MECHANISMS AND DYNAMICS OF MACHINERY FOURTH EDITION Hamilton H. Mabie Charles F. Reinholtz Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State UniversityDEDICATED to the late FRED W. OCVIRK whose contributions to the First and Second Editions motivated later editions, and to SALLIE MABIE and JERI REINHOLTZ, whose assistance and forbearance have made this edition possible. Copyright © 1957, 1963, 1975, 1987, by John Wiley & Sons, Ine. All rights reserved. Published simultaneously in Canada. Reproduction or translation of any part of this work beyond that permitted by Sections 107 and 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without the permission of the copyright owner is unlawful. Requests for permission or further information should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons. Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data: Mabie, Hamilton H. (Hamilton Horth), 1914- Mechanisms and dynamics of machinery. Includes index. 1. Mechanical movements. 2. Machinery, Kinematics of. 3. Machinery, Dynamics of. I. Reinholtz, Charles F. IL. Title. TII7S.M123 1986 621.8 86-1115 ISBN 0-471-80237-9 Printed in the United States of America 30 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22About the Authors HAMILTON H. Mabie, Professor of Mechanical Engineering at Virginia Poly- technic Institute and State University since 1964, received his B.S. degree from the University of Rochester, his M.S. degree from Cornell University, and his Ph.D. degree from Pennsylvania State University. From 1941 to 1960, Dr. Mabie was on the faculty of the Sibley School of Mechanical Engineering at Cornell University. From 1960 to 1964, he worked at Sandia Laboratory in Albuquerque, New Mexico, where he was engaged in research and development related to nuclear weapons. In addition to his work in kinematics, Dr. Mabie is engaged in research on gears, torque characteristics of instrument ball bearings, environmental effects on the fatigue life of aluminum, and fretting corrosion of rolling element bearings. He has authored and coauthored many technical papers in these fields. He is a licensed professional engineer and a Life Fellow of The American Society of Mechanical Engineers. The first edition of Mechanisms and Dynamics of Machinery was published by John Wiley & Sons in 1957 and the second in 1963, both with the late F. W. Ocvirk as coauthor. The third edition was published in 1975 and an SI Version in 1978. This fourth edition has Charles F. Reinholtz as coauthor. CHARLES F. REINHOLTZ is currently Assistant Professor of Mechanical Engi- neering at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University in Blacksburg, Virginia, a position he has held since 1983. He holds B.S., M.S., and Ph.D. degrees from the University of Florida. He has also worked for Burroughs Cor-iy ABOUT THE AUTHORS poration as a design engineer in the Peripheral Products Group. Professor Rein- holtz has been active in the area of kinematics and mechanism design since 1976. He is a member of The American Society of Mechanical Engineers, The Amer- ican Society for Engineering Education, and Sigma Xi. He is also a member of Tau Beta Pi and Pi Tau Sigma Honor Societies.Preface This textbook has been completely revised and updated. Its contents have been reorganized to better match the sequence of topics typically covered and to reflect the many changes brought about by the use of computers in the classroom. These changes include the use of iterative methods for linkage position analysis and matrix methods for force analysis. BASIC language computer programs, devel- oped on a personal computer, have been added throughout the text to demon- strate the simplicity and power of computer methods. All BASIC programs listed in the text have also been coded in FORTRAN 77 and listed in Appendix Three. The text can now be used with either U.S. units, SI units, or a combination of both. Where the units of an equation must be specified, both a U.S. and an SI form are given. An effort has been made to maintain a balance between analytical and graphical methods. This edition has been expanded to include a number of new topics. In keeping with the additional emphasis on computer methods, kinematic and dy- namic analysis of linkages has been demonstrated using the commercially avail- able Integrated Mechanisms