildings, mosques, water installations, sculptures, writings,
coins, jewelry, ornaments and pottery, as well as stone, glass, wood and
bone tools.
Rabdha flourished, earned fame and became the main station on the path of
the Iraqi pilgrims, particularly those from Kufa and Basra, which have been
important urban centers since the dawn of Islam. Rabdah’s name was also
associated with some of the most important Islamic personalities, like
famous companions of the Prophet (PBUH) such as Abu Thir Al Ghafâri,
the leader ‛Utba Ibn Ghazwân, Salama Ibn Al Akwa‛ and Muhammad Ibn
Salama.
The northwest part of the Kingdom stores many Islamic archeological
landmarks. The pilgrimage routes from Syria and Egypt and Yemen,
seaports of Hijaz, i.e. Jeddah, Jâr (near Yanbu‛), Amlaj al-Wajh and
Dabbâ’, played an important role in the shipping and commercial activities
and contributed to the flourishing of this region during previous Islamic
periods. Successive archeological expeditions revealed writings and
sculptures consisting of Quranic verses, names of dignitaries and traditions
in the Muwailih area. Other sites near the city of Wajh, such as Zuraib,
Baybar, Qusair and Karkama, have revealed intensive sedentary community
gatherings and long standing residential buildings
١١٣

The archeological surveys around Makkah, although limited to the
pilgrimage routes, revealed a great number of finds and historical
landmarks. These landmarks and finds near Makkah mark the pilgrimage
routes from Iraq (the Zubaida Road), Syria, Egypt and Yemen. They
include tens of houses, pools and wells. There are also inscriptions along
these routes and in a number of neighboring sites, holy shrines such as
Hirmân Valley, Khalâs (Hijr Khalîfa) Umm al-Rain and Dumtum al-Batîn
and Shuarâ Mountain. In the inscribed texts, information of paramount
importance is revealed through the shapes of the letters and the varieties of
word forms. Another aspect of these writings is the content that sometimes
states the name of the writer or the one to whom the writing is intended.
Quranic verses, prayers, supplications and poems were clearly engraved on
the sides of the rocks.
In the Eastern Region, several archeological sites were discovered in Al-
Ahsâ’, Jubail, Khobar and Dammâm, etc. Some of these sites worthy of
mention are Mt. Qarîn, Jâwân, Sîhât, Jârûdea, and ‛Aqîr. They go back to
the start of the shining light of Islam. There is the Juwâthâ Mosque, which
is located twenty kilometers northeast of the city of Hufûf. It is believed
that that first mosque ever built in the eastern part of the Arabian Peninsula
goes back to the beginning of the first century after the Hejira. Several
important Islamic archeological sites were found in Ahsâ’, like Ibrahim
Castle, the Castle of the Dome, mixing military and religious architectural
styles. Inside the castle, a mosque bearing several domes and a minaret of a
unique style was built. This castle was established in several phases during
the period between ١٥٦٦ and ١٥٩١. The Castle of Khuzam Rashîd was built
in ١٨٠٥ in the era of Imam Sa‛ud ibn Abdulaziz the Great, and was used as
a military barracks during some periods of history. The ‛Aqîr site, al-‛Ujair,
represents significant archeological landmarks with the old fortress built
during the reign of the Ottomans. Then it was renovated during the reign of
١١٤

King Abdulaziz. The customs building, Abu Zahmûl tower and Barrâka
Tower are all archeological landmarks of the ‛Aqîr region.
The above information on significant landmarks and archeological sites in
the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is only a cup from the flood of the varied
cultures that our land has produced since the beginning of history.
١١٥

THE FINE ARTS
The fine arts in the Kingdom have a rather recent history in comparison
with European and some Arab countries. The beginning was in ١٩٥٧ when
the Ministry of Education announced that Art would be added general
education curriculum for boys and two years later for girls. The young
generations began, therefore, to understand and appreciate free expressive
art through drawing and other forms of artwork. They also began to
discover the importance of colors and the artistic media necessary for good
and beautiful artwork. This contributed to the gradual spread of the
understanding and appreciation of the fine arts among young Saudis. It also
aided the fast growing and comprehensive intellectual development of
Saudi society.
The sixties are considered to be the promotional years of the fine arts in the
Kingdom. During these years, many projects related to the study and
production of art at local and regional levels were implemented. The young
Saudi artist Abdulhalîm Radwî of Jeddah gave the first individual art
exhibition in ١٩٦٤. Other artists, like Mohammed al-Salîm, Safiya bint
Zaqar, Munîra Mûsilî, Abduljabbâr al-Yahyâ and Abdulaziz al-Hammâd
exhibited shortly afterwards.
In the seventies more than eighty teachers and others were sent to the
U.S.A., Italy and Egypt on scholarships for to study for undergraduate and
graduate degrees the fine arts and art education.
This period also witnessed the foundation of the Saudi Arabian Culture and
Arts Association, the inauguration of the Cultural Affairs Department and a
section on the fine arts within the Organization of Youth Welfare. Two
other departments for art education were created in King Saud University in
Riyadh and in Um al-Qura University in Makkah. As a result of these
achievements, the number of Saudi artists increased. Individual and joint
exhibitions started to appear. Moral and financial support and
١١٦

encouragement from the Cultural Affairs Department helped artists present
their works to the public in very well organized exhibitions.
Since the eighties many opportunities were made available for the spread
of formal art locally and internationally. In the kingdom, the decoration of
the buildings, government and private institutions made by Saudi artists
were very impressive. City squares, main streets and coastal sheers also
benefited from these decorations. Outside the kingdom, the Saudi Artworks
were displayed in official international exhibitions. The Kingdom started to
receive official invitations to participate to cultural artistic occasions
organized in all parts of the world.
Saudi artists drew inspiration from different sources, including:
THE LOCAL HERITAGE
Saudi artists were inspired in their works by elements of the Kingdom’s old
local culture and specially the concrete components, e.g. types of traditional
buildings, their constituents of decoration and beautification. Also inspiring
were public markets, aspects of professions and traditional handcrafts in
daily use, pictures of public life in rural areas and of holiday traditions, and
parts of ceremonies at educational and agricultural events.
(Plate No. 1.2)
THE ARAB HERITAGE
The Arab heritage includes stories, legends, poems and different Arabic
environmental settings throughout history. Also there are heroic sources
such as battles, instances of generosity and other Arab values and traditions.
The beauty of Arabic calligraphy and its different styles, now known as the
school of calligraphy, has also been a major source of inspiration for these
artists.
(Plate No. 3)
١١٧

THE ISLAMIC HERITAGE
The Islamic heritage includes the inspiration from the forms and elements
of universally famous Islamic art. It contains elements of geometry, plants
and living creatures. In addition, the alphabet of the Arabic language as
well as its different figures and styles in mosques, palaces and fortresses
have had their inspirational impact on young artists.
(Plate Nos. 4 & 5)
GENERAL HUMANITARIAN SUBJECTS AND ISSUES
These concerns include wars, peace, poverty, hunger and other disasters as
well as childhood, motherhood, old age, family and all situations in human
relationships.
(Plate No. 6)
More of the Kingdom’s artists practice their work in the field of formal
drawing than in any other field of artistic expression. For this reason, it has
became the most dominant genre of art. However many other artists work in
other fields of the fine arts, namely woodcraft, sculpture, pottery and
landscape drawing. These artists present their formal works in different
public and private exhibitions in hotels, universities, consulates and
embassies. The number of artistic shows at the present time ranges between
fifty and seventy in both Riyadh and Jeddah. These exhibitions are not only
of Saudi Artists, but also of artists from other Arab countries, Europe and
Asia.
The artistic styles revealed in the art works of Saudi artists show their
inspiration from the following different schools: realism, impressionism,
surrealism, cubism and abstractionism. Other more individual styles of an
eclectic nature bring together characteristics of two or more art schools in
one coherent style, e.g. putting in relief elements and components of
decorations and details of colors.
١١٨

Despite western stylistic influences, many artists are making good efforts
towards a more individualized style carrying the Arab conceptual identity.
One such individualized style is that of Mohamed Al-Salîm, which he refers
to as “horizonism”. This style is a result of an inspiration from the Arabian
environment, the vast desert offering exhausted view to a far-sought
horizon.
(Plate No.7)
We also find a number of artists who are trying to develop and systemize
the Arabic writing favoring the beauty and the picturesque attributes of the
Arabic calligraphy over the semantic and phonetic representations of the
letters.
(Plates Nos. 8-9)
Another style mixing elements of the traditional material heritage with
scenarios from pure nature in one contemporary work is used mainly by the
artist Munîrah Mosli. She has had very successful efforts in this direction.
(Plate No.10)
After four decades, the fine arts - as conceived in the Kingdom - are as
important as any other component of the local cultural movement, including
poetry, literature and music. They are on their way to maintaining their
natural position among these components. The active movement of the fine
arts is noticed through the many individual and group exhibitions organized
each and all year round in schools, universities and public places. These
exhibitions are accompanied by academic lectures, media coverage and
marketing campaigns to encourage and promote the young generations’
artistic appreciation and performance.
On the international level, we find the Saudi fine arts in most of the
international cultural weeks in the Kingdom as well as in the famous
exhibition that toured world capitals, “The Kingdom between Yesterday
and Today.” We also find art works by Saudi Artists displayed in most
١١٩

museums in Arab countries as well as in Italy, Spain, Brazil and United
States.
Although the fine arts in the Kingdom are just in their fifth decade, they
have fared better than those of other Arab and neighboring countries whose
fine arts movement began way before the Kingdom’s.
The Kingdom is looking for further advancements in the near future,
especially after the introduction of Saudi fine artwork in some of the most
well known and competitive international exhibitions and art museums.
١٢٠

INFORMATION
Since the reign of King Abdulaziz, official information policy in the
Kingdom has been firmly based on the pursuit of objectivity, wisdom and
neutrality in presenting facts. There has been no scope for exaggeration,
provocation or the use of information for mean purposes. This stand was
confirmed by the ١٩٨٢ amendment on information policy, which states up
front that the information process must comply in all its aspects with the
Islamic Sharia.
The information policy also mandates the full support and service of
information media to the society by basing them on the society’s Islamic
values and by maintaining its Arab customs and traditions. The policy also
entails service to the Kingdom’s political system, a system that was
designed to preserve and protect the citizen’s general interests in particular,
and those of the Arabic peoples and the Islamic nation in general. In
addition, it shows great interest in highlighting the Kingdom’s
distinguishing economic, political, social and religious features. It is
concerned as well as with strengthening the social and geographical mutual
understanding within Saudi society, by introducing and spreading factual
knowledge of the country among all members of the society in all parts of
the Kingdom. This aspect of policy is intended to make a significant
contribution to strengthening the citizen’s self-respect and love and fidelity
to his country. It also gives a great deal of importance to the role of the
family in the society by producing special family programs aiming at child
development and care through support of the role of women and the welfare
of youth. Saudi information media respect the necessity of respecting the
rights of individuals and groups, and they uphold the freedom of speech
within the framework of Islamic values and national interests.
١٢١

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
The modern Saudi information age began with the very first days of the
founding of the Kingdom. King Abdulaziz’s Government issued the first
Saudi newspaper, “Umu’l-Qura,” in Makkah in the year ١٩٢٤. The first
information law came four years later in ١٩٢٨. Radio broadcasting started
in ١٩٤٩. In ١٩٥٥, the General Directorate for Radio and Press was founded.
It represented the nucleus for the later Ministry of Information. In ١٩٦٢,
Royal Decree No. ٥٧ ordered the transformation of the General Directorate
into the Ministry of Information. This new institution became responsible
for all information media, and it now consists of three main agencies:
The Agency for Information Affairs, responsible for radio, television,
domestic information, the Saudi Press Agency and the regional information
centers.
× The Agency for Administration and Finance, responsible for all
administrative and financial matters related to the Ministry staff as well as the
technical supervision of all Ministry equipment.
× The International Information Agency, responsible for managing
international information and information centers.
RADIO
The first radio broadcasting was launched on Sunday evening, October ١,
١٩٤٩. At that time, the radio depended administratively on the Ministry of
Finance and so remained until ١٩٥٢. In ١٩٥٥, it became an independent
division, called “The General Directorate of Radio,” supervised directly
from the Council of Ministers. At first, broadcasting was limited to studios
in Jeddah. But on January ٣, ١٩٦٥, Radio Riyadh made its first broadcast.
On August ٢٠, ١٩٧٩, a unified broadcasting was established between the
Jeddah and Riyadh stations under a common name “ Radio of the Kingdom
of Saudi Arabia from Riyadh.
١٢٢

In ١٩٨٢, there were new developments. The Riyadh Station started
broadcasting “the General Program” and the Second Program was created
for broadcast from the Jeddah Station.
The European Languages programs of the Radio of Saudi Arabia started in
١٩٦٥ with English from Jeddah, and five years later, with French. In ١٩٨٢,
both language programs were put together in one program called “The
European Program,” which was broadcast from Riyadh.
Channels of Saudi Radio presently broadcast the following programs:
Programs Number of hours
× General Program × ٢٠ hours a day
× Qur’an Radio × ٢٠ hours a day
× Islamic Call Radio × ٠٤ hours a day
× Second Program × ١٨ hours a day
× English Programs × ١٢ hours a day
× French Programs × ٠٤ hours a day
× Directed Programs × ٢٠ hours a day
The Directed Programs covering various Muslim countries in Asia and
Africa are broadcast in the following languages: Indonesian, Urdu, Farsi,
Turkish, Bengali, Swahili, Turkistani, Somali, Bambari and Malaysian.
Each program lasts one or two hours except for English and French, which
are twelve and four hours respectively. In addition to these, the Korean
Program is broadcast twice a week, and during the Hajj season, other
directed programs are broadcast intensively.
TELEVISION
Television broadcasting started in both Jeddah and Riyadh Stations on July
١٧, ١٩٦٥. The broadcasts covered only a small area of ٨٠ to ١٠٠ square
kilometers, in and around both cities. By ١٩٦٧, the Jeddah TV station’s
range took in both Makkah and Taif. In December of the same year, the
Madina Station was inaugurated, followed by Qassim’s (١٩٦٨), Dammâm’s
(١٩٦٩) and later Abhâ’s (١٩٧٧).
١٢٣

The launching of color TV broadcasting in ١٩٧٦ was a significant
development in the quality of TV reception. The expansion of the broadcast
coverage through a coaxial cable network installed by the Ministry of
Telecommunications and the use of a satellite and microwave network
covering all areas of the Kingdom have broadened the broadcast range to
cover the whole of the Kingdom and neighboring countries as well.
Saudi Arabian Channel Two started broadcasting on August ١٢, ١٩٨٣ for
the non-Arabic speakers residing in the Kingdom. The broadcast language
is English. However, it broadcasts a daily news bulletin in French, as well
as occasional programs in other languages such as Urdu, Farsi, Swahili and
others to facilitate and explain the principles of Islamic duties during the
Hajj season.
THE SAUDI PRESS AGENCY

The Saudi Press Agency (SPA) was founded in ١٩٧٠ and was the first of its
kind in the Kingdom. It is a central organization that gathers information on
both domestic and international levels. It distributes information on both
levels as well. The SPA is also considered as the official and primary
source of news in the Kingdom.
The agency has taken advantage of the wide availability of
telecommunication services across the country to better deliver its audio-
visual and printed information services locally, domestically and
internationally.
The staff of the SPA consists of more than ٥٠٠ employees, ٨١٪ of which
are Saudi nationals and is represented in all major cities of the Kingdom.
Outside the Kingdom, the Agency has offices in Cairo, Beirut, Tunis,
Washington, London and San’a. It also has correspondents in Jordan,
Islamabad, Bonn and Ankara. It is one of the founding members of the
United Arab Press Agencies, the Gulf Press Agency, the Islamic Press
Agency and the Non-Aligned Countries Press Agency.
١٢٤

THE HIGHER INFORMATION COUNCIL
The Higher Information Council was formed by a royal decree in ١٩٨١ and
is directly linked to the Council of Ministers. It is responsible for setting
information policy guidelines for various information bodies to follow. The
Council is also in charge of studying information issues and taking
decisions or making recommendations accordingly. The decree nominated
his R. H. Prince Naif bin Abdulaziz, Interior Minister, as chairman of the
council and nine (later twelve) members drawn from the ranks of high-level
government officials and other information experts.
THE PRESS
The Press started with the early days of the Saudi era. The Umu’l-Qura
newspaper, issued for the first time in Makkah Al-Mukarramah in ١٩٢٤,
was the first official newspaper in the Kingdom. In ١٩٢٨, the private sector
started contributing by publishing newspapers and magazines. Al-Islah (the
reform) was the first magazine to be published. Al-Haram magazine
followed two years later. In ١٩٣٢, Sawtu’l-Hijaz (the Voice of the Hijaz)
was published. It stopped during World War II but resumed in ١٩٤٦ under a
new name, Sahiifatu’l-Biladi’s-Saudiya (Newspaper of the Saudi Land).
Twenty-eight years from the first issue of Umu’l-Qura, other newspapers
were issued in other cities of the Kingdom. In ١٩٥٣, Al-Yamamah (the
Dove) magazine was published. Two years later, Akhbar-Dhahrân
(Dhahrân News) was issued. During the fifties, a number of newspapers
such as An-Nadwa (the Symposium) in Makkah, as well as al-Madina, Al-
Bilad and Ukaz in Jeddah were published.
The sixties are considered the most active period in the press history of the
Kingdom. During this period, the Press Establishment Law was issued in
١٩٦٣. It revised the ownership system from individually limited to
cooperative. Chief editors and Directors were officially nominated for all
newspapers. Then a number of newspapers such as Ar-Riyadh, Al-Jazirah
(the Peninsula) and Al-Yawm (Today) commenced publication. Magazines
١٢٥

such as Al-Yamamah, Iqra ’ and Ash-Sharq were also published during that
decade. The seventies witnessed the birth of newspapers published in
English, i.e. Arab News from Jeddah in ١٩٧٥, Saudi Gazette from Jeddah
the following year, and last Riyadh Daily from Riyadh in ١٩٨٦.
The total number of daily, weekly, monthly or quarterly Arabic newspapers
reached ٣٧٢. A great number of magazines covering a wide range of
specialized subjects are also published monthly or quarterly in the
Kingdom. They are medical, scientific, technical and cultural and
commercial, such as the magazines from chambers of commerce and
industry. There are other quarterly magazines dealing with contemporary
issues. They may be cultural, such as Ad-Daara published by Daaratu’l-
Malik Abdulaziz, or research oriented, such as Aalamu’l-Kutub, Al-
Buhuuthu’l-Islamiya (Islamic Research), Al-Buhuuthu’l-Fiqhiyatu’l-
Mo’aasira (Con-temporary Islamic Law Research), Al-Idaratu’l-‘Amma
(Public Administration), Al-Majallatu’t-Tibiyatu’s-Sa ’uudiya (Saudi
Medical Journal) and magazines published in the various universities of the
Kingdom.
PRINTING PRESS AND PUBLICATION

The first printing house was founded in Makkah in ١٨٨٣ and three more in
١٩١٦. Despite the absence of printing experience in the Kingdom before its
unification, these printing houses played a very important role in the
printing and publication of books. They represented the beginning of a
brighter printing and publishing future. The Umu’l-Qura Printing House
was the first one during the Saudi era. The government provided it strong
financial and labor support. Then a number of printing houses followed
with development in the technologies used and an increase in the number of
printing houses across the Kingdom. There are about ١١٦ printing houses in
the Kingdom. In the past thirty-three years, they have printed ٤،٧٠٩ books.
In other words, they have produced an average of ١٤٣ books per year.
١٢٦

Riyadh itself hosts seventy of these presses, followed by Jeddah with
twenty active presses.*
*Source:
.
Amin Saaty’s books on the birth, development and policy of information in the Kingdom
١٢٧

TOURISM
Tourism in the Kingdom relies partly on landscape and partly on history.
Saudi Arabia covers ٨٠٪ of the Arabian Peninsula, about ٢٢٤،٠٠٠٠ km٢. Its
western coast extends along the Red Sea between the Jordanian border in
the north and the Yemeni border in the south for ١،٨٠٠ km. Its eastern coast
extends along the Arabian Gulf from Ra’s al-Mish‘âb in the north at the
Kuwaiti borders to the Qatari borders south for ٥٠٠ km.
Geologically, the Kingdom consists of a plateau of rock slightly inclining
from West to East. The Empty Quarter, which occupies most of the
southern part of the Arabian Peninsula, is considered one of the biggest
sand basins in the world at about ٤٠٠،٠٠٠ km٢. Finally, there is the Arabian
Shield, where volcanic stony areas along with peaks and relatively thin
layers cover a substantial area of land.
THE CLIMATE
The Kingdom is characterized predominantly by hot and dry weather in the
summer. However, temperatures full gradually on the southwest heights.
Heat and humidity prevail in the coastal areas. In the central and northern
areas, temperature can drop below zero in the winter. Snow falls on the Asîr
heights during winter. The period from October to May is usually moderate
all over the Kingdom. Cool breezes spring up at night, and the sun shines
during most of the day. The average rainfall reaches only five inches per
year, except in the Asir region where it can reach twenty inches per year.
NATURAL FACTORS
Because of special characteristics, some parts of the Kingdom have very
attractive touristic features. In the Southwest, the West Coast and the
coastal areas constitute not only an area of beautiful beaches, but contain
some very interesting touristic sites such as the city of Jeddah, Jizân,
Yanbu‘, Laith and Al-Wajh. In the Central Region, Riyadh, the capital city,
١٢٨

is attractive due to its recent building boom. The architecture reflects a
mixture of the latest construction methods and techniques along with
traditional and modern styles. The city provides wide range of services of
all kinds. On the East Coast, the cities of Dammâm, Dhahrân, Jubail and
Khobar provide very beautiful scenery. The Tihâma area is the warmest
part of the Kingdom during winter. The Red Sea coastal region is
considered a winter resort area that competes with the resorts on the Sarât
Mountains.
The southern and western regions, Hijaz, have huge areas of green
landscape and forest in the areas of Tâ’if in the center and Bâha and Asîr in
the South. These areas also provide some beautiful mountain views, wild
animals and traditional ways of life and basic means of survival in old
villages. To preserve the natural and historical features of the area, huge
touristic infrastructures have been established, including national parks of
all sizes and types. Asîr National Park, for example, covers ٤،٥٠٠ km٢.
Roads, parking and camping facilities have been built for touristic purposes.
The flora and fauna of the park are very diversified as we find varieties of
plants and animals including tigers, baboons, wolves or jackals, fennecs and
about ٣٠٠ varieties of birds and reptiles. The Ahsâ’ National Park in the
Eastern Region covers forty-five km٢, where seven million trees have been
planted, and where there are several mineral water springs and beautiful
historic sites.
The wild life protection organization has created some wild life protection
zones where rare flora and fauna are protected and preserved. Such zones
like Hurratu’l-Hurra, Tubaiq in the Northwest, Al-Wu’ûl northwest of
Riyadh, Rîdah in Asîr and many islands in the Red Sea are rich in wildlife.
Animals such as antelopes or Arabian wild cows, ibexes and many other
animal species are all cohabitants of these beautiful areas.
١٢٩

THE HISTORICAL FACTORS
The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia holds paramount status throughout the
Islamic world. It is the heart of Islamic civilization. Muslims from around
the world orient themselves towards the Ka’bah in their five daily prayers.
There is also Medina, the capital of the first Islamic state and site the
Mosque of the Prophet Mohammed (PBUH). Other historical sites in the
Kingdom include the Madâ’in Sâlih, capital of the people of Thamûd, the
Nabataeans in Western historical tradition. These sites offer beautiful sights
including caves and lined, sculpted graves. Their artistic design and reliefs
indicate their existence for thousands of years. In ‘Ulâ, north of Medina, a
number of inscriptions or drawings belonging to the Dâdânî, Ma‘înî,
Lihyânî, and Thamûdî eras along with the remains of a dam ٧٥٠ m long
represent attractive and enriching historical sites. Another Islamic historical
site of the area of ‘Ulâ is the famous citadel at the top of Mt. Mûsâ that
once belonged to the famous Muslim leader Mûsâ ibn Nusair.
Taymâ’ is considered an old center of civilization. It connected the
Kingdom of Babylon to Egypt, Makkah and the Syria. It was mentioned in
the inscriptions of Tiglath-pileser III, the Babylonian Emperor (٧٤٥-٧٢٧
B.C.) The inscription of Nabonidus, the Babylonian Emperor (٥٥٥-٥٣٨
B.C.), tells the story of the Babylonian, who vainly took Taymâ’ as a refuge
against the campaigns of the Persian emperor, Cyrus.
Other important archeological areas of the Kingdom include Qarya, which
holds ruins indicating a vast surface area and a succession of several
civilizations, most of which are still unknown today. Thâj, however goes
back to the Seleucid era. In the heart of the Husmâ region, some Roman
drawings believed to date from the era of Marcus Aurelius indicate the
existence of a Nabataean/Roman temple that goes back to the second
century AD. In Târût, a small island in the Arabian Gulf, remains of an
١٣٠

early people of a Mesopotamian civilization go back to ٤،٠٠٠ or ٥،٠٠٠
years ago.
Najrân, on the other hand, has ever since made the link between the North
and the South of the Peninsula. Some of the most important ruins of the
area are the Ukhdûd, ancient Qarya and sites of Jabal ‘Ajâmah. The remains
of the Ukhdûd big wall and its palaces are still standing and bear artistic
drawings and inscriptions from the Ma‘înî, Sabaean and Kûfî eras.
Jarash, located outside Khamîs Mushayt, dates back before Islam. It was
very well known for skin tanning and exports. Outside Khamîs Mushayt at
a distance of seventy-five kilometers north of Abhâ, big carved tools and
various drawings and inscriptions on Mt. Hamûma are to be found.
The milestones in old Manfûha, Riyadh such as the Birma Cave and the
٢،٤٠٠-year old Thamûdi inscriptions discovered east of Khurais Road
indicate its prosperity at that time.
Dira’iya, located on both sides of Wadi Hanîfa, is an ancient historical town
that goes back to the middle of the ٩th century of the Hejira. The most well
known part of Dira’iya is Turaif, which was the residence of the ruling
family.
Ancient Faw is located on the northwest side of the Empty Quarter and
situated ٧٠٠ km southwest of Riyadh on the meeting point of the Tuwaiq
Mountain Range and Wadi Dawâsir. In Taif, the Samlaqi Dam is located on
the upper part of Laih Valley. It is one of the oldest ancient dams and may
have been built in the period preceding the appearance of Islam. The dam
was built at that point in the valley for the purpose of collecting the water
and irrigating the fields on both sides of the valley. Another historical
landmark is the Mârid Fortress located seventy kilometers northwest of
Buraidah in Qasîm. Its construction goes back to the middle of the twelfth
century of the Hejira.
The ‘Ukaz Market, one of the biggest Arab markets before Islam, was the
battlefield of the war that took place in the year ٥٩٠ B.C. between the
١٣١

Quraish and the Hawâzin. Some ancient buildings that go back to the
Abbassid era are still standing in ‘Ukâz. The Market itself continued to
exist until the year ١٢٩ H. The Kharâba Pool on the famous Zubaida Road
which joined Iraq with the Holy Lands. The road was built to facilitate the
pilgrim journey to Makkah by providing water and rest areas along the
road.
In the North, the city of Hâ’il, meaning “separator”, is named after the
valley separating two Shammar Range mountains, Ajâ and Salmâ. The city
is built in the middle of this valley on the slope of Mt. Ajâ. In the Jawf area,
the Sarhân Oasis located some ٢٠٠ km northwest of Jawf in the middle of a
valley which is still a very important commercial road for the Adûmî
people. Jawf itself was known under the name of Dûmat al-Jandal when it
was the seat of the rulers of the Adûmî peoples. The Assyrians used to call
the area and the people the Adûmâtû. Jawf offers many interesting
historical and geological sites. Among these is the very famous Mârid
Fortress or Al-Akîdir, near which is a mosque believed to have been built
by the Second Caliph Omar ibn Al-Khattab. In Sakâkâ, the Za‘abel
Fortress, located on the top of Mt. Za‘abel and overlooking a beautiful
oasis, is believed to have been there for at least ١٢٠ years. West of the
Zaââabel Fortress, another mountain called Barnis hosts drawings of
humans in dancing scenes near ancient Arabic inscriptions and others that
look Nabataean.
١٣٢

HUNTING
The average Arab today considers hunting one of his favorite hobbies.
However, until not too many years ago, this sportive hobby was an essential
part of his life. At first, it was a vital means of survival as it provided food
and clothing. It was only when he started exploring other food sources, that
hunting became an enjoyable occasion practiced by all kinds of people
according to their capabilities.
Hunters have gone after several large species, such as zebras, addaxes,
antelopes, ibexes, and smaller species, such as rabbits, hyraxes, jerboas,
lizards, etc. Also hunted were local birds like ostriches, bustards, pigeons,
doves, sand grouses, skylarks, and sparrows. Transients on their twice-
yearly migration have also been prey of the Arab hunters. In the autumn,
the travelers migrate from the cold areas in the north, heading south where
they can find warm areas to enjoy in the winter. Then they stop again on
their way north in the last days of spring to get away from the approaching
hot days of summer. On their ways back and forth, they cross the skies of
the Kingdom, sometimes resting in villages and fields looking for water,
and even sometimes in the country where they rest on tree and mountain
tops after long flights. The villagers take these opportunities to hunt the
birds. These migrants have been identified as cranes, ducks, bustards, bee
eaters and crows and well as varieties with the local names of abu mâlik, al-
gharânîq, al-zarâzîr, al-simqît, al-sofir, and al-‘ub‘û.
The hunting of big animals was done by pursuit on horseback, then spearing
or shooting arrows. Now with the spread of firearms, it has become very
easy to shoot the target from distance. Amateur hunters use very
sophisticated means, such as trained animals like dogs, especially the saluki
which has the best and most accurate sense of smell, the trained falcon,
tamed cheetah, which was first used by a famous Arab hunter, Kuleib
Wâ’il, in the fifth century BC. The cheetah is considered the most noble and
١٣٣

most efficient hunting animal. The female cheetah is fiercer and more
courageous than the male.
The Arab used all of means in their hunting, but when Islam came, hunting
was restricted somewhat. In a number of verses of the Qur’an, all aspects of
the killing of animals are regulated. The Arab poets have used hunting as a
physical support for their descriptive poems. There is even one classical
genre of poetry called “the poetry of the chase,” shi’ru’t-tard, extant in
hundreds of pages. The colloquial poets have also used this sport in their
poems and made their impact with the theme.
Hunting changed with the introduction of vehicles and firearms. Even
though it has been decided to limit the practice of the sport due to
environmental reasons among others, its practice has never ceased and still
practiced by its lovers using all kinds of means.
While nets, traps and snares were traditionally employed to hunt birds, their
most popular hunting method is the use of raptors and trained dogs. Arabs
have used the raptors across the centuries. Small prey have been hunted
with falcons, a bird used by the Arabs for first time by Al-Hanth ibn
Murawiyah ibn Kindah. The most popular are:
× The oqâb or eagle is a leading bird of prey that presents some of the
most singular characteristics that one bird can have. It is the biggest in size, the
fastest in flight, the longest sighted, the finest in hearing and the most cautious in
charging. It can catch the heaviest prey with a short, bent peak and the widest
and strongest maxillaries. That is why he is referred to as al-kâsir, “the breaker.”
× The bâzî or hawk falls into five categories, the goshawk, the qaymî, the
blue hawk, the sparrow hawk and the baydaq. The goshawk is considered the
best, most expensive, most beautiful, heaviest, to have biggest eyes of the softest
feather and the longest beck among the whole hawk family. He is solely
characterized by the following qualities: excessive speed in charging to the point
he was told to be faster than the arrow. The Persians were the first to tame and
train the goshawk.
١٣٤

× The shâhîns fall into three categories, the shâhîn, the aynuqi and the
quttâmî. Of all the birds of prey, the shahîn is the fastest, fiercest, most
courageous and most flexible in following the maneuvers of his prey. It is
however said to be less persistent, cannot stand hunger nor thirst or even a full
stomach and has a weaker defense system. He can also revolt easily, runs away
from his master, and can no longer be used when he has.
× The saqr is the falcon and is the Arabic word from which the English
saker (falco cherrug) is derived. The Arab used to attribute this name to all birds
of prey except the eagle. The falcon falls into three categories, the eagle, the kanj
and the yu’yu’. The falcon is variously called the ajdal, the haytham, and the
madrahî in local Arabic. It is best used in gazelle or deer hunting either alone or
with the assistance of the dog. The falcon keeps chasing the prey and striking it
with its claws on the face until it loses balance or gets disorientated. Then the
dog, which was chasing the prey, catches and bites at it from the flanks or from
the leg till it downs it, holding onto it until its master comes. When the falcon is
hunting alone, he keeps hitting the prey with his beck and wings or bursting its
eyes until he downs it. Then he perches upon it and waits for its master.
Nowadays the most popular hunting raptors are:
× As-saqru’l-hurr (the free falcon) or ash-sharqu’l-ashqar is the
peregrine. It tends to white and is ٦٠cm in height. Its wingspan is ١٤٠ cm, and it
is said to be the best bird of prey. It migrates in winter and flourishes in the
mountainous areas of Central Asia and Eastern Europe. It spends the winter in
some areas of the Arabian Peninsula, where amateurs hunt it by setting traps on
its migration route. This kind of falcon is classified by local hunters into three
levels: as-saqru’l-kâmil u’n-nâdir, the whole, rare falcon, considered to be the
best, al-mathlûth considered of a lesser quality than the former and referred to as
az-zeyz, and the third and last, at-tib‘.
× As-saqru’l-ghazâli’l-wakrî is the aerie deer falcon. It is ٥٥cm in height
and its wingspan is ١٢٥cm. Its body is covered by dark brown feathers on his
back and wings and with lighter ones on its head. Its color ranges from blond, to
red to almost black, according to the area of residence and its environment. It
falls under the same categories as the thoroughbred. These kinds of falcons build
١٣٥

their aeries on the mountaintops, where no man’s hand, they believe, can reach.
But hunters usually climb to the summits, secure themselves with ropes and
descend the mountain cliffs to where the aerie is, steal the young birds to nourish
them till they are grown. While the chicks mature, their masters train them for
hunting. Popular anecdotes related to this process have been recorded, and one
of the most famous stories is that of Maqait and Rashâ.
× The shâhîn like the peregrine falcon, is a migratory bird that usually
comes to the Kingdom during winter. It is smaller than the peregrine falcon with
a height of ٤٨cm and a wingspan of ١١٠cm. Its head and back are dark gray and
the rest of its body is light brown.
Falcons are the mostly widely employed birds of prey for hunting while the
bustards are the mostly widely hunted birds. The falcon proceeds to the
chase in the air placing himself above or in front of the bustard avoiding the
sticky liquid that these birds use as a tool of self-defense. If the falcon
places itself behind or below the bustard, he may receive a squirt of this
liquid, which will handicap his wings and make him fall. Instead, he stays
above or in front of the bustard and keeps pecking at it with its strong beak,
either striking the head or ripping off big portions of the its wings until it
falls. Once the bustard has fallen, the falcon perches on it till its master
arrives.
١٣٦

HORSEMANSHIP
Historians and horsemen disagree on the beginning of horsemanship. Some
think that it began during the Stone Age because the scientist Brown says
that the drawings in the caves of Combe-Grenal in the south of France
resemble hundreds of small horses and carry the clear characteristics of the
Arabian horse.
Another group of scientists thinks that the Arabian horse originated from
the Sahara of North Africa. However, most evidence points to the Arabian
Peninsula as the main origin of the thoroughbred Arabian horse, and from
the peninsula, its transfer through neighboring countries to the rest of the
world.
According to the Arab belief, the Arabian horse came from the wilderness
and lived in the desert before it was tamed. It owes its beauty, strength and
speed to the desert environment it developed in. The Arabs attribute all
horses to five origins: Saqlâwiyât, Kahiyât, Obiyât, Hadabât and
Hamdâniyât. The general idea that color is a factor in the classification of
horses is erroneous. There is no specific color distinguishing one family of
horses from another of a different color. The kind of the horse refers to the
family and each gained its popularity according to the conditions
surrounding it. The Arabs are famous for keeping breeding records. They
have immortalized these records through their poetry. Since ٨١٥ AD, a
team of scholars, such as Al-Asmai, Abu Ubaida ibn al-Muthanna and
others have dedicated their literary efforts to the origins and history of
Arabian horses.
In the past, the great interest that Bedouins had for the horse is reflected in
their dedication of one major part of their literature to the horse. The horse
occupies a major share of the literary volumes of Arabic prose and poetry.
The Arab developed horsemanship before Islam. For them, the racing of
horses is an old Arabian sport. Horses have always met with a great deal of
١٣٧

care and attention in the Kingdom. At the head of those distinguished for
their great interest in horses and horsemanship is his Royal Highness Prince
Abdullah Ibn Abdulaziz. His horse, Baghdad, was the first to win the ١٠٠
Pounds Gold Prize in the very first horse race ever-organized in Riyadh in
١٩٥٢, during the reign of the late King Abdulaziz. The races continued in
the period of King Saud, who was the first to create a platform at the
present racetrack, a vantage from which people could watch the race
comfortably. The races were unscheduled, until ١٩٦٥ when the Equestrian
Club and the racetrack were built in Malaz, a word meaning “place where
horses are ridden.”
On January ٤, ١٩٦٨, the first race in the history of the club was organized.
During the rest of the same year, fifteen races were run, and a turning point
reached in the history of horsemanship in this country.
The successes of horsemanship mounted, and racing seasons developed. In
١٩٨٤, the Club and the racetrack were rebuilt on the basis of the latest
advancements in the field and international racetrack specifications were
adopted. In ١٩٩٢, King Fahd ordered a١٠٠٪ increase in the amounts of the
cash prizes for each race organized by the club. The total amount of prize
money that year was seven million Saudi Riyals, in addition to eighty-five
cups and twenty-four cars. It was not just a matter for the Club of increasing
the cash prizes or the number of cups, interest grew in insuring better
lineages and stock in the choice of breeding and cross breeding. Selections
of such stock were made not only at the local level, but also from better and
stronger racehorses in United States, England and France. This new policy
has promoted the Saudi Equestrian Club to the level of clubs in the
countries mentioned above.
The Equestrian Club holds weekly races in the summer resort of Taif during
the months of Shawwal and Dhu’l-Qadah of every year. In Riyadh,
however, races are held weekly beginning with the first of Muharram of
every year.
١٣٨

