I

Baybayin - The Ancient Script of the Philippines

Origin of the Baybayin

The word baybayin is a very old Tagalog term that refers to all the letters used in writing a
language, that is to say, an “alphabet.” It is from the root baybáy meaning, “spell.” Early Spanish
accounts usually called the baybayin “Tagalog letters” or “Tagalog writing.” And, as mentioned
earlier, the Visayans called it “Moro writing” because it was imported from Manila, which was
one of the ports where many products from Muslim traders entered what are now known as the
Philippine islands. The Bikolanos called the script basahan and the letters, guhit.

Another common name for the baybayin is alibata, which is a word

that was invented just in the 20th century by a member of the old
National Language Institute, Paul Versoza. As he explained
in Pangbansang Titik nang Pilipinas in 1939,

"In 1921 I returned from the United States to give public lectures on
Tagalog philology, calligraphy, and linguistics. I introduced the word
alibata, which found its way into newsprints and often mentioned by
many authors in their writings. I coined this word in 1914 in the New
York Public Library, Manuscript Research Division, basing it on the

Paul Rodriguez Verzosa Maguindanao (Moro) arrangement of letters of the alphabet after the
Arabic: alif, ba, ta (alibata), “f” having been eliminated for euphony's
sake." 

Versoza's reasoning for creating this word was unfounded because no evidence of the baybayin
was ever found in that part of the Philippines and it has absolutely no relationship to the Arabic
language. Furthermore, no ancient script native to Southeast Asia followed the Arabic
arrangement of letters, and regardless of Versoza's connection to the word alibata, its absence
from all historical records indicates that it is a totally modern creation. The present author does
not use this word in reference to any ancient Philippine script.

Many of the writing systems of Southeast Asia descended from ancient scripts used in India over
2000 years ago. Although the baybayin shares some important features with these scripts, such
as all the consonants being pronounced with the vowel a and the use of special marks to change
this sound, there is no evidence that it is so old.

The shapes of the baybayin characters bear a slight resemblance to the ancient Kavi script of
Java, Indonesia, which fell into disuse in the 1400s. However, as mentioned earlier in the
Spanish accounts, the advent of the baybayin in the Philippines was considered a fairly recent
event in the 16th century and the Filipinos at that time believed that their baybayin came from
Borneo.

This theory is supported by the fact that the baybayin script could not show syllable final
consonants, which are very common in most Philippine languages. This indicates that the script
was recently acquired and had not yet been modified to suit the needs of its new users. Also, this
same shortcoming in the baybayin was a normal trait of the script and language of the Bugis
people of Sulawesi, which is directly south of the Philippines and directly east of Borneo. Thus
most scholars believe that the baybayin may have descended from the Buginese script or, more
likely, a related lost script from the island of Sulawesi. Whatever route the baybayin travelled, it
probably arrived in Luzon in the 13th or 14th century.

Literature of the Ancient Filipinos

All early Spanish reports agreed that pre-Hispanic Filipino literature was mainly oral rather than
written. Legazpi's account of 1567, quoted earlier, went on to say:
They have their letters and characters... but never is any ancient writing found among them nor
word of their origin and arrival in these islands; their customs and rites being preserved by
traditions handed down from father to son without any other record. 

The Boxer Codex manuscript from 1590, also mentioned earlier, reported that:

They have neither books nor histories nor do they write anything of length but only letters and
reminders to one another... [And lovers] carry written charms with them. 

Aside from writing letters and poetry to each other, the ancient Filipinos adorned the entrances
of their homes with incantations written on bamboo so as to keep out evil spirits.

In the Spanish era Filipinos started to write on paper. They kept records of their property and
their financial transactions, and Fr. Marcelo de Ribadeneira said in 1601 that the early Filipino
Christians made little notebooks in which they wrote, “in their characters or letters” the lessons
they were taught in church.  They often signed Spanish documents with baybayin letters and
many of these signatures still exist in archives in the Philippines, Mexico and Spain. There are
even two land deeds written in baybayin script at the University of Santo Tomas. 

To take advantage of the native's literacy, religious authorities published several books
containing baybayin text. The first of these was the Doctrina Christiana, en lengua española y
tagala printed in 1593. The Tagalog text was based mainly on a manuscript written by Fr. Juan
de Placencia. Friars Domingo de Nieva and Juan de San Pedro Martyr supervised the preparation
and printing of the book, which was carried out by a Chinese artisan whose name was not
recorded for posterity.

For modern scholars the Doctrina is like the Rosetta Stone of baybayin writing and 16th century
Tagalog. Each section of the book is presented in three parts: first, the Spanish text then, the
Tagalog translation written in the Spanish alphabet, and finally the Tagalog written in the
baybayin script. TheDoctrina is the earliest example of the baybayin that exists today and it is
the only example from the 1500s. The book also provides a view of how Tagalog was spoken
before Spanish had a chance to make its full impact on the language.  The Doctrina of 1593 was
printed using the woodblock method. That is, an entire page was carved into a single block of
wood. Ink was then applied to the block and a thin sheet of paper was gently brushed onto it to
pick up the engraved image. This method did not ensure regularity in the shapes of the baybayin
characters. However, when printing with moveable types came to the Philippines in the
beginning of the 1600s, baybayin letters began to take on more consistent, though stylized
shapes because each character was carved into its own moveable block. Fr. Francisco Lopez
used a set of these types in 1620 to produce his Ilokano Doctrina based on the catechism written
by Cardinal Belarmine, best know today as the first inquisitor of Galileo. The typeface he chose
was used in at least two earlier Tagalog books and today it is one of the most popular baybayin
styles among enthusiasts of the ancient script.  It was in this book that Lopez attempted to
reform the baybayin, which, in the view of most Spaniards, was seriously flawed. 

Nevertheless, the Spanish friars used the baybayin script not only to teach their religion to the
Filipinos, but also to teach other clerics how to speak the local languages. The writers of the
early grammars encouraged their readers to learn the baybayin, as Fr. Francisco Blancas de San
Jose explained in hisArte y reglas de la lengua tagala of 1610:

Sometimes adjoining the Tagalog word written in Spanish letters I place the Tagalog characters
with which the same word is also written, in order that through them whoever can read them can
come to know the proper pronunciation of that word... For which reason those who wish to
speak well should learn to read Tagalog characters... 

The baybayin was also described in Visayan grammar books of the 1600s such as Alonso de
Méntrida'sArte de la lengua Bisaya-Hiligayna de la isla de Panay, 1637, and Domingo
Ezguerra's Arte de la lengua Bisaya en la provincia de Leyte, 1663. However, Ezguerra's
example of the script contained printing mistakes. A kind of Spanish check mark was put in the
place of two different letters. Méntrida wrote the following about his typeface:

It is to be noted that our Bisayans have some letters with different shapes, which I place here;
but even they themselves do not agree on the shapes of their letters; for this reason, and because
of the limited types available, I have shown the characters according to the Tagalogs. 
The Baybayin Method of Writing

The baybayin was a syllabic writing system, which means that each letter represented a syllable
instead of just a basic sound as in the modern alphabet. There were a total of 17 characters: three
vowels and 14 consonants, but when combined with the small vowel-modifying marks,
called kudlíts, the number of characters increased to 45. This way of writing is called
an abugida. When a person spelled a word orally or recited the baybayin, the individual letters
were called babâ, kakâ, dadâ, etc., but the original sequence of the letters was different to what
it is today. This “alphabetical” order was recorded in the Tagalog Doctrina Christiana.