Program (IMP). Analytical cam design material has been expanded to include equations for determining the various disk cam con- tours. Both the U.S. and metric systems of gearing are covered, and a complete Problem set is given for each system of units. A new section that covers non- Standard spur gears cut with a pinion cutter has been added to the chapter on nonstandard gearing. Two new topics have been included in the chapter on gear trains: harmonic drives and power flow through planetary gear trains. Complex number methods and loop-closure equations have been used more extensively in the velocity and acceleration analysis of linkages. The chapter on force analysis has been thoroughly revised. In addition to the superposition method,vi PREFACE it now includes the matrix method, which is a powerful tool when used in con- junction with a computer. In the chapter on balancing, a method for balancing four-bar linkages has been added. The chapter on kinematic synthesis has been revised and expanded to include many new topics, including a general discussion of function generation, path generation, and body guidance, and the problems of branch defect, order defect, and Grashof defect. The final chapter, on spatial mechanisms and robotics, is completely new. The material contained in this chapter is becoming increasingly important in the design of complex automatic production machinery. We appreciate the many suggestions and helpful comments made by our reviewers: Richard Alexander, Marvin Dixon, and William H. Park. We are in- debted to the following instructors at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University for their helpful suggestions: Craig A. Rogers, Richard E. Cobb, Edgar G. Munday, Joseph W. David, and Peter J. Leavesly. Finally, we would like to acknowledge the help and encouragement provided by our editors at Wiley, Charity Robey and Bill Stenquist: HAMILTON H. MABIE CHARLES F. REINHOLTZContents Chapter 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Introduction to the Study of Mechanisms 1 1.2. Mechanism, Machine 5 1.3. Motion 5 1.4 Cycle, Period, and Phase of Motion 7 1.5 Pairing Elements 7 1.6 Link, Chain 7 1.7. Inversion 8 1.8 Transmission of Motion 9 1.9 Mobility, or Number of Degrees of Freedom 11 PROBLEMS 15 Chapter 2 Linkages and Mechanisms 20 2.1 Position Analysis of the Four-Bar Linkage 20 2.2. Four-Bar Linkage Motion and Grashoff’s Law 24 2.3 Position Analysis of Linkages Using Loop Closure Equations and Iterative Methods 26 2.4 Linkage Analysis Using the Integrated Mechanisms Program (IMP) 32 2.5. Slider Crank Mechanism 35 2.6 Scotch Yoke 38 2.7 Quick-Return Mechanisms 38viii. CONTENTS 2.8 2.9 2.10 2a Daly 2.13 2.14 2.15 2.16 2.17 2.18 2.19 Toggle Mechanism 40 Oldham Coupling 41 Straight-Line Mechanisms 41 Pantograph 42 Chamber Wheels 43 Hooke’s Coupling 44 Constant-Velocity Universal Joints 46 Intermittent-Motion Mechanisms 50 Computing Elements 54 Integrators 55 Synthesis 57 Case Study in Mechanism Design: The Hydrominer 57 PROBLEMS 61 Chapter 3 Cams 71 Bal hy 3.3 3.4 =A 3.6 Bul 3.8 ao 10 1 3.12 Bale) 3.14 Cam Classification and Nomenclature 71 Disk Cam with Radial Follower (Graphical Design) 73 Disk Cam with Oscillating Follower (Graphical Design) 76 Positive-Return Cam (Graphical Design) 78 Cylinder Cam (Graphical Design) 78 Inverse Cam (Graphical Design) 79 Cam Displacement Curves 79 Cam Displacement Curves—Advanced Methods 88 Disk Cam with Radial Flat-Faced Follower (Analytical Design) 90 Disk Cam with Radial Roller Follower (Analytical Design) 96 Disk Cam with Oscillating Roller Follower (Analytical Design) 106 Contour Cams 111 Three-Dimensional Cams 115 Cam Production Methods 118 PROBLEMS 119 Chapter 4 Spur Gears 128 4.1 4.2 4.3 44 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 Introduction to Involute Spur Gears 128 Involutometry 131 Spur Gear Details 134 Characteristics of Involute Action 135 Interference in Involute Gears 140 Gear Standardization 141 Minimum Number of Teeth to Avoid Interference 151 Determination of Backlash 15649 CONTENTS jx Internal (Annular) Gears 162 4.10 Cycloidal Gears 163 PROBLEMS 164 Chapter 5 Nonstandard Spur Gears 171 al 5.2 Sah 5.4 5.5 Theory of Nonstandard Spur Gears 171 Extended Center Distance System 173 Long and Short Addendum System 183 Recess Action Gears 185 Nonstandard Spur Gears Cut by