Many government agencies interested in the promotion of Arabian horses,
offer cups and cash prizes to race winners. Other private institutions and
individuals offer cars to the owners of the winning horses. The Equestrian
Club arranges official races for kings, presidents and other international
dignitaries visiting the Kingdom. In addition, the Club runs a riding school
to train young Saudi riders as professional jockeys and employs
international horsemen to teach young dependents of Club members to ride.
Finally, the Equestrian Club is a leading member of the Arab Horsemanship
Union.
١٣٩

JANADRIYA
Janadriya is a name of a group of gardens located in north of the city of

Riyadh. It is a funnel for several valleys and consists of the north, the
middle and the south gardens and used to be called the Suwais Garden. It
was mentioned by a group of historians in their writings about houses and
landmarks of Yamâma. In modern times, it was selected as the site for the
annual Camel Race festival organized by the Saudi National Guard. Today
this festival represents Saudi culture and tradition and expresses the theme
of the individual, time and place and their coexistence and continuity on the
land of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
Organizers of the festival have realized that this event could be used
as a stage for cultural and traditional activities that link the present with the
ancient past and the desired future. Thus, the whole conventional village
was set up on a popular pattern in consideration of basic Arab traditions and
Islamic values and under the supervision of His Royal Highness, Prince
Abdullah bin Abdulaziz, Crown Prince, Deputy Chairman of the Council of
Ministers and Head of the National Guard. The idea developed through the
years till it became a well-designed program in pursuit of noble goals. Then
His Highness ordered a high level committee set up for supervision of the
First National Festival of Heritage and Culture under the patronage of his
Royal Highness Prince Badr bin Abdulaziz, Deputy head of the National
Guard for the Preparation of the Festival.
On Saturday ٢٣/٣/١٩٨٥, the Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques, King
Fahd bin Abdulaziz inaugurated the First National Festival of Heritage
and Culture. From that moment, Janadriya became a promise and a meeting
of culture and heritage for Arab and foreign scholars and intellectuals. It
became not just a Saudi festival, but also a universal one. It combined Arab
and international cultural values, and so it played an important role in
١٤٠

seeking mutual cultural understanding, in deepening links between nations
and in joining the individual’s present with his past and future.
Cultural activities are considered one of the main pillars of the yearly
National Festival of Heritage and Culture. In addition to educational,
artistic and formative lectures, specialized brainstorming seminars are
organized to study cultural, economic and social affairs of the international
community. Publishers, private organizations and government institutions
as well as some states of the Gulf Cooperation Council participate in a book
exhibition. Another major component of the festival is an exhibition of
documents and pictures. A competition in the recitation of the Holy Qur’an
is held, too.
Shows and drama are considered a major part of the festival. Artistic groups
of different regions of the Kingdom come to participate and compete. They
offer a variety of morning and afternoon shows as well as a presentation at
night during all days of the festival. These artistic presentations continue
until the closing ceremony. And arts committee organizes these
presentations along with live plays, displays of handicrafts in open markets
and cultural exchanges among participants and guests.
The festival also displays models of traditional handcrafts and skills. This
activity is in a folk market that consists of shops, exhibitions, and indoor
and exhibits. It has occupied a major place in the festival and has given
visitors some of their memories of the festival. The two hundred or so
handcrafts and skills made and displayed in the open market were produced
by the common effort of more than ٢٥٠ craftsmen.
Special stands were allocated for the participation of neighboring states of
the Gulf. They were able to display cultures and civilizations that are part of
their heritage as Arabian Gulf countries. Their exhibits included
archeological items, traditional costumes and cultural displays.
١٤١

KING ABDULAZIZ CITY FOR SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
(KACST)
King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology is an independent
scientific organization, administratively linked to the Chairman of the
Council of Ministers. It is located in Riyadh and may establish branches in
other cities in the Kingdom. KACST was founded by Royal Decree No.
M/٦٠ dated ٢٩/١١/١٩٧٧, under the name “The National Center for Science
and Technology”. Thereafter, by the power of Royal Decree No. M/٦١
issued on ٥/٨/١٩٨٥, the name was changed and supreme board headed by
the Chairman of the Council of Ministers was formed to manage the center.
One year after the name has also been changed to “King Adulaziz City for
Science and Technology” in accordance with the Royal Decree No. M/٨
dated ٣١/١٢/١٩٨٥.
OBJECTIVES AND TASKS:

KACST aims at encouraging scientific research in applied fields. It
coordinates activities of scientific research centers and corporations in the
Kingdom to fulfill the requirements of the development. It cooperates with
the concerned organizations to determine the priorities and national policies
in the fields of science and technology for the purpose of establishing a
scientific and technical base. Such base will provide services the
development in fields of agriculture, industry, mining, as well as other
fields. KACST is also entrusted with establishing a substructure for
sustaining scientific research in the Kingdom, including scholarships,
communication networks between scholars, providing research information
services and carrying out practical research.
RESEARCH INSTITUTES:
The strategies of these institutes emphasize adopting plans that concentrate
on researches in certain fields, by producing primary models for products
and/or providing services or finding solutions for feasibly scientific and
١٤٢

economic project. Such researches can be adopted and generalized either by
public or by the private sectors. However, the role of KACST is limited to
the coordination between research institutes and industrial and development
centers.
Research programs, originated from these plans, have been established in
accordance with certain standards, such as meeting specific requirements or
working out solutions for existing problems. Public and private sectors have
benefited from these research programs. As a result a good economic
outcome have been achieved through developing innovative techniques.
THE RESEARCH INSTITUTES ARE THE FOLLOWING:

× The Institute of Petroleum and Petrochemical Industries.
× Natural Resources and Environmental Institute.
× Energy Research Institute.
× Geophysics and Astronomy Research Institute.
× Electronics and Computers Research Institute.
× Solar Energy Research Program.
× The Saudi Remote Sensing Center.
× The Scientific Devices Center.
١٤٣

WOMEN
WOMEN IN THE ISLAMIC ERA
Islam came advocating human rights and justice for all members of society.
Islam honored and favored women by giving them rights and obligations
equal to those of men. It also determined a social and religious role of an
importance equal to that of men, with each individual tasked according to
his or her capabilities.
Alongside men, women have taken a major part in the construction and
development of society. Among the woman at the heart of Islam are Lady
Khadîja bint Khuwaylid, Lady ‘ isha bint Abî Bakr and the courageous
companion Lady Um ‘Amâra, Nasîba bint Ka'b bin Amrû bin ‘Awf Al-
Khazrajiya Al-Ansâriya. She took part in several battles (like the battle of
Uhud when she proved her outstanding courage). She was well known, too,
for her participation in the war of Al-Yamâma during the rule of Abû Bakr.
She was also at other battles including Khaybar and Hunain.
During the fifth century Hejira, (١٠١٩-١٠١١ A.D.) women scholars, such as
Karîma bint Ahmad Al-Maruziya who was the authority source of all the
traditions that constituted the book, Al-Jâmi’u’s-Sahîh of Imam Bukhârî.
She was originally from Kashmîhan, Khurâsân but migrated to Makkah and
dedicated her life to learning, so much so that scholars from around the
world came to consult the authority of Imam Bukhârî's book.
During seventh and eighth centuries (١٢١٣-١٣٩٧ A.D.), many women from
Makkah earned the title of Islamic scholar especially in the area of Hadith.
Among them were Amatu’llâh bint Ahmed ibn Abdullah Al-Abnûs, Zaynab
bint Makkî ibn Alî ibn Kâmil Al-Harâzî, Fâtima bint Sheikh Kutubu’d-Din
Abî Bakr Muhammad Al-Qastalânî and Khadîja bint Shihâbu’d-Dîn Ahmad
Al-Qa’aylî Al-Nuwayrî. Women from Makkah have also excelled in
teaching both male and female students and scholars. One was Fâtima bint
Tantâsh ibn Kamashtakîn Al-Baghdâdiya. She was the authority of most
١٤٤

hadiths transmitted by the two most distinguished hadith scholars of her era,
Kutubu’d-Dîn Al-Qastalânî and Sharafu’d-Dîn Ad-Dimyâtî. Another
woman scholar, ‘Âisha bint Ibrâhîm ibn Ahmad At-Tâ’î who lectured in
front of Al-Barzâlî, was the certifying authority for a number of hadith
scholars such as Al-Barhât ibn Ahmad Al-Ya'la Ash-Shâmî. There were a
group of Makkan women of the At-Tabarî family. They included Fâtima
bint Al-Muhib Ahmad ibn Abdu’llah Al-Tabarî, Fâtima bint Muhammad
ibn Abdi’r-Rahmân ibn Othmân At-Tabarî, Fâtima bint An-Nûr
Muhammad bin Abi Bakr At-Tabarî, Fâtima bint Al-Rida Muhammad bin
Shihâb Ahmad At-Tabarî. All were famous for their knowledge in all areas
of Islamic sciences.
During the ninth century, Fâtima bint Abdu’l-Wâhed ibn Az-Zain
Muhammad At-Tabarî and Quraish bint Abdul’-Kader At-Tabarî were also
famous for their knowledge and wisdom as well as their part in changing
the role of women in Islam.
WOMEN IN THE ARABIAN PENINSULA DURING THE MODERN ERA
During the ١٢th and ١٣th century of the Hejira (١٦٩٨-١٨٨٣), women
actively participated in various human activities. Al-Jawhara bint Abdullah
bin Mu’ammar, wife of the late Sheikh Mohamed bin Abdu’l-Wahâb, took
a major part in the reform movement led by her husband. Mudhî bint Abî
Wahtân, wife of the late Imam Muhammad ibn Saud was behind his
decision to ally himself with Sheikh Muhammad Abdu’l-Wahâb. In the area
of academic services to students of that time, Fâtima Al-Fadhîliya devoted a
huge library to students in the community and elsewhere. Some princesses
of the Saud family, such as Imam Faisal bin Turki's two sisters, Al-Jawhara
and Sara, and two daughters, Nûra and Al-Jawhara participated in the
defense of the Da'wa As-Salafiya. In supporting the fight against the
enemies of Islamic propagation, Ghâliya Al-Buqmiya played a major role
١٤٥

along with Mudhi Al-Dahlâwiya, who codified the enthusiastic poetry used
in battles to encourage fiercer fighting.
The condition of women went through many ups and downs before the
establishment of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in ١٣١٥ H. (١٩٣٢). In the
Hejaz, for example, the role of women in society was relatively prominent,
especially in Jeddah, Makkah and Medina. That was due to the
opportunities for education. Although in the Najd, the religious schools
existed, there were very few in numbers compared with the Hejaz. And in
these religious schools, were teachers who got their education from their
fathers or husbands. They either had various names all indicating the
frequency of the religious curriculum their schools. Among the very well
known religious schools of Makkah were those of Sayyida Ashiya, who at
the beginning of fourteenth century Hejira established Ash-Shâmiya for
Girls, the Sûltiya School and Al-Fâqiha Fâtima Al-Baghdâdiya School.
WOMEN'S EDUCATION
After the unification of Kingdom, semi-formal schools were established by

citizens who undertook the development of some of the religious schools as
regular schools. Among the most famous of these was Madrasatu’l-
Banâti’l-Ahaliya (The Private School for Girls). It was established in
Makkah ١٣٦٢ H (١٩٣٤) and was part of an effort made by a group of
pioneers who supervised the establishment of Dar Al-Ulûmu’d-Dîniya (The
House of Religious Sciences) in Makkah in ١٣٦٢ H (١٩٣٤). The school was
mainly primary and first followed the curriculum proposed by the regional
Office of Education. Other disciplines suitable for women, such as sewing
and childcare immediately introduced for girls. That was followed in ١٣٦٧
H (١٩٤٧) in Makkah by the appearance of Madrasatu’l-Fatât li’l-Thaqâfi
wa’t-Tadbîr (The Girl's School for Culture and Home Management). Like
the school just mentioned, grades were added to the primary level, and they
followed the curriculum of the Office of Education.
١٤٦

In ١٣٧١ H (١٩٥١), the Royal Family founded the Riyadh Model Institute as
a private school for their daughters. Then in ١٣٧٥ H (١٩٥٥), the late King
Faisal, who was Crown Prince at that time, ordered the foundation of Dâr
Al-Hanan schools in Jeddah with full financial support for all expenses. The
management and supervision of this school was done under the auspices
King Faisal's wife. It also included classes from kindergarten to high
school. In ١٣٧٨ H (١٩٥٨), the Zahra School for Girls was founded by Omar
Abdu’l-Jabâr.
TABLE SHOWING PRIVATE SCHOOLS ESTABLISHED BEFORE THE FOUNDATION OF
THE GENERAL PRESIDENCY FOR GIRLS’ EDUCATION
Date of
No. Name of the School Creatio Location Present Status
n
١ Makkah Primary School ١٩٤٣ Makkah Still active
٢ National Girl, Makkah ١٩٧٤ Makkah Still active
٣ The Riyadh Quranic School ١٩٥٠ Riyadh Still active
٤ Riyadh Model Institute ١٩٥١ Riyadh Now government
٥ The Youth Cultural Center ١٩٥١ Riyadh Still active
٦ Dar-ul-Hanan, Jeddah ١٩٥٥ Jeddah Still active
٧ Al-Naseefiah, Jeddah ١٩٥٥ Jeddah Still active
٨ Rawdhat-ul-Ma'arif, Jeddah ١٩٥٥ Jeddah Still active
٩ Al-Faisaliah, Makkah ١٩٥٥ Makkah Closed
١٠ Hadeeth-ul-Atfaal, Jeddah ١٩٥٧ Jeddah Still active
١١ Bait-ul-Atfaal, Jeddah ١٩٥٨ Jeddah Still active
١٢ Al-Zahraa', Makkah ١٩٥٨ Makkah Closed
١٣ The Model School, Dammam ١٩٥٨ Dammam Still active
١٤ The Model School, Riyadh ١٩٥٨ Riyadh Still active
١٥ The Model School, Mekkah ١٩٥٩ Makkah Still active
On ٢٠ Rabi’ul-Akhir ١٣٧٩ H (٢٢ October ١٩٥٩), a royal degree opening

girls’ schools under the supervision of an official organization and
according to criteria, laws and regulations taken from the Sharia was issued.
Fifteen primary schools of eight classes each were opened the following
year including one class for female teacher training in each school. The
number of schools increased by the beginning of the five-year plan in
(١٣٩٠-١٣٩١ H) (١٩٧٠-١٩٧١) to reach ٣٨٣ schools and institutes
constituting a total of ٣،٩٠١ classes. During the following five years,
schools proliferated quickly. The number of girls’ schools had reached
١٠،٥٧٢ according to the ١٤١٤-١٤١٥ H (١٩٩٣-١٩٩٤) census.
١٤٧

TABLES SHOWING WOMEN’S SCHOOLS IN THE KINGDOM IN 1414-1415 H (1993-1994)
The Level of Education Schools
Presidency Ministry Ministry National
of Defense National Educatio Total
Riadh-ul-Jaamiah Guard of Labor n
٢٠٦ ٤ ١٠ ١٨٨ ٣٤٣ ٧٥١
General ٤،٥٢٨ ٣١ ٣١ ٦ ٢٨٢ ٤،٨٧٨
Primary Quranic
١١٩ - ٢ - ١٥ ١٣٦
Intermediat General ١،٦٤٠ ١٨ ٨ ٢ ١١٢ ١،٧٨٠
e
Quranic
٤٠ - - - ٢ ٤٢
Secondary General ٧٧٩ ٩ ٦ ٢ ٦١ ٨٥٧
Quranic
١٨ - - - - ١٨
Female Institutes
Teachers' (Female ١٤٦ - - - - ١٤٦
Training Teachers)
Middle ٢٥ - - - - ٢٥
Colleges
Up-graded ٧ - - - - ٧
Colleges
Technical Education and
Training Centers ٢٥ - - - - ٢٥
Special Education ١٨ - - - - ١٨
Illiteracy and Adult
Education Centers ١،٣٥٦ ١٣ ٥ ١ - ١،٣٧٥
Grand Total ٨،٩٠٧ ٧٥ ٦٢ ١٩٩ ٨١٥ ١٠،٠٥٨
TABLE SHOWING WOMEN’S COLLEGES
UNIVERSITY COLLEGES CONNECTED TO THE GENERAL PRESIDENCY FOR GIRLS'
EDUCATION
College Category No. of Colleges
No. of Female Faculty Members
Students
University Colleges ١٤ ٢٩،٨٠٠ ١،٤٧٢
The table above shows that, during the school year ١٤١٤-١٤١٥ (١٩٩٣-٩٤)
the number of women’s colleges reached a total of forty-six colleges with a
total student population of ٥٦،٨٩٢ female students with ٣٥٣ studying
towards a master's degree and ٢٧٦ towards a doctorate. Each of the five of
the big universities in the Kingdom, King Saud University, Al-Imam
Mohamed ibn Saud Islamic University, King Abdulaziz University, Umu’l-
Qura University and King Faisal University, offer graduate degrees (except
King Faisal University) and undergraduate studies in all fields of
specialization for women.
١٤٨

WORKING WOMEN
Saudi women have always actively contributed to the realization of the

Kingdom’s development plans. This active participation is confirmed by the
statistics of Saudi women working for the public sector. These data indicate
that the number of Saudi and non-Saudi women working in the public
sector increased from ١٧٥،٦١٧ employees and workers in ١٩٩٣-٩٤ to
١٨٣،٠٧٣ in ١٩٩٤-٩٥. This increase represents ٤٪ during one year. ٦٨٪ of
this last figure are Saudi and ٣٢٪ are expatriates from various countries. A
greater number work in the educational sector. The health sector is third,
and fewer serve in other various sectors.
FIGURE 1 NUMBER OF FEMALES GOVERNMENT EMPLOYEES DURING FY 1944/85 AND
1985/86
٢٠
١٥ F. Saudi
٤٪ ١٢١١٨٢
٤٪ ١٢٤٤٣٥
١٠ ٣٪
F.N-Saudi
٣٪ ٥٤٤٣٥
٥٨٦٣٨
٨٪ ٨٪
٥ Total
١٧٥٦١٧
١٨٣٠٧٣
٠
Fiscal Year Fiscal Year
١٩٨٤/١٩٨٥ ١٩٨٥/١٩٨٦
١٤٩

TABLE 2. SAUDIS AND NON-SAUDIS FEMALE STAFF IN THE KINGDOM ACCORDING TO
THEIR PROFESSIONAL CATEGORIES FOR THE FISCAL YEAR 1994-1995G.
Saudis Non-Saudis Total Percentage
Professional ١٢،٠٣١ ١٧،٢٢٥ ٢٩،٢٥٦ ١٦٫١ %
categories
Faculty Members ٢،٢٢٢ ١،٣٤٢ ٣،٥٦٤ ١٫٩ %
Educational ٩٦،٣٠١ ١٨،٨٩١ ١١٥،١٩٢ ٦٢٫٩ %
Levels
Health Employees ٣،٦١٧ ٢٠،٦١٠ ٢٦،٩٢٧ ١٤٫٧ %
Workers ٧،٥٦٤ ٥٧٠ ٨،١٣٤ ٤٫٤ %
Total ١٢٤،٤٣٥ ٥٨،٦٣٨ ١٨٣،٠٧٣ ١٠٠ %
(Includes No. of Non-Saudi Female Staff on temporary basis amounting to ١٨،٦٥٠)
TABLE 3. NO. SAUDIS AND NON-SAUDIS FEMALE UNIVERSITY TEACHING STAFF ""
DISTRIBUTED ACCORDING TO THEIR ACADEMIC LEVEL FOR THE FISCAL YEAR 1415-
1416H./1994-1995G.
Academic Level Saudis Non-Saudis Total Percentage
Professor ٣ ١٠٥ ١٠٨ ٣٫١ %
Associate Professor ٢٥ ١٧٩ ٢٠٤ ٥٫٧ %
Asst. Professor ٣٥٥ ٦٠٠ ٩٥٥ ٢٦٫٨ %
Lecturer ٧٩٤ ٢١٠ ٩٥٩ ٢٦٫٩ %
Demonstrator ١،٠٩٠ ٢٤٨ ١،٣٣٨ ٣٧٫٥ %
Total ٢،٢٢٢ ١،٣٤٢ ٣،٥٦٤ ١٠٠ %
TABLE 4. NO. OF SAUDIS AND NON-SAUDIS FEMALE HEALTH EMPLOYEES
DISTRIBUTED ACCORDING TO THEIR PROFESSIONAL CATEGORIES FOR THE FISCAL
YEAR 1415-1416H. / 1994-1995G.
Health Saudis Non-Saudi Total Percentage
Employees
Category
Consultant Physician ٤٢ ٣٦ ٧٨ ٠٫٣ %
Specialist Physicians ٣١٧ ٤٤٠ ٧٥٧ ٢٫٨ %
Resident Physicians ١،١١٦ ١،٢٨٥ ٢،٤٠١ ٨٫٩ %
Pharmacist ١٤٥ ٦٦ ٢١١ ٠٫٨ %
Specialists ٣٦٥ ٦١٣ ٩٧٨ ٣٫٦ %
Technicians ٤،٢٥٥ ١٢،٢٠٩ ١٦،٤٦٤ ٦١٫١ %
Health Assistant 'A' ٢٢ ٣،٨٦٣ ٣،٨٨٥ ١٤٫٤ %
Health Assistant 'B' ٥٥ ٢،٠٩٨ ٢،١٥٣ ٨٫١ %
Grand Total ٦،٣١٧ ٢٠،٦١٠ ٢٦،٩٢٧ ١٠٠ %
TABLE 5. FEMALE EMPLOYEES IN THE KINGDOM "SAUDIS AND NON-SAUDIS"
DISTRIBUTED ACCORDING TO AGE CATEGORIES FOR THE FISCAL YEAR 1415-1416H. /
1994-1995G.
Healthe Employees Saudis Non-Saudis Total Percentage
Category
Under ٢٠ Years ٥١ ١٠٩ ١٦٠ ٠٫١ %
٢٠ - ٢٩ years ٣٥،١٤١ ٢،٦٩٥ ٣٧،٨٣٦ ٢٠٫٧ %
٣٠ - ٣٩ years ٦٤،٣٥٤ ١٤،٣٩٠ ٧٨،٧٤٤ ٤٣٫٠ %
٤٠ - ٤٩ years ١٩،٧٧٠ ١١،٦٨٣ ٣١،٤٥٣ ١٧٫٢ %
٥٠ - ٥٩ years ٣،٨٤٧ ٤،٢١٧ ٨،٠٦٤ ٤٫٤ %
٦٠ years and above ٩٢٧ ٦،٣٩٢ ٧،٣١٩ ٤٫٠ %
Undetermined ٣٤٥ ١٩،١٥٢ ١٩،٤٩٧ ١٠٫٦ %
Grand Total ١٢٤،٤٣٥ ٥٨،٦٣٧ ١٨٣،٠٧٣ ١٠٠ %
١٥٠

CLOTHES
People’s level of progress can be measured by the extent to which

they preserve their traditions. Saudi Arabia has a great history extending
back thousands of years, a history abundant with various elements
expressing a special taste in practicing a lifestyle that suits the environment
and springs from customs and traditions.
Clothes may be the most important of these elements. Let us consider here
the traditional costume with its distinctive rich colors, simple lines, decency
and the artistic beauty that reaches a high degree of skill and precision in
spite of primitive tools and a scarcity of resources.
MEN’S CLOTHES
Headdresses
The Tâqiya or Skullcap
The tâqiya is a name given to anything put directly on the head. It has other
names such as kûfiya and hadriya. The tâqiya is usually made either of
plain white or colored fabric, or of crocheted cotton thread. It is lined with a
light layer of cotton and embroidered with white thread for adults and gold
or silver for youths and children.
The Ghotra
The ghotra is a square piece of fabric, folded in the form of a triangle. It is
put on the head with the middle of the fold over the middle of the forehead.
Its drapes over the head and shoulders with the length of the right and left
sides equal. The fold over the middle of the forehead is distinctive and is
known as the ‘morzâm’. The types of ghotra are:
The White Ghotra
It is made of cotton fabrics, mainly lawn.
The Red Ghotra or Shimâgh
The red ghotra, or shimâgh, is one of the winter head covers made of white
cotton woven with red.
١٥١

The Shâl
The shâl is made of white or brown wool and is decorated with various
colors. It is to be worn in the winter.
The ‘Oqâl
The ‘oqâl is placed over the ghotra in order to fix the ghotra on the head.
There are several kinds:
The Black ‘Oqâl
Black is the color of the ‘oqâl used nowadays. It is made of thin
threads of black wool wound over a circular filler twice the length of the
circumference of the head to form two circles, one over the other.
The White ‘Oqâl
The white ‘oqâl is made of white wool, to a large extent similar to the
black ‘oqâl used at present, but it is no longer used.
The Brocaded ‘Oqâl (The Shatfa)
The brocaded ‘oqâl (the shatfa) is made of ten ribs, folded in two
layers to form a pentagon. Each rib consists of two thin cylinders, one over
the other, covered with golden thread, zarî, joining them together. A link in
the form of a ball of black wool joins the ribs. It is known as Faisal’s ‘Oqâl
because King Faisal was the most famous of those who wore it in his time.
The ‘Imâma or Turban
The ‘Imâma or turban is a rectangular piece of white cotton fabric,
usually wound about the head, and it is used by tribal and religious leaders.
The Hijazi ‘Imâma is well known as the Alfî. The ghobâna ghotra, a ghotra
decorated with yellow threads imported from Syria, and the wool Shâl are
used as turbans in the Western Region.
The ‘Usâba
The ‘usâba is made of various materials such as leather or hay and is
for the fastening of aromatic plants around the head. Men of the Southern
Region use it to decorate their heads, which are bare most of the time.
Outer Garments
These were mostly manufactured locally in homes. They were fitted, sewn,
decorated or embroidered according to the type of clothing, except for some
ready-made or imported clothes.
١٥٢

The Maqta, Dirâ‘a or Thûb
The maqta is similar to the thûb used nowadays. However, it is larger and
consists of the badan or body, the akmâm or sleeves, the banâ ’iq or collar,
and the takharîdh or the khashâtiq. It was generally made of white cotton,
although the character of this cotton differed from that of others with
respect to quality of fabric, brightness of color and degree of thickness. The
best known kinds were the khâm, the baft, the poplin, the dûblîn and the lâs.
The Maravdan or Abu Radûn Thûb
The Maravdan is known by this name in most regions, and also
known as the mothîl or as the mofrij in the Southern Region. It is similar to
the maqta in its main lines, but broad sleeves that are triangular in shape
distinguish it. Other kinds that are similar but with a few differences are the
mobaqash thûb known in the Qasîm Region, the shakâra known in the Hail
Region and the malûsin, or Abu Alsina, with a rectangular piece possibly
added to the sides of the sleeves.
The Zibûn
The zibûn is an open fronted garment made of various fabrics, mainly soft
striped polished cotton imported from Syria. The garment made of such a
fabric is called the shâmî zibûn, or the barsîm Zibûn. Another kind of zibûn
is named the tarma, with reference to the fabric of tarma. The zibûn is of
excellent white wool decorated with diverse colors and is put on over the
maqta or the thûb. If you wear a vest under it, then the suit is called a badla.
It is the garment of formal dress on ceremonial occasions and festivals.
The Sâya
The sâya is similar to the zibûn but is shorter and is made of thin summer
fabric of light color. It is also a garment for ceremonial occasions.
The Daqla or Bâltû
The daqla is a long open-fronted garment, similar to the zibûn. However, its
collar is higher, and it is made of various dyed wools. It spread in the ‘Âridh
Region where it became known as al-daqla al-‘ârdhiya. In the Hijaz, it is
known the bâltû.
١٥٣

The Shâya
The shâya is a long open-fronted garment with long sleeves, worn over the
thûb and tied with a thin belt at the waist. It is one of the garments used in
the Hijaz by traders and religious leaders.
The Kût
The kût is similar to the present-day kût and is worn by youths instead of
the shâya in the Hijaz.
The Jobba
The jobba is a long, open-fronted garment with long sleeves reaching to the
wrists. In summer, those made of linen or of white calico are worn, and
those of dyed wool in winter. Its use spread in the Hijaz. It is also used in
the Najd area to a limited extent, i.e. in wintry places.
The Jûkha
The jûkha is a jobba made of soft broadcloth, Mâhûd, in various colors such
as black, blue, green and red. It is decorated with gold threads and is usually
imported from India.
The Dâmir
The Dâmir is similar to the jûkha, though it is shorter. It is worn on
ceremonial occasions and for folk dancing. It was originally Syrian and was
named farmaliya.
The Zakhma
The zakhma is a short sleeveless garment, reaching to the waist. It is made
of broadcloth or velvet and is decorated with threads called zarî.
The Sadriya or Vest
The sadriya or vest is a short sleeveless garment, open down the front. It is
usually made of wool and is worn over the maqta or the kût.
The Musannaf
The musannaf is a long folded drapery covering the shoulders in winter and
used in the Western and Southern Regions.
The Mashlah or Bisht
The mashlah or bisht is a cloak of wool that varies in thickness according to
the season for which it is made. Its colors also vary according to the color
of the wool of the animal from which it was taken. After it came to be made
of modern, imported raw materials, its colors multiplied. It is long, loose,
rectangular in shape, open at the front and made of double-sided fabric. It is
١٥٤

adjusted to fit a man’s height by a form of inner fold. The openings are
usually decorated with gold or silver threads. Ornaments made of these
threads hang from these openings as balls of zarî threads.
The mashlah is put on the shoulders over the ghotra. The common method
of putting on this garment is to place the right hand into the sleeves where
the left hand can catch the right side of the garment to move it to the left
side. This garment is for outdoor wear. Though much traditional clothing
has disappeared, the mashlah still remains in fashion. Moreover, it is an
important item of clothing that must be worn on by people of consequence.
It is also used for ceremonial occasions and special parties such as
weddings. Throughout the Kingdom and the Arabian Gulf one of the best
known places for wearing and decorating these garments is the Ahsâ
Region.
The Barqâ’ ‘Abâ’a
The barqâ ’ ‘abâ ’a is a kind of cloak that is in widespread use, especially in
the northeast and the middle of the Arabian Peninsula. It is made of spun
wool. It should show black and white or brown and white lines that reflect
the color of the wool of the animals from which it was taken.
The Farwa
The farwa is a large long open-fronted cloak made of lamb’s skin and
fleece. The outer surface is usually covered with a woolen fabric or dyed
broadcloth while the inner surface is covered with fleece. It is commonly
used in cold regions of the northern Arabian Peninsula.
The Baidî
The Baidî is a heavy garment made of spun wool that is usually white. It is
made in the Hijaz, in the south of the Arabian Peninsula, and in regions like
Ghâmid, Zahrân and Asîr, where it is commonly used. It is used, too, in the
southern parts of Najd.
The Hizâm or Belt
The hizâm or belt is made of leather or rope, and men usually wear it over
clothes to fasten or tie them up during work. It is also used for carrying
arms or money, or for decoration.
١٥٥

Underwear
The Sadriya, the Arrâqyia or the Fanîla
This sadriya or undershirt is an undergarment made of white cotton and has
an opening in the front which is closed by buttons, a high collar and short
sleeves. In most regions it is known as the sadriya though it differs from the
sadriya or vest worn over underwear. In the Hijaz, it was named the
arrâqiya and was replaced with an undershirt, fanîla, made of white cotton,
which later became available in the markets.
The al-Sarwâl al-Tawail or Long Pants
The al-Sarwâl al-Tawail or long pants are made of white cotton fabric.
They are tied in the middle with a fabric belt named the dikka or the rabqa,
which is strung through a sewn fold in the upper part of the trousers and
tied in the front.
The Wazra or Fûta
The wazra or fûta is a rectangular piece of fabric, the open side of which is
sewn. To cover the lower half of the body, it is wrapped around the waist,
where the extra part of it can be folded. It is fastened round the waist with a
separate belt.
WOMEN’S CLOTHES
Head Coverings
Head coverings have been an essential part of women’s clothing, which

they wear continuously at home or abroad. They vary in color, material and
decoration according to the region. In the Eastern, Central and Northern
Regions, women used the shîla, ghadfa or malfa ‘. All of these were
synonyms of the headscarf that is in the form of a rectangle made of a light
black cloth wrapped around the face. In the Southern Region, the head
covering was a piece of yellow or red fabric decorated with a number of
colored silk threads. A hat called the tafsha or hatfa was worn when women
were outside home. In the Western Region, because of the number of
articles of clothes placed one over another, women came to use the
١٥٦

shanbar. It is a small triangle of fabric worn under a mahrama, which is in
the form of rectangle made of white fabric. On the top of that a mudawwara
can be placed. The mudawwara is a square piece of fabric decorated with a
flower print. Another article of dress that can be used with those already
mentioned is the tarha. It is put on over the mudawwara. Other kinds
known as the bairam and the qarqûsh were common in the Tâ’if Region
and nearby villages.
Outer Clothing
The Maqta or Darâ‘a
The maqta or darâ ‘a is the woman’s main garment in the Northern, Eastern
and Central Regions. It is a long and loose garment with long sleeves
consisting of numerous parts, such as the body, the collar, the sleeves, the
takhârîs or the khashâ tiq, which vary in the kind of fabric and the
decoration.
The Zibûn
This is an open garment from top (the neck) to toe (the foot) with buttons
fastening its upper part. Its components are similar to that of the maqta, in
addition to a high collar and openings in the two sides. It is made of various
kinds of fabrics, especially velvet, and embroidered with gold thread (zarî).
It is common in the Western Region where it is regarded as the main article
of dress. It can be a burnoose with high collar and short sleeves.
The Karta
It is common in the Central, Eastern and Northern Regions and is regarded
as one of the developed stages of the maqta. There are small folds in the
lower part, named the jûnla, with a circular opening of the neck that allows
the head to enter. It is also known in the Western Region, and is more
modern than the zibûn. The bodice, the middle folds and the long sleeves
also distinguish it.
The Duke’s Thûb
The duke’s thûb is worn by the Harb tribes in the Western Region. It is
distinguished by a rectangular piece of fabric as long as a foot attached to
١٥٧

the lower part of the sleeves. Its decorations and embroidery are also
distinctive.
The Sûn Thûb
The sûn thûb is a narrow dress made of black cotton and embroidered by
hand with varied stitches. The prevailing colors are yellow, orange and red.
White beads are used as well. Such a kind of dress was common in Thaqîf
and Mîssân of the Tâ’if Region.
The Mobaqar Thûb
The mobaqar thûb is known to the Shifâ and the Hadâ of the Tâ’if Region,
and is made of the blue and the black cotton in the form of wide rectangles.
The chest and the sleeves are decorated in zigzag lines, similar to the sadra
thûb, but made only of blue.
The Mujnab or Muwarrak Dress
The Mujnab or Muwwarak dress is a favorite of Asîr women. It is given this
name because of the part beginning at the upper hips which hangs down in
wide folds. It is also distinguished by the style of the sleeves, set into the
side and going under the arm. It is decorated on the chest and sleeves with
lengthwise lines and made of various fabrics, mainly in black. This dress is
similar to the dress common in the Bâha region, but the side part is
narrower and longer.
The Thûb
The Thûb is a loose garment worn over the maqta in the Central and
Eastern Regions, and over the zibûn or karta in the Western Region. (It is
unknown in the Southern Region.) It is known in the Central Region as
sahâbî, and in the eastern region as the nashil dress, formed of the same
parts as that of the maqta, however, it has a square form, and sometimes it
is loosened into the form of rectangle. When this dress is for special events,
it is made of thin fabric decorated with various materials such as sequins
and silver, gold and silk threads. It varies according to the original material,
like the qaz dress, or to the kind of embroidery, like the masrah dress, or to
the occasion, like the prayer or salât dress, or to the country of origin, like
١٥٨

the Indian or Hind dress, which is of cotton fabric, painted brown, and
embroidered on the lower bodice with the knot method called tasrîr.
The Outdoor Clothes and Headscarves:
We mean by this the articles of clothes women wear when they go out.
They vary in form and name. Such variation was clear in the Hijaz,
influenced by groups of Muslims who came from abroad and settled in this
region. The most important of these dresses are:
The Malâya
The Malâya is a rectangular piece of black taffeta fabric worn over the head
so as to cover the forehead and having its sides tied on the front. It is
accompanied with a long face veil called the burqa ‘ made of a sheer white
material, dirâbizûn, to cover the face.
The Turkish Qan‘a or Veil
The Turkish qan‘a or veil is one of the garments brought by the Turkish
pilgrims. It is twofold, the upper part covering the head, and lower in the
form of a narrow jûnla, in addition to the bîsha, which covers the face.
The Shâmî or Syrian Qan‘a
The shâmî or Syrian qan‘a is rectangular piece of thick black silk, longer
than the lady’s body so as to fall loosely on the hips and legs, fastened by a
belt at the waist. The face is covered by the bîsha.
The Jâma
The Jâma was brought to the Hijaz from India, and consisted of the tâqiya,
from which a tied fabric falls round the head. It is also distinguished by the
shabkî, a sheer piece of fabric (net) over the eyes.
The Kâb
The kâb is a loose dress, distinguished by a circular piece open in the front
and covering the whole body from shoulders to feet. It is sleeveless, usually
fastened or closed by a rope near the neck, and worn by girls.
The ‘Abâ’a
The ‘abâ ’a is an outdoor garment in the Eastern, Central, and Northern
Regions. It has become common in the Western Region after the union of
the Arab Peninsula represented by the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. This cloak
is still used as an outdoor garment in the Kingdom.
١٥٩