“The abc. in the Tagalog language”

A  U/O  I/E  HA PA KA SA LA TA NA BA MA GA  DA/RA  YA
NGA WA

The Consonants & Kudlíts

In their simplest form, each consonant represented a syllable that was pronounced with
an a vowel (like the u in “up”). Simply adding a tick, dot or other mark to the letter, would
change the inherent a vowel sound. These marks were called kudlíts, or diacritics in English.
A kudlit was placed above a consonant letter to give it an i or e vowel sound. When it was placed
below the letter it changed the vowel sound to u or o.
The Vowels

The three vowel characters were only used at the beginning of words and syllables, or syllables
without any consonant. There were only three vowels because the ancient Tagalogs, and many
other linguistic groups, did not distinguish between the pronunciations of i and e, or u and o until
Spanish words entered their languages. Even today these sounds are interchangeable in words
such as lalaki/lalake(man), babae (woman) and kababaihan (womanhood or
womankind), uód/oód (worm), punò (tree trunk) and punung-kahoy (tree),
and oyaye/oyayi/uyayi (lullaby).

The vowel characters actually represented vowels that were preceded by a glottal stop. This
pronunciation was more common in the pre-Hispanic era but has changed over the centuries due
to the influences of western languages. This shift can be seen when early texts, such as
the Doctrina Christiana, are compared to modern Filipino. For example, we syllabicate the
words ngayón (today) andgagawín (will do) as follows: nga-yon and ga-ga-wín respectively. But
the baybayin text of the Doctrinareveals a different syllabic division. Ngayón was written, ngay-
on, and gagawin was written ga-gaw-in.

The R Sound
The Tagalogs used only one character for da and ra,  . The pronunciation of this letter
depended on its location within a word. The grammatical rule has survived in modern Filipino
that when a d is between two vowels, it becomes an r as in the words dangál (honour)
and marangál (honourable), or dunong(knowledge) and marunong (knowledgeable).

However, this rule could not be relied upon in other languages, so when other linguistic groups
adopted the baybayin, different ways of representing the r sound were required. The Visayans
apparently used the d/ra character for their own words but used the la character for Spanish
words. Fr. Lopez's choice of d/ra or la seemed to be random in the Ilokano Doctrina, which
caused many corruptions of Ilokano words.  However, a chart drawn by Sinibaldo de Mas in
1843 showed la doubling for the Ilokano ra while his Pangasinan list showed no substitute
for raat all. The Bikolanos modified the d/ra character to make a distinct letter for ra. 

The Nga Character  

A single character represented the nga syllable. The latest version of the modern Filipino
alphabet still retains the ng as a single letter but it is written with two characters. The ng is the
alphabet's only remaining link to its baybayin heritage.

Punctuation

Words written in the baybayin script were not spaced apart; the letters were written in a
continuous flow and the only form of punctuation was a single vertical line, or more often, a pair
of vertical lines. || This fulfilled the function of a comma and a period, and indeed, of practically
any punctuation mark in use today. Although these bars were used consistently to end sentences,
they were also used to separate words, but in an unpredictable manner. Occasionally a single
word would be enclosed between these marks but usually sentences were divided into groups of
three to five words.

Final Consonants

The most confusing feature of the baybayin for non-native readers was that there was no way to
write a consonant without having a vowel follow it. If a syllable or a word ended with a
consonant, that consonant was simply dropped. For example, the letters n and k in a word
like bundók (mountain) were omitted, so that it was spelled bu-do.

The Spanish priests found this problem to be an impediment to the accurate translation of their
religious texts. So, when they printed a lesson in baybayin it was usually accompanied by a
Spanish translation and the same Tagalog text using the Spanish alphabet, as in the Doctrina
Christiana. Other priests simply stopped using the baybayin in favour of the alphabet. The first
attempt to “reform” the baybayin came in 1620 when Fr. Francisco Lopez prepared to publish
the Ilokano Doctrina. He invented a new kudlít in the shape of a cross. This was placed below a
baybayin consonant in order to cancel the inherent a sound. Lopez wrote:

The reason for putting the text of the Doctrina in Tagalog type... has been to begin the correction
of the said Tagalog script, which, as it is, is so defective and confused (because of not having
any method until now for expressing final consonants - I mean, those without vowels) that the
most learned reader has to stop and ponder over many words to decide on the pronunciation
which the writer intended. 

Although Lopez's new way of writing provided a more accurate depiction of the spoken
language, native Filipino writers found it cumbersome and they never accepted it. In 1776, Pedro
Andrés de Castro wrote about their reaction to the invention:

They, after much praising of it and giving thanks for it, decided it could not be incorporated into
their writing because it was contrary to the intrinsic character and nature which God had given it
and that it would destroy the syntax, prosody and spelling of the Tagalog language all at one
blow...

Direction of Baybayin Writing

The baybayin was read from left to right in rows that progressed from top to bottom, just as we
read in English today. However, this has been a point of controversy among scholars for
centuries due to conflicting accounts from early writers who were confused by the ease with
which ancient Filipinos could read their writing from almost any angle. As the historian William
H. Scott commented,

The willingness of Filipinos to read their writing with the page held in any direction caused
understandable confusion among European observers who lacked this ability - and causes some
irritation to Tagalog teachers in Mangyan schools today.  [Note: The peoples collectively known
as Mangyans still use their own form of the baybayin in Mindoro.]

Some observers were mistaken to believe that the baybayin should be read vertically from
bottom to top in columns progressing from left to right because that was how the ancient
Filipinos carved their letters into narrow bamboo strips. However, it was simply a matter of
safety that when they used a sharp instrument to carve, they held the bamboo pointing outward
and they carved away from their bodies, just as modern Mangyans do today.  This gave the
appearance that they were writing from the bottom upward. However, this did not necessarily
mean that the text was supposed to be read that way too.

Although the ancient Filipinos did not seem to mind which way they read their writing, the clue
to the proper orientation of the text was the kudlíts, or diacritic marks that alter the vowel sound
of the letters. In syllabic scripts such as Kavi, Bugis and others closely related to the baybayin,
the text was read from left to right and the diacritics were placed above and below the characters
(i/e was above and u/o was below). When the ancient Filipinos carved the baybayin into the
bamboo strips, they placed the kudlíts to the left of the letter for the i/e vowel and to the right for
the u/o vowels. Thus, when the finished inscription was turned clockwise to the horizontal
position, the text flowed from left to right and the kudlíts were in their proper places, i/e above
and u/o below.
Variants of the Baybayin

Some writers have claimed that there were several different ancient
alphabets in the Philippines, which belonged to different languages and
dialects in Luzon and the Visayas. The number of scripts mentioned
usually ranges from 10 to 12. However, none of the early Spanish authors
ever suggested that there was more than one baybayin script. In fact, even
when they wrote about other Philippine languages, they usually referred to
the baybayin as “Tagalog” writing or as quoted earlier, Pedro Chirino
called it “the letters proper to the island of Manila.”

The baybayin was a single script, and just like the alphabet today, its
appearance varied widely according to each person's unique
handwriting. When the printing press was introduced to the Philippines,
this variety was reflected in the typefaces. The misconception that each
province had its own alphabet arose in the 19th century, long after the
baybayin had fallen out of use. Authors who wrote about Philippine
culture, such as Eugène Jacquet (1831) and Sinibaldo de Mas (1843),
collected old samples of baybayin writing and classified them according to
where they were found or the language of the text.  They were aware that
these samples were variations of one script but, later writers such as Pardo
de Tavera and Pedro Paterno around the turn of the century, assembled
their own comparison charts from these samples and other sources and The Lopez "Ilokano"

labelled them as distinct “alphabets” from various regions. These charts type font compared

were later reproduced in schoolbooks of the 20th century with very little in to earlier Tagalog
the way of explanation for their content. Thus, through generations of fonts. From W.H.

copying and recopying, these individual samples, many of which were Scott (1994, p. 214.)

merely one person's particular handwriting style, came to be known as

distinct alphabets that belonged to entire regions or linguistic groups.