a Pinion Cutter 187 PROBLEMS 199 Chapter 6 Bevel, Helical, and Worm Gearing 206 6.1 Theory of Bevel Gears 206 6.2. Bevel Gear Details 210 6.3 Gleason Straight Bevel Gear Tooth Proportions 213 6.4 Angular Straight Bevel Gears 214 6.5 Zerol Bevel Gears 214 6.6 Spiral Bevel Gears 215 6.7 Hypoid Gears 219 6.8 Theory of Helical Gears 220 6.9 Parallel Helical Gears 226 6.10 Crossed Helical Gears 229 6.11 Worm Gearing 231 PROBLEMS 235 Chapter 7 Gear Trains 245 7A 7.2 73 14 15 1.6 Introduction to Gear Trains 245 Planetary Gear Trains 248 Application of Planetary Gear Trains 258 Assembly of Planetary Gear Trains 262 Circulating Power in Controlled Planetary Gear Systems 267 Harmonic Drive Gearing 273 PROBLEMS 275 Chapter 8 Velocity and Acceleration Analysis 291 8.1 8.2 8.3 Introduction 291 Linear Motion of a Particle 293 Angular Motion 296xX CONTENTS 8.4 Relative Motion 296 8.5 Methods of Velocity and Acceleration Analysis 298 8.6 Velocity and Acceleration Analysis by Vector Mathematics 298 8.7 Determination of Velocity in Mechanisms by Vector Polygons 311 8.8 Relative Velocity of Particles in Mechanisms 312 8.9 Relative Velocity of Particles in a Common Link 313 8.10 Relative Velocity of Coincident Particles on Separate Links 316 8.11 Relative Velocity of Coincident Particles at the Point of Contact of Rolling Elements 318 8.12 Instantaneous Centers of Velocity 321 8.13 Instantaneous Center Notation 323 8.14 Kennedy’s Theorem 324 8.15 Determination of Instantaneous Centers by Kennedy’s Theorem 325 8.16 Determination of Velocity by Instantaneous Centers 327 8.17 Rolling Elements 329 8.18 Graphical Determination of Acceleration in Mechanisms by Vector Polygons 329 8.19 Relative Acceleration of Particles in Mechanisms 330 8.20 Relative Acceleration of Particles in a Common Link 330 8.21 Relative Acceleration of Coincident Particles on Separate Links. Coriolis Component of Acceleration 333 8.22 Relative Acceleration of Coincident Particles at the Point of Contact of Rolling Elements 340 8.23 Analytical Vector Solution of Relative Velocity and Acceleration Equations 344 8.24 Velocity and Acceleration Analysis by Numerical or Graphical Differentiation 349 8.25 Kinematic Analysis by Complex Numbers 354 8.26 Analysis of the Slider Crank by Loop Closure Equations and Complex Numbers 357 8.27 Analysis of the Inverted Slider Crank by Loop Closure Equations and Complex Numbers 362 8.28 Analysis of the Four-Bar Linkage by Loop Closure Equations and Complex Numbers 364 8.29 Complex Mechanisms 369 8.30. Velocity and Acceleration Analysis Using the Integrated Mechanisms Program (IMP) 370 PROBLEMS 372 Chapter 9 Force Analysis of Machinery 395 9.1 Introduction 395 9.2 Centrifugal Force in Rotor Blades 396 9.3 Inertia Force, Inertia Torque 3999.4 9.5 9.6 ON 9.8 oD) 9.10 O12 9.13 9.14 ble 9.16 9.17 9.18 9.19 9.20 Ea 9.22 CONTENTS xi Force Determination 402 Methods of Linkage Force Analysis 404 Linkage Force Analysis by Superposition 404 Linkage Force Analysis by Matrix Methods 413 Force Analysis Using the Integrated Mechanisms Program (IMP) 418 Linkage Force Analysis by the Method of Virtual Work 421 Linkage Force Analysis from Dynamic Characteristics 425 Linkage Force Analysis by Complex Numbers 429 Engine Force Analysis 434 Dynamically Equivalent Masses 440 Application of Equivalent Masses 441 Engine Force Analysis Using Point Masses 442 Engine Block 449 Engine Output Torque 450 Flywheel Size 456 Forces on Gear Teeth 462 Cam Forces 468 Gyroscopic Forces 470 Moment-of-Inertia Determination 475 PROBLEMS 479 Chapter 10 Balance of Machinery 503 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 10.7 10.8 10.9 10.10 Chapter 1 Intro 1 1.2 13 11.4 Introduction 503 Balance of Rotors 504 Dynamic and Static Balance 510 Balancing Machines 511 Balance of Reciprocating Masses 513 Analytical Determination of Unbalance 516 Firing Order 525 V Engines 525 Opposed Engines 532 Balance of Four-Bar Linkages 533 PROBLEMS 535 1 duction to Synthesis 545 Classification of Kinematic Synthesis Problems 546 Spacing of Accuracy Points for Function Generation 549 Analytical Design of a Four-Bar Linkage as a Function Generator 552 Curve Matching Applied to the Design of a Four-Bar Linkage as a Function Generator 557xii. CONTENTS 11.5 11.6 11.7 11.8 11.9 Graphical Design of a Four-Bar Linkage as a Function Generator 560 Graphical Design