The ‘abâ ’a is described as a long, loose rectangular form, open from the
front, made of fabric to fit a woman’s body. It has a circular shape. Its
openings were decorated with golden or black silk threads or both of them.
Sometimes embroidery is added on the front, on the chest, and there are
some other ornaments dangling down.
It was made of locally spun and knotted wool. However, an important
change occurred to the fabric types in use where some machine knitted
kinds started to be used. This followed by new kinds of ‘abâ ’as, such as the
habra, the natural silk ‘abâ ’a, and machine-made silk ‘abâ ’as as the result
of the development of textile manufacturing.
The Dafa or Mâhûr ‘Abâ’a
The dafa or mâhûr ‘abâ ’a is worn by brides in the Eastern Region, as well
as in the Qasîm area, and is made of black broadcloth, is without a collar,
and is decorated by golden threads. In addition to some embroidery on the
bodice, a number of golden threads come out of the front opening on both
sides.
Underclothes
The Sadîriya or Sadriya
The sadîriya or sadriya are underclothes that were common in the Hijaz
and Qasîm areas. They consist of a shirt open in the front covering the
chest, have a high collar and half-sleeves and are fastened by buttons named
tarkîba, from the most famous gold pounds.
The Sarwâl or Trousers
The sarwâl or trousers are long and loose in the upper part and narrow in
the lower part of the leg. They are mostly decorated or embroidered on the
lower outer parts. In some regions it was common to make decorations on a
separate piece of cloth and then attach them to the trousers. In this way it
could be removed and resewn on new trousers. Sometimes the decorated
part of the trousers might not be of the same fabric. It might be made of
colored fabric (in the Eastern and Western Regions) or made of black
cotton (in the Southern Region). The striped or more colorful cotton fabric
١٦٠

was preferred for making everyday trousers. A fabric belt used to fasten the
trousers was called the dakka, darka or rabqa. The dakka was attached to
the upper part of the trousers.
Footwear
Footwear was limited, showed simple designs, and was made mostly of the
local natural resources, such as animal skins, and the straw of the palm
trees. The various kinds were named the ni‘âl, the hithyân, the zarâbîl, the
madââs, the jarâbât, the Yemeni kanâdr, talîk, qabqâb, khuf, and the bâbûj.
CHILDREN’S CLOTHING
Children’s clothing was like those of adults though different in size. The
material for children’s clothes is chosen from decorated fabrics of light
beautiful colors to suit their nature. Sometimes girls’ clothes are decorated
with pieces of silk in various colors such as red, green and yellow. These
silk pieces were placed on the upper part of the back. Children’s hats
received much care and artistry. They were given several names, such as
the qaba‘, qahfiya, and killâw, and used either for warmth or for ornament
only. It is traditionally known that female children’s hair was to be shaved
in order that the hair could be strengthened and improved. So hats became
important and necessary for children to use till their hair returned to its
normal length. At the age of six or seven, girls put on dress over the maqta.
When outdoors, the girls had to wear the bakhtaq to cover the head, instead
of the ‘abâ’a, and to continue to do so till the time they were not allowed to
play with children outside the house. The bakhtaq is a rectangular piece of
sheer black fabric embroidered with designs of plants with gold thread. One
side is framed and heavily decorated, folded in two halves in the front,
closed at the lower part after leaving an opening surrounding the girl’s face.
It covers her shoulders, back, chest and the head. Its length is varied
according to wishes and traditions. It was common for girls in the Eastern,
Northern, and Central Regions. However, girls in the Qasîm Region wore
١٦١

the dafa ‘abâ’a, which is smaller version of the bridal dafa. It is decorated
with gold thread and clusters of embroidery around the head opening,
especially for when the girl goes to school. It is also used as a special dress
when girls celebrate their learning to recite the Holy Qur’an. Girls are taken
in this dress from school to their houses when they have passed the test of
reciting the Holy Qur’an, just like the brides. Girls in the Southern Region
used headscarves before marriage and the shîla over the headscarf after
marriage.
MARRIAGE CUSTOMS
From olden times, marriage has been in man’s interest. It has been nurtured
by religions and tribes. Rules and regulations have been made, because it
represented the paramedical foundation of social unity. By marriage man
can achieve a stable life and create a family and, consequently, a united
society.
A large collection of traditions and customs has been inherited from human
societies, where each formed its own customs and traditions to create an
independent character that distinguishes it from other societies. The Gulf
and Arab Peninsula societies have their special marriage traditions.
One of the social customs is the marriage procedure, a contract between two
parties under the patronage of a lawyer with two witnesses. Customs
concerned with marriage vary from region to another.
THE MAHAR OR DOWRY

The mahar or dowry is a gift for friendship given by the groom to the bride
as an expression of a true and sincere desire to marry her. It is a right
defined by the Islamic Shari‘a to be given to the bride only and not to her
parents or her guardians. It has been noted throughout history that the
dowry in all its developing stages was simple and easy, and its requirements
can be found in all places and at all times. The Bedouin grants his bride a
١٦٢

camel as her dowry, the farmer some pieces of land or some palm trees, and
the trader some money or clothes and so on.
Marriage in the Central Region
In the past, marriage proceedings were kept secret. The lady could meet the
young man she was going to marry just before her wedding ceremony. In
the contract, the dowry might be money or something else. Wedding parties
were few. It was common in all regions that a lady called the bayyâ ‘a or
seller, who was a relative of the bride, went to the groom’s house and sat
with her for a while. After her departure, the groom would enter the bride’s
room.
Usually young men married at an early age, between eighteen and twenty
years old. In Riyadh, marriage was simple. It started with an engagement
followed by the marriage contract, then the purchase of the bride’s
trousseau, which was called sayyâq or daffâ ‘. On the marriage night, it was
traditional for the groom’s relatives, friends, and neighbors to come over to
have coffee and tea together. Then those people went to the bride’s house,
where the groom’s father held the groom’s hand saying, “God bless you
all!” In the morning the groom had to offer the bride whatever jewelry he
had bought for her. This was called sabha or sabâhiya. A week after the
marriage, the bride had to visit the house of her parents. This was called the
zawâra or visit, and at this time the groom had to buy everything necessary
for it.
Marriage in the Southern and Western Regions
In the past, it was traditional for most of these tribes to reject proposals
marriages with outsiders. Marriages were allowed within these tribes.
Nowadays, while these customs are preserved in some areas, some tribes
apply them only to girls, and the majority have given them up altogether. In
١٦٣

any case, relations between the engaged couple before marriage are
restricted and strongly discouraged.
It was customary for the dowry to be handed over to the bride’s father prior
to the marriage contract night, presented on a white piece of fabric together
with some sweet basil and other scented plants as a good omen for the
bride. In the olden times the dowry used to be accompanied by silver riyals
or gold pounds.
It was preferable that the marriage contract be made on Thursday evenings.
It was a contract between two parties. Usually every person invited to the
wedding would bring with him a gift to the parents of both the bride and the
groom. This was called rafd, and in villages it was known as qûd.
Preferably, the gifts should be lambs.
In the Abhâ and Asîr Regions, it was common for a youth seeking marriage
to be accompanied by his parents to see the lady, and after achieving the
agreement, the engagement would follow. The members of the tribe or
village citizens would help the bride with marriage expenses. To make
things easier for the bride, part of mahar might be postponed to a later date.
On the wedding day, the ‘arda, a kind of spirited male dance accompanied
by gunfire, is performed near the bride’s house. Then the marriage contract
is made, and at the end, food is served.
Marriage in the Eastern Region
It was customary that a bride should possess certain characteristics. She

should be white with a straight nose, have large wide eyes, straight hair, and
be a good-natured lady who has learned to read the Qur’an in full. It was
also common that certain ladies were assigned to marry certain boys from
childhood, and when they grew up, they would fulfill that promise. The
grown boy might agree to marry that particular young lady even without
seeing her. In the case of an initial understanding between the two parties,
١٦٤

an amount of fresh fish had to be sent to the lady’s house and to her
neighbors in order to announce the full agreement of the engagement.
Milka or Ownership
Milka or ownership is the marriage contract. A group of relatives and
friends hold a small party at which the mahar, together with some gifts, is
sent to the bride. This party is known as taslûma. The gifts include some
gold jewelry, cotton and silk clothes, as well as other things like sacks of
rice, baidân or Syrian almonds, mixed nuts and crackers (naqqâl), and
ru’ûs al-qand or sugar loaves.
The Wedding Night
Three days before the marriage, the bride is taken to have a bath by her
dâya or nanny. This lady takes care of a group of girls until they grow up
and get married, washing them and combing their hair. She claims her
wages at their marriage. This lady also looks after the bride and the groom
on the wedding day. The following morning, the bride, accompanied by
singing, goes with her relatives, neighbors, friends and nanny to a well or
pool.
The nanny distributes ‘adhra (rice cooked with sugar or molasses) on street
corners and at wells for three consecutive days. A henna celebration then
starts. The bride stands before an audience of women as she puts on her full
ornaments, holding a lump of sugar on her lap. A naqât or specialist puts
some flour paste on the bride’s hands and feet to keep them the desired
white, and later has them dipped in henna. This process is repeated on the
second and the third nights consecutively, with an accompaniment of
singing and the playing of traditional musical instruments such as the drum.
Henna ceremonies start in the afternoon prior to the marriage, when the
bride in full dress and paraphernalia poses long for her female audience
while having her hands and feet dyed by the specialist with a black material
called khedâb.
In the evening just before the wedding, the bride must attend the so-called
tarmîbû ceremony, when she is covered with a large piece of silk carried by
١٦٥

four women. They move it up and down several times as they sing a
traditional song. Then at the end, the bride is brought to the groom’s room,
accompanied by her nanny and a group of her relatives.
Just a day before the wedding, the gentleman is sent to call on everybody
for dinner and breakfast, when sweets may be offered every morning of the
wedding celebrations. The groom should show generosity by spending
lavishly. In the afternoon, he goes to a pool to swim in the company of his
friends and relatives. There ‘adhra is distributed, as is the case with the
bride.
Aftern the beginning of the parties, another party called the sâmirî or fajrî
takes place. On the night of the second day, the groom is carried in
procession to the bride’s home. The nanny calls upon both, and the groom’s
right foot is placed side by side with the bride’s left foot on a Chinese dish.
Both feet should touch one another before the rose water is poured on them
as a symbol of cooperation and love. This is an old custom probably taken
from India.
The Northern Region
Marriage customs the northern region were simple and easy. The dowry
could be dates, wheat, or barley weighed by the mud or sâ ‘ (about ٢٠
kilograms) or a little amount of money. This was done in accordance with
what the Prophet Mohammed (PBUH) said, “The ladies of smaller dowries
are the ladies of more blessings.” Before the speed of cars, it was customary
for the bride to be taken to the groom’s house on foot after the evening
prayer, accompanied by a group of women in straight lines carrying her
needs on their heads. Several gunshots heralded the arrival of the
congregation at the groom’s house. After the night prayer, another party
started the arda to announce the marriage. On the following morning,
visitors coming to the groom would bring with them some traditional food
where neighbors were invited. This was called the zawra.
١٦٦

Nowadays however, the dowry is handed over to the bride’s parents. The
groom should furnish the house and send food and clothes to the bride’s
house. On the wedding night, a banquet is prepared. A camel and five
lambs are slaughtered. In case a camel is not available, the banquet consists
completely of lambs.
It was customary that friends and relatives offer financial support to the
groom if they are given the opportunity to have a look at the bedroom just
before the bride steps in. Some people offer support by sending either
ready-made food or dinner invitations to the newly-married couple and to
their neighbors and friends.
WOMEN’S CHARITABLE SOCIETIES
The twenty women charitable societies play an important and active role in
various fields of social care represented by services offered to citizens in
their local environment to improve their economic and social standard. The
programs of these societies are numerous: accommodating orphans,
offering protection and care for the aged and handicapped, and providing
artificial limbs and other medical prostheses as well as special education or
learning centers for the disabled.
As to education, training and orientation, these societies have established
many programs, including development, learning, and social programs. At
the centers, the trainees acquire skills and new experience, such as
preparation to be governesses. Ladies are taught sewing, dressmaking,
typewriting, English and French. In addition, there are Arabic language
classes for non-Arabic speakers.
In the health sector, there are programs for location and improvement of
healthy accommodations, for human and social services, for visiting
patients, for holding instructive and educational seminars, and for health
education. In the educational field, women’s societies offer various
١٦٧

activities and services such as seminars, lectures, competitions, evening
poetry readings and supervision of women’s educational centers.
Charitable accommodation and housing improvements receive much
attention from these societies. Either by building housing units for the
needy families for free or symbolic rent or making building or health
improvements on the accommodation of limited-income families. In the
field of utilities and general services, the societies offer transportation for
female students, and enable women to take part in special events and
women’s weeks. They also collect and distribute extra food from banquets,
and distribute clothes and household items to the needy, support orphans,
distribute sacrificial and charity meat, provide childcare, and look after
residence guest houses supervised by these societies. There are also centers
for girls of special circumstances offering full protection and care. Twenty
charitable societies throughout the country offer these services.
HEALTH SERVICES
The health sector provides important services for the members of society.
The Health Ministry was created by Royal Decree No. ٨٦٩٧/١١/٥ (١٩٥١) to
replace the Health Office in Makka AL Moukarrama set up in ١٩٢٦ (later
named the Health Administration Department in ١٩٢٧). In ١٩٥٠, the
number of beds was no more than ١،٠٠٠, and doctors, ١١١. In ١٩٧١, the
budget of the health sector was ١٧٧،٠٩٩،٠٠٠ Saudi Riyals.
Attention is given to health care, building hospitals and clinics, providing
manpower and all health equipment, curing diseases, encouraging the
domestic sector, developing health centers in order to improve their
services, and training qualified Saudis to achieve self-sufficiency.
The Kingdom has adopted the primary health care system to provide
services to all parts of the country and to make use of all available health
resources. The Kingdom has also adopted the International Epidemic
١٦٨

Supervision system in cooperation with specialized authorities to take
measures in case of the discovery of such diseases inside the Kingdom,
especially those brought in by the expatriates during the Hajj (pilgrimage)
season. The Expand Precaution program (E.P.I) has been adopted as well,
straightforward with vaccination campaigns for adults, newborn babies, and
mature women. These precautions have made the Kingdom free from
contagious diseases such as cholera, plague and yellow fever. The death
rate of infants (under one year old) has fallen. It was sixty-four out of ١٠٠٠
babies in ١٩٨٠. In ١٩٨٩, it became thirty out of ١٠٠٠. In ١٩٩٥, it was
twenty-one out of ١٠٠٠.
[A TABLE SHOWING THE HEALTH MINISTRY DEVELOPED SERVICES ACCORDING TO
THE DEVELOPING PLANS]
Category ١٩٧٠- ١٩٧٦-١٩٨٠ ١٩٨١-١٩٨٥ ١٩٨٦-١٩٩٠ ١٩٩١-١٩٩٥
Hospitals ١٩٧٥
٧٠ ٩٧ ١٠٥ ١٦٣ ١٧٩
Beds ١١،٩٦٨ ١٣،٠٦٦ ٢٠،٧٩٦ ٢٥،٨٣٥ ٢٧،٠٤٨
Health ٣٣٩ ٢١٤ - - -
Centers
Clinics and
Health ٢٩٢ ٩٣٥ ١،٣٠٦ ١،٦٦٨ ١،٧٣٥
Centers
Quarantine ٣٢ ٤٨ ٢٣ ٢٤ ٢٦
Centers
Secondary
Health ٧ ٧ ٢٧ ٣٣ ٤٤
Institutes
The table shows the development health units that have been changed into
centers. Quarantines after wiping out the diseases requiring these
quarantines. In the sixth developing plan twelve medical colleges and
eighteen specialized dental centers have been erected.
The Working Power of Health Services in the Health Ministry

HEALTH SERVICES LABOR FORCE OF THE MINISTRY OF HEALTH
(Physicians, Nurses, Technicians, Assistants, etc.)
Categories ١٩٧١ ١٩٧٥ ١٩٨٠ ١٩٨٥ ١٩٩٠ ١٩٩٥
Physicians ٨١٧ ٢،٢٧٦ ٤،٦١٨ ٩،٢٧٥ ١٢،٩٥٩ ١٦،٦٠٥
Nursing Staff ٢،٢٦٨ ٤،٧٢١ ٨،٨٨١ ٢٠،٧٠٧ ٢٩،١٢٤ ٣٧،٣٠٣
Pharmacists ٣٦ ٧١ ٢٢١ ٤١٤ ٦٣٢ ٩٧٨
Assistant Technicians ١،٥١٩ ٢،٨٥٣ ٥،٠٨٤ ٩،٧٤٦ ١٤،٥٠٦ ٢١،٠٠٢
Grand Total ٤،٦٢٧ ٩،١٩٩ ١٨،٩٠٦ ٤٠،٠٥٠ ٥٧،٤١٢ ٧٦،١٣٧
١٦٩

Specialized Medical services:
Hospitals and specialized centers adherent to the Health Ministry have been
created. These include the Heart Center in the Armed Forces Hospital in
Riyadh, the Kidney Transplant Center in the National Guard Hospital,
Interior Ministry Hospitals, the general establishment of the water refinery,
the Royal Commission of Jubail and Yanbu, Saudi Aramco, the
universities, as well as King Faisal Specialist Hospital and Research Center,
the King Khalid Specialist Eye Hospital, the Qasîm Specialist Hospital, and
those hospitals equipped with the most advanced health technology and
qualified manpower. Because of the services offered by these hospitals, the
Kingdom has become famous for organ transplants and delicate surgery. All
this helps to cure special disease cases inside the Kingdom and has led to a
noticeable decrease in the number of patients who seek medical treatment
abroad.
[A TABLE SHOWING THE WORKING POWER OF HEALTH SERVICES IN OTHER
GOVERNMENTAL SECTORS]
Category ١٩٨٥ G. ١٩٩٠ G. ١٩٩٦ G.
Physicians ٢،٨٧٣ ٤،٦٥٨ ٦،٧٦٠
Nursing Staff ٥،٦٣٠ ١٠،٢٤٥ ١٦،٥٢٨
Pharmacists ٣٣٦ ٥٨١ ٦٩٥
Assistant ٢،٧٩٧ ٦،١١٥ ٨،٧٣٨
Technicians
Grand Total ١١،٦٣٦ ٢١،٥٩٩ ٣٢،٧٢١
The Domestic Medical Sector:
The private health sector has taken part in the development of health care in
the country. Its staff of doctors, nurses, pharmacists and technicians was
around ١٢،٧٤٦ in ١٩٨٠. In ١٩٩٠ they were ٢١،٠٨٤, and in ١٩٩٦ ٢٦،٦٥٠.
[A TABLE SHOWING THE WORKING POWER OF HEALTH SERVICES IN THE DOMESTIC
SECTOR]
Category ١٩٨٥ ١٩٩٠ ١٩٩٦
Physicians ٤،٠٣٦ ٦،٧١٤ ٨،٩٠٦
Nursing Staff ٥،٢٥٧ ٨،٦٩٧ ١٠،٥١٤
Pharmacists ١،٥١٨ ٢،٥٦٤ ٣،٥٨٨
Technicians ١،٩٣٥ ٣،١٠٧ ٣،٦٤٢
Grand Total ١٢،٧٤٦ ٢١،٠٨٢ ٢٦،٦٥٠
١٧٠

The total services and manpower in the health sector in 1996:
In ١٩٩٦ the number of hospitals in the Kingdom was ٢٩٦. ١٧٩ of these are
being administered by the Health Ministry, and thirty-nine supervised by
other governmental sectors. The domestic sector possesses seventy-eight
hospitals, with a total number of beds mounting to ٤٢،٨٠٩. Out of the
٣،٥٣١ clinics and health centers, ١،٧٣٥ are directed by the Health Ministry,
٤٤٣ belong to other governmental sectors, and ١،٣٦٣ are owned by the
domestic sector. Those who work in health sector number ١٣٥،٢٥٩ and
include ٣٢،٢٧١ doctors, ٦٤،٣٤٥ nurses, ٥،٢٦١ pharmacists, and ٣٣،٣٨٢
technicians.
THE TOTAL SERVICES AND MANPOWER IN THE HEALTH SECTOR IN 1996
Technicians
Dispensarie
Pharmacist
Hospitals
centers /
Nursing
Doctors
/Health
Private
clinics
Beds
Staff
Sectors
s
Ministry of ١٧٩ ٢٧٠٤٨ ١٧٣٥ ١٦٦٠٥ ٣٧٣٠٣ ٩٧٨ ٢١٠٠٢
Health
Other Gvt. ٣٩ ٨٧٤٨ ٤٤٣ ٦٧٦٠ ١٦٥٢٨ ٦٩ ٨٧٣٨
Sectors
Domestic ٧٨ ٧٠١٣ ١٣٥٣ ٨٩٠٦ ١٠٥١٤ ٣٥٨٨ ٣٦٤٢
Sector
Grand Total ٢٩٦ ٤٢٨٠ ٣٥٣١ ٣٢٢٧ ٦٤٣٤ ٥٢٦١ ٣٣٣٨
٩ ١ ٥ ٢
SOCIAL SERVICES
The aims and policies of the social services have been established to
contribute to the national development. Plans have been made to serve the
development strategy of the Saudi society through various aspects, such as
health and social care, to make society free from aberrations and negative
social phenomena which slow down its path of progress. Also some
handicapped (physical, mental or psychological) unemployed manpower
can be converted into productive human beings that can look after
themselves. The sixth social plan ١٩٩٤-١٩٩٥ assures the achievement of
these objectives and policies by offering social care to the needy, stepping
١٧١

up its services to meet the increasing social demands. Also supporting free
social individual care and continuing to offer some financial help for the
needy is important, as is supporting productive projects and the activities of
social care plans directed to those who stay in temporary accommodation
establishments as well as to childhood and family care. The plan supports
general administration activities of women, increases social service
development centers, and sets up local and social development committees
and other activities. The social care plans have shown considerable
development in a short period of time. Comparatively, its results are not
less than that those achieved in a number of countries over a period of many
years. These plans can be summarized as follows:
ORPHAN CARE
The child is supported to exercise all his basic rights, and grow up in a
complete social and family environment. Children who lost one of their
parents or both of them, or those whose fathers are in prison or ill or
handicapped receive adequate care through the social care establishment
which looks after them from birth till they become six. The Kingdom has
more than six social education centers where male or female students
receive full social, psychological, heath and educational care and plans for
children from the age of six until they become twelve. Girls continue living
in these houses after twelve, when they complete their training in a house
management program, while boys are moved to the formal education
institutes. Usually boys and girls receive monthly salaries and at marriage
girls receive a grant of about ٢٠،٠٠٠ Saudi Riyals each to help them to
meet the requirements of their married life. Such houses number more than
sixteen in the Kingdom (nine for boys for formal education, five for girls).
Children in these circumstances can have alternative care by being sent to
families to be looked after. Families are chosen according to certain social
criteria. A monthly salary of about ١،٢٠٠ Riyals is given to the family for
١٧٢

each foster child. An allowance of ٢،٤٠٠ Riyals (equal to two month’s pay)
is given to the wet nurses. The nursing family receives a ٥،٠٠٠ Riyals
benefit for each child who finishes the nursing period.
SOCIAL CARE FOR THE AGED

Social care homes have been established to receive the aged who find it
difficult to look after themselves, and the patients who are over twenty who
have developed some physical or mental weakness but are free from
infectious diseases. Programs for looking after the aged are available either
in or outside the care homes. There are eleven care homes for the aged,
offering services for ٥،٠٠٠ individuals, ٣،٠٠٠ for males, and ٢،٠٠٠ for
females since ١٩٨٩. All of them have been receiving social and health care
as well as the physical therapy services and personal care programs for the
residents. The establishment provides opportunities for the aged to do some
arts and handicrafts to let them make use of their spare time and not to
avoid boredom. They also can enjoy listening to some entertaining
programs through the local radio available to each care home. They also can
enjoy T. V. programs, and read newspapers, magazines and books,
available at their library, and attend seminars arranged for them.
The aged, especially the ambulatory ones, can make weekly trips or visits
or daily picnics in order to keep in touch with the outside society and to
prevent loneliness. These homes receive the relatives of the aged, and
organize mutual visits with their families or relatives.
CARE OF THE HANDICAPPED

With the beginning of the social and the economic development plans
twenty-three years ago, handicapped affairs were treated as a matter of
importance. Programs for the care and education of the handicapped are
two kinds - public care (institutional) or family care (private).
INSTITUTIONAL CARE
١٧٣

Institutional care offers social, career and multi-training, and daily care for
special handicapped children.
CAREER TRAINING
The mentally, sensory and physically handicapped are offered training for
some work that suits their abilities, such as that of electrician, book-
binding, business, typing, computers, painting and decorating, gardening,
sewing, ladies’ work, and telephone exchange work, through five centers,
two being for females. Of ١،٦٥٠ male trainees and ٣٥٠ female trainees, it
appeared that those who finished their training got jobs.
SOCIAL TRAINING
Social training homes offer care and accommodation for the severely
handicapped, those who have proven unable to do career training as a result
of their disabilities, those whose intelligence rate is below ٥٠٪, and cases of
quadriplegia, brain damage or deformity or severe atrophy. This lessens the
burden of their families. Psychological and health care is offered to those
severely handicapped and some who have the ability can be trained to look
after themselves and make use of their spare time.
COMPREHENSIVE TRAINING
This unit offers services for those who have severe disabilities. It is a
complete unit in service and management. It has separate departments for
severely disabled people of both sexes and is also open to children between
three and twelve years of age, providing them with suitable services and
programs like those others offered to the handicapped.
DAYCARE
This service provides care programs and training for those handicapped
under fifteen years of age during the day in order to relieve their parents or
guardians, especially those who are employed and unable to offer suitable
care for their handicapped children during the working hours. There are
١٧٤

fifteen social training centers, three for social training and twelve for full
training. They offer training to about ٢،٨٧٠ people, of which ١،٧٨٠ are
male, and ٩٩٠ are female. Nursery departments have been increased to nine
in this center, offering services to ٧٠٠ children. The daycare supervision
centers in Riyadh and Jeddah have been successful in increasing the number
of those who receive services from these centers by ٢٠٠٪.
FAMILY CARE OF THE HANDICAPPED

It is better for the handicapped to live with their families in order to have
adequate natural surroundings. Extra sums of money are allotted for
specialist supervisors. These kinds of disabled cases have grown to ٣٤،٠٠٠.
There are also two establishments in the Kingdom that offer care for
paralyzed children. These two establishments are in Riyadh and Tâ’if and
offer services to ٣٠٠ cases (٤٠٪ female). But paralyzed children who live
with their families number about ١٥،٠٠٠ cases costing around ٥٥ million
Saudi Riyals since ١٩٨٩.
SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
The purpose of social development is to help raise the citizen’s standard of
life, improving his social and economic situation, and raising his standard
of living through the effective national cooperation principle, and
strengthening his social awareness through executing programs, activities,
and services to meet his needs. The first successful center of this kind was
opened in Dara‘iya followed by twenty- eight centers in the rural areas.
THE SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT COMMITTEES

These are local committees that have been divided into specialized
subcommittees in different social development sectors, such as health and
education. It is a new plan aimed at increasing the social development
programs to cover the largest number of regions in the Kingdom, those
which do not reach the services of centers. There are eighty subcommittees.
Twenty-four of these subcommittees function in social service centers, and
١٧٥

fifty six of them, described as local committees, work in the areas cut off
from services of the centers. These subcommittees are divided into smaller
specialized committees that include the interested citizens as well as
specialists. The social development programs cost more than ١٠٠ million
Riyals in ١٩٨٨. The citizens’ contributions were about ٨٠٪.
Cooperative Societies
The cooperative societies received remarkable care and were introduced in

١٩٦٢ to organize and supervise the services of fifteen offices for
cooperative movements in various parts of the Kingdom. Their activities
vary according to services each group offers, including the multifold
assembly of cooperative, agricultural, consumer, and fishermen
cooperatives, career and marketing services and others. There are ١٦٥
societies with ٤٨،٠٠٠ members.
Domestic Charitable Societies
Domestic charitable societies are doing an important job in social care.

They provide services for citizens, which include children and handicapped
care, general education, various support, the collection and distribution of
extra food from big banquets and special events, orphan guardianship,
distribution of sacrificial and charity meat, and children’s amusements.
They also provide guesthouses that offer care and accommodation in
emergency cases when families find themselves suddenly without
guardians, whether due to death, accident, prison, or illness. These societies
take part in helping the youth by setting up summer camps to let them make
use of their spare time. In addition, these societies accommodate boys and
girls of special circumstances and offer them care and protection. There are
١١٠ general societies, and twenty women’s societies which had expenses of
around one billion and ٧٠٠ million Riyals in ١٩٨٨ and offered services to
around ٣ million citizens.
١٧٦

TABLE SHOWING THE KINDS OF SOCIAL SERVICES SINCE 1989
Type Of Social Services Number The Beneficiaries
Home stays for the aged ١١ ٥،٠٠٠
Career training centers ٥ ٢،٠٠٠
Social training centers ٣ ٢٨،٧٠٠
Comprehensive centers ١٢ -
Family Care of the Handicapped - ٣٤،٠٠٠
Social development centers ٢٨ -
Service Committee ٨٠ -
Cooperative societies ١٦٥ ٤٨،٠٠٠
Charitable societies ١٣٠ ٣٫٠٠٠٫٠٠٠
١٧٧

SPORTS
Spontaneous disordered football games played in public squares of city
suburbs were the beginnings of sports in the Kingdom. This period came
before the task of supervision of the sports activities was carried out by
various institutions. In ١٩٧٤ the cabinet issued a communiqué setting up a
special institution for the general administration of youth welfare.
During the formal organization period in ١٩٥٩, the need arose for an
institution to organize the club meetings. Consequently, the Saudi Union of
Football was created. The first local football competition took place in
١٩٦٠ with three regions participating: the Central Province, the Western
Province and the Eastern Province. In ١٩٦٢, it was decided to organize
three competitions: The King’s Cup, the Cup of His Royal Highness the
Crown Prince, and the Cup of the Second Class Clubs. The situation
developed and the number of competitions grew to eight a year: The
Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques Cup, His Royal Highness the Crown
Prince’s Cup, the Saudi Union Cup for Second Class Clubs, the Youth Cup
(for those under nineteen years old) and the Beginner’s Cup (for those
under sixteen years old).
The number of sports unions that supervise sports games has risen to
thirteen, in addition to a Sports Medicine Union, the Arab Triathlon
Committee (chivalry, swimming and throwing), a Sports Physical
Education Committee, and a Squash Committee. These unions and
committees supervise competitions, prepare the national trainers, and
provide international trainers from abroad.
GENERAL OBJECTIVES:
In the beginning attention was paid to the creation of laws and regulations
for the organization of sporting activities, the formation of sports unions,
the founding of sports associations, the provision of the necessary buildings
for sports activities in the big industrial cities, as well as for the creation of
١٧٨

Islamic inspiration and the promotion of sports education. Modern sports
constructions and model sports associations proliferated together with
supporting services. In addition, the level of international participation has
developed to match that of other Arab and foreign countries.
THE SPORTS UNIONS AND ASSOCIATIONS:
In the Kingdom, there are ١٥٤ sports associations practicing social,

educational and sporting activities. These associations have ٧٧،٠٠٠
members and ٨٥٠ sport trainees, ١٠٣ of whom are Saudi nationals with ٨٠٪
of their salaries provided by the government.
In ١٩٩٥-١٩٩٦, there were ٧٨،٨٣٩ players registered in the Saudi sports
unions, with various sporting activities under supervision of ١،١٣١ trainers.
Those players took part in ٥٩٥ local or national sporting events in addition
to seventy-nine international competitions, attended more than ninety sports
training camps, and achieved ٢٢٩ medals at both national and international
levels.
INTERNATIONAL SPORTS PARTICIPATION:
Achievements have been made not only on the national or local level, but
also on the regional, continental and international levels. Sporting teams
have taken part in regional as well as international competitions. For
example, the Saudi national football team won the Asian championship in
١٩٩٦. This is the third time that the Kingdom has achieved victory in this
competition. The team also won the of Asian Nations Cup in ١٩٨٤ and in
١٩٨٨. Thus the Kingdom is the first Arab country to have made such an
achievement.
The Saudi participation that drew the most world attention was that of the
Saudi Football team’s qualification for the World Cup finals in ١٩٩٤ which
took place in the United States of America. Even though this was its first
participation in the World Cup finals, the Saudi team was able to reach the
١٧٩

second round of playoffs, after passing the first round contrary to all
expectations preceding the championship.
The Saudi youth team won the Palestine Cup competition that took place in
Algeria in ١٩٨٥. They also obtained the championship of the twenty- fifth
Asian Youth Cup, which the Kingdom hosted and organized in Riyadh in
١٩٨٦. The team qualified for the Youth World Cup finals in Moscow, the
World Cup finals in Australia in ١٩٩٣, the World Cup Finals in Canada,
and the World Cup finals for beginners in al-A’in City. The team’s
achievements led it to win the third World Cup for beginners in Scotland in
١٩٨٨.
very two years the Kingdom hosts the Continental Championship for the
Cup of the Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques, King Fahd bin Abdulaziz
to ensure the role of the Kingdom in supporting sports activities and
strengthening friendship and love among the youth of the world. The
Kingdom also hosts the International Friendship Tournament, in which the
Saudi team as well as teams from Egypt, Algeria, Italy, Austria and Turkey
have taken part.
SPORTS FACILITIES:
Sport centers have been established in all regions of the country to provide
a healthy environment suitable for youth activities. These centers have been
supplied with all necessary sports equipment in addition to the necessary
auxiliary services that provide recreation for the players, administrators and
the public.
١٨٠

TABLE SHOWING THE SPORTS CITIES]
Name of the Sports City Location Area in Square Seating Capacity
Meters
King Abdulaziz Sports City Makkah ٤٠٥،٠٠٠ ٤٨ ٠٠٠
Prince Mohammed bin Madina ١٦٠،٠٠٠ ٣٠ ٠٠٠
Abdulaziz Sports City
King Fahad Sports City Taif ٢٠٠،٠٠٠ ٢٠ ٠٠٠
Prince Abdullah bin Qaseem - Buraida ١٦٠،٠٠٠ ١٥ ٠٠٠
Prince Sultan bin Abha ٢٥،٠٠٠ ٢٠ ٠٠٠
Prince Abdullah bin Jalwi Al-Ahsaa' - Al- ٢٦٠،٠٠٠ ٢٠ ٠٠٠
Sports City Hufoof
Prince Abdulaziz bin
Musa'ad bin Jalwi Sports Hail ٢٥،٠٠٠ ٢٠ ٠٠٠
City
Prince Saud bin Jalwi Al-Khobar ٣٦٠،٠٠٠ ١٠ ٠٠٠
Sports City
King Fahd International Stadium:
Located in Riyadh and covering an area of about ٥٠٠،٠٠٠ m٢, the King
Fahd Stadium has an oval design that ensures the audience a good view of
the competitions. It provides all facilities and space for an audience of
around ٥٧،٤٠٠, including ٣،٠٠٠ seats for high-ranking visitors. Eight
entrances surround the stadium and it has forty-six doors leading to the
audience seats. The oval stadium, built on twenty-four columns, is
constructed in the shape of a tent. It is equipped with the latest technology
and provides all necessary services meeting international standards.
The Summer Centers:
Each of the summer centers in Tabûk, Jizân, Baha, Graeit, Majma, and
Khafjî contains a football stadium with a capacity of ٢٠،٠٠٠, ٢٠٠-bed
youth housing units, auditoriums and swimming pools, outdoor playing
grounds, car parks, medical units, a public library, a mosque
accommodating ٤٠٠ worshippers, and other general services.
Association Facilities:
Sports facilities have been established for many sports associations in

various parts of the country. The designs take into consideration a number
of factors such as the location of the association and its various activities as
١٨١

well as other factors that determine the size of each association.
Accordingly, the associations can be divided into three categories, A, B and
C.
THE COASTAL CITIES:

There are two coastal sports cities: King Fahd City on the Hamra Coast,
Jeddah, and King Fahd City in Khobar on the Gulf Coast. Each city
contains all kinds of modern recreational and rest facilities according to the
most up-to-date systems. A covered gymnasium for practicing basketball,
volleyball, tennis along with other services and utilities are found in each
city. Moreover, each city contains a theater seating ٤٦٠ persons, a hall for
table tennis, closed squash courts, and an outdoor swimming pool.
The association facilities also include observation towers and family cabins
on the coasts. Regulations have been issued allowing all youth to obtain
memberships in these cities so that they may participate in all their hobbies
and activities for only a nominal fee.
١٨٢

CHAPTER ٣: THE CIVILIZATION
The Holy Places

The Holy Ka‘ba is the first home for human beings, as God said،“Verily,
the first House (of worship) appointed for mankind was that at Bakka
(Makkah), full of blessing, and a guidance for all beings” (Sura ٣:٩٦). God
also said، “Allah has made the Ka‘ba, the Sacred House, an asylum of
security and Hajj and ‘Umra (Pilgrimage) for mankind...” (Sura ٥:٩٧). God
added، “And (remember) when We made the House a place of resort for
mankind and a place of safety. And take you (people) the Maqam of
Abraham as a place of prayer, and We commanded Abraham and Ishmael
that they should purify My House for those who are circumambulating it, or
staying or bowing or prostrating” (Sura ٢:١٢٥). And Allah said، “I
(Muhammad) have been commanded only to worship the Lord of this city
(Makkah), Him who has sanctified it and His is everything. And I am
commanded to be from among the Muslims (those who submit to Allah in
Islam)” (Sura ٢٧:٩١). Allah Also said،“ And (remember) when Abraham
and (his son) Ishmael were raising the foundations of the House (the Ka‘ba
at Makkah), (saying) “Our Lord! Accept (this service) from us. Verily! You
are the All-Hearer, the All-Knower” (Sura ٢:١٢٧), and said “ ... a fair land
and an Oft-Forgiving Lord” (Sura ٣٤:١٥), and “(remember) when We
showed Abraham the site of the (Sacred) House (the Ka‘ba at Makkah)
(saying)، ‘Associate not anything (in worship) with Me” (Sura ٢٢:٢٥). And
Allah said، “And circumambulate the Ancient House” (Sura ٢٢:٢٩).