The clearest example of this kind of misinterpretation is the baybayin typeface that Francisco
Lopez chose in 1620 for his Ilokano Doctrina and for his Arte de la lengua yloca of 1627. It first
appeared in two Tagalog books, Arte y reglas de la lengua Tagala (1610) by Francisco Blancas
de San Jose and Vocabulario de lengua Tagala(1613) by Pedro de San Buenaventura. (See the
chart on the right.) However, Eugène Jacquet called this style the Ilokano alphabet in his Notice
sur l'alphabet Yloc ou Ilog(1831) because it was used most notably in two Ilokano books. But, as
quoted earlier, even Lopez said that he put “the text of the [Ilokano] Doctrina in Tagalog type.”
Still, the Lopez typeface is often mistakenly called the pre-Hispanic Ilokano alphabet.

Baybayin Lost

Although the baybayin had spread so swiftly throughout the Philippines in the 1500s, it began to
decline in the 1600s despite the Spanish clergy's attempts to use it for evangelization. Filipinos
continued to sign their names with baybayin letters throughout the 17th, and even into the 18th
century, though most of the documents were written in Spanish. Gaspar de San Agustín still
found the baybayin useful in 1703. In his Compendio de la lengua Tagala he wrote, “It helps to
know the Tagalog characters in distinguishing accents.”  And he mentioned that the baybayin
was still being used to write poetry in Batangas at that time. But in 1745 Sebastián Totanes
claimed in hisArte de la lengua Tagala that,

Rare is the indio who still knows how to read [the baybayin letters], much less write them. All of
them read and write our Castilian letters now. 

However, Totanes held a rather low opinion of Philippine culture and other writers of the period
gave a more balanced view. Thomas Ortiz felt it was still necessary to describe the Tagalog
characters in hisArte y Reglas de la lengua Tagala of 1729 and as late as 1792 a pact between
Christians and Mangyans on the island of Mindoro was signed with baybayin letters, which is
not surprising because the Mangyans never stopped using their script.

Many people today, both ordinary Filipinos and some historians not acquainted with the
Philippines, are surprised when they learn that the ancient Filipinos actually had a writing
system of their own. The complete absence of truly pre-Hispanic specimens of the baybayin
script is puzzling and it has lead to a common misconception that fanatical Spanish priests must
have burned or otherwise destroyed massive amounts of native documents as they did so
ruthlessly in Central America. Even the prominent Dr. H. Otley Beyer wrote in The Philippines
before Magellan (1921) that, “one Spanish priest in Southern Luzon boasted of having destroyed
more than three hundred scrolls written in the native character.” Historians have searched for the
source of Beyer's claim, but until now none have even learned the name of that zealous priest.
Furthermore, there has never been a recorded instance of ancient Filipinos writing on scrolls.
The fact that they wrote on such perishable materials as leaves and bamboo is probably the
reason why no pre-Hispanic documents have survived.

Although many Spaniards didn't hide their disdain for Filipino culture, the only documents they
burned were probably the occasional curse or incantation that offended their beliefs. There
simply were no “dangerous” documents to burn because the pre-Hispanic Filipinos did not write
at length about such things as their own beliefs, mythology, or history. These were the subjects
of their oral record, which, indeed, the Spanish priests tried to eradicate through relentless
indoctrination. But, in regard to writing, it can be argued that the Spanish friars actually helped
to preserve the baybayin by continuing to use it and write about it even after it fell out of use
among most Filipinos.

It is more likely that mere practicality was the main reason that the baybayin went out of style.
Although it was adequate for the relatively light requirements of pre-Hispanic writing, it could
not bear the burdens of the new sounds from the Spanish language and that culture's demand for
an accurate written representation of the spoken word. The baybayin could not distinguish
between the vowels i ande, or u and o, or the consonants d and r. It lacked other consonants too,
but more important, it had no way to cancel the vowel sound that was inherent in each
consonant. Thus consonants could not be combined and syllable final consonants could not be
written at all. Without these elements the meanings of many Spanish words were confused or
lost completely.

Social expediency was another reason for Filipinos to abandon the baybayin in favour of the
alphabet. They found the alphabet easy to learn and it was a skill that helped them to get ahead
in life under the Spanish regime, working in relatively prestigious jobs as clerks, scribes and
secretaries. With his usual touch of exaggeration, Fr. Pedro Chirino made an observation in 1604
that shows how easily Filipinos took to the new alphabet.

They have learned our language and pronunciation and write it as well as we do, and even better,
because they are so clever that they learn everything very quickly... In Tigbauan [Panay] I had a
small boy in school who in three months, by copying letters that I received in good script,
learned to write much better than I, and translated important papers for me most accurately,
without errors or falsehoods. 

But if reasons of practicality were behind the demise of the baybayin, why did it not survive as
more than a curiosity? Why was it not retained for at least ceremonial purposes such as
inscriptions on buildings and monuments, or practiced as a traditional art like calligraphy in
other Asian countries? The sad fact is that most forms of indigenous art in the Philippines were
abandoned wherever the Spanish influence was strong and only exist today in the regions that
were out of reach of the Spanish empire. Hector Santos, a researcher living in California,
suggested that obligations to the Spanish conquerors prevented Filipinos from maintaining their
traditions:

Tributes were imposed on the native population. Having to produce more than they used to, they
had less time to pass on traditional skills to their children, resulting in a tightening spiral of
illiteracy in their ancient script. 

Baybayin Found

In some parts of the Philippines the baybayin was never lost but developed into distinct styles.
The Tagbanuwa people of Palawan still remember their script today but they rarely use it. The
Buhid and especially the Hanunóo people of Mindoro still use their scripts as the ancient
Filipinos did 500 years ago, for communication and poetry. Dr. Harold Conklin described
Hanunóo literature in 1949:

Hanunóo inscriptions are never of magical import, nor are they on mythological or historical
topics. Written messages (love letters, requests etc.,) are occasionally sent by means of inscribed
bamboos, but by far the most common use of this script is for recording ambáhan [Hanunóo] and
urúkai [Buhid] chants. Both of these types consist largely of metaphorical love songs. 

Dr. Fletcher Gardner described their postal system in 1943:

A bamboo letter is fastened in a cleft stick and placed by the trailside. The first passer-by, who is
going in the direction of the addressee, carries it as far as his plans allow and leaves it again by
the trail, to be carried on by some other person. Perhaps half a dozen volunteers may assist in
conveying the letter to its designation. 

Today there are small under-funded movements working to preserve these living scripts, such as
the Mangyan Assistance & Research Center in Panaytayan, Mansalay, Mindoro, directed by
Antoon Postma and the Palawan State University Tagbanwa Script Project, aided by Dr. Jesus
Peralta jr. at the Philippine National Museum. In 1994, Hector Santos created several Hanunóo,
Buhid, and Tagbanuwa computer fonts for publishing and education as well as fonts for the
ancient baybayin.