of a Four-Bar Linkage for Body Guidance 561 Analytical Design of a Four-Bar Linkage for Body Guidance 564 Analytical Synthesis Using Complex Numbers 567 Design of a Four-Bar Linkage as a Path Generator Using Cognates 570 11.10 Practical Considerations in Mechanism Synthesis Chapter 12 Spati: ily 12.2 tS) 12.4 1S 12.6 ne (Mechanism Defects) 572 PROBLEMS 575 Mechanisms and Robotics 582 Introduction 582 Mobility 583 Describing Spatial Motions 587 Kinematic Analysis of Spatial Mechanisms 595 Kinematic Synthesis of Spatial Mechanisms 597 Introduction to Robotic Manipulators 600 Kinematics of Robotic Manipulators 602 PROBLEMS 608 Appendixes 612 Answers to Problems 628 Index 635Chapter One Introduction 1.1 INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF MECHANISMS The study of mechanisms is very important. With the continuing advances made in the design of instruments, automatic controls, and automated equipment, the study of mechanisms takes on new significance. Mechanisms may be defined as that division of machine design which is concerned with the kinematic design of linkages, cams, gears, and gear trains. Kinematic design is design on the basis of motion requirements in contrast to design on the basis of strength requirements. An example of each of the mechanisms listed above will be given in order to present a comprehensive picture of the components to be studied. A sketch of a linkage is shown in Fig. 1.1. This particular arrangement is known as the slider-crank mechanism. Link 1 is the frame and is stationary, link 2 is the crank, link 3 is the connecting rod, and link 4 is the slider. A common application of this linkage is in the internal-combustion engine where link 4 2 4 SD | FIGURE 1.1 Slider-crank mechanism.2. INTRODUCTION becomes the piston (Fig. 1.2a). This figure also demonstrates how difficult it may be to discern the basic kinematic device when looking at a photograph or a drawing of a complete machine. Figure 1.2b shows the kinematic diagram of the slider-crank mechanism corresponding to the left-side crankshaft-connecting-rod- piston in the photograph of Fig. 1.2a. Such a kinematic diagram is much e to work with and allows the designer to separate the kinematic considerations from the larger problem of machine design. FIGURE 1.2a Chevrolet V-8 engine showing slider-crank mechanism. (General Motors Corporation). Connecting rod FIGURE 1.2b Kine- gy matic diagram of en- gine mechanism. CrankshaftINTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF MECHANISMS 3, Figure 1.3 shows the sketch of a cam and follower. The cam rotates at a constant angular velocity, and the follower moves up and down. On the upward motion the follower is driven by the cam, and on the return motion it is driven by the action of gravity or of a spring. Cams are used in many machines, but one of the most common is the automotive engine where two cams are used per cylinder to operate the intake and exhaust valves, also shown in Fig. 1.2a. A three-dimensional cam is shown in Fig. 1.4. In this cam, the motion of the follower depends not only upon the rotation of the cam but also upon the axial motion of the cam tre | F Follower Ww I Cam FIGURE 1.3 ‘Two-dimensional cam. FIGURE 1.4 Three-dimensional cam. Gears are used in many applications to transmit motion from one shaft to another with a constant angular velocity ratio. Figure 1.5 shows several commonly used gears. Spur gears Bevel gears Parallel shaft helical gears FIGURE 15 (continued next page)Herringbone Worm and Crossed shaft gears worm gear helical gears FIGURE 1.5 (continued) In some cases, the desired reduction in angular velocity is too great to achieve using only two gears. When this occurs, several gears must be connected together to give what is known as a gear train. Figure 1.6 shows a gear train where the speed is stepped down in going from gear 1 to gear 2 and again in going from gear 3 to gear 4. Gear 1 is the driver, and gears 2 and 3 are mounted on the same shaft. In many gear trains, it is necessary to be able to shift gears in and out of mesh so as to obtain different combinations of speeds. A good example of this is the automobile transmission where three speeds forward and one in reverse are obtained by shifting two gears. In devices such as instruments and automatic controls, obtaining the correct motion is