The Holy Ka‘ba is the direction which Muslims face in prayer, and to
which their attention is paid and their devotion and hearty love is offered.
Every Thursday people gather around the Ka‘ba, in addition to the daily
processions of ‘Umra performers.
١٨٣

About the name of Ka‘ba, Mujâhid narrated that it is the Ka‘ba because it
has a cubic form, detached from other buildings. It is also said that it is
named so because of its height from land. This home was built by Abraham,
may God bless him, four thousand years ago.
THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE HOLY KA‘BA

Many attempts have been made to destroy the Ka‘ba. The most prominent
one was by Abraha al-Ashram, the King of Ethiopia.
The Ka‘ba was rebuilt more than twelve times:
١. by the angels,
٢. by Adam, may God bless him,
٣. by Shîth, the son of Adam,
٤. by Abraham, may God bless him,
٥. by Amalekites,
٦. by Jerhim,
٧. by Qusayy,
٨. by Abdulmutallib,
٩. by Quraish, when the prophet was aged ٣٥ years,
١٠. by Abdullah ibn Zubair,
١١. by Hajjâj al-Thaqafî, the Shami, and
١٢. by the Ottomon Sultan Murâd Khan.
MAKKAH, UMM AL-QURÂ

Makkah is the direction of the Muslim prayers and where the Holy Ka‘ba
was built, and our Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) was born, and to which
Muslims make pilgrimage every year. Makkah is the place of the Hirâ’
mountain cave, where the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) was worshipping
God. Makkah is the place of the Thur Mountains which contain the cave
(al-Ghar) where our Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) and his friend, Abu
١٨٤

Baker al-Sadîq, may God bless him, retreated in order to avoid being killed
by the Quraish tribes.
Makkah is referred to as Umm al-Qurâ, in addition to many names and
linguistic interpretations that have been attached to it by Arab historians and
linguists, inspired from the position and the holiness of the Ka‘ba for the
Arabs. Yâkût said in his dictionary it was named Makkah because Arabs in
the pre-Islamic period used to say that our Hajj is not complete unless we
come to the place of the Ka‘ba and whistle there, like the people of
Makkah, round the Ka‘ba. Walking round the Ka‘ba, people used to whistle
and applaud. Many other names are given to Makkah, such as Umm al-
Qurâ (mother of villages) al-Balad, al-Ameen (the safe country), Umm
Rahîm (mother of mercy), al-Basa, al-Nasa and many others. Makkah is
also mentioned in the old Roman and Greek sources. It is also mentioned by
Batlimous Iskandary as “Makoraba”. It is said that the Qur‘an named the
place “ Baka “, which is a valley, where Makkah is another derivation like
“Balbak”, to mean camel valley, and this is the closest to the meaning of
Makkah because Makkah is mentioned as a place empty of plants.
ABRAHAM’S SEAT
God’s willingness kept this great ruin safe for more than four thousand
years. It was not mentioned that Arabs in the pre-Islamic era worshiped the
Black Stone or Abraham’s Seat. Islam came to glorify the Black Stone and
prayers made behind the Seat. Abraham’s Maqam is the stony seat that
Abraham used when he built the Ka‘ba. This seat was cared for by many
caliphs. The first was the Commander of the Believers, Muhammad Muhdî
al-Abbâsî, who sent one thousand dinars to enclose the Seat. Then Caliph
Harûn al-Rashîd made repairs on the silver encasement. Caliph al-
Mutawaqqil enlarged the encasement of the Seat. Allah’s order to make
Abraham’s Seat a place for prayers has been of great importance, as Allah
said، “And take you (people), the Maqam (Seat) of Abraham as a place of
١٨٥

prayer” (Sura ٢:١٢٥). Before ١٩٦٧, the Seat was placed inside a box of
brass measuring three by six meters over which a dome was built. This
dome was so large that it constricted the movement around the Ka‘ba. After
various discussions by Muslim scholars, the Islamic World Assembly
Council decided in ١٩٦٤, to remove the unnecessary constructions around
the seat, and replace them with a box of thick strong glass with an
appropriate height to allow easy movement and to make the seat visible to
all visitors. A cover of glass with a base of marble was constructed and a
brass base was set up around the seat with an area of ١٨٠ x ١٣٠ cm,
seventy-five centimeters high. This was done in ١٩٦٧. The cover was lifted,
in a great ceremony, by King Faisal ibn Abdulaziz, may God bless him, in
١٩٦٧.
THE ZAMZAM WELL

Zamzam is a water well located thirty-eight cubits from the Ka‘ba. It was
named Zamzam for the abundance of its water. Zamzam has many names
and attributes:
(١) Taiba, (٢) Barat, (٣) Madnûna, (٤) God made it a drink for Ishmael, (٥)
Baraka, (٦) Hafierat Abdul Motalib, (٧) Ta‘âm, ta‘m, shifâ saqim (Drink to
grow and drink to recover).
Many traditions are narrated concerning Zamzam: Prophet
Muhammad(PBUH) said،“The best water on earth is Zamzam water,” and
on another occasion,” It is nutritious food and a cure for the ill.”
Zamzam has been the subject of many writings, such as The Message of the
Jewel Set in Zamzam’s Characteristics, and another book on this subject by
ibn Hajer al-Asklani. It was agreed by high Muslim legislators that every
pilgrim or ‘Umra performer should drink from Zamzam water, because
Prophet Muhammad(PBUH) drank from it. And when Muslims narrated
that Zamzam is “a tasty food,” Abu Dawood al-Telasy added،“cures for
patients.” It is also said that visitors should drink from it to satisfaction.
١٨٦

THE BLACK STONE
This is an oval black stone, set in the south-east corner of the Ka‘ba, usually
touched by able pilgrims and ‘Umra makers. Omar ibn al-Khatab kissed the
stone and said،“I saw the Prophet touching and kissing it.” It is narrated
that the Prophet’s companions used to embrace and kiss it, and the
Prophet(PBUH) did that with them. If the Prophet(PBUH) could not hold
the stone and touch it, he used to face it from a distance and use his hand as
if touching it. Then he kissed it, as he was glorifying God. This is what ibn
‘Abbâs, may God bless him, narrated.
THE ANCIENT ISLAMIC MONUMENTS IN MAKKAH

Makkah is a place for ancient Islamic monuments, including mosques that
are associated with certain Islamic events. Of these mosques are the
following: (١) al- Râya, (٢) Khaif, (٣) al-Ijâba, (٤) Kawthar, in which the
Qur‘anic Sura al-Kawthar was sent, (٥) Jinn, in which Sura al-Jinn was
sent.
Many other ancient houses that witnessed important historical Islamic
events can be found in Jeddah, of these are the following:
THE HOME OF THE PROPHET (PBUH)
Previously this was owned by Mohammed ibn Yusif al-Thaqafi, and came
to be known as ibn Hashim’s Gate. It is regarded as the most ancient place
in Makkah. Now it houses the Makkah library.
AL-ARKAM AL-MAKZUMÎ’S HOME
This was a meeting place for Muslims during the rise of Islam.
THE HUJRA HOME
This is Abu Baker al-Sadîq’s home, located behind Abraham Street. Now it
is a mosque.
١٨٧

ABÛ SUFYÂN’S HOME
This is the house where Prophet Muhammad(PBUH) ordered people to

enter when he conquered Makkah “ Those who enter Abû Sufyân’s home
are safe ,”he said.
DAR AL-NADWA
Al-Bastani narrated that Dar al-Nadwa, built by Kosea ibn Kelab, was the
first home built after the Holy Mosque in Makkah. However, the Islamic
Encyclopedia says that Dar al-Nadwa was close to the Ka‘ba. It is inferred
from what Al Wakedy narrated about the raid (ghazwa) that camels brought
by Abû Sufiyân from al-Sham at the Badr raid were stored in Dar al-Nadwa
and that this Dar had a large backyard sometimes used as a station for
caravans.
In that home the Quraish used to meet and make preparations if they wanted
to go out for war. That place also was a station for departing or arriving
caravans, and used for marriage ceremonies or parties that all people
belonging to the Quraish used to go to.
Dar al-Nadwa was owned in the Islamic era by Qusayy’s eldest son, Abed
al-Dar, and then the property went to Akrama ibn Heithem Abed al-Dar,
and later to Mauwia ibn Abû Sufyân for one hundred thousand dirhams, to
be made a palace for Makkah. By the passing of time the Dar was disused
and mostly destroyed. Then Caliph Mutad gave orders to destroy it to
enlarge the Holy Mosque. That was the last expansion of the Holy mosque,
and since then no other expansion has taken place until the time of King
Abdulaziz Al-Saud. This means that the next expansion took place after one
thousand and seventy years.
HIRÂ‘ MOUNTAIN:
This is the mountain where Hirâ‘ cave is located and where the
Prophet(PBUH) used to make his night worship until Gabriel came down to
hand him the first Sura of the Holy Qur‘an, named “Al-’alaq”.
١٨٨

NÛR MOUNTAIN
The highest in Makkah, Nûr Mountain is located northeast of Makkah for

those people going to Mina, and left for those going to Arafat. After the last
expansion, the mountain became inside the boundaries of Makkah. Hirâ‘
Cave is a narrow place big enough for three sleeping people and with the
height of a standing man. At its end there is a tower or a building twenty
meters high overlooking the area of Makkah. Our prophet Muhammad
(PBUH) used to see the Ka‘ba from it clearly.
THÛR MOUNTAIN
One of the many mountains surrounding Makkah, Thûr is six miles south of
Makkah. Historically, it is important because Prophet Muhammad(PBUH)
took shelter in the cave close to its top with his friend Abû Baker al-Sadiq
when they immigrated to Madina, and stayed there three days. On this
occasion, Allah said ،“Allah granted him victory when he was dismissed by
the non-Muslims, when he was in the cave saying to his friend, ‘Do not
worry. Allah is with us,’ Allah secured him and supported him with unseen
soldiers so that the word of Allah passed and his enemy was defeated.”
MINA VALLEY
Seven kilometers from Makkah, Mina Valley is where pilgrims stay

overnight on al-Tarwiya Day before going to Arafat the following day.
Then they return to it on ‘îd to throw stones after they spend their night in
Muzdalifa on the ١٠th of Dhul Hijja.
ARAFAT
Arafat is a mountain twenty-five kilometers southeast of Makkah, ٧٥٠ feet

above sea level. Pilgrims should reach it on the ninth day of Dhul Hijja to
perform Hajj rituals.
١٨٩

AL-TANA‘‘UM:
This is a place with two mountains. Na‘em East and Ne‘im West separated
by a valley named Na‘man.
AL-JU‘RÂNÎ
This place is named after a woman from the Quraish called Rita bint Ka‘b
who was a fool. God said in the Qur‘an, “Do not be like the one who
destroyed her knitting after strength” She was knitting and she spins or
folds it. Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) made his ritual consecration from al-
Ju‘rânî, which was a well of fresh water.
AL-HUDAIBIYA
This is where the Prophet(PBUH) sat when he left Makkah in a state of

ritual consecration, being chased by disbelievers from Makkah.
MAHSIR VALLEY
This valley, between Mina and Muzdalifa, is where pilgrims should pass
through quickly as Prophet Muhammad did.
Makkah is also a place for many valleys such as Na‘man, Fâtima, ‘Arna,
Our Master Abraham, ibn Zaubeida, Ein al-Za‘farâna, Ein al-‘Ashar, and
Ein al-Humaija.
THE KA‘BA COVERING
Al-Hafez Bin Hajer said that Abraham ibn Abi Rabî‘a narrated:
The Ka‘ba in the pre-Islamic era was clothed with al-Antâ‘, a Yemeni kind
of cloth. The Prophet(PBUH) clothed it also with Yemeni cloth. Omar and
Othmân clothed it with qabâtî, and al-Hajjaj with dîbâj, a silk garment.
It is narrated that the Ka‘ba used to be clothed once every two years and
later every three years. The rich, princes, kings, and rulers everywhere in
the world used to send cloth to the Ka‘ba. New coverings were to be kept
inside to replace the old ones later.
١٩٠

The orthodox caliphs usually clothed the Ka‘ba. Abu Baker al-Sadîq
clothed it with qabâtî, and so did Omar ibn al-Khatab. Omar decreed that
the Ka‘ba coverings should be financed from Muslim funds.
From that time on the Ka‘ba has had to be clothed by Muslim funds, except
for some years it was clothed by rich Muslims or rulers of some Islamic
countries.
Caliph Omar wrote and asked the Egyptian governor at the time Egypt
embraced Islam to weave the Ka‘ba covering cloth in Egypt and send it to
Makkah. So did his successor Othmân ibn Afan. The Ka‘ba cloth knitted in
Egypt was called al-qabâtî and financed by Islamic funds. Othmân was the
first who clothed the Ka‘ba twice a year, the first, made of silk, on Tarwiya
Day, the eighth day of Dhul Hijja, and the second, made of qabâtî, on the
twenty-seventh of Ramadan. Omar ibn al-Khatab used to clothe the Ka‘ba
at his own expense, from his own money. The Umayyid caliphs used to
clothe the Ka‘ba with silk every year. It started when Abed al-Malik ibn
Marwan ordered al-Hajjaj to clothe it. Also the Abbasid caliphs clothed the
Ka‘ba with the best fabric found in the city of Tnees in Egypt, which had
been producing the most precious fabrics. When Abu al-‘Abâs Ahmad the
Abbasid Caliph, al-Naser Din Allah (supporter of Allah’s religion) took
power in ٥٧٥H., he clothed the Ka‘ba with the black silk which is still used
today.
Egypt had been the main source of the Ka‘ba cloth covering up to the time
when King Abdulaziz ibn Saud ordered the construction of a factory in
Makkah especially for that purpose in ١٩٢٧. In ١٩٢٦ King Abdulaziz for
the first time clothed the Ka‘ba.
The Ka‘ba cloth consists of the cover of the door and the belt of the Ka‘ba,
as well as the internal cover. All of them are made in the factory in Makkah,
woven with a high level of precision and skill, completely by Saudis.
١٩١

THE CUSTODIAN OF THE TWO HOLY MOSQUES, KING FAHAD IBN ABDULAZIZ,
EXPANSION OF THE HOLY MOSQUE IN MAKKAH.
Throughout human history, Makkah has had a remarkable place, mostly

because of the Ka‘ba, the first home located for worshipping God. At the
dawn of Islam the Ka‘ba was more glorified by Muslims.
With the increasing number of Muslims, the expansion by the Custodian of
the Two Holy Mosques was badly needed. It is noteworthy that the first
expansion of the Holy Mosque was made in the reign of Omar ibn al-
Khatab, the second orthodox caliph. The second expansion to the mosque
took place in the reign of the Umayyid Caliph al-Walid ibn Abed al-Malik,
again in the reign of the Abbasid Caliph Abû Jaffar al-Mansûr, and then
Caliph Mahdi in ٧٧٦H.
Extra areas were added to the Holy Mosque during the reign of the Caliph
Montaser Ba Allah, Caliph Moktader Ba Allah during the second Abbasid
era in ٩١٨ A.D. It remained that size until the reign of al-Saud. It should
also be noted that the mosque was not expanded during the reign of the
Fatimids, the Ayoubis, the Mamluks and the Ottomans except for some
repair work of or maintenance.
THE FIRST EXPANSION OF THE HOLY MOSQUE
With the influx of Muslims to the holy places from all parts of the world,
King Saud ibn Abdulaziz issued his orders in ١٩٥٥ to make a large-scale
expansion to the mosque. With this three-stage expansion the mosque
became ١٩٣ m٢. After that it was increased to ٢٩،١٢٧ m٢. This made a
space for ٤٠٠،٠٠٠ worshippers. The expansion also included repairing the
Ka‘ba and expanding the worshipping area round the mosque.
THE KING FAHAD IBN ABDULAZIZ PROJECT FOR CONSTRUCTION AND EXPANSION OF
THE TWO HOLY MOSQUES
THE FIRST HOLY MOSQUE
١٩٢

King Fahad ibn Abdulaziz laid the foundation stone for the expansion of the
mosque in ١٩٨٨. Construction started in Jumada II of the same year, and
ended in ١٩٩١.
The expansion includes extra parts annexed to the mosque westward. The
area of the expanded floors is ٥٧،٠٠٠ m٢, including the ground floor and
the first as well as the basement. The area of the expanded roof is ١٩،٠٠٠
m٢. Thus the expansion in general was ٧٦،٠٠٠ m٢. The area of the mosque
now covers ٣٢٨،٠٠٠ m٢ with the capacity of ٧٣٠،٠٠٠ worshippers on
normal days, and more than a million at Hajj and ‘Umra times.
The expanded building includes a new main entrance and eighteen normal
doors in addition to the three previous main entrances and twenty-seven
doors. The design considered construction of two new entrances for the
ground floor in addition to the previously expanded ground entrances. The
expanded building also includes two new minarets eighty-nine meters high
similar in design to the previous minarets.
To ease the movement of worshippers towards the expanded roof in the
high seasons, two moving ladders (escalators) were added, one north of the
expansion, and the other south of it. Each made up an area of ٣٧٥ m٢
containing two groups of moving ladders, accommodating ١٥،٠٠٠ persons
per hour for each group. Two other groups of moving ladders are inside the
building of the main entrance. There are also eight fixed stairs. Thus,
buildings located for the moving ladders are seven, located throughout the
mosque and the expansion of the first floor, aimed at facilitating the
movement of worshippers, especially the aged.
The outer expansion is ٢٠. ٩٦ m high, decorated and covered on the inside
with marble. ٤٩٢ marble-covered pillars were constructed on each floor.
The construction work for this expansion used about ١١١،٧٥٠ m٢ of stone
tile, and ٢١،٧٠٠ tons of reinforced concrete. The walls are made of either
industrial stone or marble. Other decorations are made of industrial stone.
١٩٣

Circular pillars are faced with mosaic and squared pillars with marble. The
floor is covered with circles of white marble.
The outer doors for the expansion are made of metal inlaid with brass
ornaments. Windows are made of yellow aluminum. It was taken into
consideration that the design of the new decoration should be similar to the
decoration made during the first Saudi expansion.
The project also includes installing internal radio systems and T.V. stations
supplied with T.V. cameras that monitor the whole area of the Holy
Mosque. Also, the telephone services have been increased and new and
modern air conditioning systems provided.
THE EXPANSION OF THE PROPHET’S HOLY MOSQUE

In ١٩٥٠ King Abdulaziz ordered the expansion of the Prophet’s Mosque. It
is noticeable that this expansion was the first after the one carried out by the
Ottoman Sultan in ١٨٦١. This new expansion was carried out in ١٩٥٥.
In ١٩٨٤ the Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques laid the foundation stone
for the expansion of the Prophet’s Mosque. It was the biggest expansion in
the history of the mosque. It included construction of a new building
annexed to the old one, surrounding the old building from the west, north
and east, an area of about ٨٢،٠٠٠ m٢, and capable of housing ١٦٧،٠٠٠
worshippers. Also, the upper roof offered an area of about ٧٦،٠٠٠ m٢,
enough for ٩٠،٠٠٠ worshippers. Thus the total area of the mosque,
including the recent expansion reached ١٦٥،٥٠٠ m٢. In addition, the
enlargement of prayer areas was extended to ٢٣٥،٠٠٠ m٢. So the total area
of the mosque, including the courtyard, became ٤٠٠،٥٠٠ m٢, with a
capacity to accommodate ٦٥٠،٠٠٠ worshippers. This figure can go up to
one million worshippers in the high seasons.
The expansion includes the basement, the same size as the first floor, for
housing the air conditioning machines. Also, the expansion includes the
construction of seven doors and two entrances of two doors each. These are
١٩٤

in addition to six doors added to the eight doors of the moving ladders used
to reach the roof provided for prayer, close to the inner stairs, as well as
service stairs.
After the expansion the number of minarets went up to ten, six of them
new, each ninety-nine meters high, and topped with a crescent. The total
height of each minaret is ١٠٥ m with an increase of thirty-three meters.
Before the expansion. Twenty-seven domes were constructed in the
mosque, with electric devices to open and close them as required for natural
ventilation.
The new decorations included in the recent expansion were designed to be
similar to those already existing in order to blend in with the art of the
Islamic architecture. The expansion also includes the electric power system,
loudspeakers, a fire alarm system and an alternative source of power for
emergency cases, and a T.V. system covering the whole area of the mosque.
The court surrounding the mosque covers ٢٣٥،٠٠٠ m٢, paved with marble
for comfortable prayers on Fridays and in the high seasons. The prayer area
is about ١٢٥،٠٠٠ m٢ with a capacity of ٢٥٦،٠٠٠ worshippers, or a million
worshipers in the high seasons.
Other areas include places for ablution and rest for visitors and an adjacent
car park of about ٣٩٠،٠٠٠ m٢, enough for ٤،٠٠٠ cars. The expansion also
includes the setting up of ٢٩٠ water containers and installing more than
١٥،٠٠٠ automatic water sprayers. Automatic surveillance equipment has
also been installed.
١٩٥

URBANIZATION
ARCHITECTURE
Settlements in various parts of the Kingdom are separated by large areas of
desert, that is the home of the Bedouins, who roam with their tents and
animals in search of grazing land. Due to the geographical expansion of the
Kingdom, its characteristic climatic zones, topography and environment,
and the variety of building materials available, distinguishing traditional
types of architecture have existed in the Najd Region, the Western Region,
the Southern Region, and the Eastern Region. These types have established
their validity, reliability and practicality as designs suiting the environment
and meeting the social, educational and economic requirements of the
residents. Through the experience of a number of successive generations of
local building masters, traditional architecture has made great developments
in the quality of design, the techniques and the use of available building
materials.
TRADITIONAL ARCHITECTURE OF THE NAJD REGION
Due to its location in the middle of the Arabian Peninsula, Najd’s

traditional architecture has not been greatly influenced by that of other
regions. The hot and dry desert environment as well as the available
building materials has influenced the architectural designs of the region.
The traditional designs are distinguished by the narrow roads and
interwoven blocks.
Settlements in Najd were located in agricultural oases on either side of the
main valleys such as Rama, Hanîfa, and Dawâser. These settlements are
distinguished by spontaneity, narrow zigzag streets, generally for sheltering
the pedestrians from the hot sun and lessening the effect of sandy winds and
storms. There were also streets without outlets and adjacent houses
designed to reduce the number of walls exposed directly to the sun. These
houses were designed with small windows, but large courtyards provide
١٩٦

ventilation and sufficient natural light. They were distinguished by small
simple decorations, especially the outer frontages.
In Najd areas houses were built of molded brick (clay mixed with straw and
water left for a while in the sun to dry). Walls were sixty centimeters thick
to provide enough insulation from the outer heat. The use of clay as a
building material is regarded as one good example of environmental
adaptation for its low capacity of heat conduction. Limestone was used in
the foundations of buildings to provide protection against the rainwater.
Roofs were made of branches of tamarisk trees or of palm tree roots
covered by palm tree branches arranged closely, covered again by straw
made of palm tree leaves, and then by a thick layer of clay placed over all.
The roof was usually surrounded by a wall higher than the height of human
beings to provide shelter and privacy. Doors, windows, and doorsteps were
made of locally available wood, decorated with geometrical forms of
various colors.
Najdi houses are built on one or two levels and, in rare cases, on three
levels, round a courtyard and have a few small windows designed to keep
privacy. Openings can be found in the upper levels, while smaller openings
on the ground levels are used for ventilation. Courtyards are spaces for
family use and for regulating the temperature: Being open, they hold the
night’s cold air for the long hours of daylight heat. Almost each house has
two doors, one for women and family and the other for men and guests. A
little wall is erected just in front of the outer door to keep the people passing
in the street at bay.
The outer walls are decorated with triangular forms and lengthwise
openings defining the various levels of the house. The upper part of the roof
wall has graded edges that help to keep rain water off the walls. The inner
walls are decorated with gypsum shelves near the fireplace for placement of
coffee - making tools.
١٩٧

TRADITIONAL ARCHITECTURE OF THE WESTERN REGION
In the Western Region there are large civilized centers such as Makkah,
Madina, Jeddah, and Tâ’if. Pilgrims who come here from many different
places in the Islamic world have influenced this region. Throughout a long
period of time, those people conveyed to the region building plans and
technology that make the traditional building plans of this region distinct
from that of the other regions.
The Western Region is distinguished by the crowded and connected blocks
perpetrated by roads and narrow zigzag avenues which provide pedestrians
with shade and cool air. The traditional houses are distinguished by their
height and numerous levels, and the abundance of outer openings covered
with lattices and oriels decorated with beautiful wooden carvings.
Housing design should take into consideration two basic factors: privacy
and ventilation. The traditional architecture in the Western Region is
distinguished by numerous decorations of gypsum and wooden lattices and
doors surrounded by pointed or circled forms. Houses are integrated or
arranged so each of them offers shade to the other, in order to reduce the
waves of heat.
Houses are made of two kinds of stone: limestone in the residential
complexes such as Jeddah and Yanbu‘, and mountain stone in the mountain
residential areas such as Makkah and Tâ’if. In Jeddah, for example, there
are six-story houses made of limestone and clay or limestone with modern
supports or wooden horizontal barriers on walls. Each is about one meter
from the other to prevent cracking of walls resulting from weakness of earth
and the increase in the level of surface water.
As to roofs, they are made of wooden sheets fixed on wooden pillars. A
layer of limestone is placed on them, followed by another layer of sand. The
outer walls are covered with a layer of melted limestone to protect the stone
from erosion as a result of relatively high moisture. Then white or bright
١٩٨

colors such as light blue are used to paint lattices and wooden curtains or
the openings of the house and around the roof wall.
Lattices help to reduce the intensity of the sunlight during the day, and
allow cool air coming from the direction of the sea to penetrate the
building. They also provide privacy for the members of the family,
especially for the women, who can have a chance to observe what is going
on in the street without being noticed by the pedestrians.
TRADITIONAL ARCHITECTURE OF THE SOUTHERN REGION
The small agricultural residential areas in the Southern Region are scattered
on the mountaintops and valleys in the Tihâma plains. Due to its abundance
of rain and agricultural areas, this region has the highest density of
population in the Kingdom. The diversity of the environment and
topography from the mountaintops to the Red Sea coast resulted in diversity
of architectural types, building materials and methods of building. Different
architectural styles are found in the south from the upland region of Najrân
to Sarawât (Heights) of Abhâ, the Isdâr region of the Faifâ Mountain
region, and Tihâma of Jizân.
The environment varies from one area to another according to the location
and the altitude above sea level. The environment of the internal region,
which is located on the eastern side of the Sarawât mountain range, is a
desert environment. It is hot and dry in summer, and with little rain in
winter, while the mountain regions facing the Red Sea are distinguished by
moderate temperatures in the summer and rain as well as cold weather in
the winter.
The coastal regions have very hot weather with high humidity in summer,
while in winter they have moderate weather. So there were a great number
of building materials to fit the environment. Clay is used in Najrân, clay
mixed with stone (raqf) in the regions of Abhâ and Sarât ‘Obaida, and
stones in Faifa, Bâha and many mountain areas. Branches of trees and dry
١٩٩

grass with ropes are used to make houses in Jizan and other residential areas
on the Tihâma coast.
Architecture in the Najrân areas that are distinguished by flat land and a
desert environment use bricks of clay, so it is similar to that used in the
Central Region. However, in Najrân, houses are made of clay mixed with
water and straw. Each brick forty to sixty centimeters long is placed one
over the other.
Settlements can be found in the hill region, while in the region of Isdâr,
there are small blocks of buildings and separate farms on the hilltops and in
mountain valleys. Architecture is affected the geology of the land. Houses
are built on high areas to provide protection against enemies or floods in the
valleys. High watchtowers are regarded as the most important
characteristics of the region.
Houses in the hilly areas like Abhâ, Sarât ‘Obaida have stone foundations,
and then clay with stones is used to complete the building. Walls are made
of clay mixed with straw and water, from forty to fifty centimeters thick,
protruding outside to protect other clay walls from heavy rain. It is
noticeable that the house narrows, as the walls become higher so as to make
a form similar to that of an incomplete pyramid. This form has its own
merits by making the building more stable. Clay is used to refurbish the
walls from outside and frontages are painted to make the building beautiful.
Interiors, especially the frames of doors, windows and roofs, as well as the
lower part of walls, are decorated with geometrical forms in bright colors of
yellow, red, blue and green.
The Isdar region of the Faifa Mountains is characterized by its heavy rain
and buildings are made in the form of cylindrical towers of four levels, built
close to one another near other buildings of rectangular or square forms.
The cylindrical forms are designed to protect people from raids and to
observe the surrounding area and reduce the need for long wooden planks
٢٠٠

used to roof the house, and also to protect against cold and heavy rains.
Houses are built of mountain stones of different sizes, placed side by side
without any other supporting substances, except the remaining gaps
between stones can be filled with small pieces of stone. Glinting white flint
is used to decorate the outside of doors and windows and can be placed
between black stones.
The architecture of areas on the Red Sea, which are very hot and have high
humidity, is distinguished by detached separate rooms or blocks. Usually
houses or buildings are built in the form of circular blocks with conical
roofs, influenced by African architecture. The building is made of trees,
branches and dry grass as well as coiled ropes, covered on the inside with a
thin layer of clay or gypsum. This design helps hot air and fireplace smoke
to ascend to the top of the cone and then pass outside of the structure
through the branches and the dried grass so that the building is ventilated.
In this way it is kept cool inside the structure, so that windows are not
needed. The piled grass and branches help to keep the internal layer of clay
cool or to protect it from direct sunlight. The interiors are decorated with
bright colors of red, yellow or green, and sometimes with dishes of various
colors. Usually each place of residence consists of groups of structures with
a courtyard surrounded by branches of trees or dried grass. The courtyard is
regarded as part of the house where housework can be done.
TRADITIONAL ARCHITECTURE OF THE EASTERN REGION
Dwellings in the Eastern Region are of two kinds: those of coastal

communities depending on fishing and commerce and those of inland
communities depending on agriculture. Architecture in this region has some
of the characteristics of the designs of the Râfidain region, Iran and India.
Houses in the coastal areas are made of clay and stone with a courtyard,
decorated on the sides with geometrical forms. Openings are made in a way
to keep privacy and provide natural ventilation.
٢٠١

The house walls, made of clay and limestone, are about one meter thick,
and the roofs are made from branches of trees. Clay mixed with straw and
gypsum made of limestone is used as a layer to protect the house from
rainwater. Because of the dry and hot weather in the inland regions, outside
openings are rare. The upper parts of doors and windows are decorated with
circular arches of gypsum.
MODERN ARCHITECTURE
It was noted previously that the diversity of the environment, geography,

and building materials has affected the traditional architecture in the
Kingdom. However, these different forms of buildings joined together to
create beauty and designs that meet the demands of the users and suit the
surrounding environment. This situation enabled these forms to last for a
long time. But with the introduction of new building ingredients, such as
cement and reinforced concrete, in the late fifties of this century, new
architectural forms of buildings were made of concrete, with modern air
conditioning systems. This shows the gradual decline of the traditional
building forms where prosperous Saudi villages and cities achieved a
standard distinguished by development in a short amount of time.
Government support through grant programs and loan funds resulted in the
development of cities and villages throughout the Kingdom. The land
development fund, since its foundation in ١٩٧٥ until the end of the financial
year ١٩٩٣-٤ offered ٤٢٥،٣٠٦ loans at a total value of ١١١،٧٠١،٢٠٤،٩٩٩
Saudi Riyals, making ٥٠٥،٧١٨ housing units. The fund also offered, since
the beginning of distribution of the commercial investment loans in ١٩٧٦-٧,
until the end of the financial year in ١٩٩٣-٤, ٢،٤٨٢ loans at a total value of
٥،١٦٨،٧٧١،٨٩٥ Riyals. ١٥،٠٢٦ housing units distributed in the cities of
Riyadh, Jeddah, Makkakh, Buraida, Dammâm, Ahsâ’, Qatîf and Khobar.
The development of building activities in the Kingdom reached the summit
at the end of the last century. In that period many unprecedented
٢٠٢

architectural projects have been achieved. Experienced architects were
commissioned from all over the world together with the best quality
building materials and technology. During this activity, many distinguished
government projects have been constructed, including the modern industrial
and military cities like the Jubail buildings and complexes, and airport and
housing projects. The expansion of the Two Holy Mosques in Makkah and
Madina was one of the greatest achievements. The private sector has also
contributed to the erection of many buildings, offices, commercial centers,
industrial complexes and the accommodation buildings with modern
designs.
The architecture in the Kingdom has been greatly influenced by the
architectural forms of the world, because the Kingdom has employed many
architects from different parts of the world during this construction and
building period. Today all building projects are to be designed by Saudi
architects and Saudi advisory offices and carried out by Saudi contracting
companies. This was the result of the architectural education in the
Kingdom that started thirty years ago, when the architecture department
was opened in King Saud University. Architectural education has been
developed. Many colleges and departments for learning the sciences of
architecture and construction planning have been created in five Saudi
universities. The Kingdom now has many building advisory offices.
Graduates of these colleges have started to create distinguished modern
building designs.
Construction of cities is not confined to the distribution of land and the
erection of buildings, but rather it is a civilized process with many
dimensions and characteristics. So, with the beginnings of the development
of Saudi cities, the Ministry of Municipal and Rural Affairs is highly
concerned about complete and large scale planning studies for cities,
including road networks, land use, and defining the building range for each
٢٠٣

stage of the expected development. This has led to placing building
development on the right track.
URBAN AREAS AND CITIES
DEVELOPMENT OF URBANIZATION
Until the ١٩٣٠’s, most of the inhabitants of the Arabian Peninsula lived in
difficult economic and social circumstances, and, in general, led simple
lives. The population consisted mostly of nomadic Bedouins, and urban
dwellers were few.
The economic and social development resulting from the discovery of oil
was reflected in the dramatic development of urbanization. It is fair to say
that the Kingdom spared no effort in settling the Bedouins through specially
designed programs. Even before the discovery of oil, King Abdulaziz
showed great concern for this matter. In ١٩١٢, Artâwiya was established as
the first enterprise for the settlement of Bedouins, and it has now become a
modern city.
The number of cities was limited, and they were small in size. Before the
establishment of the Saudi State, there were no cities other than Makkah
and Medina, in addition to ancient cities such as Dûmat al-Jandal, Shaqrâ’
and ‘Ulâ.
The discovery of oil led to the establishment of urban centers concerned
with the oil industries, oil refinement and oil exportation. This, in turn, led
to economic and urban development, as well as to the establishment of new
cities. The establishment of a transportation network has made a
contribution in this regard. Due to all the developments in economics and
transportation, the number of urban inhabitants has increased at a rapid rate.
This rate was ٢٠٪ in ١٩٣٢, ٢٤٪ in ١٩٦٢, ٤٦٪ in ١٩٧٤, ٧٦٪ in ١٩٩٢, and in
١٩٩٦ the rate had reached around ٧٩٪.
٢٠٤

Thus urbanization in the Kingdom has gone through a number of stages,
which can be summarized as follows:
THE STAGE OF LIMITED TRADITIONAL URBANIZATION BEFORE THE UNIFICATION OF

THE KINGDOM.
The stage of limited traditional urbanization goes back to the period before
the unification of the Kingdom. Some people have pointed out that around
١٠٠٠ BC, the Arabian Peninsula was known as the “Urban Centers”.
According to Assyrian records, the Arabs used to defend themselves against
Assyrian invasions of the cities of Adûmâtû (Dûmat al-Jandal) and Taimâ’,
which are located in the north of the Arabian Peninsula. There are also
many cities in the Kingdom whose history goes back to the pre-Islamic era,
such as ‘Ulâ, Khaibar, Amlaj, Yanbu‘, Shaqrâ’ and Khulais. Most of the
urban concentrations or developments of that time were located where the
water necessary for agriculture and drinking and places for natural
protection from raids and wars were available. Thus, cities that go back to
that time were so small that the total population of each did not exceed
١٥،٠٠٠. For example, the population of the city of Riyadh at that time did
not exceed ٧،٥٠٠ in ١٩٨٢. It looked like a little bend in a wadi because it
was almost circular in shape, and its area did not exceed one half square
kilometer. In the middle of the city there was Safât Hill, and beside it the
palace, the mosque and the markets. There were also four streets, each one
ending in a fortified gate. (See Al-Sharîf ١٤٠٨ AH/١١.) Cities were
surrounded by castles for security. Streets were narrow, and houses with
small windows were very close to one another. Inhabited areas usually had
a mosque in the middle of a large open space, which was used for economic
activities, particularly for the buying, selling and exchange of goods.
THE STAGE OF SLOW AND GRADUAL URBANIZATION: ١٩٣٠-١٩٧٠
The stage of slow and gradual urbanization covers the period including the
unification of the Kingdom by King Abdulaziz, the discovery of oil, and the
٢٠٥

political and security settlement and extends to the beginning of the ١٩٧٠’s.
In ١٩٣٢, the population of the Kingdom was between one and a half and
two million, with urbanites constituting ٢٠٪. During this stage, people
began to use cars. The sale of the first car was in Jeddah in١٩٢٦. However,
there were cars before that time, since cars were introduced to the country
during the era of Fakhru’d-dîn Pasha, the ruler of Medina. Later, cars were
introduced to Makkah at the beginning of the time of Husain, the Sharîf of
Makkah.
Road construction and city planning started also at this stage. This
development facilitated the use of cars. During this period, many people
migrated from the countryside and the desert to the cities so that they could
participate in the development projects executed by the government. In fact,
some cities that belong to this time are still preserved in sections of Riyadh,
Makkah, Jeddah and Medina.
THE STAGE OF RAPID URBANIZATION: ١٩٧٠-١٩٩٠
The state of rapid urbanization extends from the beginning of the ١٩٧٠’s to
the end of the ١٩٨٠’s. At this stage, cities witnessed a great deal of
development and progress. Governmental financial support was also strong
and was designated for planning and urbanization projects in most Saudi
cities. Thus, many roads and other public services were established. These
efforts were also accompanied by the immigration of Saudis to the cities, as
well as the importation of foreign labor from all over the world to support
the execution of these projects and the construction of cities. Some old
cities were also modified by expansion, although some urban expansion
was at random due to the fast pace of these projects. In brief, the factors
that led to rapid urban development can be summarized as follows:
× Oil income, which was reflected in the general budget of the country,
rose sharply.
× The birthrate increased, and the death rate decreased due to better
standards of living.
٢٠٦

× There was great immigration to cities. For instance, it was estimated
that ٨٥٪ of Riyadh’s population was born outside Riyadh, and ٧٥٪ of its annual
population growth is due to immigration. Also, ٨٠٪ of the population in
Dammâm and Khobar are immigrants.
Foreign labor came in large numbers from both Arab and non-Arab
countries, particularly from Southeast Asia. It was estimated that in ١٩٦٩,
there were ١٥،٠٠٠ workers. This increased to ٥٠،٠٠٠ in ١٩٧٥. (See Table
٢.)
The Real Estate Fund provided massive financial assistance through loans
for urbanization projects.
All these factors led to a big increase in the traffic inside the cities, which
meant that new roads and bridges were built to cope with it. These
developments also led to an increase in the cost of basic public services in
cities.
THE STAGE OF URBAN STABILITY (١٩٩٠- PRESENT)
The stage of urban stability begins from the early ١٩٩٠’s, when many cities
had reached a stage of stability with respect to urban expansion. Land that
was not absorbed by urban projects in cities was utilized in various
investment projects. Urban projects are now carried out according to more
realistic urban plans, so that these projects will contribute to the protection
and development of the urban environment.
LEVELS OF URBANIZATION IN ADMINISTRATIVE REGIONS
There has been a dramatic change in the rates of urbanization in all

administrative regions, as can be seen from Table # ١. This is no doubt a
reflection of what happened in the administrative regions. For instance in
the Riyadh Region, this rate was ٥٩٪ in ١٩٧٤, but in ١٩٩٢, it rose to ٨٣٪.
Similarly in the Eastern Region, the rate was ٦٧٪, and it rose to ٨٦٪. In
Jawf, the rate was ٣٣٪ and then shot up ٧٨٪. In the Tabûk Region, it was
٤٤٪ and then nearly doubled to ٨٢٪. As for Medina, the rate stood at ٤٢٪
٢٠٧

and then went to ٧٤٪. In the Eastern Border Region, the rate was at ٢٩٪ and
then jumped to ٧٧٪. The acceleration in urbanization is due to the
settlement of the Bedouins, who constitute a relatively high rate of the
population in that region. Most of those Bedouins preferred to settle in the
cities because of the lack of small villages and traditional farms. It was also
because they did not want to practice farming. As to the Tabûk Region, this
change is due to its importance as a military city.
According to the ١٩٧٤ Census. According to the ١٩٩٢