The information revolution has allowed Filipinos to learn more about the pre-Hispanic era on the
Internet than was ever taught in Philippine schools. As a result many Filipinos are taking a new
interest in their own heritage and it is usually the baybayin that catches their attention first.
Through the use of computer fonts, the baybayin is now being used in graphic designs for web
sites, multimedia art, jewellery, compact discs, T-shirts, and logos.  And for some Pinoys, it
seems that the path has come full circle. Whereas long ago the Visayan pintados were tattooed
according to their status in the community, today a growing number of young Filipinos are
getting tattooed with baybayin characters to show their pride in their heritage.

http://www.mts.net/~pmorrow/bayeng1.htm [SOURCE]
 II

Baybayin Styles & Their Sources

Although it is commonly believed that each province in the Philippines had its own ancient
alphabet, Spanish writers of the 16th century reported that the practice of writing was found only
in the Manila area at the time of first contact. Writing spread to the other islands later, in about
the middle of the 1500s. For this reason, the Spaniards usually called the ancient Filipino script
"Tagalog letters", regardless of the language for which it was used.

The baybayin script, as it is known today, fell out of use in most areas by the end of the 1600s. In
the 19th century, historians gathered old samples of baybayin writing from various sources and
locations and assembled them in comparison charts, noting the source location or language of
each specimen. Most of these same historians came to the conlcusion that all the variations in the
letter shapes were due to the tastes and writing styles of the idividuals who wrote the original
specimens and not due to regional differences. In other words, there was only one baybayin. But,
in the 20th century many writers copied the comparison charts into their school textbooks with
little or no explanation attached. Thus most readers were lead to believe that each sample of
writing was a different alphabet according to its title in the chart.

There was actually much more variation in the handwriting of individuals of any given region
than there is in this chart of supposedly distinct alphabets. Compare this chart to the examples of
baybayin writing on the pages, The Baybayin as Written by Filipinos and Baybayin
Handwriting of the 1600s. 

This is a chart of some baybayin forms and the original source of each. They are sorted
chronologically and grouped by their familiar region names but they are not distinct alphabets of
the different regions or languages; they are only variations of typestyles and handwriting. There
are details for each below.

Source Information

Doctrina 1593

From the Doctrina Christiana, en lengua española y tagala printed in 1593. The Tagalog text
was based mainly on a manuscript written by Fr. Juan de Placencia. Friars Domingo de Nieva
and Juan de San Pedro Martyr supervised the preparation and printing of the book, which was
carried out by an unnamed Chinese artisan. This is the earliest example of the baybayin that
exists today and it is the only example from the 1500s. The sample shown is my own font based
on the facsimile, Doctrina Christiana, The First Book Printed in the Philippines, Manila,
1593. National Historical Institute, Manila, 1973. 2nd printing, 1991.

Chirino 1604
From Relación de las Islas Filipinas by Pedro Chirino, published in 1604. The sample shown is
fromRelación de las Islas Filipinas, The Philippines in 1600. Manila [Historical Conservation
Society], 1969. The letter A may have been printed backward, so I have reversed it for this chart.

Lopez 1620

From Libro a naisurátan amin ti bagás ti Doctrina Cristiana... written by Francisco Lopez in

1620 but bearing the publishing date of 1621. This example was scanned from the chart in Dr.
Ignacio Villamor'sLa Antigua Escritura Filipina (1922) p. 103.

Méntrida 1637

From Alonso de Méntrida's Arte de la lengua Bisaya-Hiligayna de la isla de Panay, 1637.

Méntrida's font has been listed in some charts as the Visayan alphabet.  However, like other early
Spanish writers, Méntrida considered all the variant letter shapes to be part of one Philippine
script. He wrote the following about his typeface:

It is to be noted that our Bisayans have some letters with different shapes, which I place here; but
even they themselves do not agree on the shapes of their letters; for this reason, and because of
the limited types available, I have shown the characters according to the Tagalogs. B12

This sample was taken from the web site Promotora Española de

Lingüistica (PROEL,http://www.proel.org/alfabetos/bisaya.htm, bisaya3.gif) It was probably
based on a chart by Juan R. Francisco in his work "Philippine Palaeography" in the Philippine
Journal of Linguistics, special monograph 3, 1973.

Ezguerra 1663

From Domingo Ezguerra's Arte de la lengua Bisaya en la provincia de Leyte, 1663. According to

William H. Scott, the letters that Ezguerra recorded "contain what are probably engraver's
errors–for example, the use of a marginal check mark normal to Spanish usage of the time, to
represent two different letters of the alphabet". (Scott, 1994, p.95) These were probably the
alternate forms of theA and the I/E and possibly the alternate form of the Da. There was no
character for Ya. I have moved the alternate I/E into that position. The other alternate letters are
not shown here. This sample was also  taken from the web site Promotora Española de
Lingüistica (PROEL,http://www.proel.org/alfabetos/bisaya.htm, bisaya3.gif) It was probably
based on a chart by Juan R. Francisco in his work "Philippine Palaeography" in the Philippine
Journal of Linguistics, special monograph 3, 1973.

Benavente 1699

From a 1699 manuscript by Fr. Alvaro de Benavente, Arte y Vocabulario de la lengua

Pampanga, cited
in Kapampángan  or Capampáñgan:  Settling the Dispute on the Kapampángan Romanized
Orthography(2006) by Michael Raymon M. Pangilinan. This is probably the source of the
Kapampangan example of Sinibaldo de Mas.

San Agustín 1703

From Gaspar de San Agustín's Compendio de la lengua Tagala written in 1703 and published in

1787. The sample shown was scanned from Pre-Spanish Manila, A reconstruction of the Pre-
History of Manila, by  Jesus T. Peralta & Lucila A. Salazar. National Historical Institute, Manila,
1974. 2nd printing, 1993. p. 78. Reproduced from Cipriano Marcilla y Martín's Estudio de los
antiguos alfabetos Filipinos, 1895

Kapampangan

Formerly listed here as possibly being from Vocabulario de la lengua Pampanga en romance,

1732 by Diego Bergaño. However, Joel P. Mallari refuted this speculation in Documenting
Philippine Pre-Hispanic Scripts (Kapampangan Research Journal December 2006). According
to Jojo Malig, the sample shown here is from an Angeles University Foundation paper on
Kapampangan Linguistics (http://groups.yahoo.com/group/Alibata/message/812 - November
11, 2002). It was uploaded to the Ancient Baybayin Scripts Network online forum
(http://groups.yahoo.com/group/Alibata/files/kapam.jpg). The original source of this sample
is unknown to the current author.
Hervás 1787

From Saggio prattico delle lingue con prolegomeni e una raccolta di Orazioni Domincale in più
di trecento lingue e dialetti, 1787 (Practical examples of languages with prologues and a
collection of the Lord's prayer in over 300 languages and dialects) by  Lorenzo Hervás y
Pandura. Because this book was not written specifically about the Philippines or Philippine
languages, I believe that the type style is taken from an earlier source. It most closely resembles
Ezguerra's typeface of 1663. The sample shown here is my own font. It was based on two
Austrian books that reproduced Cebuano text in this font, Illustrirte Geschichte der Schrift (The
Illustrated History of Writing) by Karl Faulman, 1880 and Sprachenhalle (Hall of Languages) by
Alois Auer, 1847. There was no letter for Wa; theU/O character was used instead in these
documents. The R sound was represented by the letter Dain Bisayan words and the La character
was used for Spanish words. The scans of these documents were provided by Mr. Wolfgang
Kuhl.