all-important. The power transmitted by the elements may be so slight as to be negligible, which allows the components to be proportioned primarily on the basis of motion, strength being of secondary importance. There are other machines, however, where the kinematic analysis is only one step in the design. After it has been determined how the various machine components will act to accomplish the desired motion, the forces acting upon FIGURE 1.6 Gear train.MOTION 5 these parts must be analyzed. From this, the physical size of the parts may be determined. A machine tool is a good example; its strength and rigidity are more difficult to attain than the desired motions. It is important at this time to define the terms used in the study of mech- anisms. This is done in the following section. 1.2. MECHANISM, MACHINE In the study of mechanisms the terms mechanism and machine will be used repeatedly. These are defined as follows: A mechanism is a combination of rigid or resistant bodies so formed and connected that they move upon each other with definite relative motion. An example is the crank, connecting rod, and piston of an internal-combustion engine as shown diagrammatically in Fig. 1.2b. A machine is a mechanism or collection of mechanisms which transmit force from the source of power to the resistance to be overcome. An example is the internal-combustion engine. 1.3 MOTION In dealing with the study of mechanisms, it is necessary to define the various types of motion produced by these mechanisms. Plane Motion Translation When a rigid body so moves that the position of each straight line of the body is parallel to all of its other positions, the body has motion of translation. 1. Rectilinear translation, All points of the body move in parallel straight line paths. When the body moves back and forth in this manner, it is said to reciprocate. This is illustrated in Fig. 1.7, where the slider 4 reciprocates between the limits B’ and B". 2. Curvilinear translation. The paths of the points are identical curves parallel toa fixed plane. Figure 1.8 shows the mechanism that was used in connecting FIGURE 1.76 INTRODUCTION FIGURE 1.8 the drive wheels of the steam locomotive. In this mechanism, link 3 has curvilinear translation, and all points in the body trace out identical cycloids as wheels 2 and 4 roll along track 1. Link 5 moves with rectilinear translation Rotation If each point of a rigid body having plane motion remains at a constant distance from a fixed axis that is perpendicular to the plane of motion, the body has motion of rotation. If the body rotates back and forth through a given angle, it is said to oscillate. This is shown in Fig. 1.9, where link 2 rotates and link 4 oscillates between the positions B’ and B”. FIGURE 1.9 Four-bar linkage. Rotation and Translation Many bodies have motion which is a combination of rotation and translation Link 3 in Fig. 1.7, links 2 and 4 in Fig. 1.8, and link 3 in Fig. 1.9 are examples of this type of motion. Helical Motion When a rigid body moves so that each point of the body has motion of rotation about a fixed axis and at the same time has translation parallel to the axis, theLINK, CHAIN 7 body has helical motion. An example of helical motion is the motion of a nut as the nut is screwed onto a bolt. Spherical Motion When a rigid body moves so that each point of the body has motion about a fixed point while remaining at a constant distance from it, the body has spherical motion. patial Motion A body moving with rotation about three nonparallel axes and translation in three independent directions is said to be undergoing general spatial motion. 1.4 CYCLE, PERIOD, AND PHASE OF MOTION When the parts of a mechanism have passed through all the possible positions they can assume after starting from some simultaneous set of relative positions and have returned to their original relative positions, they have completed a cycle of motion. The time required for a cycle of motion is the period. The simultaneous relative positions of a mechanism at a given instant during a cycle are a phase. 