Re gion
Census.
Percent of Percent of
No. of Total Urban No. of Total Urban
Cities Population Population Cities Population Population
Riyadh ٨ ٧٤١،٠١٠ ٥٨٫٨٥ ٣٢ ٣٣٦،١٧٧ ٨٧٫٦٢

Makkah
٦ ١١٤٢،٤٦٣ ٦٤٫٩٠ ١٩ ٣٧١٦،٠٦٥ ٧٣٫١٨
Gizan ٥ ٧١،٧٧٨ ١٧٫٥٨ ١٥ ٢٢٧،٢٧٧ ٢٦٫١٥
Eastern
١٤ ٥١٠،٨٤١ ٦٧٫٠٤ ٥١ ٢٢٨٦،٦٧٥ ٨٨٫٧٧
Province
Asseer ٣ ٩٢،٥٩١ ١٣٫٦٤ ١٤ ٤٩٠،٩٧٥ ٣٦٫٦٤
Quaseem ٥ ١٢٢،٩٠٩ ٣٧٫٧٨ ٨ ٤٦٦،٠٧٩ ٦٢٫٠٦

Hail ١ ٤٠،٥٠٢ ١٥٫٦٤ ٢ ١٨٥،١٢٧ ٤٥٫٠١
Madina
٤ ٢١٩،٤٨٤ ٤٢٫٤٨ ٩ ٨٠٧،٥٥٧ ٧٤٫٤٣
Al-Baha ١ ٥،٠٧٣ ٢٫٧٣ ٥ ٤٧،٤٠٤ ١٤٫٢٧
Northern
٣ ٣٧،٢٢٤ ٢٩٫١٨ ٤ ١٧٦،٦٦٣ ٧٧٫١٣
Borders
Tabuk ٣ ٨٦،٤٢٣ ٤٤٫٤٢ ٧ ٣٩٦،٧٠٩ ٨١٫٧٦

Najran ٢ ٤٨،١٣٨ ٣٣٫٤١ ٤ ١٣٩،٨٣٤ ٤٦٫٤٦
Al-Jouf ٣ ٣٢،٩٧٦ ٣٣٫١١ ٧ ٢١٠،٢١٣ ٧٨٫٠٩
Kingdom 58 3151,412 46.0 % 177 12,510,755 76.47 %
٢٠٨

On the other hand, these rates are still relatively low in some administrative
regions despite the dramatic changes in urban population rates. For
example, in Bâha, Asîr, Jâzân, Najrân and Hâ’il, these rates have changed
from about ٣٪ to ١٤٪, ١٤٪ to ٣٧٪, ١٨٪ to ٢٦٪, ٣٣٪ to ٤٦٪ and ١٥٪ to ٤٥٪
respectively. The urbanization rates are relative low compared to other
regions. The reason for this is because the big urban centers in these regions
are few, and also because most people immigrate to big cities like Riyadh,
Jeddah and Dammâm. As for the Qasîm Region, the rates fall in the middle
between the two groups for the urbanization rate changed from ٣٨٪ to ٦٢٪.
It is worth mentioning that in ١٩٩٢, the interior of the Kingdom, which
includes the Regions of Makkah, Riyadh and the Eastern Region, attracted
about ٧٥٪ of the urban population of the Kingdom. This is not very
different from ١٩٩٤, since the rate that year for those areas was ٧٦٪ of the
urban population.
THE NUMBER AND SIZE OF THE CITIES

It has been seen that the Kingdom has undergone vast urban change in the
second half of this century. When the Kingdom was unified by King
Abdulaziz, there were just a few, small cities. After the unification, cities
became larger in number and bigger in size. For instance, in ١٩٧٤, there
were fifty-eight cities in the Kingdom with populations of ٥،٠٠٠ or more.
In ١٩٩٢, the number of such cities rose to ١٧٧. (See Table # ٢.) The total
population in the cities was ٣١٥،٤١٢ in ١٩٧٤. In ١٩٩٢, this figure had
rocketed to ١،٢٥١،٧٥٥. This means that the increase was ٣٩٧٪. This was
not the case of just certain cities, but most cities underwent the same change
with some variations.
Population
Volume According to the ١٩٧٤ Census. According to the ١٩٩٢
Census.
٢٠٩

Category
Percentage Percentage
No. of Total No. of Total
Cities Population Cities Population
٥-٩ ٢٠ ١٢٩٧٣٥ ٤٫١٢ ٧١ ٤٨٣٠٥٧ ٣٫٨٦

١٠-١٩
١٧ ٢٣٧٧٢٣ ٧٫٠٤ ٤٧ ٦٧٠٦١٢ ٥٫٣٦
٢٠-٤٩ ١٠ ٢٢١٤٨٨ ١٠٫٢٠ ٢٩ ٨٨٤٥٠٩ ٧٫٠٧

٥٠-٩٩
٤ ٢٦٧٢٧٨ ٨٫٤٨ ١٠ ٧٥٧٨٩٣ ٦٫٠٧
١٠٠-١٩٩ ٤ ٦٠٤٦٤٧ ١٩٫١٩ ٩ ١٢١٤٩٧٢ ٩٫٧١
٢٠٠-٣٩٩ ١ ٣٦٦٥٠٩ ١١٫٦٣ ٥ ١٢٠٤٠٣١ ٩٫٦٢
٤٠٠ and ٢ ١٢٢٤٠٣٢ ٣٨٫٨٤ ٦ ٧٢٩٤٧٨١ ٥٨٫٣١
above
Total ٥٨ ٣١٥١٤١٢ ١٠٠ ١٧٧ ١٢٥١٠٧٥٥ ١٠٠
It is to be noted that in ١٩٧٤, the number of cities whose population was

٤٠٠،٠٠٠ was just two, Riyadh and Jeddah. In ١٩٩٢, this number rose to six,
Riyadh, Jeddah, Makkah, Dammâm, Medina and Tâ’if. Changes occurred
in industry, economy, developmental policies and five-year budgets. For
example, industrial cities of Jubail and Yanbu‘ have attracted thousands of
Saudis and foreign laborers. Also, the achievements of the tourism industry,
in Hawiya by way of example, have led to a remarkable change.
٢١٠

Economy and Development
TRADITIONAL FOLK PROFESSIONS AND CRAFTS

Traditional folk professions and crafts were numerous in Saudi Arabia due
to its geographical diversity. They varied from one region to another. Some
cities and villages become famous for some crafts such as woolen garments
from the Dhahrân area, saddles from Hâ’il, and doors and shutters from
Qasîm.
These professions and crafts have been given much attention and
encouragement at the Janadriya Festival and by the Public Culture of Arts
and Education Society. The most common professions and crafts centered
on herding, agriculture, trade, smithery, painting, tanning, building works,
weaving and so on.
POTTERY
Pottery is a traditional profession and craft, depending on clay as its main

material. The potter makes various pots of different forms and sizes, and
decorates them by hand, then has them baked to become solid and ready for
use. These crafts can be found in the Ahsâ’, Madîna, Makkah, and other
regions. This pottery is made on a device called a dulâb (wheel) turned by
the potter’s feet. He keeps a wooden comb in his hand to help him in the
decoration process. Then these pots are exposed to sunlight before being
sent to a furnace to be fired. These products include tanûr (bread ovens),
jars of all kinds, and zîr (large storage vessels) in various sizes, such as
sharba, barma, munash and kâlia.
CALLIGRAPHY
Artists and calligraphers in Arab cities decorated walls of mosques and

houses with aesthetic works and many written panels using calligraphy.
٢١١

THE KHÛS (PALM LEAF CRAFTS)
This is a craft common in the agricultural regions and depends on the use of
palm-tree branches as well as the leaves of other plants. The tools used are
simple and they include knives, anvils, and hammers. The craftsmen make
boxes for preserving and storing dates and fruits, manz for children,
brooms, ropes, baskets and hand fans (mahfaf), mats, grain sieves,
winnows, shoes, lamp oil and vessels made of branches.
CARPENTRY
The craft of carpentry depends on tamarisk wood, date-tree branches, and

some imported woods. Tools used by the carpenter are the hammer and
saw. The carpenter makes various wooden forms such as doors, shutters,
windows, and roofs of houses, and some common toys such as tops,
spindles and ba‘a. He makes all these things in a very artistic and creative
manner.
He also makes mâshia (walking sticks) for children who are late in learning
to walk, and also wooden dishes, buckets and spoons.
SMITHERY
The people of the Arabian Peninsula mined all the available minerals and
manufactured metal tools and utensils of good specification after producing
the alloys. These metals include steel, iron and bronze. A bellows and dafûr
are necessary for making plates, and coffeepots. Tools used in this craft are
the hammer, shears, and a chisel to polish the vessels and mend them. The
craftsman depends on the dafûr for soldering coffemaking utensils such as
shovels, roasters, iron coffeepots and tongs.
WEAVING CRAFTS (SADÛ)
Sadû uses raw materials of camel hair, lambs wool and goat hair. The tools
used in this craft are spinner needles and wooden shuttles, and it is
practiced by both men and women, though woman show more creativity
٢١٢

and efficiency than men. Some other materials such as hair in addition to
wool are used for more perfection and finer quality. Tents with all their
accessories can also be made including tharâ ’, fuljân and sayâh. Sacks,
provision bags and various saddlebags are also made, as well as cloth,
woven wool, baidî, cushions, mattresses and mazwiya and some other wool
fabrics.
LEATHERWORK
Leatherwork depends on the skins of camels, goats, lambs, and cows. The
tools used include a piercer, scissors, a printer to color the leather belts and
knives.
The leather is tanned to remove hair and wool and other things attached to it
such as flesh, fat or oil. These leathers should be clean and ready for
manufacturing different items, including shoes, socks, aka, mukhlâ,
dawayra ‘, mezbâ, sûra, jâ ‘id, khathel, ârûk, sa ‘n, and thukâl. This craft has
developed using modernized tools and imported raw materials and has
become one of the basic industries and a symbol for industrial and civilized
development.
GOLDSMITHERY
This is one of the most popular crafts known in the Kingdom, especially in
Mecca, and later throughout most cities. Gold and silver are manufactured
to make various geometrical forms and shapes, are decorated with precious
stones, jewels, colored glass, and beads for women’s ornaments. Goldsmith
tools include the hammer, chisel and fire. For festivals and marriages gold
and silver are forged into hâma, hujûl, bânajir, qerdâla, qalâ ’id, kharaz and
also into zamâm, khamâkhin, rishrash, zinât, murtahash, shamâyil, matâwî,
‘udhûd, and kaf. Also, swords and arms are decorated with gold.
٢١٣

EXAMPLES OF SOME TRADITIONAL FOLK CRAFT PRODUCTS
THE ‘ARZÂLA
The ‘arzâla is named qafas, morfâ ‘a or mallâla and is used to store liquids
and food. It is like the refrigerators used nowadays. The ‘arzâla used to be
attached to a rope and kept in a special place in the old traditional houses
called quba, a cool place away from the heat of the sun, to keep food such
as meat, yogurt, and fat fresh and safe. It is made of palm-trees branches
that allow air in while keeping insects out.
THE SUMÎL
The sumîl is a leather vessel like the saqâ ’ used as a water container. It is
smaller in size than saqâ ’, and used by a traveler and can be carried with his
luggage. It is sometimes used to keep laban (yogurt) in.
THE QURBA
The Qurba is a leather vessel like the sumîl, but it is bigger in size
and is made of tanned lamb or goatskins. In the past, it was considered a
cooling device. It is a sack with a mouth in the middle and small openings
on the sides that close and open when necessary.
THE MUZWIYA
The muzwiya is an ‘abaya similar to that of the silk bisht. It is made from
woven threads of camel hair, and is decorated with silk and other colored
thread and is worn in winter.
THE QURD AL-HEYL

The qurd al-heyl is a kind of dress made of silk fabric that contains nubs
that are like cardamom seeds, worn for ornament.
THE HÂMA
The hâma are decorated thin sheets of gold, fastened to golden chains.
Sometimes gold coins are used instead of the thin gold leaves. Sometimes
precious stones are used and hang down from a girl’s head as an ornament.
٢١٤

THE RISHRASH
The rishrash is a compound necklace of various branches of gold. Each
branch consists of a golden chain attached to gold circles or balls like
prayer beads and it is worn around the neck.
THE MURTAHASH
The murtahash is a necklace like the rishrash, but longer. It is more than a
meter and a half long, made of gold and decorated with colored precious
stones.
THE ZABLÂN (BASKETS)

The singular of zablân is zanbîl. They are baskets of many different kinds,
and they are usually used for carrying or storing. One kind is called
marâhîl, and some can hold fifty kilos of dates.
THE MAHÂF
The singular of mahaf is mahfa. It is a hand fan made of soft white palm
fronds, decorated with woven designs. It is square in shape with a thin
handle, and is used to fan oneself.
THE MAKÂNIS
Al-makânis are brooms made of palm-tree branches. Some other kinds are
made of palm-tree fibers.
THE SAYÂH
The sayâh are carpets made of camel hair and lambs wool, decorated with
threads of colored wool. They are used to furnish the living rooms.
THE KHARJ AL-MUTIYA

The kharj al-mutiya is a saddlebag distinguished by its bright colors and
beautiful inscriptions, and is for a horse. Pieces of the same color and fabric
hang down the sides. It is used for carrying light luggage.
THE MUZWADA
٢١٥

The muzwada is smaller than the kharj, but is also a saddlebag for a horse.
It is brightly colored and is used to carry the traveler’s food and personal
luggage.
THE QATF
The Qatf is a vessel made of leather and is used to store coffee and
cardamom.
THE JARÂB
The jarâb is a leather purse used during travel for the safekeeping of
personal things such as money and coffee.
THE DAWAYRA‘
The dawayra ‘, which is made of leather, is for ornament and use as light
luggage.
THE MAZBÂ
The mazbâ is a small cradle of leather for the carrying of children during
travel. It is decorated with hanging pieces of ornament.
THE NAT‘
The nat‘ is a covering of soft tanned leather and is draped over camels
during travel. It is also used for coffee during a rest stop.
THE JÂ‘ID
The jâ ‘id is made of soft tanned leather and is used as a mattress or for a
horse’s back.
THE ASHIDA
The ashida are varied. Some, special for horses’ backs, are long and
beautiful with wide decorations called masâma, and are used for riding and
carrying luggage and for other things.
THE AQTÂB
٢١٦

The aqtâb is similar to the masâma but smaller in size and is used for litters
(hawâdaj) with long flags fastened to carved branches of beech in a formal
dome fastened by slices of twigs. It is one and a half meters high and is
regarded as the principal transportation for woman of the higher class.
These include the hawâdaj (pl. hadûj), the gabît and the natla.
THE DARAJA
The darâja is a wooden cylinder between twenty and thirty centimeters in
diameter and fifty centimeters long. Two thick nails of about sixteen
centimeters are fastened on the sides. The darâja is fastened with columns
tied to the axle, which the darâja can role on.
THE MASHIYA
The mâshiya or walker is a wooden device with wheels used to help little
children learn to walk. It is still in use, but it is now made of plastic.
HERDING
The people in the western Arabian Peninsula began to breed more animals
to use in their agricultural work, for this region is distinguished by its fertile
soil and heavy rain which help to create agricultural and herding areas on
the hills. This region is also quite hilly. The northern region of the Arabian
Peninsula between the Nufûd desert and the middle of the Syrian desert has
been famous for its grazing areas since ancient times. It is still one of the
most fertile grazing lands in the Arabian Peninsula, especially in the spring
after the rainfall. The central region of the Arabian Peninsula is
distinguished by its wide expanses, and due to this is considered one of the
most varied regions for grazing, despite its scarcity of water. Oases and
grazing vegetation are spread over the eastern region of the Peninsula.
Some Arabs made herding and horse breeding a career.
٢١٧

MODERN INDUSTRIES
Modern industrial activity started in ١٩٥٤, when the appliance repair
workshops, tools, kitchens and cars had made their appearance. In the late
١٩٦٠’s, a resolution was made to allocate specific places in most of the
main Saudi cities as industrial areas, where the basic equipment had been
set up. In ١٩٧٤ regulations were introduced defining the main principles of
industry, and encouraging the expansion of light industries, dependent on
agriculture, as well as free enterprise.
THE INDUSTRIAL CITIES
The establishment of the industrial cities is regarded as a phase of support

and encouragement, because it lessened the burden of factory construction
and industrial planning and regulation. Two industrial cities have been
built, one in Jubail and the other in Yanbu by the Royal Commission to
create principal industries out of oil and petrochemical products and metals,
as well as to create secondary industries. The basic equipment has been set
up in Jubail, covering an area of around ١،٠٣٠ km٢, including sixteen basic
industry complexes which depend altogether on the exploitation of the
natural gas which had been wasted without any economic value.
The industrial city of Yanbu was set up on an area of eighty square
kilometers to create principal as well as secondary industries. To achieve
the objectives of a balanced regional development, and to encourage the
industrial sector, six industrial cities have been set up in Riyadh, Jeddah,
Dammâm, Makkah, Qasîm, and Ahsâ’.
٢١٨

[A TABLE POINTING OUT THE INDUSTRIAL CITIES WITH REGARD TO AREA, COST AND
THE NUMBER OF FACTORIES]
Area (Thousand Cost of Project
Industrial City No. of Factories
Square meters) (Million Riyals)
Riyadh ٢٢،٢٣٧ ٥٨٨ ٥١٩
Jeddah ١٢،٧٧٨ ٤٠٩ ٢٣٠
Damman ١٨،٥٩٠ ٥٥٩ ٢١٠
Al-Ahsaa' ١،٥٠٠ ٩٤ ١٨
Quaseem ١،٥٠٠ ١٣٩ ٢٦
Makkah
٧٥٨ ٤٥ ١٧
THE GENERAL STOCK COMPANIES OF THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY SECTOR
Five Saudi stock companies work in the field of drilling and refining oil,
with a capital valued at ٧٢٤ million Riyals and a shareholders’ capital of
١٤٤٦ million Riyals. All these companies have good reserves. The capital
of the Saudi Arabian Oil Refinery Company is ٤٠ million Riyals, twenty-
four million having been paid, at a rate of ٦٠٪. The whole capital belongs to
the private sector, ٩٠٫٨٪ for individuals, and ٩٫٢٪ for companies. The
capital of the national gas and manufacturing company is ٥٠٠ million
Riyals, fully paid, ٨٤،٥٪ for the private sector, ١٥،٥٪ for the government.
The capital of the oil and lubricating company (Petromen) is ١١٠ million
Riyals, fully paid, ٧١٪ for government, and ٢٠٪ for American shareholders.
The capital of Arab Al-Hafer Company is twenty million Riyals, fully paid,
٥١٪ for the government and ٤٩٪ for French shareholders. The capital of the
Jeddah Oil Refinery is ١٥٠ million Riyals, seventy million Riyals paid, ٢٥٪
for companies, ٧٥٪ for the government sector.
٢١٩

[TABLE SHOWING THE STOCK COMPANIES OF THE INDUSTRIAL PETROLEUM SECTOR]
Company Percentage and classification of shares per company No. of registered Shares
Capital Individual Companies Government Foreign Regist’ed No. of Share
name
Holders
Saudi Arabian ٤٠،٠٠٠،٠٠٠ ٩٠٫٨ % ٩٫٢ % - - ٤٠٠،٠٠٠ ٩٨٠
Refineries
National Gas & ٥٠٠،٠٠٠،٠٠٠ ٨١٫٦٦ % ٢٫٨٤ % ١٥٫٥ % - ٥،٠٠٠،٠٠٠ ٦،٩٤٢
Industrialization
Petromine ١١٠،٠٠٠،٠٠٠ - - ٧١٫٠ % ٢٩٫٠ % ١،١٠٠, ٠٠٠ ٢
Lubricating American
Oils
Al-Hafr Al- ٢،٠٠٠،٠٠٠ - - ٥١٫٠ % ٤٩٫٠ % ٢٠٠،٠٠٠ ٢
Arabia French
Jeddah Oil ١٥٠،٠٠٠،٠٠٠ - ٢٥٫٠ % ٧٥٫٠- % - ٧٠٠،٠٠٠ ٢
Refinery
THE LIGHT INDUSTRIES
The government was interested in developing the light industries through

efforts to vary the foundation of economy and to reduce the principal
reliance on the export of crude oil. In this field (the light industries) there
are seventeen industrial stock companies with a capital of ١٣٫٧٧٠٤ billion
Riyals. Most of these companies have made an improvement in their
financial management valued at ١٢٫٥ billion Riyals, with Sabic representing
٨٠٫٣٪.
[TABLE POINTING OUT THE ACTIVITY OF SEVENTEEN COMPANIES OUT OF THE TOTAL
LIGHT INDUSTRY COMPANIES]
Approved No. of Shares
Name of Percentage of Share Capital and Its Types registered and
the Share Holders
Capital Individuals Companies Govt. Foreign Regis’d No. of
Project Share-
Holders
Saudi Basic Ten billion ٣٠٫٠ % - ٧٠٫٠ - ١٠٠ ٧٥،٠٠٠
Industries % million
Saudi
٥٠،٠٠٠،٠٠٠ ٥٧٫٠ % - ٤٣٫٠ - ٥،٠٠٠،٠٠ ٤،٤٨٣
Arabian
% ٠
Fertilizers
Safola Co. ٣٠٠،٠٠٠،٠٠٠ ٨٢٫١٦ % ١٠٫٤ % ٧٫٤٤ - ٣،٠٠٠،٠٠ ١٩٨،٣٢
٢
% ٠
National Private
٦٠٠،٠٠٠،٠٠٠ ١٠٠٫٠ % - - ١٢ -
Industries Sector
million
٢٢٠

Pharmaceut
٦٠٠،٠٠٠،٠٠٠ ٧٥٫٠ % - ٢٥٫٠ - ٦ million ١٦،٥٠٠
ical
%
Industry
Saudi ٣٠٠،٠٠٠،٠٠٠ ٥٠٫٠ % ٤٦٫٠ % - - ٦ million ١٦،٥٠٠
Cables
Glass Fiber ٥٠٪ - G.C.C.
٥٠،٠٠٠،٠٠٠ ٥٠٫٠ % - ٥٠٠،٠٠٠ ٣٠
Industry Nationals
Saudi Private
١٥٤
Advanced ١٠٨،٠٠٠،٠٠٠ Sector ١٠٠٫٠ % - - ١،٠٨٠,
Industries ٠٠٠
Co.
Food ٢٣
٢٠٠،٠٠٠،٠٠٠ ٣١٫٠ % ٦٩٫٠ % - - ١،٠٠٠٫٠٠
Products
٠
Co.
National
٥٠
Glass ٢٠٠،٠٠٠،٠٠٠ ٣١٫٠ % ٦٩٫٠ % - - ٤،٠٠٠٫٠٠
Industries ٠
Co.
National
٢٣
Metals ١٠٠،٠٠٠،٠٠٠ ٣٦٫٧٣ % ٦٣٫٣٧ % - - ١،٠٠٠،٠٠
Foundary & ٠
Industries
Co.
Packaging
١٤
Material ٦٨،٧٥٠،٠٠٠ ١٠٠٫٠ % - - - ٦،٨٧٥،٠٠
Industries ٠
Co.
Arabian ٧٠،٠٠٠،٠٠٠ ١٠٠٫٠ % - - - ٧٠٠،٠٠٠ ١٤
Pipes Co.
Al-Lujjain ١٧٣،٠٠٠،٠٠٠ ١٠٠٫٠ % - - - ١،٧٣٠،٠٠ ٢٢٦
Co. ٠
Arabian
٣٣٩
Industrial ٢٥٠،٠٠٠،٠٠٠ - - - - ٢،٥٠٠،٠٠
Devel’ent ٠
Co.
National
Finance
Leather ٢٥،٦٠٠،٠٠٠ - - - - ٢٥٦،٠٠٠
d
Tanning &
Manuf’ring
Co.
Saudi
Industrial ٢١٥،٠٠
Develop.Co ٤٠٠،٠٠٠،٠٠٠ ١٠٠٫٠ % - - - ٤،٠٠،٠٠٠ ٠
٢٢١

THE MINERAL AND PETROCHEMICAL INDUSTRIES (SABIC)
Sabic has made considerable development, with power productivity
mounting to more than twenty million metric tons a year. This is due to the
development of local as well as international markets. It has an expansion
program to keep the development of marketing parallel with that of the
production. Most of its projects are set up according to the system of joint
projects, with a number of selected pioneering international technology
companies. Sabic affirms the quality of its products and advanced services.
This company set up its industrial complex for development and research,
which was officially opened on December ١٩٩٤. ٦٥٪ of Sabic staff are
Saudis.
Sabic Main Sectors
Petrochemicals and their derivatives make up the biggest sector of Sabic,

with a total production of millions of tons contributing to the development
of thelight industry sector.
Fertilizers
Sabic has taken part in achieving a full agricultural increase during the last
decades through production of fertilizers which carry the Sabic mark.
Iron and Steel
The Saudi Iron and Steel Company (Hadeed) owned by Sabic is regarded as
the biggest producer of iron and steel in the world. It employs the direct
reduction method (the electric bow furnace) and its total production (steel
bars, beams, wire coils and sections) was more than ٩٫٦ million tons.
The Supporting Industries
The National Gas Industry Company (Ghaz) produces oxygen and nitrogen
to support the production process of the Jubail industrial institutions. Last
year Ghaz completed the third stage expansion program to increase the
annual production of oxygen to ٩٧٦ thousand tons, and nitrogen to ٤٨٩
٢٢٢

thousand tons. This expansion was meant to complement Sabic production
programs and expansion projects.
Cement and the Construction Materials
There are ten stock companies for cement and building materials. The most
recent company established was that of Tabuk, with a capital of ٦٫٤ billion
Riyals. The capital of the Saudi Cement Company, the biggest cement
company, was ٢،٠٤٠ million Riyals.
This company has good reserves, and has continued to improve its
production for several years in succession, which has resulted in the
achievement of its total profits.
Industrial
Northern
Makkah
Province
Borders
Al-Jawf
Madina
Eastern
Activity
Riyadh
Najran
Tabuk
Grand
Qasim
Jizan
Total
Baha
Ha’il
'Asir
Food Products and

Drinks Industries ٩٤ ٢١ ١١٠ ٢٢ ٦٩ ٥ ١ ٧ ٢ ٦ ٧ ٠ ٢ ٣٤
٦
Textiles, Ready-
made Garments,
Leather Products,
٣٧ ٠ ١٩ ٨ ١٦ ٠ ٠ ٠ ٠ ٠ ٠ ٠ ١ ٨١
Industries
Wood, Wooden
Products, and
٤٢ ٤ ١٧ ٥ ٣٠ ٠ ٠ ٠ ٠ ٠ ٠ ٠ ٠ ١٠
Furniture Industries
٠
Paper, Printing and
Publication ٥٩ ٢ ٤٨ ١ ٣٠ ١ ٠ ١ ٣ ٢ ٠ ٠ ١ ١٤
Industries
٨
Chemicals and
Plastic Products ١١ ١٩ ٧٩ ٢٢ ١١٠ ١١ ٩ ٢٦ ٥ ٥ ٤ ٣٠ ٢ ٤٣
Industries
٤ ٩
Building Materials,
Sanitary wares, and
Glass Industries ١٤ ١٩ ٧٩ ٢٢ ١١٠ ١١ ٩ ٢٦ ٥ ٥ ٤ ٣ ٢ ٤٣
٤ ٩
Basic Metals
Industries ٣ ٠ ٥ ٠ ٢ ٠ ٠ ٠ ٠ ٠ ٠ ٠ ٠ ١٠
٢٢٣

Metals, Factory and
Machinery Products
٢٤ ٢٦ ١٧ ٩ ١٥٦ ٣ ٢ ١٠ ٠ ٥ ٢ ١ ٢ ٦٢
Industries
٧ ٠ ٣
Other Miscellaneous
Industries ١٢ ٣ ٢٠ ٤ ٩ ٠ ٠ ٠ ٠ ٠ ٠ ٠ ٠ ٥٧
Transportation
and Storage / ٤ ٣ ٥ ٣ ٤ ١ ٠ ٠ ٠ ٠ ١ ٠ ٠ ٢١
Warehousing
Grand Total ٧٦ ٩١ ٥٨ ٨٨ ٥٥٦ ٢٢ ١٤ ٤٦ ١١ ٢١ ١٨ ٥ ١١ ٢٢٣
٥ ٦ ٤
AGRICULTURE
Agriculture depends on three main factors: agricultural lands, water
availability, and work power. All of these factors are available in various
areas in the Arabian Peninsula. This made agriculture an important
economic source. Ancient remnants and ruins show that the peninsular
civilizations were dependent on agriculture. Agriculture is considered to be
one of the main resources for living. Oases are considered the most
important agricultural areas, due to their fertile land and water. The Arabs
of the Peninsula have many valleys such as Qura, Ramma, Hanîfa, Dawâsir
and others where agricultural settlements appeared on their slopes. Trading
stations were set up close to these fertile oases, distinguished by greenery
and abundant water. The slopes and valleys such as the flat basins of the
Sarât mountain range were used for agriculture. A terraced land system was
introduced into the agriculture of the southwestern regions. This terracing
system attracted the European travellers in the past.
TRADE
Two basic elements made trade in the Arabian Peninsula popular. First, its
location as a sea and land crossroad and second, the availability of some
necessary materials such as balsam, frankincense and myrrh. Trade does not
٢٢٤

only include exporting Saudi-made products, but also some products
imported from Eastern countries such as China, Sri Lanka, India and East
Africa. So the Red Sea harbor played an important role in international
trade.
AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT: PRESENT AND FUTURE

Food security is the main factor underlying the process of agricultural
development in all world countries due to its great importance in the social
and economic development process. Achieving food security has become
an obsession, determining the nature and form of agricultural development
in the Kingdom during the past five development plans (١٩٩٥-١٩٧٠).
Agriculture before this period consisted of unplanned areas of traditional
crops among diverged water streams able to supply only a small part of the
increasing food needs.
The adoption of the large-scale five-year development plan shows the
extent of the government’s concern for the development of this vital sector.
Achieving food security to accompany the rapid advancement in the
modernization of this sector, it is necessary that it not become an obstacle to
other developmental objectives in the future.
The advancements of the agriculture sector in the Kingdom have not
resulted from sudden social or economic circumstances but from a gradual
but ambitious development. The progress in this sector has been carried out
through rapid and reasonable steps establishing the structure of the sector.
The development of the agriculture sector in the Kingdom can be shown
through three stages: the traditional, the large scale, and the specialized and
the balanced.
THE TRADITIONAL STAGE (BEFORE ١٩٧٠)
The traditional stage covers the period prior to the first five-year plan
(before ١٩٧٠) when agriculture covered but a disordered primitive area of
about a million dûnams (١ dûnam = ١،٠٠٠ m٢). During these years, the
٢٢٥

ambition of changing the dry desert land into productive land was a just a
hope for a miracle, especially if we take into consideration the existing
development rates of that period. Between ١٩٦٥ and ١٩٦٩, the total annual
local agriculture output was about an average of ٣٫٥ billion Saudi Riyals,
while food needs were taken from imports amounting to about a billion
Riyals in ١٩٦٩, compared with the low rates of the primitive agricultural
exports of ١٠ million Riyals.
During this period, there had been no long-run plans, and food plans had to
be dependent on short-objective plans. These were able to identify the
development suitable to the circumstances of the Kingdom, and to be
familiar with the size and capacity of the future resources in making a plan
for the future of this sector. This period is distinguished by varied and
scattered crops that depended on traditional methods of production and on
some financial bonuses.
THE LARGE-SCALE STAGE (١٩٧٠-١٩٨٥)
The large-scale stage, represented by the three five-year development plans

(١٩٧٠-١٩٨٥), saw great progress in the agriculture sector. It basically
changed the features of this vital sector. Some small streams were
converted into modern irrigation canals, and traditional agricultural plots
were changed into projects of huge agriculture companies with large-scale
production. The planners intended to meet the requirements of local as well
as foreign markets.
Table No. ١ shows some agricultural development features during this
stage. We can see that the total local agricultural output increased from ٤٫٣
billion Riyals in the beginning of the first five-year development plan to
about ١٣ billion Riyals in ١٩٨٤, in spite of the fall in the relative
contribution of this sector to the total national revenue.
٢٢٦

TABLE 1
THE AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT INDEX (1970-1995)
Index ١٩٧٠ ١٩٧٥ ١٩٨٠ ١٩٨٥ ١٩٩٠ ١٩٩٥
Total agricultural revenue ٤٫٣ ٥٫١ ٧٫١ ١٣٫٧ ٢٢٫٤ ٢٥
(billion Riyals)
The local agricultural share of ٠٫٠٣ ٠٫٠٢ ٠٫٠٢ ٠٫٠٤ ٠٫٠٥ ٠٫٠٥
national revenue (percent)
The standard figure to local ٣٦٫٥ ٤٢٫٦ ٦١ ١١٥ ١٩٢. ٥ ٢٠١٫٩
revenue (١٩٨٤ = ١٠٠)
Agricultural loans
١٦٫٦ ١٤٥٫٥ ١١٢٨٫٧ ٢٣٢١٫٨ ٨٥٤٫٣ ٦٩٠٫٦
(in millions of Riyals)
Agricultural exports ١٢ ١٤١ ١٦١ ٣٩٩ ١٣٤٧ ٢٠٠٠
Agricultural income ١٠١١ ٢٠٢٢ ١٠٤٣٢ ١٨٧٣٩ ١٢٦١٧ ١٢٠٠
During this period, especially at the beginning of the encouraging policies

and programs of the ١٩٨٠’s with all their various forms, this sector
advanced to a colossal stage, where food could be available and the relative
or accompanied industries modernized. For example, loans provided by the
Saudi Arab Agriculture Bank increased from ١٦٫٦ million Riyals in ١٩٧٠ to
٢٫٣ billion Riyals in ١٩٨٥. These non-interest loans together with various
aids carried the agriculture products a step forward to unprecedented rates
as is shown in the table, especially in wheat production, which had an
increasing production rate, a degree higher than the self-sufficient level in
the ١٩٨٠’s. Wheat production between ١٩٧٠ and ١٩٨٥ went up to about
٦٫٨, twice as much as it was in the beginning of the first five-year plan
(١٩٧٠) and it is still increasing.
Vegetable production had its own story in agriculture development
Vegetable products rose from ٢٧٠ thousand tons in ١٩٧٠ to ١،٣١٣ thousand
tons in ١٩٨٥, about a five--fold increase for the period. Also, meat of all
kinds, and fruit production went up by ٦٫٧, ٢٫١ times in a row.
TABLE TWO
AGRICULTURE PRODUCT INDEX (1970-1995) (THOUSAND TONS)
Food ١٩٧ ١٩٧٥ ١٩٨٠ ١٩٨٥ ١٩٩٠ ١٩٩٥
Products ٠
Meat ٤٣ ٨٧ ١٢٠ ٢٨٧ ٤٥٢ ٦٠٠
Wheat ٢١٣ ٢٩٩ ٣٤٠ ١٤٤٤ ٣٩٣٥ ٤٩٠٩
Vegetables ٢٧٠ ٦٧٤ ٧٠٥ ١٣١٣ ١٨٩٣ ٢٦٠٠
Fruit ٣٠٧ ٤٣٤ ٥٢٥ ٦٥٨ ٨٤٨ ٩٨٨
٢٢٧

The large-scale stage (١٩٧٠-١٩٨٥) with its developing index helped, not
only to transform the agriculture sector from the traditional stage to the
advanced stage by increasing the agricultural areas, product rates and food
self-sufficiency rate, but also benefitted from contemporary economic
development in related or supplemented sectors. In these sectors,
specialized farms and food factories prevailed. This period also helped to
activate the agricultural capital markets and their requirements.
THE BALANCED AND SPECIALIZED STAGE (١٩٨٥-١٩٩٥)
This stage includes the fourth and the fifth five-year development plans
(١٩٨٥-١٩٩٥). In spite of its integration with the previous large-scale stage,
this stage made some changes in directing agricultural development to keep
up balance and preserve the achievements of this sector and to secure its
continuing progress.
The overlap between this stage and the preceding one can be noticed in
Tables One and Two, where the total national agricultural revenue has
increased to ٢٥ billion Riyals in ١٩٩٥. Similarly the agricultural exports
increased by ٢،٠٠٠ million Riyals, five times as much as ١٩٨٥ exports. On
the other hand, there was a balance between agricultural product direction
and method of support. This helped loans provided by the agriculture bank
to fall to ٦٩٠٫٦ million Riyals in ١٩٩٥, followed by a decrease in food
imports reaching ١٢،٠٠٠ million Riyals in the same year.
In spite of the international economic changes accompanying the balanced
and specialized policies in production and support for this period, the large-
scale transformation during the previous stage supported the agriculture
production rates in the Kingdom. These continue with a balanced rise where
wheat production rates have risen to ٤،٩٠٩ thousand tons in ١٩٩٥, ٢٣ times
as much as the production in ١٩٧٠, and ٣٫٤ times that of ١٩٨٥.
٢٢٨

The increasing production rate, not only applied to wheat, but also to meat,
which rose to ٦٠٠ thousand tons in ١٩٩٥, and to vegetables which from
١،٣١٣ thousand tons in ١٩٨٥ rose to ٢،٦٠٠ thousand tons in ١٩٩٥. Fruits
production rose dramatically by the end of the fifth five-year plan, to ٩٨٨
thousand tons. It is noteworthy that the increasing production rates during
the last period were the result of the financial production expansion in the
specialized projects. These were financed to fit the developing nature of
agriculture in the balanced and specialization stage and to preserve the
available natural water resources. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia’s
aspiration is to continue the balanced development in this sector in a
manner that suits the supplies of other economic resources.
The second evidence in the agricultural development process during this
period indicates that the agriculture sector in the Kingdom is proceeding to
achieve self- sufficiency in all agriculture products, although some goods
have entered the specialized export stage, which exceeds the primary
objectives of this stage.
EVIDENCE OF AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT AND SELF-