Jacquet 1831

From Eugène Jacquet's "Notice sur l'alphabet Yloc ou Ilog" in Considérations sur les alphabets
des Philippines, 1831. The sample shown here is a reconstruction of two low resolution scans of
a chart by Juan R. Francisco in his work "Philippine Palaeography" in the Philippine Journal of
Linguistics, special monograph 3, 1973. His chart, in turn, was based on examples in a book by
Pardo de Tavera,Contribución para el estudio de los antiguos alfabetos filipinos. The scans were
downloaded from two web sites: Alibata at Pandesal by Terrio
Echavez (http://alibataatpandesal.com/pilipino.html pilipino.jpg)and Promotora Española de
Lingüistica (PROEL, http://www.proel.org/alfabetos/tagalo5.gif). Some examples from David
Diringer's The Alphabet, A Key to the History of Mankind (Third edition, 1968. p.298) were used
to reconstruct the blurred images of the scans. Diringer's source was Fletcher
Gardner's Philippinne Indic Studies of 1943.

Enrile 1835

From  Carácteres antíguos con los que escribian estos Naturales del Tagalog y
Camarínes (Ancient characters with which these natives of the Tagalogs and Camarines used to
write"), the Pascual Enrile collection 18 of the Biblioteca del Museo Naval  in Madrid. (ms. 2287,
doc. 32:214-214v.) Photocopy provided by Dr. Malcolm Warren Mintz.

Mas 1843

From the chart by Sinibaldo de Mas y Sans in Informe sobre el estado de las Islas Filipinas en
1842Vol. 1. Madrid, 1843. All of the examples by Mas were copied into Pedro Paterno's
chart Cuadro Paleografico (1890). These examples are from the reproduction of Sinibaldo de
Mas' chart in William Henry Scott's Barangay, Sixteenth-Century Philippine Culture and
Society, 1994, p. 214.

http://www.mts.net/~pmorrow/baychart.htm [SOURCE]

III

Writing system in Mindanao

There is no sufficient information about the earlier writing system of Mindanao because back
then, the northern and middle part of the Philippines (Luzon and Visayas) were the first ones to
be colonized by Spanish forces and they were the ones to be taught about the system of writing
during that time and there is not much written information that can prove that there was a main
or several writing systems in Mindanao.
 IV

Ancient Tagalog Deities

The supreme god of the Tagalogs; creator of man and earth and addressed sometimes
as Bathalang Maykapal. He dwells in Kaluwalhatian together with the lesser gods and
Bathala goddesses. Aside from the lesser gods and goddesses, he sent his anitos in order to
assist the daily lives of every human. When most of the natives were converted
to Christianity during the Spanish Era, he was referred to the Christian God.

The ill-tempered god of the sea because among of the first generation gods (aside from
Bathala), he was never married after his love was spurned by a beautiful mortal
Amanikable
maiden, Maganda. In frustration, he swored vengeance against the humans by sending
turbulent waves and horrible tempest in order to wreck boats and to drown men.

The goddess of labor and good deeds. Natives used to call for her guidance in order to
Idiyanale
make their works successful. She married Dimangan and had two offspring.

Dimangan The god of good harvest. He was married to Idiyanale and had two offspring.

The goddess of fertility and the most understanding and kind of all the deities. Also
known as Ikapati, she was the giver of food and prosperity. Her best gift to mankind
Lakapati
was agriculture (cultivated fields). Through this, she was respected and loved by the
people. Later, she was married to Mapulon and had a daughter.

Mapulon The god of seasons and husband of Lakapati of whom they had a daughter.

Mayari The goddess of moon and one of the three daughters of Bathala by a mortal women.
 She was the most charming of all the goddesses and had two sister namely Tala and
Hanan.

The goddess of the stars; sister of Mayari and Hanan and one of the three daughters of
Tala
Bathala by a mortal women

The goddess of morning; sister of Mayari and Tala and one of the three daughters of
Hanan
Bathala by a mortal women.

The strong, agile guardian of mountains and the son of Idiyanale and Dimangan. His
Dumakulem
sister was Anitun Tabu. He later married Anagolay.

The fickle-minded goddess of wind and rain. She was the daughter of Idiyanale and
Anitun Tabu
Dimangan and the sister of Dumakulem.

The goddess of lost things and the only offspring of Lakapati and Mapulon. She was
Anagolay
married to Dumakulem.

The god of sun and was chiefly the patron of warriors. He was the son of Anagolay
Apolaki
and Dumakulem.

The goddess of love, conception and childbirth and the protector of lovers. She was
Diyan the daughter of Anagolay and Dumakulem and youngest of all the deities. After the
Masalanta conversion of the natives to Christianity during the Spanish Era, she was then referred
as Maria Makiling.

The guardian of Kasamaan and the keeper of all the souls that goes therein and hence,
Sitan the counterpart of Satan. He had four agents whose task was to lead man to sin and
destruction.

She was the first agent of Sitan and the primarily cause of occurrence of diseases.
Manggagaway Sometimes, she would change herself into form of a human as a false healer. If she
wish to kill someone, she would do it by her magic wand.
 The second agent of Sitan as she's task was to destroy and break every happy and
Manisilat
united family that she could find.

The only male agent of Sitan as he's task was to emit fire at night and when there is a
bad weather. Like his fellow agents, he practically change his form as a healer and
Mangkukulam then induce fire at his victim's house. In response of this, if the fire will be
extinguished immediately, the victim would eventually die. His name is literally
defined today as a witch.

The last agent of Sitan that also change herself into any form she desired. She could
Hukluban kill someone by simply raising her hand and could heal without any difficulty is she
wants so. Her name is literally defined as crone or hag.

Other Tagalog Deities

She was present in some creation myths as being the one who assisted Bathala and
Amansinaya
Amihan in creating the earth.

The North Wind who often take the form as a large bird. In some creation myths, it is
the one who assisted Bathala and Amansinaya in creating the earth. Amihan was
Amihan
responsible for splitting the bamboo in which Malakas and Maganda came from (the
first humans on earth).

Galang
Kaluluwa The winged god present in some creation myths who loves to travel. He is identified as
(Wandering a close friend of Bathala.
Spirit)

Haik He was the god of the sea in some sources.

Lakambakod The protector of the growing crops.

Lakambuwi Spanish called him as "Abogado de la Garganta" (The Throat Advocate). He is referred
 as the god of gluttony, food and eating. 

Linga He was the god who was responsible for curing diseases, hence a deity of medicines. 

Ulilang
Kaluluwa It is a serpent god present in some creation myths that was killed by Bathala after an
(Orphaned ensuing rival.
Spirit)

Ancient Bikolano Deities

The supreme god who dwells inside of Mount Mayon where he guards and protects the
sacred fire in which Aswang, his brother was trying to steal. Whenever people disobey
Gugurang his orders, wishes and committed numerous sins, he would cause Mount Mayon to burst
lava as a sign of warning to mended their foul ways. Ancient Bikolanos had a rite
performed for him called Atang.

The evil god who always tried to steal the sacred fire of Mount Mayon from his brother,
Gugurang. Addressed sometimes as Asuang, he dwells mainly inside of Mount
Aswang
Malinao. As an evil god, he would cause the people to suffer misfortunes and to commit
sins.

The masked goddess of the moon and the archenemy of Bakunawa. Her cult is
Haliya composed primarily of women. There is also a ritual dance named after her as it is
performed to be a counter-measure against also to Bakunawa.

A gigantic sea serpent deity who was often considered as being the cause of eclipses. As
Bakunawa
the devourer of the sun and the moon, this serpent became an adversary to Haliya.

Ancient Visayan Deities

Kaptan The supreme god of who dwells in the sky. He is the Ancient First
Visayans counterpart of Bathala. Of all the supreme deities in the Visayas, he is
 the most worshiped by the natives. He had a son named Lihangin.