1.5 PAIRING ELEMENTS The geometrical forms by which two members of a mechanism are joined together so that the relative motion between these two members is consistent are known as pairing elements. If the joint by which two members are connected has surface contact such as a pin joint, the connection is known as a lower pair. If the connection takes place at a point or along a line such as in a ball bearing or between two gear teeth in contact, it is known as a higher pair. A pair that permits only relative rotation is a revolute, or turning, pair, and one that allows only sliding is a sliding pair. A turning pair can be either a lower or a higher pair depending upon whether a pin and bushing or a ball bearing is used for the connection. A sliding pair will be a lower pair as between a piston and cylinder wall 1.6 LINK, CHAI A link is a rigid body having two or more pairing elements by means of which it may be connected to other bodies for purposes of transmitting force or motion. Generally, a link is a rigid member with provision at each end for connection to two other links. This may be extended, however, to include three, four, or even more connections. Figures 1.10a, b, and c show these arrangements. Perhaps the extreme case of a multiply connected link is the master rod in a nine-cylinder radial aircraft engine as seen in Fig. 1.10d ‘A well-known example of a link with three connections is the bell crank, which can be arranged as shown in Fig. 1.11a or Fig. 1.116. This link is generally8 INTRODUCTION () (@) FIGURE 1.10 used for motion reduction and can be proportioned for a given ratio with a minimum of distortion of the required motion. When a number of links is connected by means of pairs, the resulting system is a kinematic chain. If these links are connected in such a way that no motion is possible, a locked chain (structure) results. A constrained chain is obtained when the links are so connected that, no matter how many motion cycles are passed through, the relative motion will always be the same between the links, FIGURE 1.11 It is also possible to connect links so that an unconstrained chain results, which means that the motion pattern will vary from time to time depending on the amount of friction present in the joints. If one of the links of a constrained chain is made a fixed link, the result is a mechanism. 1.7 INVERSION If in a mechanism, the link which was originally fixed is allowed to move and another link becomes fixed, the mechanism is said to be inverted. The inversionTRANSMISSION OF MOTION 9 of a mechanism does not change the motion of its links relative to each other but does change their absolute motions (relative to the ground). 1.8 TRANSMISSION OF MOTION In the study of mechanisms, it is necessary to investigate the method in which motion may be transmitted from one member to another. Motion may be trans- mitted in three ways: (a) direct contact between two members such as between a cam and follower or between two gears, (b) through an intermediate link or connecting rod, and (c) by a flexible connector such as a belt or chain. The angular velocity ratio is determined for the case of two members in direct contact. Figure 1.12 shows cam 2 and follower 3 in contact at point P. The cam has clockwise rotation, and the velocity of point P as a point on body 2 is represented by the vector PM). The line NN’ is normal to the two surfaces at point P and is known as the common normal, the line of transmission, or the line of action. The common tangent is represented by TT’. The vector PM, is broken into two components, Pn along the common normal and Pt, along the common tangent. Because of the fact that the cam and the follower are rigid members and must remain in contact, the normal component of the velocity of P as a point on body 3 must be equal to the normal component of P as a point on body 2. Therefore, knowing the direction of the velocity vector of P as a point on body 3 to be perpendicular to the radius OsP and its normal component, it is possible to find the velocity PM; as shown in the sketch. From this vector, the angular velocity of the follower may be determined from the relation V = Rw, where V equals the linear velocity of a point moving along a path of radius R and w equals the angular velocity of the radius R. In direct-contact mechanisms, it is often necessary to determine the velocity of sliding. From the sketch this can be seen to be the vector difference between the tangential components of the velocities of the points of contact. This difference FIGURE 1.1210 INTRODUCTION is given by the distance ff; because the