SUFFICIENCY
During the advancement of agriculture development in the Kingdom,
especially with the start of the first five-year plan (١٩٧٠) until the end of
the fifth five-year plan (١٩٩٥), the environmental and economic
circumstances had not been fully ready for such ambitious development.
However, determination to exploit free resources has transformed desert to
green land, especially during the last two stages. The increasing rates of
agricultural production can be regarded as existing proof of these
achievements.
The distinguished evidence of the agricultural development sector was
apparent from the high production rates of cereal products, especially
wheat, which became a standard product in ١٩٩٢. In comparison with
products between ١٩٨١ and ١٩٧٩, the latter reached ٢،٠٧٣٫١, as is referred
٢٢٩

to in Table Three. Increase in animal and food products was very high
compared with that of other countries.
TABLE 3. INDICES OF PER-CAPITA FOOD PRODUCES IN THE WORLD IN THE YEAR

(1992 G)
(1979-1981 = 100)
Countries Food Products Animal Products Crops
Saudi Arabia ٣٤٦٫٦ ٢٨٥٫٦ ٢،٠٧٣٫١
Industrial Countries ٩٩٫٥ ١٠٦٫٩ ١١٢٫٨
European Countries ١٠٠٫٨ ١٠١٫٣ ١٠٦٫٣
Developing Countries ١١٤٫٥ ١٦٥٫٩ ١٣٧٫٧
The increasing rates of cereal (wheat) production were a result of the

subsidy program. It had to be reduced by the beginning of the five-year
scheme of ١٩٩٠ to return to a more balanced stage of self-sufficiency on the
one hand, and on the other hand, to conserve water resources. During both
the second and the third stages the crops and storage foundations received
٢٫٦ million tons of wheat from farmers, at a cost of ٤٫٩ billion Riyals in
١٩٩٥. It was ١٧٫٥ thousand metric tons at a cost of ٦٫١ million Riyals in
١٩٨٠. It is noteworthy that the highest rate of wheat purchase from farmers
was in ١٩٩٢, ٣٫٩ million tons with a total cost of about ٧٫٢ billion Riyals.
The main evidence of the Kingdom’s support of farmers in this period was
apparent through the constant rise of wheat production from one year to
another during the five-year plan of ١٩٨٠-١٩٩٥. In that period farmers
handed over an amount of ٣٠٫٧million metric tons at a cost of ٦٠٫٥ billion
Riyals to the foundation.
The high production rate of many agricultural goods in the specialization
stage had increased the ambition of farmers, especially in the specialized
farms, to start the exporting stage regarding some commodities such as
dates, eggs, poultry, and other animal products. Consequently, agricultural
imports fell from ٣١٫٦٪ of the total imports in ١٩٧٠ to ١٢٫٨ % in ١٩٩٥.
This indicates annual development in the agricultural crops. For example,
٢٣٠

the annual development estimated between ١٩٧٠ and ١٩٩٥ for dates,
poultry and eggs was ٤٪, ٢٠٫٨٪ and ١٦٫٥٪ successively.
Reaching the stage of self-sufficiency can be easy for the Kingdom in the
very near future considering the rising production rates of agricultural
commodities. It will also be very easy due to the availability of some
natural resources such as water. As a result, the Kingdom possesses the
biggest water desalinization installations in the world to ease pressure on
groundwater. Between ١٩٧٠ and ١٩٩٥, water desalinization production
rates went up to ٥٠٨٫٣ million gallons a day in ١٩٩٥, while in ١٩٧٠ it was
٥٫١٢ million gallons a day. This indicated how the Kingdom could invest
the financial resources in the ١٩٨٠’s, establishing the bases of this
development to make its management easy and to have its fruits in the
future. Even someone who had been very optimistic about the huge
agricultural rise in the Kingdom could not have imagined such a production
rate as high as it is at present, especially as the Kingdom is known as a dry
hot desert region, lacking rivers in the agricultural areas. So the government
of the Kingdom has started building many dams in order to benefit from the
seasonal rainwater.
In spite of the big rise in the population and the increasing demands for
food and agricultural commodities, the recent five-year plans assure that the
Kingdom is going forward in its large - scale development programs to
achieve self-sufficiency. On the other hand, statistics indicate that results
and rates exceeded the plan objectives regarding some commodities.
Exporting stages went even farther, especially for wheat and eggs, whose
rate of self-sufficiency in ١٩٩٠ reached ١٧٠٫٩٪ and ١٠٤٫١٪ respectively.
Moreover, the animal and agricultural commodities in the beginning of the
fifth five - year plan of ١٩٩٠ reached ambitious rates of self-sufficiency in
spite of the increasing demand and price reduction of agricultural
commodities.
٢٣١

In spite of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia’s current policies, opening its
markets for other products, the self-sufficiency rate in ١٩٩٠ was in
vegetables ٧٣٫٥٪, fruits ٥١٫٤٪ and meat ٥٧٪. On the other hand, these rates
continued to rise in ١٩٩٥ to reach a stage close to self-sufficiency,
especially for vegetables and white meat.
The future prospect indicates a constant rise in the annual development
rates for all agricultural crops and animal products as well as the expansion
of agricultural areas and increasing demand. In addition to animal and
agricultural projects approved or under study, the Saudi government has
promised its constant support in the future and protection for this vital
sector, as well as its commitment to solving marketing and product
problems which may be encountered by the development of this sector.
Finally, it is noteworthy that the existing foundation and infrastructure
established by the government of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia since ١٩٨٠
ensures the solution of problems and future changes, and also ensures future
management for this sector in order to continue to raise production rates
and, consequently, to achieve a balanced and large-scale agricultural
development.
THE ARABIAN PALM (PHOENIX DACTYFIFERA)
The Arabian Palm or Phoenix Dactyfifera is mentioned in ٣٠ different

verses of the Holy Qur’an, in many of the traditions of the Prophet
Muhammad (peace be upon him), and in the sayings of the orthodox caliphs
(Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman and Ali). One hundred and sixty poets
mentioned it in more than ٦٠٠ lines of their poetry, which expressed their
affections and love for it. It is used in thirty-eight of the Arab sayings
(proverbs). Even the popular folk literature did not forget to mention it, for
it appears in ١٣٠ of them. More than seventy poets chanted its beauty in
more than ٢٦٠ lines of their poetry. The historical references agree that the
original place of the Phoenix Dactyfifera was the northeastern Arabian
٢٣٢

Peninsula in Tarût Island, or Harqân Island in the Arabian Gulf. From that
place it was transferred to Iraq by the early Arab migrations that went out
from the Arab Peninsula in ancient times. From Iraq it was transferred to
what is present-day Syria, Lebanon, Jordan and Palestine, then to Egypt
with the waves of the Hiksous invaders in the ١٨th century BC and from
Egypt to the north of Africa.
Many sources differ in estimating the age of the Phoenix Dactyfifera,
though every source has some evidence. Some say that it appeared in about
٩٠٠٠ BC, while others say that it was ٣٠٠٠ BC. One of these indicated that
people in the city of Arido, which is located near Ur in the south of Iraq,
had used the trunks of the palm tree in the ceilings of their temples, which
were founded about ٣٠٠٠ BC. Another one indicated that there were four
articles in the laws of Hammurabi, the Assyrian king, which mentioned the
palm tree. These articles were fifty-nine, sixty, sixty-four and sixty-five.
They were connected with planting, watering and collecting dates. Palaces,
temples and thrones of the Sumerians and Babylonians were decorated with
leaves and branches of palm trees. The Arabian Gulf region is considered
the best place in the whole world for growing palm trees.
Among fifteen different kinds of palm distributed and grown in different
places all over the world, Phoenix Dactyfifera has a very rich nutritional
value. It is the only productive tree in the Arabian Peninsula, except for the
palm oil tree, which produces oil. Do all productive palm trees belong to
one class or to more than one class? Statistics show that there are more than
١٥٠ kinds of productive palm trees in the Kingdom, grown in twelve main
districts, spread throughout more than ١٠٠٠ cities, villages and natural
mountain forests. These kinds can be classified as follows: excellent, which
represent ١٥٪, good ٣٠٪, medium ٥٠٪, and bad (poor) ٥٪. There are eighty
well-known kinds of palm trees in the entire Arab World.
Statistics taken in ١٩٦٧ show that there are about ٩٦،٠٠٠،٠٠٠ -
١٠٠،٠٠٠،٠٠٠ palm trees in the whole world. Undoubtedly these numbers
٢٣٣

will be increased within the next twenty years, especially in Saudi Arabia,
where the cultivation of palm trees has been increasing at an attractive rate
in the last few years. A palm tree produces approximately ٦٠-٣٠٠
kilograms of fruit, and in some fertile lands, it produces ٦٠-٤٠٠ kilograms.
According to the statistics which are mentioned above there are ١٢،٠٠٠،٠٠٠
trees in the Kingdom and ٨،٠٠٠،٠٠٠ of them are productive. They produce
about ٥٠٠،٠٠٠ tons a year. In other Arab countries, Iraq takes the first place
with ٢٢،٠٠٠،٠٠٠ palm trees, next, Algeria with ٧،٥٠٠،٠٠٠ trees, Egypt
with ٧،٠٠٠،٠٠٠, Morocco ٥،٠٠٠،٠٠٠, Libya ٤،٦٠٠،٠٠٠, Yemen
٢،٢٥٠،٠٠٠, Oman ٢،٠٠٠،٠٠٠, and Sudan ١،٩٠٠ ٠٠٠. Other countries like
Iran have ٢،٠٠٠،٠٠٠, Pakistan ١،٧٠٠،٠٠٠, USA ٢٥٠،٠٠٠, Spain ٢٢٠،٠٠٠,
and finally Mexico with ١٥٠،٠٠٠ palm trees. Some other countries
altogether have ١،٢٦٠،٠٠٠.
Among the food substances, dates are an essential food, for they contain
different nutrients, such as carbohydrates, vitamins, minerals, acids, etc.
Dates are the most available food source for the human body. Most of
inhabitants of the Arabian Peninsula, in towns, cities , villages and deserts,
consider dates as the main essential food element. As a food, they have
totally depended on it as their only available food for a very long time.
According to the statistics of the World Organization of Food and
Agriculture in ١٩٧٢-٤, Saudi Arabia had the first place in date
consumption, with the average person’s consumption of dates at forty
kilograms. Saudi exports are about ١٠٪ of the products of Asia and about
٨٫٦ % of the total of international products.
THERE ARE SOME SMALL INDUSTRIES THAT DEPEND ON THE

PALM-TREE. THE DATE TREES’ LEAVES AND BRANCHES ARE
USED FOR TEXTILES AND FURNITURE AS WELL AS FOR PACKING
AND PRESERVING DATES. THE KINGDOM OF SAUDI ARABIA HAS
TAKEN A PICTURE OF THE PALM TREE AS PART OF THE
NATIONAL SYMBOL. PEOPLE OF THE ARABIAN PENINSULA CALL
THE PALM TREE “THE LADY OF ALL TREES” BECAUSE OF ITS
HIGH RANK AND PORTION
٢٣٤

OIL
The main oil concession agreement for drilling was signed with the
Standard Oil Company of California (SOCAL in the past, Chevron at
present) on ٢٩/٥/١٩٣٣. In the same year SOCAL changed the oil
concession to the Standard Oil Company of California and Arabia, which
changed its name to Aramco.
Through negotiation, modifications were made on the agreement several
times. In ١٩٧٣ the Kingdom’s share in the company was ٢٥٪. In the
following year it rose to ٦٠٪. And in ١٩٨٠, the Kingdom’s share rose to
١٠٠٪.
In ١٩٨٨ the name of the company was changed to Saudi Arabian Oil
Company (Saudi Aramco), and at the beginning of ١٩٩٣ all refineries and
oil distributors merged with Saudi Aramco.
In March ١٩٣٨, the first crude oil with commercial quantities field was
discovered in Dhahrân. Oil was exported in the same year by ship to the
refinery of the Bahrain Oil Company in Bahrain. Ra’s Tanûra, seventy-
seven kilometers north of Dhahrân, was chosen to be the first harbor for oil
shipping. On ١/٥/١٩٣٩, the first load of crude oil was shipped by one of the
carriers.
A number of remarkable achievements have followed, including the first oil
refinery for the company in Ra’s Tanûra and construction of an oil pipeline
١،٧٢٠ km long connecting the oil fields in the Eastern Region with the
Mediterranean coast. In ١٩٥٠, the main network for gas and oil and
engineering research centers were set up.
EXPLORATION FOR OIL
Up until today, seventy oil fields and five gas fields have been discovered
in the country including the distributed and the neutral regions and the Red
Sea coast.
٢٣٥

In ١٩٩٥, successful research in the west, north and middle of the Riyadh
area resulted in the discovery of seventeen new oil fields. Twelve out of the
thirteen oil fields that were discovered south of Riyadh contain light oil.
Thus, there were two oil discoveries in Barma and Abu Rakiz. Light and
dense gas have also been discovered in Jouf in the Eastern Region. So the
oil reserves that can be pumped from these fields amount to ٢٥٩ billion
barrels. This reserve and the reserve found in regions distributed between
the Kingdom and Kuwait, make up a quarter of the world’s reserves. The
Kingdom’s gas reserves, including the liquidated, collateral and non-
collateral are ١٩٢ trillion standard cubic feet.
OIL PIPELINES
In ١٩٩٤ a pipeline network for crude oil ١،٢٠٠ km long was set up to carry
the Arabian light oil from the east to the west of the Kingdom. Thus, the
pipeline network capacity has risen from ٣٫٢ million barrels a day to five
million at maximum. Oil exports from Yanbu‘ seaport have been increased
by ٦٠٪ to ٤٫٢ million barrels a day. In ١٩٩٥, a pipeline ١٣٧ km long was
set up to send ٤٠٠ million cubic feet of accompanied gas a day to a gas
factory in Al-Bary to keep high gas supplies for the industrial city of Jubail.
Refineries
There are five refineries in Yanbu‘, Râbigh, Jeddah, Riyadh and Ra’s
Tanûra with a total capacity of about a million barrels a day. On ١١/٦/١٩٩٣,
these refineries became part of Saudi Aramco. So Saudi Aramco took the
responsibility of administrating these refineries together with the
distribution of the Refined Oil Company which offers services to millions
of people inside the Kingdom. Also Saudi Aramco took the responsibility to
administer the oil harbors in Jîzân, Râbigh, Dhabâ’, Jeddah and Yanbu’ on
the Red Sea coast and Ra’s Tanûra and Ja‘îma on the Gulf coast. These
harbors take the responsibility of receiving and delivering loads of crude oil
and the natural gas liquids, as well as refined products.
٢٣٦

JOINT INTERNATIONAL PROJECTS
One of the objectives of the oil policy depends on the increase of oil
marketing through joint international projects which help in finding larger
markets and higher non-fixed prices to achieve extra revenue through
refining and marketing oil abroad. For these reasons Saudi Aramco set up
the following projects:
THE STAR ENTERPRISE

This joint project, which has equal shares with Texaco in the USA, started
working in ١٩٨٩ to market about ٦٠٠،٠٠٠ barrels a day of Saudi crude oil.
This project was reinforced by the construction of three refineries in Texas,
Louisiana and Delaware, with a total capacity of about ٦١٥،٠٠٠ barrels a
day and ٩،٤٠٠ service stations carrying the Texaco commercial trademark.
SANG YONG OIL REFINING COMPANY LIMITED

In ١٩٩١, Saudi Aramco signed a contract with the Sang Yong Oil Refining
Company Limited, a Korean company, to establish a joint project for
refining and marketing oil in Korea, with thirty-five shares for the Saudis
and sixty-five shares for Korea. In ١٩٩٥, the Sang Yong Company began
two advanced projects to improve the refined products and a third project to
refine the crude oil. So the capacity of the refineries in Onsan in South
Korea increased to ٥٢٥،٠٠٠ barrels a day. Saudi Aramco supplies ٧٠٪ of
the crude oil.
THE PETRON COMPANY

In ١٩٩٤, Saudi Aramco reinforced its position in the Far East by acquiring
٤٠٪ of the Petron Company, the biggest company for refining and
marketing oil in the Philippines. The Petron Company was part of the
National Oil Company known as BNOK, from which Saudis bought that
share while BNOK kept ٤٠٪ of the Petron shares, and ٢٠٪ was sold out to
the public. Petron owns a refinery with a capacity of ١٦٥،٠٠٠ barrels a day
٢٣٧

in Limai in the Paton Peninsula. The Saudis supply the company with ٩٠٪
of its crude oil.
MOTOR OIL (HILAS) AND AFINOL

In ١٩٩٦ Saudi Aramco possessed ٥٠٪ of the Greek oil refining and
marketing companies, Motor Oil (Hilas), Cornith, and other associated
companies called Aveni Industrial and Maritime Oil. The Motor Oil
Company owns a refinery with a capacity of ١٠٠،٠٠٠ barrels a day, and
Saudi Aramco supplies most of the crude oil.
INTERNATIONAL TRANSPORTATION AND MARKETING

In ١٩٩٥, Saudi Aramco continued the responsibility of marketing all refined
products, natural gas and sulfur dioxide, except the products of the
distributed and neutral area. In ١٩٩٥, the company marketed ٥٠٠،٠٠٠
barrels a day liquid petrol gases such as propane and butane, ١٥٥،٠٠٠
barrels a day of natural petrol, and ٤،٥٠٠ tons a day of sulfur dioxide and
all other extra refined products.
In ١٩٩٥, ships owned or hired by the International Company Limited
(Vila), merged with Saudi Aramco, transported ٦٢٢ million barrels of Saudi
crude oil to the markets of North America, Europe, and the Far East. Vila
also transported the crude oil and oil production for local consumption to
the refineries, oil storage tanks and oil distribution points in the Kingdom,
as well as the liquid oil gas to Turkey.
By ١٩٩٥, Vila had achieved its goal in building fifteen giant oil carriers,
constructed in four shipyards. The Vila program for building oil carriers
was the largest in the last two decades. This program started in ١٩٩١ and by
the end of ١٩٩٥ the company had succeeded in building a fleet of four giant
oil carriers, nineteen extra-large carriers, and four other carriers for
transporting oil products.
٢٣٨

GAS ACCUMULATION PROGRAM
A commitment was made to make use of the natural gas, produced with oil
in the Eastern Region, in refining water, generating energy, and providing
energy for oil production. The fuel and liquid natural gases are used to
support the manufacture of petrochemicals in Jubail and Yanbu‘. Also, the
liquid petrol gas and sulfur dioxide designed for export can be extracted
from the natural gas.
Large amounts of propane, butane, and natural benzene, which are
components of natural gas liquids, are converted by the petrochemical
industries in the Kingdom to make them suitable for the export market.
During ١٩٩٥, Saudi Aramco produced ١٢٠ million barrels of propane,
seventy-one million barrels of butane, and seventy-six million barrels of
natural benzene.
The company designed and constructed the main gas network with a
capacity of treating about ١٣٠ million cubic meters (٤٫٥ billion cubic feet)
of crude natural gas a day. The company accumulates the gas produced in
the crude oil fields existing on land or sea, as well as the gas produced in
deep places in the Southern Region.
The main gas network includes about sixty factories for extracting gas from
oil, three factories for gas processing, and four other factories for
processing the natural gas liquids in Yanbu‘, Ja‘ima, Baqîq, and Ra’s
Tanûra. The natural gas liquids east-west pipeline, which is ١،١٧٠ km (٧٢٦
miles) long, starts from Shadqum and goes parallel to the east-west oil
pipeline to reach Yanbu‘. This line transports ٢٩٠،٠٠٠ barrels of natural gas
liquids.
This program helps at the present time to accumulate and process about
four billion standard cubic feet of accompanied gas a day from the oil
fields. It produces ٢٫٨ billion cubic feet a day of mostly fuel gas (mainly
methane) to supply water purification plants and electricity generating
stations, and is used as energy and fuel in SABIC projects in the Eastern
٢٣٩

Region. ٣٩٠ million cubic feet of ethane a day is used as charge in the
petrochemical industries in Jubail and Yanbu‘, ٧٣٠،٠٠٠ barrels of natural
gas liquids is especially for export and ٤،٥٠٠ tons of sulfur dioxide a day
for export.
THE CONTRIBUTION OF THE OIL SECTOR TO THE TOTAL LOCAL PRODUCTION
The relative contribution of the oil sector has risen in the total local output
from ٦٧٫٩٪ in ١٩٩٦ to ٧٥٫٣٪ in ١٩٧٤. Then, it went down to ٥٠٫٢٪.
At the beginning of the third development plan in ١٩٨٠, the oil market
witnessed circumstances that had their relative results on the total local
output of the oil sector in the Kingdom. This consequently reduced the
output from ٢٨٧٫٦ billion riyals in ١٩٧٩ to ١٣٢٫٥ billion riyals in ١٩٨٤, so
that its contribution to the total local production went down to ١٢٩٫٥ billion
riyals in ١٩٨٧. Its relative contribution to the total local output had also
gone down to ٣٧٫١٪. This was due to the big reduction in the international
prices of oil. However, the total local production started to rise again until it
reached ٢٦٢ billion riyals in ١٩٩٥, which led to once again increasing its
relative contribution to the total local output by ٥٠٫٢٪.
TABLE SHOWING PETROLIUM PRODUCTS (IN MILLIONS OF BARRELS)
Jetliner
Fuel Oil
um Gas
Including
Petrole
Products
Liquid
Diesel
Asphalt
Gaso-
Kero-
Fuel
Total
Year
Other
sene
line
Oil
١٩٧٠G. ١٢٦٫ ٢١٫٦ ٣٧٫٦ ١٧ ١٣٫٨ ٦٫٩ ١٫٦ ٢٢٥٫

٨ ٣
١٩٧٤G. ١٠٦٫ ٢٨٫١ ٤٧٫٥ ٣٨ ٧٫٨ ٧٫٤ ٢ ٢٣٧٫
٤ ٢
١٩٧٩G. ٩٨٫٠ ٣٥ ٧٢٫٦ ٧٩٫٥ ٠٫٢ ٩٫٩ ٩٫٥ ٣٠٤٫
٧
١٩٨٤G. ٩٨٫٠ ٩٦٫١ ٦١٫٦ ٥١٫٢ ٤٫٦ ٩٫٥ ٢٨٫٤ ٣٤٩٫
٤
١٩٨٥G. ١٢٢٫ ١١٠٫٦ ٨٩٫٦ ٥١٫٢ ٩٫٩ ١٤٫٢ ١٧٫٦ ٤١٥٫
١ ٢
١٩٨٦G. ١٤٠٫ ١٣١٫٨ ١٠٩٫٠ ٢٤٫٩ ٠٫٨ ٣٠٫١ ٧ ٤٤٤
٤
١٩٨٧G. ١٥٣٫ ١٤٩٫٨ ١٢٧٫٧ ٣٥ ١٫٢ ٤٨٫١ ٦ ٥٢١٫
٦ ٤
١٩٨٨G. ١٦٤٫ ١٦١٫٦ ١٣١٫٩ ٩٫٦ ١٥٫٨ ٣٠٫٩ ١١٫٧ ٥٢٥٫
٣ ٨
٢٤٠

١٩٨٩G. ١٤٨٫ ١٤٥٫٧ ١٢٤٫١ ٧٫٩ ١٨٫٢ ٢٩٫٩ ١٣٫٤ ٤٨٧٫
٤ ٦
١٩٩٠G. ١٧٦٫ ١٦١٫٧ ١٣٧٫١ ٥٫٢ ٣٢٫٠ ٢٨ ١٦٫٥ ٥٥٧٫
٨ ٣
١٩٩١G. ١٦١٫ ١٤٧٫٤ ١٢٨٫٦ ٨٫٤ ٣٥٫٩ ٢٢٫٧ ٢٢٫٥ ٥١٧٫
٧ ٢
١٩٩٢G. ١٧١٫ ١٥٩٫٢ ١٣٢٫٢ ١١٫١ ٣٠٫٠ ٢٦٫٢ ١٠٫٥ ٥٤١٫
٧ ٥
١٩٩٣G. ١٧٧٫ ١٦١٫٢ ١٣٢٫٨ ٩٫٩ ٣٠٫٩ ٢٧٫١ ٩٫٣ ٥٤٨٫
٦ ٨
١٩٩٤G. ١٥٦٫ ١٦٩٫٩ ١٣٨٫٥ ٨٫٢ ٣١٫١ ٢٧٫٣ ٢٠ ٥٥١٫
٦ ٦
١٩٩٥G. ١٥٩٫ ١٦٦٫٨ ١٢٩٫٢ ١٢٫٧ ٣٠٫٤ ٢٦٫٦ ٤٫٤ ٥٢٩٫
١ ٢
٢٤١

TRADE IN THE PAST
God singled out the people of the Arabian Peninsula in two regards – first,
by locating the country in the middle of a world which regarded the Arabian
Peninsula as the crossroads for sea and land, and second, by making
available the materials badly needed abroad, such as frankincense, myrrh
and balsam. Trade in the Arabian Peninsula was not confined only to the
export of local goods but also extended to cover all merchandise imported
from the Eastern countries such as China, Ceylon, India and East Africa.
The Arab merchants contributed greatly to the activity of trade in that part
of the world. The Red Sea port played a principal role in the international
trade. The Muslim traders in the Abbasid era formed a union of their own
which was to be the first union in the histories of humanity. The union’s
task was to monitor trade transactions to prevent cheating, and had its head
elected from among efficient members known for their good reputation. He
was named the leader of traders and the members of the union were called
unionists.
Through land roads and sea roots, the Arabs took their merchandise to the
Mediterranean countries and the westward islands, the country of the
Râfidîn countries eastward and the Middle East and Asia. They established
trading colonies alongside these routes, like on Delos in the Mediterranean.
It was mentioned that the Arabs of the south established trading colonies
inside India. Moreover, the presence of the Arabs along the East African
coast was very common. This presence was established especially for trade
expansion. On Kharj Island in the Gulf Cape, traders of Palmyra established
a community to look after their merchandise coming from India.
ONLAND TRADE
Domestic trade in the Arabian Peninsula was very dependent on the

overland trade and was to make up a considerable part of the foreign trade,
especially with regions such as the Râfidîn, Syria, and Egypt. Breeding
٢٤٢

camels helped land trade to prosper. Camels with the ability to walk long
distances in the desert became the means of transportation. Employing
caravan systems established progress in trade and communication between
the parts of the Arabian Peninsula on one hand, and the neighboring regions
on the other. Again, this system helped to make easy and direct roads better
than before, and to locate some oases with fresh water and greenery where
trading colonies could be set up along the roads. These trading colonies
were established to supply the crossing trade caravans with water and food
and also became centers for transactions between the people of the colonies
and the passing traders. Here traders gave some of their goods or some
money to those people and in return the latter would provide food and
drink. These colonies became prosperous, and some of them were able to
expand at the expense of the neighboring cities, villages and agricultural
land. Consequently, they developed a system of free countries. Treaties and
agreements were signed between the colonies and the trading caravans to
secure the safe passage of these caravans against the attacks of Bedouins
and enemies, and supply them with necessary supplies to continue their
journeys. The Arab caravans were enormous, with about two thousand
camels. They were compared to a giant army. So, because of this huge
number of camels, arrangements were made to protect them. Caravans were
accompanied by a path-finding division walking in front, and individuals
with road experience were drafted for this job. Since the caravans had to
pass through several regions to reach their destinations, every time they
would cross a region, they had to be accompanied with a group made of the
tribes of the concerned region for protection and safety. All groups were
paid. Caravan stations had been built along the roads to replace the
exhausted camels. Camel replacement at the caravan stations used to take
place every ten days or three weeks, especially on long journeys, by hiring
some camels from the region they passed through.
٢٤٣

Aspects reflecting the interest in land trade were the provision of safe and
easy roads for caravans. So roads were built, and mountain passages were
established to shorten the distance especially, in hilly regions or any others
with geographical obstacles that forced caravans to change ways or to go
round them. This was also a means to have control over the passing
caravans and to have them pay taxes to the local government. Roads were
paved, and some valleys used by caravans were enclosed and entrances
made for organizing the passage of the caravans and tax collection. Also,
their sizes were recorded, perhaps to protect caravans from enemy attacks.
The amount of money paid on these roads may serve as evidence of the
authorities’ interest in the land trade.
THE LAND ROUTES

Land routes are represented by the main roads inside the Arabian Peninsula,
which for the most part extend beyond the Peninsula to connect it with the
trading countries. Also side roads connect the regions with main roads or
with the roads of small communities or transport goods from seaports to the
storage places erected alongside the roads.
Construction of land roads depends on a number of factors, mainly the
geography of the region. This defines the direction of roads, leading away
from desert regions difficult to be crossed, or away from the uncultivated
mountainous areas, even if it required going around these natural obstacles
through long and indirect roads. Some caravans preferred particular roads to
others due to security and political circumstances. The most important roads
in the south of the Kingdom were those which connected Shabwa with
Najrân. The diversity of roads in this region was due to the political
situation. For example, when there was an improvement in relations
between Hadramut and Qutbân, the road would go from Shabwa via
Tamna‘a, Ma’rab and then to Najrân.
٢٤٤

After Najrân, the road, known as the “Bakhûr” Road, forks in two
directions. The first continues northward to Dîdân via Bîsha, Turba, and
Yathrib. The second connects Najrân with Basra via Tathlîth, the Dawâsir
valley, Faw, Kharj, and then southward to Riyadh (now) and then again
eastward to Hofûf, and along the Gulf coast to Basra. Another road,
connecting the east and the south of the Peninsula goes from the east shore
of the Peninsula and eastward via the Buraimî and Yabrîn Oases, along the
coast to Muscat, inward to Nazwa and ‘Abray and then to Dhofâr.
THE LAND TRADING CENTERS

Najrân
Najrân is located on the crossroads coming from the south and then to the
north and east. It was an important trading and industrial center.
Faw Village
The name of this city was mentioned in Arabic inscriptions and it was an
important trading station on the trade route directed to the Arabian Gulf.
Archeological studies show the great role this city played in the
international trade.
Thâj
This city was located in the east of the Arabian Peninsula, ١٠٠ km from the
Jubail seaport and about ١٥٠ km from Dahrân. It was very prosperous
because of its geographical position as a crossing point of three main trade
routes. The first is directed towards the middle of the Peninsula, and the
second goes south towards the Buraimî Oasis and then along the coast of
Oman and finally to the south of the Peninsula. The third goes north
towards the Rafidîn region. Thâj was a civilized center known as Ahsâ’î
and attributed to the Ahsâ’ region.
٢٤٥

Qatîf and Hofûf
These two cities were famous for the fertility of their land and the abundant
water. They have been populated since ancient times. Though intensive
agriculture in the region has not helped new archeological studies, what has
been found up till now proves that these two cities were important trading
stations. They were especially important for their connections with the Gulf
and their position on the crossroads of trade going north towards Oman, and
west towards the middle of the Peninsula.
Makkah
This city has been regarded in the past as an important trading center along
with its religious role. Most of the markets were located along the northwest
wall of the Holy Mosque. Dar al-Nadwa, part of the market located in the
northeast, was abundant with merchandise from east and west, such as
jewelry, precious stones, rubies, perfume, camphor, ambergris, Indian
medicines and much more.
Medina
Medina was a place for many markets located on the bridge of Bani
Qaynuqâ‘, with another in Yathrib, a third in Safâsif, and the fourth in the
locality of Raqâq ibn Huyain. However, prophet Muhammad(PBUH)
decided that there should be only one complete market (sûq) called Sûq Al
Madina located on the road leading to the Qiyâshîn homes, near Talha’s
homes. This sûq remained as it was for a long time, where it was used to
keep all goods found in Makkah. Close to Madina, just three miles away,
there was another market (sûq) called Sa‘ada, designed to meet the needs of
that region.
Tâ’if
In the pre-Islamic era there was a market in Tâ’if called Sûq ûkâd (ûkâd
market) alongside some other smaller markets like the Hajj road market.
٢٤٦

LAND MERCHANDISE
Goods transported by land were divided into locally produced commodities
and those imported from the east of Asia, Africa and from the
Mediterranean by land or sea trading centers. These goods included
perfume materials, which were on the top of the trading list for the Arabs
inside and outside of the Peninsula. Such products were specific to some
regions whose nature suits the growing of such plants that acquired a
position in the Old World. These include frankincense, myrrh, balsam,
ginger and grains of all kinds and some minerals such as precious stones,
dyes and pottery.
THE SEA TRADE
The Arabian Peninsula overlooks three seas, the Red Sea from the west, the
Arabian Gulf and Oman Gulf from the east and southeast and the Arabian
Sea from the north. Arabia was connected with the countries that are
located on the other side of these seas by a network of sea routes.
These sea routes originate from the Cape of the Aqaba Gulf on the Red Sea
passing southward through a number of Arabian seaports and crossing Bâb
al-Mandab strait west towards the East African coast. Here Arabs
established colonies for themselves from early times. Routes also went east
towards the Arabian seacoast and its islands such as Socotra and Musîra
and then across the ocean towards the Indian and the Ceylon coasts. This
route meets the other route coming from the Arabian Gulf. Sea routes
around the Peninsula were used from a very early period in history.
The Arabs’ accurate knowledge of the system of seasonal winds helped
them in their sea journeys. These winds were exploited in sailing in all
directions. The Arabs kept this knowledge, which they discovered before
the West did, a secret, unknown to the Greeks and the Romans. Foreign
ships used to anchor in the north of the Red Sea, and were not allowed to
cross the Bâb al Mandab strait northward or westward. Navigation in the
٢٤٧

Indian Ocean was in the hands of the Arabs as well as the Indians.
However, the Indian traders did not cross Bâb al Mandab northward and did
not reach the Mediterranean directly.
It is noted that the sea routes connecting the Arab Peninsula with the east of
Asia and Africa have been used in all periods of history, while the sea
routes in the Gulf and the Red Sea faced periods of rise and fall, prosperity
and decline. This was due to the development of land routes on one hand
and foreign competition on the other.
THE SEA ROUTES

In the Red Sea, a route starts from Lawikîkûmâ, or one of the Egyptian
seaports on the other side of the coast, such as Mûsa, Harmûs and Bîrnîk
and heads south towards the south coasts of the Peninsula passing through a
number of Arabian seaports on the Red Sea.
THE ARABIAN SEAPORTS

A number of harbors and seaports have grown alongside the Arabian coasts.
Some of these seaports became prosperous and became markets for
receiving many kinds of foreign goods, and exporting other goods from
amongst the products of the Peninsula.
These seaports include Lawikîkûmâ on the East Coast of the Red Sea,
which was very famous during the Nabatian era, when it was the main
seaport. Also included are Ijrâ seaport, located south of Lawikîkûmâ, Mûzâ
seaport, one of the important seaports southwest of the Peninsula on the
Red Sea Coast, and ûklîz, a seaport on the far south of the Red Sea near
Bâb al Mandab strait. The most famous Hijâzi seaport in early times was
Jeddah seaport, which was regarded as the Makkah harbor, and located
forty miles west of Makkah. Jeddah received the trade caravans as well as
pilgrims who used to come from Cairo. Another Hijaz seaport which had
connections with the Egyptian and Yemeni seaports was Jar seaport on the
٢٤٨

Red Sea, facing Medina and considered as its harbor. Jar used to receive
ships coming from Egypt, Aden, Ethiopia, France, China, and India.
The seaports of the Arabian Sea include Aden, an important seaport on the
south coast of the Peninsula. It was the first seaport for ships coming from
the Red Sea after crossing Bâb al-Mandab strait. Qatâ seaport, east of Aden,
regarded as the seaport of Hadramut, was also a trading center on the
Arabian Sea and the main outlet of the Hadramut country. Ra’s Frank, a
local seaport specialized in transporting frankincense, and containing stores
for storing frankincense crops until time for transportation to Qînâ.
Mûshî seaport on the Qamar Gulf (Moon Gulf) was in the past called
Dhofâr. It specialized in transporting frankincense and was a harbor for
ships coming from the west of the Peninsula.
The seaports of the Uman Gulf include Muscat, meaning “the hidden”
because of the large stones that set it apart from the sea. It was one of the
important seaports at the entrance of the Oman Gulf.
Qalhât; a seaport for ships going to India, was a trading and marketing
center.
‘Ammânâ is a seaport of distinctive trading activity with the neighboring
regions, such as the west and southwest Indian seaports. Its prosperity was
achieved because it was at a juncture of land routes between the south and
east of the Peninsula.
The coast of the Arabian Gulf contained a number of seaports serving the
centers of civilization. As it was said previously, this region was
internationally famous for sea trade in the past.
Its seaports include Khârâkis al Muhammara on the Gulf cape at the
crossing of the Arabian coast (Shat al-Arab) with the river Qârûn. It had
trading relations with China, Egypt, Palmyra and others. Due to the
prosperity of this city, its government erected another seaport on the
Euphrates River named Firât. The Abla is a seaport on the cape of the Gulf,
٢٤٩

whose distinguished position created an opportunity to play an important
role in the Arab trade. Although it was an old seaport, it was called ‘Atîq.
Arabs of the Peninsula dealt with many international seaports outside the
borders of the Arabian Peninsula along the sea routes the Arabs used to
cross during their sea journeys. They include the western coast of the Red
Sea, the East Coast of Africa, the coast of the Arabian Gulf, and the coasts
of India and Ceylon.
MERCHANDISE TRANSPORTED THROUGH SEA ROUTES