The goddess of the sea who is believed to take the souls of the dead in Sulad
Magwayen First
(Ancient Visayans counterpart of Hell). She had a daughter named Lidagat.

The god of the wind and the son of Kaptan. He later married Lidagat and had
Lihangin Second
four children.

The goddess of the sea after Magwayen. She later married Lihangin and had
Lidagat Second
four children.

Likabutan The god of world and the eldest children of Lihangin and Lidagat. Third

Ladlaw The god of the sun and the second children of Lihangin ang Lidagat. Third

Libulan The goddess of the moon and the third children of Lihangin and Lidagat. Third

The deity in which Silalak and Sibabay came from. She was the youngest
Lisuga
children of Lihangin and Lidagat.

Other Visayan Deities

The supreme god of the Visayans according to Rajah Kolambu of Mazaua during his
Abba conversation with Ferdinand Magellan.[50] Abba is the Visayan name for Bathala of
the Tagalogs.

Alunsina She was the virgin goddess of the eastern skies.

Bangun Bangun god of time and cosmic movements

Barangaw He is the god of the rainbow.

Bulalakaw bird god, causer of illness

Burigadang Pada
Sinaklang goddess of greediness
Bulawan

Dal'lang The goddess of beauty that bestows her gift of beauty to her followers.

Dalikamata the many-eyed goddess, cures eye illnesses

He is the Visayan god of magic that was a former priest (or babaylan) who turned
Halmista
into a god.

Inaginid and
were invoked for success in battle and plunder
Malanduk

The supreme god worshiped by the Ancient Visayans who lived in the Negros
Kan-Laon Island that dwells in Mount Kanlaon. As well as Kaptan, he is an Ancient
Visayans counterpart of Bathala).

Kasaraysarayan
god of rivers
sa Silgan

She is the goddess of fire, volcanoes and harvest.[56] In ancient times, Ancient
Visayans blamed her for sending armies of locusts to destroy their harvests. In
Lalahon
response, natives will offer her gifts in order to please her and prevent her from
doing that.

Lubay-Lubyok goddess of the night breeze

Hanginun si
Mahuyokhuyoka
n

Luyong Baybay goddess of the tides

Magdang Diriinin god of lakes

Maklium sa
god of the valleys and plains
Tiwan

Maklium sa
god of the sea
Tubig

Munsad
god of politics and affairs of men
Buralakaw

Nagined,
Arapayan, and could be appealed to when concocting a poisonous oil
Makbarubak

Pahulangkug god of seasons

Paiburong god of the middle world (not Middle-Earth…)

Pandaki rescued the deserving for a more pleasant fate

Panlinugun ruler of the underworld, god of earthquakes

Ribung Linti god of lightning and thunder

Santonilyo god of graces

Saraganka Bagyo god of storms

Saragnayan god of darkness

The god of death who is said to reside on top of Mount Madia-as in the province of
Sidapa
Antique.

Siginarugan He is identified as the god of the underworld.

Suimuran and
gods of hell, the final destination for all deceased souls
Suiguinarugan

Suklang Malayon goddess of homeliness, sister of Alunsina

Sumalongson god of the rivers and the sea

Sumpoy god of the afterlife

Tungkung Langit upper world and supreme god, counterpart Bathala

Ynaguinid and
gods of war, battle
Macanduc

Mindanao Deities

The sun god and supreme god. Married to Bulon La Mogoaw, they reside in
Kadaw La
the seventh heaven. They beget seven sons and daughters who end up
Sambad 
marrying each other.
Bulon La
The moon goddess and supreme goddess, wife of Kadaw La Sambad.
Mogoaw 

The eldest son is given a cohort of fire, a tok (sword), shield, and the magical
horse; Kaunting, who can be as small as a mouse when not being ridden and
Cumucul
who can be kept in a box (This reflects the honor given by the Tboli to eldest
sons and the value they accord horses). Cumucul is married to Boi Kabil.

The second son is married to the second daughter, Bong Libun. This marriage
produces no progeny, leading to Sfedat's despondency. One day, he asks his
Sfedat 
wife to kill him. His corpse becomes the land from which sprout all kinds of
plants and trees.

The third son is married to two of his sisters, Sedek We and Hyu We. His
request for one of the powers granted Cumucul is refused. Thus, he leaves the
sky with his wives and seven children from Hyu We (Litik, Blanga, Teme
Lus, Tdolok, Ginton, Lmugot Mangay, and Fun Bulol) and six from Sedek
We. For a place to stay, he asks Bong Libun for the land that was once
Dwata Sfedat's body. Bong Libun agrees on the condition that she marries one of his
sons. Dwata spreads the land, and plants the trees and other vegetation; the
result is the earth. The first people are created after Dwata breathes life into
the clay figurines made by Hyu We and Sedek We. However Dwata does not
fulfill his side of the bargain with Bong Libun, because his sons will not have
her as wife.

Litik The god of thunder.

Blanga  The god of stones and rocks.

Teme Lus The god of wild beasts.

Tdolok The god of death.

Ginton The god of metallurgy.

Lmugot Mangay The god of life and of all growing things.

Fun Bulol The god of the mountains.

Married to her brother Sfedat, however their marriage did not produce any
progeny that lead to Sfedat’s despondency. Sfedat ask her to kill him, when
she did as she has told, the corpse of Sfedat becomes the land. Her other
brother Dwata ask her for the land that once Sfedat’s body for a place to stay.
She agrees on the condition that she marries one of his sons. Dwata spreads
the land, and plants the trees and other vegetation; the result is the earth. The
Bong Libun
first people are created after Dwata breathes life into the clay figurines made
by Hyu we and Sedek We. However Dwata does not fulfill his side of the
bargain with Bong Libun, because his sons will not have her as wife. She
marries her youngest brother Datu Bnoling. With him she has seven sons,
who become scourges of the earth: Fun Knkel, Fun Daskulo, Fun Lkef, Fun
Kumuga, Fun Blekes, Fun Lalang.

Fun Knkel The god of fever.

Fun Daskulo The god of head diseases.

Fun Lkef The god of colds.

Fun Kumuga The god of eye afflictions.

Fun Blekes The god of skin diseases.

Fun Lalang The god of baldness.

Loos Klagan & The divine couple; to alleviate the damage done by the scourges (the sons of
La Fun Bong Libun and Datu Bnoling) they assume the role of healers.

Muhen A bird who is one of the most influential figures in the Tboli pantheon who is
considered the god of fate, whose song when heard is thought to presage
 misfortune. Any undertaking is immediately abandoned or postponed when
one hears the Muhen sing.

Bilaan Deities

Melu The Supreme Being and creator. He is assisted by Fiu Weh and Tasu Weh.

Fie Wuh The good spirit.

Tasu Weh The evil spirit.

Fon Kayoo The spirit of the trees.

Fon Eel The spirit of water.

Fon Batoo The spirit of rocks and stones.

Loos Klagan The most feared deity, uttering his name is considered a curse.

Batak Deities

Who in remotest times lived among the people, having been summoned by a
Manguimba powerful babaylan, and he supplied all the necessities of Batak life, as well as
all the cures for illness. He even had the power to bring the dead back to life.

Diwata Who provides for the needs of men and women, and gives out rewards for good
deeds. Sanbay is a ritual in honor of Diwata, who asked by the people to bless
them with generous harvests of palay (unhusked rice) and honey. This ritual
takes place inside a forest, about 2-3 km from the beach. Two huts are
constructed for the ritual. Palay is placed in one of these huts. A replica of a
beehive, meanwhile, is situated in another small hut. Prayers are recited to
 Diwata by the babaylan, after which the people in attendance gather together in
festive eating, drinking, and dancing.