component Pt; is opposite in direction to that of Pt). If ¢, and ¢; fall on the same side of P, then the distance will subtract. If the contact point P should fall on the line of centers 0703, then the vectors PM, and PM; will be equal and in the same direction. The tangential components must also be equal and in the same direction so that the velocity of sliding will be zero. The two members will then have pure rolling motion. Thus, it may be said that the condition for pure rolling is that the point of contact shall lie on the line of centers. For the mechanism of Fig. 1.12, the motion between the cam and the follower will be a combination of rolling and sliding. Pure rolling can only take place where the point of contact P falls on the line of centers. However, contact at this point may not be possible because of the proportions of the mechanism. Pure sliding cannot occur between cam 2 and follower 3. For this to happen, a point on one link, within the limits of its travel, has to come in contact with all the successive points on the active surface of the other link. It is possible to determine a relation so that the angular velocity ratio of two members in direct contact can be determined without going through the geometrical construction outlined above. From O; and OQ; drop perpendiculars upon the common normal striking it at e and f, respectively. The following relations will be seen to hold: _ PM; ~ OP and @; spammer Va OD rd oo) OsP * PM, From the fact that triangles PM,n and O,Pe are similar, OP Ose Also, PM,n and O,Pf are similar triangles; therefore, PM; _ Pn O:P — Osf Therefore, @; Pn Ore _ Ore oo Osf * Pn ~ Osf With the common normal intersecting the line of centers at K, triangles O,KeMOBILITY, OR NUMBER OF DEGREES OF FREEDOM]. B FIGURE 1.13 and O3Kf are also similar; therefore, om @2_ OF oy Osf OK (1.1) Therefore, for a pair of curved surfaces in direct contact, the angular velocities are inversely proportional to the segments into which the line of centers is cut by the common normal. From this it can be seen that for constant angular velocity ratio the common normal must intersect the line of centers in a fixed point. It is also possible to derive the above relations for the transmission of motion through an intermediate link or connecting rod and for the transmission of motion through a flexible connector. Figures 1.13 and 1.14 show these two cases, re- spectively, where the angular velocity ratio is given by @, _ OK ©, OK (1.2) In Fig. 1.14, the ratio w,/«; is independent of the center distance 0,03. FIGURE 1.14 1.9 MOBILITY, OR NUMBER OF DEGREES OF FREEDOM Mobility is one of the most fundamental concepts to the study of kinematics. By definition, the mobility of a mechanism is the number of degrees of freedom it possesses. An equivalent definition of mobility is the minimum number of in-12 INTRODUCTION dependent parameters required to specify the location of every link within a mechanism. A single link constrained to move with planar motion, such as the one shown in Fig. 1.15a, possesses three degrees of freedom. The x- and y-coordinates of the point P along with the angle @ form an independent set of three parameters describing its location. Two unconnected planar links are shown in Fig. 1.15b. Since each link possesses three degrees of freedom, these two links possess a total of six degrees of freedom. If the two links are pinned together at a point by means of a revolute joint, as shown in Fig. 1.15c, the two-link system will possess only four degrees of freedom. Four independent parameters describing the location of the two links could, for example, be the x- and y-coordinates of the point P,, the angle 0,, and the angle 03. There are many other parameters that could be used to specify the location of these links, but only four of these can be independent. Once the values of the independent parameters are specified, the position of every point in both links is determined. In the simple example described above, connecting two planar links with a revolute joint had the effect of removing two degrees of freedom from the system. Stated in another way, a revolute joint permits a single degree of freedom (pure rotation) between the links it connects. Using this type of logic, it is possible to (@ @) 9p} -— xP) ) FIGURE 1.15MOBILITY, OR NUMBER OF DEGREES OF FREEDOM 