The Peninsula used to export a lot of merchandise by sea and land, and
import a lot of eastern goods. A considerable part of these goods was
transported by sea and land to the Mediterranean countries. The prosperity
of trade in the Peninsula was due to the position of the country between two
important regions. The first was the east of Asia and India, a productive
region of the first class. The second was the Mediterranean world, a
consuming region of the first class. The Arabs of the Peninsula succeeded
in making use of this position to be trade mediators between these two
regions. The local goods including frankincense and myrrh were exported
to India.
Tortoise shell was in great demand, especially the good kind used for
making vessels and some tools and ornaments. And it was used in the
construction of furniture and by the metal and glass industries for such
things as swords, knives, and axes exported to East Africa. Other kinds of
glass manufacturing required precious stones for manufacturing vessels for
perfume, boxes for mercury, dates and wheat. These things were exported
to the east of Africa and India. The imported merchandise was wood from
India and the east of Africa such as teak, ebony and sandalwood. Ivory
imported from east Africa and India was used in local industry. Rice was
imported from the coasts of India and then exported to east Africa and the
Mediterranean. Sesame oil was imported for exportation and not for local
٢٥٠

use. Textiles of all kinds and the ready-made cloth and silk was imported by
land from East Asia to Syria via Persia, and by sea to the coasts of the
Peninsula in the Arabian Gulf or to the south of the Peninsula. Attars such
as kaset, a wood substance burnt as incense, aloe wood burnt as incense and
used in the manufacturing of medicines and perfumes, ginger, pepper,
cinnamon, acasia, nard, cardamom and small amounts of frankincense and
myrrh from East Africa, and clay vessels.
MODERN TRADE
The kingdom of Saudi Arabia has made quick steps in the field of economic
development. Four development plans have resulted in great achievements
today, which have become prosperous economic pillars where the basic
facilities have been constructed, such as roads, seaports, airports and means
of communication and information. Complete facilities for related
education and social services have also been provided for. Policies call for
diversity of the economic foundation and expansion of the national product
outside the circle of oil and derivatives. The success of the private sector
and the importance of its actual contribution in raising and expanding the
foundation of the economic production was shown when the index of the
non oil sectors in the total local revenue at the beginning of the fourth plan
rose to about ٦٧٪, while it was ٢٠٪ at the end of the first plan.
The concerned government offices made regulations for the economic
product polices regarding the open market. The strict level of measurement
and quality control has made production very competitive at high levels in
the foreign markets.
FINANCE PROGRAMS AND INSURANCE OF TRADE
The Kingdom has taken part in a number of programs for finance and
insurance of exports, which had been adopted by the Islamic Development
Bank, the Arab Foundation of Investment Assurance and the Arab
Monetary Fund. These programs of finance and trade insurance facilitate
٢٥١

the task of exporters and importers and encourage the trade exchange
among the Arab and Islamic countries. These include the Islamic
Development Bank, especially for financing the modified exports and
imports. The program finances the trading packages partially by about ٣٠٪
to ٤٠٪ of package value, to be repaid over periods from sixty to eighty
months. The process of the program in the participating countries is done
through national agencies helped by the country members.
The Portfolio of the Islamic Banks was assembled from twenty-one Islamic
banks, is administered by the Islamic Development Bank, and finances the
trade of the Islamic countries, especially the trading process of the private
sector, exporters or importers. The Arab Foundation of Investment
Assurance provides a system for export insurance covering trading and non-
trading dangers for the exporting processes, or a limited insurance contract
covering the trading dangers of a limited export process.
A program for financing the Arab trade was established by the Arab
Monetary Fund to finance the Arab trade in order to support and encourage
the Arabian and non-traditional exports at a rate of ٨٥٪ of the package
value. The rest should be financed by the national agency.
SEAPORTS
To serve trade and export, seven large main seaports have been built, four
of them on Red Sea. Jeddah, the Islamic seaport, Yanbu‘ commercial
seaport, King Fahad industrial seaport, and Jizân seaport. The other three
seaports overlooking the waters of the Arabian Gulf are King Abdulaziz
seaport, Jubail commercial seaport, and King Fahad industrial seaport at
Jubail.
Maintenance and services for ships are available at Jeddah seaport and King
Abdulaziz seaport in Dammâm. Facilities of large areas are also available to
the seaports for storing all kinds of goods. Also, there are open storage
areas, roofed depots, refrigerated stockrooms, dangerous materials depots
٢٥٢

and areas for storing containers. The sea transportation services in the
Kingdom have many characteristics, such as geographical advantages,
large-scale investments, advanced international technologies, and modern
seaports. The Saudi Company for Sea Transportation was established in
١٩٧٨ with a capital value of ٢،٠٠٠ million Riyals. The government
contribution was ٢٥٪. This company transports the imported as well as the
exported goods. It owns a large fleet of the most modern transporting ships
in the world of the rûrid model with a capacity of more than ٣٠٠ thousand
fixed tons, equal to ١٥،٢٨٨ typical containers.
There are eighteen commerce and industry chambers in the main cities of
the Kingdom. They collect and publish all information and statistics
connected with trade, industry, new investment opportunities, studies and
research relating to trade and industry. They supply the government sector
with statistics and other information relevant to the national trade and
industry and inform traders and industrialists and the members of
regulations, decisions and instructions relevant to their careers. They also
offer them support by educating them about the countries that they import
from or export to. They record the problems that they face in order to
present them to the authority concerned. Then they find solutions to
industrial and trading disputes by arbitration, encourage traders and
manufacturers to make use of the local and foreign experience, set up
exhibitions, take part in conferences and other events relevant to trade,
export or import and industry.
Exporting capacities have been available in a number of the industrial,
agricultural and productive activities as a result of the fast economic
development of the Kingdom’s economy. Increasing interest in the
development of export led to the establishment of a specialized institution
to carry out activities aiming to develop the non-oil exports of the private
sector. By an initiative from the Council of Industry and Trade Chambers a
call was made to set up a center for the development of exports. Both the
٢٥٣

businessmen and the authorities applauded this idea. This center aims at
making policies to develop the national exports and to arrange with the
authorities concerned with foreign trade so as to keep the flow of exports
free from obstacles.
The Kingdom has industrial and commercial relations with most countries
of the world. These relations developed by the end of the nineteen-thirties
after the discovery of oil that made up ٩٠٪ of the country’s export. Another
development had occurred in the import trade. Exports were no more than
٢٫٥ million Riyals in ١٩٣٨. It was doubled later. This was due to the
increase in the population and the development of the purchase capacity of
people in general. A structural increase took place in the country along with
the Kingdom’s commitment to the policy of the free market.
EXPORTS
The quality of Saudi exports has achieved a perceptible development during

the last two decades, ranging from heavy crude materials to half or fully
manufactured materials, forming a considerable percentage of the total
exports.
٣٤٪ of the Kingdom’s exports go to Asian countries, including Japan as the
most important country. Export to the United States of America makes up
٤٢٪ of the total exports. Exports to countries of Western Europe, mainly
Germany and France, make up about ٢٠٪. Oil and its derivatives make up
most of these exports. Exports to the GCC countries make up about ٧٪,
non-Arab countries make up about ٦٪, the countries of the Arab League and
Latin America make up about ٣٪ for each of them. African countries that
are non-Arab and non-Muslim, Australia, and the Pacific Islands are at the
bottom of the list with only ١٪ to each of them. Crude oil constitutes the
majority of exported material.
٢٥٤

Agricultural Exports
Most of the agricultural exports of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia are dates,
poultry and eggs. These exports represent only ١٪ of total exports. One can
also say that the improvement in petroleum prices and the success of other
exports on the competitive world market led oil and non-oil exports to score
new development rates. These rates were reflected in the improvement of
the commercial balance of foreign trade despite the increase in imports.
Imports
The rapid economic development in the Kingdom had a crucial role in

determining the amounts and levels of imported commodities. During the
first three years of the development plans, the rapid increase in the
development rates led to the increase in the relative contribution of
imported commodities needed in development projects, such as vehicles of
transportation, machinery, mechanical equipment, electrical equipment,
basic minerals and construction materials. The increased contribution of
imported commodities in turn resulted in raising the total of imports from
٤١٫٦٪ in ١٩٧٠ to ٥٩٫١٪ in ١٩٧٩. By ١٩٨٤, it had been reduced to٥٢٫٣٪.
During the Fourth Development Plan, the various economic sectors
witnessed a reduction in the groth rate. Accordingly, the relative
contribution of the commodities related to development was reduced in
١٩٩٠, to ٤٧٫٥٪ of total imports, and the share of foodstuffs was also
reduced to ١٤٪ in the same year. The ratio of material commodities for
development increased in the five-year plan to reach ٥٢٫٦٪ of total imports
in ١٩٩٤, while the ratio of foodstuffs declined to ١٢٫٩٪. The reduction in
the amount of imported materials and whatever changes followed in the
relative contribution of imported commodities represents the increased
capability of the Saudi Economy to satisfy local demands.
٢٥٥

TABLE SHOWING SAUDI ARABIAN EXPORTS ACCORDING COUNTRIES' BLOCKS
No Countries Block Percentage
.
١ Asian Block - Non-Arab Countries, Non-Islamic ٣٤ %
Countries, Japan being on top of the list
٢ North American Block - U.S.A. being on top of the list ٢٤ %
٣ European Block - Germany & France being on top of the ٢٠ %
list
٤ Gulf Cooperation Council (G.C.C.) Countries ٧%
٥ Non-Arab Countries ٦%
٦ Other Arab Countries ٣%
٧ Latin American Countries ٣%
٨ African Block - Non-Arab and Non-Islamic Countries ١%
٩ Australia ١%
١٠ Pacific Islands ١%
Economic Diversity
Saudi athorities have come to know that reliance on oil as the sole source of
income is very difficult and dangerous due to the extreme fluctuation of oil
prices. This is in addition to the fact that oil faces international challenges.
Other alternatives of energy are being sought, heavy taxes are being
imposed on consumers and oil prices have deteriorated. Therefore, officials
have sought to develop non-oil exports.
In light of the availability of hydrocarbon resources and minerals,
concerned officials sought to convert some these resources into industrial
products of high value in order to diversify the sources of national income.
The state has established a number of industries to meet the demands of
foreign markets.
٢٥٦

It has been appreciated that the industrial sector, which provides ٨٪ of the
of the gross national income, has had a growth rate of ٧٫٥٪ in ١٩٩٥. This
increase was due to the sharp rise in the petrochemical sector, in addition to
other industrial activities. Exports in foodstuffs, soft drinks and some other
light industries have maintained their continuous rise and have expanded
into more foreign markets. The local production of cement was estimated to
be ٥٫٨٪ in ١٩٩٥. It totaled eighteen million tons in ١٩٩٦, and at the end
reached ١٨٫٥ million tons. This growth in turn enabled investment in
industry by the private sector to increase. Accordingly, the number of
licenses issued rose from ٣٤٩ in ١٩٩٢ to ٦٥٤ in ١٩٩٤. The number of
factories rose from thirty-seven in ١٩٩٣ to more ninety in ١٩٩٥. Industrial
exports, other than petrochemicals, rose from ٥٪ in ١٩٩٤ to more than ١٢٪
in ١٩٩٥.
It is well known that the Kingdom is very rich in minerals such as copper,
phosphate, gold, iron ore, silver, uranium, bauxite, coal and zinc. The
average production of gold in the Mahd al-Dhahab mines totaled ٢٫٥
million tons a year. Work has commenced on new projects to search for
and excavate iron ore, copper and phosphate. These projects represent an
investment of ٢٫٨ million U.S. Dollars, with an active contribution by the
private sector. It is expected that activities in mineral exploration and
extraction will grow at an annual rate of ٥٠٪ to the year ٢٠٠٠. This rate
should exceed the expected growth of other sectors of the economy.
Non-Oil Exports
The government of Saudi Arabia pays much attention to the development of
non-oil exports with the objective of assisting the managers of the national
economy implement the strategy of diversifying the sources of national
٢٥٧

income, and not to rely on oil as the sole source of wealth. Therefore,
development plans have emphasized the importance of diversifying sources
of national income with priority being given to production sectors. The
government has followed different strategies to develop and enhance Saudi
exports. The most important of these strategies are facilitating the
procedures of exporting, giving incentives and creating new systems to
develop and encourage exports. These strategies also include the provision
of incentives and facilities to exporters, including financial support,
exemption from taxes and establishing proper arrangements with a number
of countries to abolish or minimize customs and other restrictions imposed
on imports, on a reciprocal basis. In addition, the strategies aim at preparing
the proper infrastructure to enable producers to reduce the cost of
production and facilitate the export process for them.
SAUDI ARABIAN BASIC INDUSTRIES (SABIC) NET PROFITS FOR THE PAST TEN
YEARS
(THOUSAND OF SAUDI RIYALS)
١٩٨٦ ١٩٨٧ ١٩٨٨ ١٩٨٩ ١٩٩ ١٩٩ ١٩٩٢ ١٩٩ ١٩٩ ١٩٩
٠ ١ ٣ ٤ ٥
١٠،٧٧٨،١
٣،٦٨٠،١٦
٣،٥٧٠،٣٨
٣،٠٢٩،٦٧
٢،٢٩٥،٣٠
١،٩٦٤،١٤
٢،١١٦،٥٥
٤،٣١٩،٢٥
٦،٢٨١،٤٧
٢٢٣،٨٩٠
٧١
Agricultural Exports
Most of the agricultural exports of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia are dates,
poultry and eggs. These exports represent only ١٪ of total exports. One can
٢٥٨

also say that the improvement in petroleum prices and the success of other
exports on the competitive world market led oil and non-oil exports to score
new development rates. These rates were reflected in the improvement of
the commercial balance of foreign trade despite the increase in imports.
Imports
The rapid economic development in the Kingdom had a crucial role in
determining the amounts and levels of imported commodities. During the
first three years of the development plans, the rapid increase in the
development rates led to the increase in the relative contribution of
imported commodities needed in development projects, such as vehicles of
transportation, machinery, mechanical equipment, electrical equipment,
basic minerals and construction materials. The increased contribution of
imported commodities in turn resulted in raising the total of imports from
٤١٫٦٪ in ١٩٧٠ to ٥٩٫١٪ in ١٩٧٩. By ١٩٨٤, it had been reduced to٥٢٫٣٪.
During the Fourth Development Plan, the various economic sectors

witnessed a reduction in the groth rate. Accordingly, the relative
contribution of the commodities related to development was reduced in
١٩٩٠, to ٤٧٫٥٪ of total imports, and the share of foodstuffs was also
reduced to ١٤٪ in the same year. The ratio of material commodities for
development increased in the five-year plan to reach ٥٢٫٦٪ of total imports
in ١٩٩٤, while the ratio of foodstuffs declined to ١٢٫٩٪. The reduction in
the amount of imported materials and whatever changes followed in the
relative contribution of imported commodities represents the increased
capability of the Saudi Economy to satisfy local demands.
٢٥٩

Percentage of the Imports’ total
٨٠
٧٠ ٥٩٫١٪ ٥٢٫٦٪
٥٢٫٣٪
٦٠ ٤٧٫٥٪
٤١٫٦٪
٥٠
٤٠
٣٠
٢٠
١٠
١٩٧٠ ١٩٧٩ ١٩٨٤ ١٩٩٠ ١٩٩٤
٢٦٠

THE BANKING SECTOR
Banking and money exchange appeared in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia to
serve those who come to the holy places to perform either pilgrimage or
umra. This was followed by the modern banking institutions which provide
all banking services such deposits, loans, insurance facilities, financing
foreign trade, drafts and money exchanges. The creation and the
development of banks in the Kingdom can be illustrated through the
following three stages:
THE FIRST STAGE:
the commercial banks activities and services prior to the foundation of the
Saudi Arabian Monetary System.
Table One shows the developments of the general companies and banks in
chronological order during this stage.
Table 1. Commercial Banks and Companies operating before the

foundation of the Saudi Arabian Monetary Agency (SAMA)
No. Year Name of Company / Bank
Jalati Hanki Co. was established and stopped its
١ ١٨٨٤. banking activities in ١٩٥٥.
٢ ١٩٢٦ Dutch Bank was established under the name of
'Hollandi Commercial Co.' and was the first
specialized banking institution in Jeddah, Al-
Khobar and Dammam.
٣ ١٩٤٧ Indo-Chinese Bank was established and had
branches in Jeddah, Al-Khobar and Dammam.
٤ ١٩٤٧ First National Bank was established by Ibrahim
Zahran and was named after Jeddah City.
٥ ١٩٤٩ Arab Bank was established and opened branches
in Makkah Riyadh, Dammam and Al-Khobar.
٦ ١٩٥٠ British Bank
٧ ١٩٥٠ Pakistan National Bank established in Jeddah.
[THE COMMERCIAL BANKS AND THE GENERAL COMPANIES BEFORE THE FOUNDATION
OF THE MONETARY SYSTEM.]
Table One indicates that the Dutch commercial companies were the first
specialized institutions working in Jeddah, Khobar, and Dammâm.
٢٦١

THE SECOND STAGE:
This stage witnessed the main steps of organizing the banking system in the
Kingdom and the establishment of the Saudi Arabian Monetary System,
which is regarded as the central bank of the country. Also many regulations
organizing the banking system were introduced at this stage, together with
the creation of the Saudi and foreign banks such as:
١-THE FOUNDATION OF THE SAUDI ARABIAN MONETARY SYSTEM

Due to the various developments that took place in the national economy
and the discovery of oil with its consequences of wealth, the demand for
organizing and supervising the general banking institutions was increased.
The issuing of Royal Decree No. ٣٠/٤/١/١٤٠٦, dated ٢٠/٤/١٩٥٢ represented
this, to establish the Saudi Arabian Monetary System. This was followed by
another Royal Decree No. ٣٠/٤/١٤٠٧ issued on the same date as the
Agency basic regulations were issued, regarding the foundation’s
objectives, its capital, and its principal tasks. Thus, the Saudi banking
organization process had started. Its main characteristics can be shown as
follows:
× Adoption of new currency, the gold pound to replace the

English pound.
× The introduction of the Currency Monitoring System No.
٣٠/٤/١/٢٥٥٣ in ١٩٥٧.
× The introduction of Currency System No. ٣٠/٤/١/٢٥٧٥ on
the same date as above.
× The issuing of the Royal Decree No. M/٥/,dated
١١/٦/١٩٦٦, concerning the bank monitoring system .
× Erection of a clearing-house in Jeddah for the
organization of banking transactions among banks in ١٩٦٧.
× Erection of a clearing-house in Riyadh in ١٩٦٨.
٢٦٢

× Erection of a clearing-house in Dammâm in ١٩٦٩.
٢ - Banks and the foundation of the Saudi Arabian Monetary System

Banking activities have been increased after the establishment of the
Monetary Agency, which encourage the setting up of the Saudi as well as
foreign banks in the main cities of the Kingdom shown in Table Two.
Table 2. Major National and Foreign Banks Following the Saudi Arabian
Monetary Agency (SAMA)
No. Year of Name of the Bank City Nationality

Establishme
nt
١ ١٩٥٣ National Commercial Jeddah Saudi
Bank
٢ ١٩٥٤ Cairo Bank Jeddah Egyptian
٣ ١٩٥٥ Lebanon and Immigrants Jeddah Lebanese
Bank
٤ ١٩٥٥. First National City Bank Jeddah American
٥ ١٩٥٦. Riyadh Bank Riyadh Saudi
٦ ١٩٧٠-٧١ Iranian Community Bank Riyadh Iranian
٧ ١٩٧٠-٧١ United Bank Ltd. Riyadh -
[The most important foreign and national banks after the foundation of the
monetary system]
Table Two shows that Riyadh Bank was the first national bank working as a
stock company.
THE THIRD STAGE: THE SAUDIIZATION OF FOREIGN BANKS
As a result of the development and prosperity of the national economy, the

number of banks increased, especially the foreign banks, which were
mostly branches of main banks inside their original countries. The scarcity
of the national banks (only two at that time: Riyadh Bank and the National
Commercial Bank) led the Arabian Monetary System to create a program of
Saudiization of the foreign commercial banks, opening the door for the
national capitals to take part in the existing banking institutions instead of
establishing new banks.
٢٦٣

The Saudiization program was adopted after convincing the foreign banks
to accept the national contribution capital at the rate of ٦٠٪ of the total bank
capital. Thus the foreign capital contribution would make up only ٤٠٪. The
Saudi capital was divided into shares for general subscription. All banks
have been ordered to apply this ratio.
Table 3. Foriegn Bank Saudiazed by Royal Decrees

Saudiazation
Decree No.
Gregorian
Saudiazati
Saudiasati
Name of
Name of
Date of
Foreing
Foreign
Royal
(before
(after
Bank
Bank
on)
the
the
١٢/٦/١٩٥٧ M/٤٦ Pakistan National Bank Bank Al-Jazirah
٧/١١/١٩٧٦ M/٨٥ Holland General Bank Saudi Hollandi
٤/٦/١٩٧٧ M/٢٣ Indonasian Bank Saudi Faransi
٢١/١/١٩٧٨ M/٤ Britan Middle East Bank Saudi Britani
٢٠/١/١٩٧٩ M/٧ Cairo Bank Saudi Cairo
١٧/٦/١٩٧٩ M/٣٨ Arab Bank Ltd. Arab National
١٣/٢/١٩٨٠ M/٣ First National City Bank Saudi American
Lebanon and Immigrants Saudi United

١٣/١٢/١٩٨٢ M/٢٣
Bank, United Bank, and Commercial Bank
Iranian Community Bank
[The Royal Decrees concerning the Saudiization of each of the foreign
banks, and the transformation of these banks to the national banks
concerned according to a timetable for each of them]
Table Three shows the foreign banks Saudiized by Royal Decrees. In this
period, the banking company for investment (the Saudi Investment Bank)
was established as a Saudi investment company by Royal Decree ٣١/M,
٢٦٤

dated ٢٤/٥/١٩٧٦, Saudiization programs were set up during the second
development plan, which began to be implemented in ١٩٧٥. The first
development plan has made a number of achievements at the level of local
revenue. The oil revenue during the years of the first and the second plans,
known as years of booming economy, helped to push the wheels of
economic development and increase the government expenditures. This
affected all economic sectors and opened the doors for the national sectors
to play an effective role in the large-scale development process in the
Kingdom.
THE INSTRUMENTS OF THE MONETARY POLICY IN THE KINGDOM
The most important instruments used to carry out the monetary policy are
as follows:
١. The Open (Free) Market Policy.
٢. The Discount Rate (Interest).
٣. The Regular Reserve Policy.
These instruments show that the Saudi Arabian Monetary System applies
the open market policy through establishing treasury bonds programs,
issued weekly for terms from one to twelve months. The objective was to
organize the banking fluidity. According to the control monetary system,
the bank keeps not less than ١٥٪ of its deposits in the Saudi Arabian
Monetary System.
The Agency does not deal with interest rates because this is against the
Islamic law (Shari‘a). The Agency also prohibits usury.
The Current Situation of the Commercial Banks in the Kingdom of Saudi
Arabia
Banks now play a vital and principal role in pushing forward the progress of
development in the Kingdom, and this role has been increasing during the
successive development plans. Due to the growing role of the private sector
in these plans, the commercial and banking sectors have achieved high
٢٦٥

growth rates in the sixth development plan. This is reflected in the
following indices:
(١) By the end of ١٩٩٣, the number of commercial banks was twelve in
total with nine banks centered in Riyadh, ٧٥٪ of the total number of banks,
and ١١٦٠ subsidiaries in total with ٢٦٦ in Riyadh representing ٢٢٫٩٪ of the
total number of subsidiaries. The nine banks established in Riyadh now
have ٨١٧ subsidiaries, including ٢٠٥ subsidiaries in Riyadh making up
about ٢٥٫١٪ of the total subsidiaries. This can be seen in Table Four and
Diagrams One and Two.
Table 4. Geographical Distribution of Branches of the Commercial Banks
According to Major Regions of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
During the Period between 1990 - 1995 G.
Year ١٩٩٠ ١٩٩١ ١٩٩٢ ١٩٩٣ ١٩٩٤ ١٩٩٥
Region (١) (٢) (١) (٢) (١) (٢) (١) (٢) (١) (٢) (١) (٢)
estern and ٤٢٥.. ٤٢٪ ٤٤٠ ٤١٪ ٤٥٥ ٤٠٪ ٤٦٤ ٤٠٪ ٤٧٨ ٣٩٫٤٪ ٤٦٨ ٣٩٫٣٪
Southern
Central and ٤٣١ ٤١٪ ٤٤٣ ٤١٪ ٤٧١ ٤١٪ ٤٨١ ٤٢٪ ٥١٠ ٤٢٪ ٥٠٣ ٤٢٫٢٪
Northern
Eastern ١٨٦ ١٨٪ ١٩٧ ١٨٪ ٢٠٥ ١٨٪ ٢١٥ ١٨٪ ٢٢٦ ١٨٫٦٪ ٢٢١٫١٨٫٥٪
Province
(١)١٠٣٢ ١٠٨٠ ١١٣١ ١١٦٠ ١٠٠٪ ١٣١٤ ١٠٠٪ ١١٩٢ ١٠٠٪
Total (٢)١٠٠٪ ١٠٠٪ ١٠٠٪
(١) total number
(٢) percentage
[The geographical distribution of commercial subsidiaries in the main

regions of the Kingdom during the period from ١٩٩٠ to ١٩٩٥]
By the end of ١٩٩٥, the number of subsidiaries in the Kingdom was ١١٩٢,
including ٥٠٣ subsidiaries in the North and Central Region, ٤٦٨ in the
Western and Southern Regions, and ٢٢٢ in the Eastern Region. Tables
Four, Five, and Six and Diagram Three show the development of the
banking sector during the period of ١٩٦٩-١٩٩٥.
٢٦٦

Figure ١. Importance percentage of Commercial Banks in Riyadh City in 1999/97
Saudi Investment Rajhi Company
United S. Commercial Rajhi Investment
Saudi Cairo
Saudi British
Saudi
Al Jazira Faransi
National Commercial Saudi American
Saudi Hollandi
Riyadh
Figure ٢. Impotrance Percentage for the geographical

distribution of Commercial Banks 1n 1993/94
between Riyadh City and the Kingdom
٢٢٫٩٣٪
٢٦٦ branches ٨٩٤ branches
٧٧٫٠٧٪
Eastern Region ١٨٫٥٪ Western and Southern ٣٩٫٣٪
Central and Northern ٤٣٫٢٪
The statistics of the sixth development plan show the increase in the total
size of the commercial deposits. They went from ١٤٣٫٧ billion Riyals in the
first year (١٩٩٠) of the fifth development plan to about ١٨٤ billion Riyals
٢٦٧

by the end of first quarter of the final year (١٩٩٥) of the plan at a rate of
٢٨٫٠٤٪, and the total capital and the shares of the contributors from ١٧٫٤
billion to about ٣٣ billion Riyals during the two cooperative years, at a rate
of ٨٩٫٦٦٪. The rate of the total capital and the shares of contributors in
comparison with the total deposits went from ٢١٪ to ٨١٪ during both years.
This rate is high according to international standards.
Statistics also point out a decrease in foreign assets from ١٢٣٫٥ billion
Riyals in ١٩٩٠ at the beginning of the fifth plan, to about ٩٩٫٩ billion
Riyals at the middle of ١٩٩٣, the end of the fifth plan, with a rate valued at
١٩٫١١٪.
This index shows that the financial position of the foreign banks was good
in the Kingdom at the beginning of the sixth development plan. Such banks
can increase their contributions to the achievement of the plan’s objectives
through expansion of long-term loans transactions, and developing the
savings and loans sector to suit the depositors’ wishes and the investors’
demands for long-term loans to finance big projects.
THE PRIVATE SECOR AND DEVELOPMENT

The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is adopting free market policies where
citizens can have private property and make investments in the economic,
productive and service activities within the framework of regulations, easy
procedures and various forms of support and encouragement.
In this distinguished investment environment, the private sector has been
continuously developing, and has varied its activities, especially after the
Kingdom’s adoption of a large-scale plan to achieve development in a
balanced and complete form, either through developing the economic
sectors or through the development of various regions.
FACTORS DESIGNED FOR DEVELOPMENT OF THE PRIVATE

SECTOR
٢٦٨

Many factors joined together to design and help in the development of the
private sector in the Kingdom. These factors include the following:
× Adoption of free market and economic policy which gives an
opportunity for the private sector in the form of establishments or
companies to exercise full economic activities in the light of Islamic
instructions (shari‘a) free of conditions.
× Accomplishment of social and economic stability. As a result of
the government’s wise policy in dealing with situations and
implementing the Islamic legislation (shari‘a), an environment of
security and stability prevail on man, money and properties,
encouraging businessmen to invest their money and establish their
projects.
× Construction of a full network of modern infrastructure. The
Saudi government was interested in setting up a complete network of
modern infrastructures at a cost of ٣،٢٧٥ billion Riyals, equal to ٩٠٠
billion dollars, represented by motorways, electricity, water purification
plants, construction of local and international airports, main seaports,
railways, and telecommunication networks.
× Providing bonuses for setting up private projects. Various kinds of
support and encouragement were offered to those who have been willing
to invest. These include feasible non-interest loans from the specified
government development funds worth about ٥٠٪ of the project’s total
cost. Water and electricity are provided at low cost (subsidized prices).
Lands are also provided for industrial and agricultural project investors,
with easy conditions, and all requirements of production are free from
custom duties. Customs protection is offered for national products and
priority is given to national products in the government purchases, tax-
free, except for poor dues (zakât) which are counted as ٢٫٥٪ on the
existing goods.
٢٦٩

The government purchases local agricultural products such as wheat,
barley, corn, and dates from farmers at subsidized prices.
Contracts for roads, normal bridges, and small or middle-sized
buildings are carried out by Saudi contractors. The foreign contractor
should commit himself to offer at least ٣٠% of contracting work to
Saudi contractors.
× Setting Up Development Support Staff

The development plan was accompanied by the development of
management staff represented by ministries, foundations and other
parties associated with development. Government development funds
were set up to finance projects and the Royal Commission of Jubail and
Yanbu‘ was also set up to trace the construction of infrastructure and to
provide the factories in both cities with suitable facilities. The Saudi
House of Supervision Services was established to supply technical and
economic studies in the industrial investment fields. The General
Foundation for Storing Crops and Wheat Mills receives wheat from the
farmers at subsidized prices. The Saudi Arabian Corporation of
Specifications and Measurements(Standards) specifies the quality of
each commodity. The General Foundation of Technical Learning,
Rehabilitation and Training prepares the national and technical cadre
required for the job market. The King Abdulazîz City for Science and
Technology creates national scientific technology in the economic
sectors. The Chambers of Commerce and Industry serve the private
sector and supply it with assistance services such as information,
research, investment and trading opportunities, law consultation,
participation in exhibitions, trade delegation receptions, training and so
on.
THE ADVANCEMENT OF THE PRIVATE SECTOR THROUGH THE

DEVELOPMENT STAGES
٢٧٠

The characteristics and specifications of the private sector are set up
according to modern economic standards with the execution of the five-year
development plan. The private sector’s role is progressing throughout the
successive plans as follows:
× In the first development plan (١٩٧٠-١٩٧٥), importance was
attached to presentation of projects and programs connected with
encouraging the private sector of production, service and in particular
education. The government drew its attention to carrying out the
infrastructure programs which should be carried out by the contract
sector. The average annual development rate of the private sector during
the first plan in ١٩٧٠-١٩٧٥ was ٩٫٦٪, compared with ٤٫٤٪ at the start of
its execution. Its capital participation was ٣٣٫٨٥٪. In the local national
revenue it was ١١٫٨٪, and in non-oil local revenue it was ٦٥٫١٪.
× In the second development plan (١٩٧٥-١٩٧٩), much importance
was attached to the private sector. This importance was one of the
priorities of the plan, which prepared all circumstances to enable it to
work quickly and actively to construct the buildings required by the
plan, as well as to provide the necessary services to aid the rapid
development of economic activity. To achieve this goal it was agreed
that the private sector should operate freely. In order to receive more
practical support from the government, many financing bodies were
created in this period to offer loans for investors, and other regulations
were issued to provide those investors with various kinds of bonuses.
Consequently, the annual and the actual development rate of the
private sector during this plan increased to ١٤٫٨٪ on the average, and
its participation rate in creating the total capital was ٢٧٫٢٪. The total
local revenue was ٢١٫٩٪ and the non-oil local revenue ٥٦٫٩٪.
× In the third development plan (١٩٨٠-١٩٨٥), some procedures
were defined to increase support of the private sector in taking part
actively in the variety of product foundations and in reducing
٢٧١

dependence on oil as a source of income. Some of these procedures
include: investing in production and mining sectors, urging commercial
banks to expand their facilities for production projects, continuing to
offer bonuses from the specified government development funds, and
providing support for establishing assistant services for production
industries, as well as encouraging the setting up of more stock
companies to ensure advantages for a larger number of citizens in
investment processes, and giving priority in contracts to Saudi
contractors. In the case that a bid is won by foreign contractors, the
Saudi contractors should have to take part in the carrying out of these
contracts.
The private sector annual development rate for these plans was ٨٫٨٪, and its
participation in creating capital rose up to ٤٢٫١٪, in the total local revenue
٣٧٪, and in the non-oil local revenue ٦٠٫٥٪.
In the fourth development plan (١٩٨٤-١٩٨٩), the role of the private sector
was basically changed to expand its tasks to meet the rising demands for
commodities, services and utilities in order to secure the country’s needs.
The private sector had to continue variation and expansion of economic
foundations by developing the mining, agricultural and industrial
production sectors, improving the productive efficiency of the existing
economic units, and increasing the opportunities for the private sector to
possess, administer, manage and maintain projects established by the
government and conditioned to make an actual benefit in reducing the cost.
× The annual development rate of the private sector for this was
١٫٤٪ and its participation in creating the total existing capital was ٥٤٪,
in the total local revenue ٤١٫٨٪, and in the non-oil local revenue ٦٠٫٩٪.
× In the fifth development plan (١٩٩٤-١٩٨٩), the role of the private
sector was emphasized in the plan’s objectives, strategies and policies,
especially after the structural changes took place in the national
economy. This directed the private sector to create variation in its
٢٧٢

activities and to expand the setting up of industrial and agricultural
projects and establishing companies of all kinds. The annual
development rate of the private sector at the end of the plan was about
٤٫١٪. The rate of its participation in creating total existing capital rose to
٦٧٫٣٪, the total local revenue to ٤٥٫٣٪, and the non-oil total local
revenue to ٧٢٫١٪.
In the sixth development plan (١٩٩٤-١٩٩٩), the private sector was given a
pioneering role in achieving the plan’s objectives for the continuation of the
economic development. This was apparent in its priorities, objectives and
annexes. These priorities assured the adoption of more policies which
encouraged the private sector’s capital to participate in the national
investment, to finance some government projects, and to own some
government activities of a commercial nature. The objectives include
continuous encouragement for the private sector to take part in the
economic development process of the country, concentrating on industry,
agriculture, and development of metal resources. The plan also includes
three annexes emphasizing the private sector’s role in strengthening the
national economy by accomplishing economic efficiency, developing
manpower and offering more employment opportunities. The two latter
annexes are highly dependent upon the private sector.
THE PRIVATE SECTOR’S ACHIEVEMENTS

The private sector has participated in executing all the development plans
and their objectives, and is capable of making achievements distinguished
on the national level or on the level of the production, service, and
economic sectors. These achievements include the contribution to total
local revenue, investment increase and the creation of existing capital which
rose from ٤٫٤ billion Riyals (٣٣٫٨٪ of the total in ١٩٧٤-١٩٧٥) to ٤٥٫٧
billion at a rate of ٦٧٫٣٪ of the total in ١٩٩٣-١٩٩٤. The investment capital
rose from seven billion in ١٩٧٥-١٩٧٦ to ١٠٨٫٧ billion Riyals in ١٩٩٣-١٩٩٤.
٢٧٣

The rate of the private sector contribution to the total local revenue rose
from ١١٫٨٪ in ١٩٧٤-١٩٧٥ to ٤٥٫٣٪ in ١٩٩٣-١٩٩٤. Its contribution to the
non-oil total local revenue was about ٧٢٪.
Moreover, the private sector has taken part in the increase and variation of
the national income sources which are regarded as the core of the main
objectives of the development plans. This was represented by the increase
of the non-oil total product four times during the period from ١٩٦٩-١٩٧٠ to
١٩٩٣-١٩٩٤. Also, the participation rate of non-oil sectors in the local
revenue rose from ٤٥٪ in ١٩٦٩-١٩٧٠ to about ٦٢٫٨٪ at the end of the fifth
development plan.
The rate of non-oil export participation of the Kingdom’s total exports has
risen from ٨٪ to about ٢١٪. Also the number of factories went up from ١٩٩
at a total cost of ٢٫٨ billion Riyals, with a manpower of ١٣٧،٠٠٠ workers,
to ٢،٤١٢ factories costing ١٥٨٫٩ billion Riyals, with manpower mounting to
١٣٧،٠٠٠ workers. Agricultural production also went up at the end of the
fifth plan to six times the amount at the beginning of the first plan. All these
factors indicate positive steps towards achieving food self-sufficiency.
The number of private firms represented by establishments and companies
with trading records increased greatly, up to ٤٦٦،٠٥٤ firms in ١٩٩٥. There
were ٧٨،٧٧٠ firms in ١٩٧٩. This indicates the importance of the private
sector in the national economic structure. On the level of joint projects, the
Saudi private sector cooperated with foreign investors in setting up joint
projects. These joint projects amounted to ١،٣٠٦ in ١٩٩٥, with a total
capital of about ١٢٩ billion Riyals. The national capital contribution was
seventy-three billion Riyals with a proportion of ٥٦٫٦٪, while the foreign
capital was fifty-six billion Riyals with a proportion of ٤٣٫٤٪. These joint
projects included investors from fifty-eight countries, mainly from
America, Japan, the UK, Germany, France, South Korea, and Taiwan as
well as some Arab countries.
٢٧٤

These joint projects include petrochemicals, oil refining, repair and
maintenance of aircraft, the electrical appliances industry, electronic and
electrical appliance maintenance, the pipe industry, and various food
industries.
Regarding manpower, the number of workers in the private sector rose from
about ١٫٧ million workers in ١٩٧٥ to more than six million workers by the
end of the fifth development plan. So the private sector has provided job
opportunities for ٤٫٣ million.
The above Statistic tables indicate the active participation of the private
sector in many areas
THE FUTURE ROLE OF THE PRIVATE SECTOR

The sixth development plan for ١٩٩٥-٢٠٠٠ points out the importance of the
private sector in leading the march of progress in the Kingdom, regarding it
as the main foundation for the full development process. It confronts the
challenges which the economy of the Kingdom is facing through
cooperation with the government in order to achieve the development
objectives and improve the levels of economic efficiency in all phases. It
aims to replace foreign manpower with Saudis and create new job
opportunities for citizens, in addition to making variations in the productive
foundation of the Saudi economy, and reducing dependence on
hydrocarbon resources. It creates new local areas of investment, reducing
the government’s financial burden through participation in financing the
development projects.
On the other hand, many opportunities to expand its investments and
activities are open to the private sector. These include exploitation of
mineral discoveries to establish the mining industries, and investment in the
industries depending on local raw materials such as petrochemicals. These
industries are electronic and engineering. There are also the large industrial
projects, money investment companies, and communication projects.
٢٧٥