Lives in basad, a place beyond this world where the souls of the dead go, and it
is there where they come to know if they are to proceed to lampanag (heaven)
Angoro
or be cast into depths of the basad, where fire and boiling water await these
hapless ones.

Batungbayanin Spirit of the mountains.

Paglimusan Spirit of the small stones.

Balungbungani
Spirit of the almaciga trees.
n

Sulingbunganin Spirit of the big rocks.

Palawan Deities

The Master who wove the world and created several kinds of humanity, hence he is
also called Nagsalad, the Weaver. He is the supreme deity in a system of religious
Ampu thought that can be qualified as "theist" and “animist." He is a protective watching
presence, always invisible to tawbanar or the real people. In the verticality of the
universe, andunawan represents his abode. While people live on dunya or earth.

A benevolent and protective deity stays in lalangaw, the median space, he is the
Diwata
mediator between humans and Ampu.

Ampu At
The Master of Rice.
Paray
Linamin
The Lady of the Monsoon Winds.
At Barat

Linamit
The Lady of the Dry Season.
At Bulag

Upa
Grandfather Thunder.
Kuyaw

Bukidnon Deities

The supreme god who has minor gods and goddesses beneath him to do
Magbabaya
specific jobs and take care of certain things, he is also the god of the west.

Domalondong The god of the north.

Ongli The god of the south.

Togalambong The god of the east.

He watches over the crops and their growth in a simple ceremony at the
Ibabasok
center of the rice field.

They worship this deity in an elaborated celebration complete with songs and
Dagingon dances which will last for nine nights during planting and after harvest
seasons.

Bulalakaw The spirit who watches the rivers and takes care of the fishermen's catch.

Tumpaa Watches the base of the earth night and day lest it crumbles.
Nanapiyaw or
Intumbangol

Isneg Deities

The spirit who looks after the general welfare of the people and is recognized
Anlabban 
as the special protector of hunters.

Bago The spirit of the forest.

Sirinan The river spirit.

Held responsible for some cases of extreme poverty. Those believed to be

Landusan suffering from the machinations of this spirit are said to be malandusan
(impoverished).

Alupundan Causes the reapers' toes to get sore all over and swell.

Arurin She sees to it that the harvest is bad, if the Isneg farmers fail to give her share.

A female spirit who causes sickness in children for playing in places where
Dagdagamiyan
the harvest is being done.

Darupaypay Devours the palay stored in the hut before it is transferred to the granary.

Ginuudan Come to measure the containers of palay, and causes it to dwindle.

Sildado Resembles a horse, and kills children who play noisily outside the house.

Inargay Kills people during harvest time. When inapugan, a ritual plant is offered to
Inargay, the following prayer is recited by the Isneg farmer: "Iapugko iyaw
Inargay ta dinaami patpatay" (I offer this betel to you, Inargay, so that you
 may not kill us).

A good harvest is portended by the rising of a little whirlwind from the

Alipugpug
burned field. This, it is said, is the spirit of Alipugpug.

Rice pudding is offered to Pilay, the spirit of the rice, who resides on the
paga, a shelf above the Isneg hearth. This is the pisi, the ritual offering of
food to the spirits. The old woman who performs this utters the following
prayer: "Ne uwamo ilay ta ubatbattugammo ya an-ana-a, umaammo ka
mabtugda peyan" (Here, this is yours, Pilay, so that you feed my children
fully, and make sure that they are always satisfied). Another ritual is
Pilay
performed right in the fields where the harvest is going on. The amulets
inapugan, takkag (a kind of fern), and herbs are tied to a stalk of palay, which
later will be place in the granary before the other palay. Again, these are
reserved for Pilay. In case a new granary is built, and the contents of the old
granary transferred, the spirit's special share is also transferred to the new
place. It is never consumed.

Tiruray Deities

The goddess who creates of the world, had a brother named Tulus, also called
Minaden
Meketefu and Sualla.

Is the chief of all good spirits who bestow gifts and favors upon human
beings. He goes around with a retinue of messengers called telaki. Tulus is
Tulus
said to have rectified some errors in the first creation of the world and of
human beings.

Mangyan Deities

Mahal Na The Supreme Being who gave life to all human beings merely by gazing at
Makaako them.

Binayi Owner of a garden where all spirits rest.

 Is a sacred female spirit, caretaker of the rice spirits or the kalag paray. She is
married to the spirit Bulungabon. The kalag paray must be appeased, to
ensure a bountiful harvest. It is for this reason that specific rituals are
Binayo conducted in every phase of rice cultivation. Some of these rituals include the
panudlak, the rite of the first planting; the rite of rice planting itself; and the
rites of harvesting which consist of the magbugkos or binding rice stalks, and
the pamag-uhan, which follows the harvest.

The spirit aided by 12 fierce dogs. Erring souls are chased by these dogs are
Bulungabon
eventually drowned in a caldron of boiling water. He is Binayo’s husband.

Tinguian Deities

The Supreme Being and Creator of the world. He lives and rules the celestial
Bagatulayan
realm, directing its activities.

Is a deity subordinate to Bagatulayan. He is a friendly spirit who teaches the

Kadaklan Tinguian how to pray, harvest their crops, ward off evil spirits, and overcome
bad omens and cure sicknesses.

A deity who is known to be the guardian and dweller of the spirit-stones

called pinaing which play an important role in the spiritual world of the
Apadel or
Tinguian. Of various sizes and shapes, the pinaing are usually found in sports
Kalagang
marked out as hallowed ground, often under old trees, and are deemed to be
the protectors of such places and of the creatures who live in the forests.

A benevolent spirit who dwells in the natural surroundings, believed to be the

Makaboteng
guardian of the deer and the wild pigs.

Talaandig Deities

Magbabaya The Supreme God.

Dadaganan hu A house spirit who guard of the lawn of the house.

Suguy

Anilaw ha
A house spirit, the guard of the door.
Sumagda

Sinyuda
A house spirit, the keeper of the hall.
Kahibunan

Diwata ha
A house spirit who records the activity of people inside the house
Manilib

Diwata
A house spirit who guard the house at the ridge of the roof.
Pinatanlay

Gaddang Deities

Is both creator of all things and a culture hero. In the latter role, he is a
beneficent deity. Nanolay is described in myth as a fully benevolent deity,
Nanolay
never inflicting pain or punishment on the people. He is responsible for the
origin and development of the world.

Ofag Nanolay's cousin.

To whom the epic warriors Biwag and Malana prayed for strength and
Dasal
courage before going off to their final battle.

Bunag The god of the earth.

Limat The god of the sea.

Ifugao Deities
 The chief god generally refer to as the honorary dead and creator of all things,
Mah-nongan
even though Ifugaos do not consider any of their deities as supreme.

Liddum Is regarded as the chief mediator between the people and the other gods.

The winder of thread on the spindle, one of the twenty-three different deities
Monlolot
preside over the art of weaving.

Stretcher of skeins, one of the twenty-three different deities preside over the
Mamiyo
art of weaving.

In charge of worms, one of the eleven beings importuned to stamp out rice
Bumigi
pests.

Has the power to dry up the rice leaves, one of the eleven beings importuned
Lumadab
to stamp out rice pests.

Of the Fourth Skyworld, is the god who bestowed animals and plants on the
Ampual people and who controls the transplanting of rice. He is one of those gods
who expects gifts in return for his blessings.

Wigan Is the god of good harvest.

Puwok Controls the dread typhoons.