3 develop a general equation which will help predict the mobility of any planar mechanism. For example, a planar mechanism having n links is to be designed. Before any connections are made, the system of n links will have a total of 3n degrees of freedom. Recognizing that one link of every mechanism will always be con- sidered to be fixed to the ground removes three degrees of freedom. This leaves the system with a total of 3 — 3, or 3(n — 1), degrees of freedom. Each one-degree-of-freedom joint removes two degrees of freedom from the system. Similarly, each two-degree-of-freedom joint removes one degree of freedom from the system. The total mobility of the system is given by Grubler’s equation M = 3(n — 1) ~ 2ft — fa (1.3) where M = the mobility, or number of degrees of freedom n = the total number of links, including the ground f; = the number of one-degree-of-freedom joints f, = the number of two-degree-of-freedom joints Care must be used when applying this equation because there are a number of special mechanism geometries for which it will not work. Although no all-inclusive rule exists for predicting when the mobility equation may give an incorrect result, special cases often occur when several links of a mechanism are parallel. For example, applying Grubler’s equation to the mechanism of Fig. 1.16 gives M = 3(5 — 1) - 2(6) = 0 Nevertheless, this device can actually move as a result of its special geometry and is a mechanism with one degree of freedom. It must also be noted that a joint connecting & links at a single point must be counted as k — 1 joints. For example, a revolute joint connecting three links at a single point is counted as two joints. Only four types of joints are commonly found in planar mechanisms FIGURE 1.1614 INTRODUCTION These are the revolute, the prismatic, and the rolling contact joints (each having one degree of freedom), and the cam or gear joint (having two degrees of free- dom). These joints are depicted in Fig. 1.17. The following definitions apply to the actual mobility of a device: M= 1: the device is a mechanism with M degrees of freedom M = 0: the device is a statically determinate structure M = ~—1: the device is a statically indeterminate structure Joint Type Physical Schematic Degrees of (Symbol) Form Representation Freedom Revolute we 4 a (R) | (Pure rotation) Prismatic 2D. 1 (P) A a (Pure sliding) Cam _ 2 or + O Rolling) gear SS D> and Cc sliding Rolling 1 conta CO Co Rolling without sliding FIGURE 1.17 Common types of joints found in planar mechanisms. Example 1.1, Determine the mobility of the four-bar linkage of Fig. 1.18. | There are four links and four revolute joints, each having one degree of freedom. The mobility is given by M = 3(4 — 1) — 2(4) M=1 So this is a one-degree-of-freedom mechanism. Example 1.2. Determine the mobility of the device of Fig. 1.19. There are four links connected by five single-degree-of-freedom joints (the joint connecting three links at a point counts twice). The mobility is given by M = 3(4 - 1) ~ 2(5) M=-1 This is a statically indeterminate structure.MOBILITY, OR NUMBER OF DEGREES OF FREEDOM 15, 77. 7 FIGURE 1.18 FIGURE 1.19 Example 1.3. Determine the mobility of the device of Fig. 1.20. There are three links, two one-degree-of-freedom revolute joints and one two- degree-of-freedom higher-pair joint. In the higher-pair joint, the two contacting bodies may translate along the common tangent to the two surfaces or rotate about the contact point, thus giving two degrees of freedom. The mobility is given by M M " 3(3 - 1) — 22) - 10) 1 This is a one-degree-of-freedom mechanism. Common tangent FIGURE 1.20 Problems 1.1, (a) If ©; = 20 rad/min, calculate the angular velocity of link 3 for the two cases shown in Fig. 1.21. (b) Calculate the maximum angle and the minimum angle of the follower with the horizontal 1.2. Lay out the mechanisms for Problem 1.1 to full scale and graphically determine the velocity of sliding between links 2 and 3. Use a velocity scale of 1 in. = 10 in./min. 1.3. If w; = 20 rad/min for the mechanism shown in Fig. 1.21, using graphical construc- tion, determine the angular velocities of link 3 for one revolution of the cam in 60° incre ments starting from the position where w; = 0. Plot ws versus cam angle @ letting the scale of w; be 1 in. = 2.0 rad/min and the scale of @ be 4 in. = 60.