Opportunities in health care service projects, especially after the
introduction of the health insurance system, are also open. Then there are
projects in the rehabilitation and training of manpower, as well as tourism
and entertainment projects. Finally, opportunities include participation in
foreign capital ventures to set up projects of high levels of technology in the
Kingdom.
SAUDI FOREIGN AID
LOANS
The government of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is interested in supporting

the development programs of the developing countries. Part of its income is
allocated towards easy development aid in form of grants or loans through
either the Saudi Development Fund or regional and international
development foundations to those countries whose objectives are to raise
the standard of living of their people.
The Kingdom’s interest in this field is clearly shown through the aid offered
in the ١٩٨٠’s. The Kingdom is the first among the world countries, with an
aid rate of an estimated ٥٫٥٪ of the total national revenue. This is many
times more than the ٠٫٧٪ objective set by the United Nations for aid from
rich countries to developing countries.
The Saudi Development Bank, established by a Royal Decree dated ١٩٧٤,
is regarded as one of the main channels for easy twofold aid offered by the
Kingdom to the developing countries. Special considerations are given to
countries with limited income in Africa, Asia and some other countries in
the world whose situations have suffered much from international economic
changes or their lack of available resources to achieve their development
objectives.
The Fund has demonstrated positive and active stands through international
efforts to support the process of development in low-income countries.
٢٧٦

From its start, the Fund signed ٨٠٨ loan contracts of ٢١،٢١٥٫٧٣ million
Riyals for sixty-two countries, ٩٧٫١٪ of this sum being allocated for ٢٧٣
development projects. The rest of the sum, ٢٫٩٪, is allocated for twenty-five
development programs aimed mostly at supporting economic strategy and
improving the infrastructure of the recipient countries. The average loan for
each project was about ٧٥٫٤ million Riyals, and about twenty-five million
Riyals was the average loan for a single program.
The loan chart shows that thirty-eight countries in Africa received ٩،٥١٩٫٩٠
million Riyals (٨٫٨٤٪ of the total aid) to finance ١٤٥ development projects
and twenty-three economical projects. In Asia, nineteen countries received
٩،٦٩٢ million Riyals (٤٩٫٧٪ of the total loans) to finance ١٠٦ projects, in
addition to one economic program.
The Fund also helped finance six projects in four countries at a total cost of
٢٩٨٫١ million Riyals (١٫٥٪ of the total aid).
The average loan for each project in the African countries was sixty-one
million Riyals. In the Asian countries it was ٩٥٫٧ million Riyals.
The relative decrease of the average loans in Africa was due to the limited
expansion of these projects. Usually these loans cover all different
developing sectors equally in the recipient countries, such as transportation,
communication, electricity, industry, agriculture, social structure and other
important sectors.
CAPITAL FUNDS
This Saudi Fund started work on ١/٣/١٩٧٥ with a capital of ١٠،٠٠٠

million Riyals offered by the government of the Kingdom. The capital was
increased through three stages. The first, in ١٩٨٠, became ١٥،٠٠٠ Riyals,
and the second, in ١٩٨١, became twenty-five million Riyals. The third
stage of increase in the capital was in١٩٩١ when it reached thirty million
Riyals to meet the increasing requirements of the developing countries.
٢٧٧

AID TO SOCIAL, ECONOMIC AND DEVELOPMENT SECTORS
Since its foundation, the Fund objectives have been set to help finance
projects intended to improve the social and economic situation in the
developing countries and achieve actual distribution of the available
resources. It focuses on infrastructure, agricultural production, industry and
social structure. Communications and transportation had the priority of the
total fund allocations between ١٩٧٥ and ١٩٩٥. Next came the agricultural
and rural development sectors, followed gradually by energy, social and
industrial other sectors.
The transportation and communication sector priority of the Fund aid due
to the positive role of this sector in activating the development process. The
number of projects financed by the Fund was ١٠٢ with a total cost of about
٧١٣٫٨ million Riyals (٣٣٫٥٪ of the total offered from ١٩٦٥ to ١٩٩٥). This
includes construction of railways, harbors, airports, and communication
technology in a number of Asian and African countries.
As to the priority of aid, agriculture and rural development sectors came in
the second stage, these being the principal sectors in the developing
countries. Their role is to support the economy and create investments and
foreign currency as well as to create job opportunities for the other
economic sectors. Loans were offered to finance sixty-seven projects with
the goal of increasing animal and agricultural products, developing rural
life, building or repairing dams, aggregating distribution networks and
accommodating farmers. Loans of ٤٣٨٠٫٩٠ million Riyals were equal to
٢٠٫٧٪ of the total loans for the period between ١٩٧٥ and ١٩٩٥. Aid offered
to Africa was ٦٦٫٩%, while Asian countries received only ٣٢٫١٪.
Energy as aid comes in the third stage. The Saudi Development Fund took
an interest in advancing the developing countries’ capacities to produce
various kinds of energy from water or heat resources. Thirty-six projects so
far have been financed to generate heat and water energy at a cost of
٤٢٢٣٫٢٥ Riyals (١٩٫٩٪). Nine African countries got ٦٧٩٫٢٥ million Riyals
٢٧٨

to finance ten electricity projects (١٦٫١٪ of the total sum alllocated to the
energy sector). The Asian countries received the biggest share of these
loans due to their fast industrial development; their countries got ٣٥٣٢٫٩
million Riyals (٨٣٫٧٪) to finance twenty-five electricity projects. Brazil
received ١١١٫١ million Riyals for this same purpose.
Social construction was in the fourth stage. The Saudi Developing Fund is
interested in developing human resources by including aid for education,
health, accommodation, urban development, water and sanitation. This cost
of ٣٢٨٨٫٢٥ million Riyals (١٥٫٥٪ of the total loans) to finance fifty-nine
projects, including building schools and colleges and supplying instruments
and educational materials to develop curricula. Loans in this particular field
are offered to seven African countries and five Asian countries of low or
middle income.
These projects include ten in the health sectors, to build hospitals and
medical centers in eight African and Asian countries and to supply them
with important medical equipment at a cost of ٤٩٦٫٦ million Riyals.
The Saudi Development Fund also looks after the industrial sector. It
financed industrial projects such as sugar manufacturing in Sudan, Egypt,
and central Africa, fertilizer and chemical industries in Indonesia, Pakistan
and Bangladesh, and steel mines in Mauritania. ١٧٥٤٫٣ million Riyals
(٨٫٣٪ of the total fund loans) are allocated for this sector to finance
eighteen projects. The African countries received ٦٢٫٦٪ of this sum, while
the Asian countries got ٣٧٫٤٪.
Other Loans offered by the Fund include the accords signed with regional
or international foundations to finance a number of programs and projects
supporting reconstruction measures and rehabilitation in the developing
countries of low income in the southern desert of Africa. Two other projects
to support rehabilitation and rectification of infrastructure in Pakistan,
Bangladesh and Asia were also financed by the Fund. This activity cost
٢٧٩

٤٦٥٫٢ million Riyals, financing sixteen projects and programs (٢٫٢٪ of the
total loans offered by the Fund in the period from ١٩٧٥ to ١٩٩٥).
CONSTRUCTION OF ISLAMIC CENTERS AND INSTITUTIONS
The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has its own religious peculiarity among the
world Islamic countries. So it has a distinguished position among these
countries to fulfill its special responsibilities towards Muslims all over the
world. The location of the Ka‘ba and the Prophet’s Mosque in the Kingdom
requires educational and religious communication between the Kingdom
and countries of the tens of millions of Muslims in Europe, America and
other continents.
It is due to the Kingdom’s adherence to the Islamic path that guaranteed the
Islamic interests in the world: the religious, the educational, and the social,
represented by moral or materialistic aid to help Muslims keep their
educational and religious identity in the society in which they live
The services offered by the Kingdom are but to reassure the
internationalization of Islam and the right of all people to listen to the voice
of Islam and be familiar with its beliefs, ethics and its source of legislation.
This can never be achieved except by spreading its call (appeal) among
people by all lawful means.
The Kingdom also offers many kinds of aid and help to Muslims in the
West and all over the world. The four kinds are represented by the
following:
١-The Building of Mosques and Islamic Centers
A Mosque is regarded as the foundation stone in any Islamic
society; it is the house of God and the place of worship where
people receive all education in general. A mosque was first built
by the Prophet Muhammad(PBUH) in Madina when he migrated
there. Therefore, the construction of mosques was the most
important means of serving Islam and Muslims. And for this
٢٨٠

reason the Kingdom started setting up mosques and Islamic
centers in the Muslim communities in the West and other
countries worldwide. This requires great effort by the Kingdom,
represented by cost or technical help or mediation with the
authority of the countries in which these centers are to be set up.
Usually this can be done easily and smoothly.
These centers make great social, instructional and educational
efforts to enhance the identity of Muslims in the non-Muslim
countries, and to develop their abilities to serve the society in
which they live. The most important mosque and center set up by
the Kingdom in Europe is the Islamic center in Geneva in
Switzerland. It is a big mosque with full services of worship,
education, and reading, and cost sixteen million Riyals. The
congregational mosque in the Belgium’s capital, Brussels, has a
capacity of ٤،٠٠٠, with an annex for education, a publishing
house and press club for the youth, and cost twenty million
Riyals. The congregational mosque in Madrid, the capital of
Spain, is regarded as one of the biggest Islamic centers in the
West, with a capacity of ١،٠٠٠ worshippers, male and female,
and an annex equipped with many departments, including
educational, medical and sports. The London mosque with its
Islamic center, in the United Kingdom, cost about forty-three
million Riyals. In has an entailed estate to cover its expenditures.
Another big mosque was built in Rome, Italy. Twenty-two
million Riyals was spent on it by the Kingdom. This mosque can
accommodate ٢،٠٠٠ worshippers, with facilities for learning,
education and sports. There are also other big mosques, built
either fully or partially at the expense of the Kingdom, in
Zagreb, Lisbon, Vienna, and in Edinburgh. Other big mosques in
North America were financed by the Kingdom. Some of these
٢٨١

are in New York, Washington, California, Colorado and
Missouri. Large Islamic centers and their activities are financed
and supported by the Kingdom in most of the United States of
America: in Chicago, Maryland, Ohio, Michigan, Virginia and
other places.
The Kingdom built mosques in Toronto, Quebec and Ottawa in
Canada, as well as the Islamic center in Brazil (South America)
built in ١٩٩٠.
There are also Islamic centers for Muslims in the big important
cities of South America built completely or partially by aid from
the Kingdom. There are about twelve centers and mosques for
social and religious activities. The Islamic efforts of the
Kingdom have reached as far as the Australian continent and the
neighbouring islands. Mosques and Islamic centers were set up
in the cities of the continent and the provinces, and in the Pacific
islands such as Fiji. The Australian Union of Islamic Councils
received ten million Riyals in aid.
٢-The Construction of Institutes for the Arabic and Islamic
Sciences and Important Oriental Study Departments
Muslims in the West and especially the younger generation need
to be exposed to the Islamic and Arabic studies. So the Kingdom
started to set up institutes that teach Islamic sciences as well as
Islamic civilization and education. One example is the Institute
of Arab Islamic Science History in Frankfurt, Germany. The
Kingdom’s contribution to this institute was around fifteen
million Riyals.
The Kingdom’s contribution to the construction of the Arab
World Institute in Paris was about eighteen million Riyals. The
Kingdom also was interested in Oriental and Islamic Studies
departments centered in the Western universities.
٢٨٢

The Kingdom offered a big grant to Harvard University in
America to set up the Department of Islamic Law and a research
study department. A chair was established for Islamic Studies.
Johns Hopkins University has been receiving annual aid since
١٩٧٦ to support the Center of Middle East Studies which is
interested in teaching Islamic law (Shari‘a) and Arabic. Also,
Duke University in North Carolina, Colorado University, The
American University in Washington D.C., and the Syracuse
Institute which is interested in the study of human rights
protection in the criminal court system of the Islamic countries,
as well as other institutes and universities.
The Arab Islamic academies were established by the Custodian
of the Two Holy Mosques, King Fahad ibn Abdulaziz, financed
fully by the Kingdom, and spread throughout the capitals of
Western countries. They include the Saudi Islamic Academy in
America, the King Fahad Academies in London, Bonn, Moscow
and others. These academies have solved some big problems in
educating Muslims in the West. The doors of these academies
are open to all. Also an independent institute for Arabic and
Islamic sciences was constructed in America at the expense of
the Kingdom and is affiliated with Imam Muhammad Ibn Saud
Islamic University.
٣- Study Scholarships
Muslims need professors from among them to keep their
younger generations attached to the Arabic and Islamic
education. So the Kingdom offers facilities and grants for those
people from all over the Islamic world to study Islamic sciences
and Arabic in its universities and institutes.
٤- Educational Aid
٢٨٣

This kind of aid covers all expenses of Islamic institutes as to
teaching staff, references, Islamic education books, research
means and equipment. Also this aid covers the expenses of
sending highly qualified Saudi instructors and preachers to
deliver lectures, and attend seminars and conferences in the
European countries and America. The Kingdom sends thousands
of copies of the Holy Qur‘an together with interpretations to
Islamic centers in the West, in addition to hundreds of thousands
of books on Islamic studies in European languages to publicize
information on Islam, its basic beliefs, and its social and literary
background. Every year many Islamic corporations throughout
the world receive aid intended for spreading the message of
Islam. The Islamic World Assembly and the World Assembly for
Muslim Youth are two examples of these corporations and
foundations.
٢٨٤

CHAPTER FOUR
COMMUNICATION
TRANSPORTATION
Man in the Kingdom, as in many other countries of the world, used the
camel as a means of transportation and trade in the past. But when trading
activities grew, camels were used in-groups called caravans. The camel is
known for its ability to stay without water for a long period of time
extending to weeks. And also a camel does not need paved roads to walk
on; they can walk across very rough areas. Narrow ways used repeatedly by
caravans have been transformed into public roads connecting cities one
with another. The caravan’s choice of roads depended mainly on the
availability of flat land and water sources. The preferred caravan routes for
the Hajj were those starting from Baghdad to Najd and from Damascus and
Cairo to Tabûk and the Hijaz.
Because of its distinguished geographical position, the Arabian Peninsula in
the past has been a crossroads for trade between Europe and the East. The
trade routes of the Red Sea were the most preferred by traders. In the past
the Arab Peninsula’s harbors have been abundant with the activities of
sailing boats, which played a crucial role in the economy of countries
located on the Arabian Gulf, the Arabian Sea, and the Red Sea, where there
have been active movements of boats until recently. These sailing boats
used to carry goods from the seaports of big cities to the smaller seaports
which could not provide facilities for unloading such large ships. This was
the case with Jeddah seaport, which used to receive many huge European
ships whose cargo was then carried by sailing boats to smaller seaports.
٢٨٥

These boats accomplished the great task of carrying local goods and Saudi
passengers between different seaports. The Dammâm seaport on the
Arabian Gulf coast was the most active seaport close to the small Jubail Sea
and was used as a crossing point to Ahsâ’ and Najd.
THE GENERAL FOUNDATION OF SAUDI RAILROADS
Before the end of World War II, there were no land roads and airports in the
Kingdom. At the beginning of the second half of the Twentieth Century, the
Kingdom had started to build roads and to use modern means of
transportation. King Abdulaziz al-Saud, may God bless him, had
recognized the importance of the transportation sector in the development
process from the beginning, so he made his wise decision to construct the
railways to be the first modern means of transportation in the Kingdom of
Saudi Arabia.
With the growth of the oil industry in the Kingdom after the Second World
War, demands increased to import equipment and gear through the
Dammâm seaport. Lorries were used to carry them to Riyadh. The growing
population in Riyadh had led to an increase in the demands for food and
other requirements of life. Consequently, the King recognized the need for a
railroad connecting Riyadh with Dammâm, so he ordered a complete study
for the project. A group of experts from many international companies was
organized. A report was submitted in ١٩٤٧ on the bases that the project
would serve Dammâm, Buqaiq, Ahsâ’, Kharj, and the Riyadh region. The
project was commissioned to be carried out by the Arabian American Oil
Company (ARAMCO). The execution of the project started on ٠١/٠٤/١٩٤٧,
lasted five years and nine months, and was handed over to the Saudi
government on ٣١/١٢/١٩٥٢. At the beginning of the project, the total length
of the railroad was ٦٣٤ km.
The last decade has witnessed a great development in the area of railroad
construction, represented by the execution of many large projects costing
٢٨٦

more than ٣،٠٢١ million Riyals. These include the construction of the
customs station in Riyadh (the dry harbor) to help Saudi traders to load their
goods directly from ships instead of loading and unloading the same goods
more than once. This station provides all necessary facilities. At a value of
٣٩٥ million Riyals, these projects also include renovating the old railways
and building a direct railway from Hofûf to Riyadh, doubling the railway
between Dammâm and Hofûf, as well as constructing new sub-railways and
side railways, and constructing three new stations in Riyadh, Dammâm and
Hofûf. Also on the list is expanding maintenance transporting equipment
establishments and supporting the transportation fleet by purchasing
modern trains and railroad coaches for passengers and carriages for
transportation of goods.
ROADS
The construction of modern roads in the Kingdom is something new. In

١٩٥٤, the total length of the roads was ٢٣٧ km. This number rose to ٨،٤٤٠
km by ١٩٧٠, and then jumped to ١٨،٠٥١ km of paved roads and ٢٤،١٨٥ km
of agricultural roads in ١٩٨٠. The statistics have indicated that the total
length of the inter-city roads was more than ١٢٢،٠٠٠ km in ١٩٩٥. Of these,
٤،٤٠٠ km of high-speed, dual-carriage highways made up ٣٫٦٪ and ٣٣،٧٥١
km of one-way roads made up ٢٧٫٨٪. There were ٨٣،٣٦٥ km of paved rural
roads, a proportion of ٨٦٫٦٪. The rate of road length compared with the
number of the population was ٧١٧٫٦ km for each ١٠٠،٠٠٠ people. The total
cost of road construction in the Kingdom was about ١٣٠٫٨ billion Riyals by
the end of the fifth development plan. The construction of these roads has
been carried out according to the most modern highway specifications in
the world. These roads include the Makkah / Madina road at a length of ٣٢١
km, the Riyadh / Sudair/ Qasîm road at a length of ٣٧٣ km, the Riyadh /
Tâ’if road at a length of ٧٥٠ km, the Hadria / Hafar al Bâtin / Rafhâ dual-
٢٨٧

carriage way at a length of ٦١٣ km, and the Qasîm highway network at a
length of ١٤١٫٧ km.
Ring roads continue to be built around some main cities in the Kingdom to
facilitate the movement of transportation and the crossing of local traffic.
This network was supplied with bridges, flyovers, underpasses, service side
roads, lightening services, forestry and safety equipment. The most
important of these roads are the Riyadh ring road with a length of ٦٣٫٢ km,
the Buraida ring road with a length of fifty-eight kilometers (under
construction), the Jeddah ring road which is ١،٠٣٦ km long, and the joint
road of the Eastern Region cities whose length is ١٠٨ km.
TRANSPORTATION FOUNDATIONS
The Saudi Arabian Mass Transport Company (SAPTCO) was set up in

١٩٧٩ by Royal Decree No. ١١/M dated ١٩٧٨. It was the first Saudi
company to accept the responsibility of public transportation inside cities.
Later this company had another task represented by transporting people
from or to the Kingdom. The government’s contribution to the company’s
total capital was ٣٠٪ out of one thousand million Riyals, the total capital of
the company. The company fleet now consists of ٢،٣٤٤ buses of various
sizes and specifications. Its local services cover most main cities. It offers
regular daily services to more than ٣٥٠ cities and villages. The company
provides more than ٣،٠٠٠ buses to transport about three and a half million
hajjis (pilgrims) every year. The company’s services have been extended to
transportation outside of the Kingdom through its part in the formation of
the Saudi Bahraini Transportation Company with joint stock. Regular
international transportation services have been established by the company
from the Kingdom’s different cities to a number of neighboring Arab
countries.
“SASCO” the Saudi Stock Company for cars and equipment services with
a ٦٠٠ million Riyal capital provides maintenance and services for vehicles
٢٨٨

and equipment of all kinds. It provides a number of service stations
throughout many of the main cities in the Kingdom, as well as first aid
services on roads inside and outside the cities. Three central service stations
have been established in Riyadh, Jeddah and Dammâm, in addition to a
number of mobile stations.
SEA TRANSPORTATION
Sea transportation is regarded as one of the most important means of

transportation in the Kingdom, because the Kingdom looks over the Red
Sea and the Arabian Gulf and is the biggest oil exporter in the world. It has
a seashore of ١،٨٠٠ km on the Red Sea, and another of about ٦١٠ km on the
Gulf, where many new seaports have been constructed. Large new trading
ships have been bought to form the core of the Saudi fleet. Developed and
modernized for efficient transportation of the large volume of Saudi trade to
foreign countries, this fleet also links the Kingdom’s seaports with other
Arab and the international seaports. The Saudi National Company of Sea
Transportation was established by a Royal Decree in ١٩٧٨ with a capital
valued at ٥٠٠ million Riyals. The government’s contribution was at a rate
of ٢٥٪. The company’s capital increased in ١٩٨٢ to one thousand million
Riyals. The company transports exports and imports from or to the
Kingdom. In addition to the transportation of passengers, the fleet exhibits
high specifications and can accommodate about ١٠،٧٧٦ typical containers
carrying all kinds of goods.
Regular transportation has been organized by the company from the
Kingdom to the southeast of the United States of America, to the east of
Asia, and to Europe. The company carries out some activities in the field of
petrochemical transportation.
The Kingdom cooperated with five other Gulf countries in establishing the
United Arab Navigation Company in ١٩٧٦ with a total capital valued at
٥٠٠ million Kuwaiti dinars. The Kingdom’s rate of contribution was at
٢٨٩

١٩٫٣٪ of the total company capital. The Kingdom also took part with nine
other Arab countries in establishing the Arabian Sea Company for Oil
Transportation in ١٩٥٣, with a capital valued at ٥٠٠ million American
dollars. Established for the transportation and marketing of the Arab oil
products, the company now possesses nine carriers with a total capacity of
about ٤٠٢،٥٨٨ tons. The Kingdom is one of the countries that established
the Arab Academy for Sea Transportation, which aims at preparing the
cadres for managing and developing the Arab commercial fleets.
The Kingdom has also joined a number of international organizations and
corporations which are concerned with matters of sea transportation and sea
safety. These include the International Arab Organization, the International
Labor Organization, and the United Nations Conference for Development
and Trade. The Kingdom also signed the United Nations Accord for Sea
Regulations as well as a number of treaties and agreements especially
related to international sea transportation and safety regulations.
The General Foundation of Seaports was established in ١٩٧٦ with the
responsibility of developing the Kingdom’s seaports and improving its
working efficiency. The foundation has achieved its objectives by
employing progressive technical methods so that the number of docks had
risen from ٢٧ to ١٨٢ in ١٩٩٣, with twenty-three of these in the King Fahad
Industrial Seaport in Jubail, and twenty-three in the King Fahad Industrial
Seaport in Yanbu‘. These have been especially built to transport industrial
products. The manpower productivity at the commercial seaports has risen
from ١٦١ thousand tons in ١٩٨٦ / ١٩٨٧ to ٢٨١ thousand tons in ١٩٩١/١٩٩٢
and the productivity in the industrial seaports has risen from twenty-two
thousand tons to about ١٥٩ thousand tons in the same period. The number
of available docks in the main seaports by the end of the fifth developing
plan was ١٧٩, with an increase of ٣٪. This is about four times as much as it
was before. The available capacity of the seaports was increased by more
than forty times since ١٣٩٦ H., up to about ٢٤٧ million metric tons yearly.
٢٩٠

The industrial capacity makes about ٧٤٪ of the available total capacity at all
seaports.
THE AIRLINES
The Kingdom has been building its air fleet since ١٩٤٦, when King
Abdulaziz, may God bless him, had given orders to establish the Saudi
Arabian Airlines, administered by the Ministry of Defense and Aviation.
When the first airport had been built in the Kendra region in Jeddah, the
Saudi airline started its local and international flights.
In the mid-fifties the Kingdom owned a foundation for aviation connecting
all distant places inside the Kingdom with one another. Also, flights to
neighboring countries started at the time when the Saudi air fleet consisted
of fifteen aircraft of the Dakota DC ٣ model. In ١٩٤٩, the fleet was
augmented by five more aircraft of the Bristol ١٧٠ model, which were used
to carry passengers as well as goods. In ١٩٥٢ the Kingdom bought five
long-range four-engine DC ٤ aircraft to be used for flights to the
Mediterranean region. By the end of ١٩٥٤, Riyadh airport was opened.
In ١٩٦٢, King Faisal, may God have mercy on him, issued a royal decree to
transform the Saudi airlines to a general independent foundation. In ١٩٦٥,
the Kingdom joined the Arab Union for Air Transportation and the
International Union of Air Transportation two years later. In ١٩٦٨, the
Saudi airlines received the first two Boeing ٧٠٧ aircraft, with a capacity of
١٤٧ passengers. This model had never been used before in the Middle East.
These aircraft made direct flights to London. In ١٩٧٢, the formal name of
the foundation became ‘Saudia’. In the same year five Boeing ٧٣٧ aircraft
joined the Saudia fleet to replace the DC ٩ aircraft. The Saudia fleet is
regarded as the most modern air fleet in the Middle East, serving twenty
Saudi locations, and with forty-one destinations in three continents. In
١٩٧٢, Saudia passes the one million-passenger mark, making ٩٫٥ million
Riyals in profits, with an increase rate of ٥٠٪ for transportation of goods.
٢٩١

The recent years of the ٧٠’s witnessed big leaps in the number of
passengers, an unprecedented achievement in any similar company
throughout the world. The fleet has been expanded to include a number of
new aircraft such as the Sylvester ١-٢, the Tri-Star, the Boeing ٧٠٧, and the
Boeing ٧٣٧. The auto-booking system has started in Jeddah.
In ١٩٨١, King Abdulaziz International Airport was opened in Jeddah. This
airport is regarded as one of the largest and most modern airports in the
world. In ١٩٨٣, new King Khalid International Airport in Riyadh started to
receive flights.
With the fast economic development in the Kingdom, the number of late
model aircraft has been increased. Many modern airports have been built
throughout the Kingdom, the most important of these are Riyadh airport,
Jeddah airport, Dahrân airport, Madina airport, Qasîm airport, Tâ’if airport,
and many others. Work is still going on in the first stage of the new King
Fahad airport in the Eastern region and some basic installations have been
completed. It is expected that all the remaining work will be completed
during the sixth development plan.
Saudia held the responsibly of preparing, rehabilitating, and training the
people of the country to create the national cadres required for the field of
air transportation. So the Aviation Academy was established in ١٩٨٥, to
train pilots and their assistants together with aviation engineers. The
academy has graduated ٢٣l, including eighty-six pilots, eighty-two aviation
specialists and sixty-three aviation engineers. Saudia has been made the
head of many committees of Arab and International Unions. In ١٩٩٣,
Saudia was chosen from among the best thirty international airlines
according to the formal reports of the International Union of Transportation.
Saudia was chosen by the International Union of Airline Travel as the safest
and the most secure international airline.
٢٩٢

Saudia was also chosen to preside over the safety committee in the
International Civil Aviation Organization. It is the first time that such a
committee is headed by an Arab airline.
Saudi Arabian Airlines is making a series of developments nowadays to
improve its services and respond to the demands of its customers. In this
framework a new emblem has been designed for Saudia. Changes in the
interior and exterior decoration of the airplanes and offices of the Saudi
airline throughout the world, as well as changes in the employees’ uniforms
have been made.
Saudia has signed a contract to purchase a new fleet of sixty-one airplanes
to help the airline to carry out its responsibilities. Statistics show that the
number of passengers of Saudia has risen from ٣٫٢ million in ١٩٨٨ /١٩٨٩
to ٢٥٫١ million passengers in ١٩٩٢ / ١٩٩٣ with an increase reaching up to
about ٢٤٪. There are twenty-five airports in the Kingdom, including three
international airports, seven regional and fifteen local. Goods exported from
the Kingdom’s airports on all airlines have increased at an average annual
rate of ١٧٪, from ٥٫٦ thousand tons in ١٩٧٠ to about ١٥٦ thousand tons in
١٩٩٤. The statistics also show the number of passengers has gone up to
١٢٫٥ million in ١٩٩٤ with the annual rate of ١٣%. The kilometric revenue
of Saudia airlines has risen from ١٧ million kilometers in ١٩٧٠ to ١٢٩
million kilometers in ١٩٩٤. Also the number of working hours of the
airplanes has risen from ٤٥٫٤ thousand hours in ١٩٧٠ to ٢١٠٫١ thousand
hours in ١٩٩٤. Again, the number of available seats from ١٩٧٠ to ١٩٩٤ had
an annual increase rate of ١٤٫٦ going up from ١٫٣ billion to about ٣٢٫٥
billion kilometric seats. The number of occupied seats on Saudia has gone
up with an annual rate of ١٥٫٥٪ to ١٩٫٣ billion kilometric seat revenue
during the same period. Kilometric tons available to Saudia went up from
١٦٠ million tons in ١٩٧٠ to ٥٫٥ billion tons in ١٩٩٤ with an annual
developing rate of ١٥٫٧٪ and the kilometric tone revenue increased from ٦٥
million tons in ١٩٧٠ to ٢٫٦ billion tons in ١٩٩٤ with an annual growth rate
٢٩٣

of ٦٫٤٪. Expense operation rate has increased to ٩٤٪ in ١٩٩٢-١٩٩٣ out of
the airline total revenues during the fifth development plan. During the
same period there was a parallel in the unit cost of operation between
Saudia and any other international airline. The productivity of manpower
went up from ١٨٦٫٢ thousand metric tons available to every employee in
١٩٨٩-١٩٩٠ to ٢١٩ thousand kilometric tons in ١٩٩٢-١٩٩٣. These numbers
reflect the extent of development which the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has
made in the field of air transportation since the Saudi government acquired
the first civil aircraft presented by the American President Franklin
Roosevelt to King Abdulaziz ibn Abdurrahman al-Saud in April ١٩٤٥.
AIR TRANSPORT
Due to the long distances that separate the main cities of the Kingdom, air
transportation seemed the most comfortable. Saudi Arabian Airlines
(Saudia) provides a domestic transport network that covers all part of the
Kingdom through twenty-four well-equipped and well-maintained domestic
airports. Saudia is also equipped with modern planes and organizes tours
anywhere in the desert. The three international airports of the Kingdom are
King Abdulaziz International Airport in Jeddah, King Khalid International
Airport in Riyadh and King Fahad International Airport in the Eastern
Region. Other international Airlines Company are operating in major
airports to provide another international travel network. In all airports of the
Kingdom, city and domestic transportation services such as car rentals,
comfortable buses provided by Saptco (Saudi Arabian Public Transport
Company), taxis, hotel limousines and trains between Riyadh and Dammâm
are available.
During the last few years, domestic tourism has provided a substantial
contribution to the national income. Investments in current services for
domestic tourism have been estimated to reach ٤٫٥ billion Riyals. This
figure confirms the trend for more domestic tourism by the people of the
٢٩٤

Kingdom. The potential is evident when looking at the total Saudi
expenditure on international tourism during ١٩٩٤ at ١٦٫٨ billion Riyals and
during ١٩٩٥ at ٢٥ billions. The numbers indicate the economic importance
of tourism and the justification for further investment in the domestic
tourism industry.
٢٩٥

THE SAUDI TELECOMMUNICATIONS
Communications and postal services have contributed to the economic and
social development in the Kingdom through services such as telephones,
mobile telephones and communication systems, the leased circuits and
electronic messages and other means of communication. These services
provide foundations, production and financial sectors with the basic means
of communication at a national or an international level. This helped these
institutions to get the information needed to promote their functions.
The history of communications in the Kingdom started in ١٩٢٦, when the
communication network was established in the main cities of the Kingdom,
namely Makkah, Riyadh, and Jeddah, to provide facilities for pilgrims.
Then this sector started receiving constant care and attention.
In ١٩٧٢, the manual telex network was replaced with an automatic network.
In ١،٩٧٤ telex lines covered the world. The Latin alphabet was the only one
used in telex. The Kingdom adopted a telex with a two-fold language
system. The authorities in the Kingdom ordered a telex system of two
languages, Arabic in addition to Latin letters. The Kingdom was the first in
the Arab world to adopt the telex of two language systems.
The telegram is still one of the most important communication services in
world, because it is fast, and cheap if compared with other means of
communication, especially in the populous areas. It is also still a necessary
service for communication between countries that could not achieve an
advanced communication system. So for this reason the authorities
provided offices for telegraph and other communications in all places for
pilgrims and ‘umra performers. The majority of those people come from
countries that have not yet acquired modern means of communications.
Regarding the importance of postal communication services, a ministry of
telegraph, postal and telephone communications was established in ١٩٧٥,
٢٩٦

making many achievements in the world of mail. Now more than four
thousand cities or villages are provided with post offices. On July ٤, ١٩٨٤,
the excellent postal system was introduced as an advanced service with the
automatic post system, a system distinguished by the high speed of letter
distribution. This service is covers now more than forty-five foreign and
Arab countries, and more than thirty cities inside the Kingdom.
THE MICROWAVE AND SATELLITE SYSTEMS
In ١٩٧٦, the underground microwave communication network system was

set up over an area of more than ten thousand kilometers in the Kingdom.
About fifty main lines containing more than ٣٠٠ microwave stations have
been established, with a capacity of forty telephone channels, to create more
than ١٢٥ microwave subsidiaries, four thousand kilometers long. The
Kingdom has been connected with the neighboring countries by
microwaves. ٢،٠٠٦ circuits of the Arabsat have been used by the Arab
counties, and the Kingdom uses ٣٩٥ of them. The Kingdom was the first to
use the Arab satellite since its launch and has established a mobile land
station in Riyadh. Since ١٩٨٣, forty-eight channels have been in service.
King Fahad City for Space Communication in Jeddah contains four land
stations. Two of them work with Intelesat satellite, one with the Anmarsat
and the other with Arabsat. Both stations, Jeddah ٤ and Jeddah ٥ of the
Intelesat have been in service since ١٩٨٧. Jeddah ٥ deals with the satellite
over the Indian Ocean to enable the Kingdom to communicate with
Australia, Hong Kong, Japan, Pakistan, Holland, and Iran. ١٤٦ circuits have
been used with these countries. Jeddah ٤ through Intelesat over the Atlantic
Ocean secures communications with Britain, America, and Spain. ٢٤٥
circuits have been used. Arabsat’s main station in King Fahad City for
Space Communications, Jeddah ٨, entered service in ١٩٨٦, with eight
circuits using the F.D.M. system, and eighty-one circuits using the S.C.B.C.
system, in addition to two TV channels for television transmission and
٢٩٧

receiving units. Thus all regional communications with the Arab and
Islamic countries have been secured. Land stations for sea communication
have been set up to secure communication with ships. Other stations
connected with Anmarsat provide communication services for airplanes.
TELEPHONE (TELECOMMUNICATIONS)
١،٨٩٨،٥٨٨ telephone lines are in service, with ٥١٠،٤٦٤ lines in Riyadh,

٥٧٤،٥٨٦ in Makkah, and ١٣٦،٣٤٨ in Madina. ١٠٤،٧٥ cabins, ١٤٩،٦٤ lines
for each cabin, and ٣٨٦ telephone exchange stations were established in
١٩٩٥-٦. Five of these were international, twenty-two transit and ٢٧٧ local.
Fifty-seven are developed exchange stations, and fourteen independent.
Mobile telephones number ١٦،٠٠٨, telexes ٦،٨١٢, and public telephones
١٥٥،٥٦.
THE INTERNATIONAL AND LONG-RANGE COMMUNICATIONS
In ١٩٩٥-٦, the number of satellite land stations was fifteen, and the number
of axial cable positions ninety-four, stations of optical fibers thirty-seven,
the microwave stations ٨٩٠, and the coastal stations eighteen.
The Kingdom can communicate with ٢٠٢ countries, with an annual rate of
١٩٧ million calls, with ٥٥٤ thousand international calls each day and an
average of ٥٣٧ million minutes a year (٢٫٧٢ minutes for a single call). The
national calls in a year were ٨٣٨ million (٢٫٤ million calls a day). The total
revenue of coin telephones during ١٩٩٤-١٩٩٥ was ٥٣٤٫٤ million Riyals
from ٥،٢٣٢ coin telephones, including ١،٦٤٨ million Riyals from ١٢٨،٤
coin telephones in Riyadh alone.
٢٩٨

Saudi Arabia

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WHALES AND DOLPHINS (CETACEA) --------------------------------------- ٣٩

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The Sports Unions and Associations:------------------------------------- ١٨٢

International Sports Participation: -------------------------------------- ١٨٢

CHAPTER ٣: THE CIVILIZATION ------------------------------- ١٨٦

THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE HOLY KA‘BA ---------------------------------- ١٨٧

MAKKAH, UMM AL-QURÂ ----------------------------------------------- ١٨٧

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Al-Ju‘rânî ----------------------------------------------------------- ١٩٣

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The Large-scale Stage (١٩٧٠-١٩٨٥) -------------------------------------- ٢٢٩

The Balanced and Specialized Stage (١٩٨٥-١٩٩٥) -------------------------- ٢٣١

The Arabian Palm ( Phoenix Dactyfifera) -------------------------------- ٢٣٥

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The Second Stage: ---------------------------------------------------- ٢٦٥

CHAPTER FOUR --------------------------------------------- ٢٨٨

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Area: The Kingdom covers four-fifths of the Arabian Peninsula or

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THE GEOGRAPHY OF THE PLACE

THE RED SEA

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THE COASTAL PLAIN OF THE RED SEA (THE TIHÂMA PLAINS)

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THE TIHÂMA MOUNTAINS

THE WESTERN HEIGHTS

The Sarawât Mountains

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The Hijaz Mountains

The Madyân Mountains

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The Hijaz Plateau

The Hismâ Plateau

The Najd Sedimentary Plateau

It is located directly to the east of Najd Crystallized Plateau. This area is

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Sand accumulations due to winds are very common in the Arabian

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The Northern Plateaux

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The Summân Plateau

The Eastern Plains

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The Arabian Gulf

The Arabian Gulf is characterized as shallow, semi-closed and surrounded

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The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is located in the tropical and semi-tropical

Temperature varies from one area to another depending on environmental

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The Kingdom is exposed to a variety of local and regional winds. The

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The rates of humidity in the Kingdom vary according to the sources of

Due to such factors as topography, temperature and wind speed, the