Yogyog and
Cause the earth to quake. They dwell in the underworld.
Alyog

Ilongo Deities

Abal He and his brother Cain are the creators and guardian lords of all things. They
are benevolent and their particular care is that of the people who live on earth.
 They are invincible and live in the sky Taon, sometimes on the sun Elag, or
the moon Dalan, or perchance some star Pandac. Their messengers are called
Binangunan or Cabuligian. Cain and Abal travel from place to place. Their
road is called Keat (lightning). Kidu (thunder) follows the road. In the
beginning, Cain and Abal lived together in the sky; but they had a quarrel and
separated, as Abal wanted to live on earth where he could herd his animals.
He was the one who created the lowlanders, who have the use of his carabaos
and other animals.

Created all the mountain people, including the Ilongots. He gave them their
customs, which they have followed throughout the centuries. He was a killer
Cain
and a head-hunter; so they are also. Abal is stronger and more powerful than
Cain and so there are more lowlanders than mountain people.

Oden The rain, they worship him (it) for its life-giving water.

The sun, they worship him (it) so as the moon and stars because they give life
Elag and growth. He has a great, magnificent house in Gacay. When he gets tired
giving light and goes into his house, it is night.

The moon, usually he and Elag are congenial and take turns giving light; but
Delan sometimes they quarrel and Elag covers Delan more or less with a great, huge
winnowing biga-o (basket). Thus we have the different phases of the moon.

The guardian of wild beasts. When a party of men is starting on a hunt, they
build a fire, take hold of the dogs and the weapons and pass them one by one
through the smoke. The last dog to be passed through the smoke is the leader
of the pack. After taking it out of the smoke, the owner spits on its face, and
rubs the saliva down its back and sides. Meanwhile, he has been talking and
Gemang
shouting to Gemang, saying: “Do not let our dogs get sick. You must give us
one of your animals. Do not take the form of a wild beast so that the dogs
chase you by mistake. If you will let the dogs catch one beast, then we will
give you to eat and drink and likewise your wife.” Following this ceremony,
the part starts out in a successful hunt.

Lampong The dwarf shepherd of the wild animals.

Agta Deities

Gutugumakkan The Supreme Being.

Kedes The god of the hunt.

Pawi The god of the forest.

Sedsed The god of the sea.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deities_of_Philippine_mythology#Ancient_Tagalog_Deities
[SOURCE]

IV

Philippine Ethnic Groups

Ethnic groups from Luzon

The people of Luzon belong to the Filipino people, and are divided into several ethno
linguistic groups. These groups inhabit different areas of the island.

Ilocanos predominate in the northern portion of Ilocos and the region of Cagayan

Valley, Pangasinense primarily inhabit Pangasinan, while the Kapampangans primarily live
in Pampanga, Tarlac and the rest of Central Luzon. Meanwhile, Tagalogs are the majority
in Bulacan, CALABARZON, and Metro Manila, while Bicolanos predominate in Bicol. Other
ethnic groups are also present such as the Aeta of Zambales, theIbanag of Cagayan, and
the Igorot of the Cordilleras.

Due to recent migrations populations of Hindus, Moros, and Chinese have also been present in

urban areas. Populations of Spanish, Americans, Japanese, Koreans, Desis, and Filipino
mestizos are also visible. Most Americans have settled in Angeles City and Olongapo City due to
the former presence of the U.S. air and naval bases in Central Luzon.

Ethnic groups from Visayas

The Bisaya or Visayan people are a multilingual ethnic grouplocated in the Visayas and a large
part of Mindanao. Visayan languages with the most number of native speakers are Cebuano, with
20 million;Ilonggo (or Hiligaynon), with 7 million; and Waray-Waray, with 2.5 million. There
are some ethnolinguistic groups however that have languages which are classified as Visayan but
do not refer to themselves as Bisaya. For instance, the Muslim ethnolinguistic group Tausug only
use Bisaya to refer to those who are Christian. Meanwhile, there are people who identify as
Bisaya (primarily those from Metro Manila and the United States but do not speak Visayan
languages.

The Bisaya were initially animists who were known for being traders and raiders. Magellan’s
landing in the Visayas in 1521 marks the start of Christianization of the Bisaya and the rest of the
Philippines. This event is celebrated by the feast of the Sto. Niño, the most popular religious icon
of the Visayas.

Major Visayan cities like Cebu , Bacolod and Iloilo played major political, economic and

cultural roles during the Spanish colonial era. And in the modern Philippine Republic; so far,
there has been three Presidents from the Visayas.

Aside from the three largest groups, namely Hiligaynon, Cebuano, and Waray, who speak
Visayan languages, there are also the Romblomanon, Masbatenyo, Karay-a, Aklanon,
and Cuyonon, to name a few others. 

Ethnic groups from Mindanao

The Moros comprise of various ethnolinguistic groups in southern and western Mindanao who

have a similar ancestry to other lowland Filipinos, but whose religion isIslam. The largest of
these are the Tausug, the Maguindanao, the Maranao, the Samal, the Yakan, and the Banguingui.
These ethnolinguistic groups are very diverse in terms of language and culture, and have been
politically independent from each other up until recently, Collectively, they are also called
Moros. The word Moro in English means 'moor'. Hence, it has been used by other ethnic groups
as a pejorative term. However, some Muslims have used the word moro and have taken pride in
it, that they have applied the term Bangsamoro, meaning 'Moro nation', to their homeland.
Muslim Filipinos have an independent justice and education system centrally based in Cotabato
City. All in all, they comprise 5% of Filipinos, making them the sixth largest ethnic group in the
country. 
The Bajau, (also written as Badjao, Badjaw or Badjau) are an indigenous ethnic
group of Malaysia and the southern Philippines. Although native to the southern Philippines, due
to escalated conflicts in the Sulu Archipelago in the southern part of the country, many of the
Bajau had migrated to neighboring Malaysia over the course of 50 years, where currently they
are the second largest ethnic group in the state of Sabah, making up 13.4%[1] of the total
population. Groups of Bajau had also migrated to Sulawesi and Kalimantan in Indonesia,
although figures of their exact population are unknown. They were sometimes referred to as
the Sea Gypsies, although the term has been used to encompass a number of non-related ethnic
groups with similar traditional lifestyles, such as the Moken of the Burmese-Thai Mergui
Archipelago and the Orang Laut of southeastern Sumatra and the Riau Islands of Indonesia. The
modern outward spread of the Bajau from older inhabited areas seems to have been associated
with the development of sea trade in trepang.

The Visayan: The Butuanon are part of the wider Visayan ethnolinguistic group, who constitute

the largest Filipino ethnolinguistic group. The Butuanon are one of the smallest Visayan ethnic
groups. As with the Surigaonons, the Butuanons are also previously considered as Cebuanos.
The Surigaonon people are part of the wider Visayan ethnolinguistic group, who constitute the
largest Filipino ethnolinguistic group. Although traditionally grouped with the Cebuanos, the
Surigaonons are a distinct identity.

The Lumad is a term being used to denote a group of indigenous peoples of the

southern Philippines. It is a Cebuano term meaning "native" or "indigenous". The term is short
for katawhang lumad (literally "indigenous peoples"), the autonym officially adopted by the
delegates of the Lumad Mindanaw Peoples Federation (LMPF) founding assembly in June 26,
1986 at the Guadalupe Formation Center, Balindog, Kidapawan, Cotabato, Philippines. It is the
self-ascription and collective identity of the non-Islamized indigenous peoples of Mindanao.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_the_Philippines [SOURCE]
Group Members:
Andrino, Eduardo

Flores, Bryan Percival

Reyes, Stephen John

Santos, Alain Joseph

Section: 2-10