Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
Acknowledgements
Funding for this guide has been obtained from the National Forest Company, the
Forestry Commission and the Leicester Shire Economic Partnership. The
preparation and advice provided by Ian Thompson and Chris Wait (both from
ADAS) is gratefully acknowledged. Lastly, but most importantly, this guide has
been prepared with advice and experience obtained from many landowners who
have created and continue to manage their woodlands in The National Forest.
Cover photos: View over just-planted woodland at East Hill, Tatenhill, 1998.
Marking out using a spray boom; a redstart; trees establishing in weed-free rows.
Contents
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii
Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Why plant a farm woodland? . . . .Timber production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Shelter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Screening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Game cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Recreation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Wildlife habitats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Landscape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Woodland design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Type of woodland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Woodland layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Tree spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Tree suitability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Planting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .How to plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Types of trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
When to plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Site preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Marking out . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Types of hand planting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Weed protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Protection against animal damage . . . . . . . . . . 26
Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Keeping the trees growing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Replacing dead trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Ongoing management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Looking ahead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Sources of further information and advice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
iv
Foreword
‘Farmers don’t make foresters’ is one of the many myths that have been
shattered by the creation of The National Forest and other community forestry
projects throughout the country. In The National Forest, some of our finest
young woodlands are now being planted and managed by landowners and
managers who have never before even contemplated such an enterprise.
Nevertheless, it is not reasonable to expect such newcomers to have
immediately to hand all the knowledge, techniques and skills needed to create
and look after a new woodland.
Whether the primary purpose of woodland is for growing quality timber, for
nature conservation or for amenity, good management is both essential and
rewarding. A viable market for woodland products is the best driver for this
management and that is something we are working towards in The National
Forest. But knowledge of best practice is also vital.
We have had many pleas from owners considering a woodland scheme, and
from those who have already taken the plunge, for a clear, practical manual
covering the basics of designing their woodland, getting it well established and
its longer-term management.
Introduction
All woodland, regardless of where it is located, provides opportunities that far exceed
the trees alone. It can help landowners to diversify their landholding and business
interests, create commercial and/or amenity benefits and can be linked with work
that enhances or creates opportunities for recreation, public access and tourism.
The National Forest is creating, through working partnerships and with community
participation, a new 200 square mile multi-purpose woodland for the nation in the
heart of England. Ultimately 30 million trees will be planted which will cover a third
of the Forest area. The National Forest is steadily turning what was once one of
the least wooded parts of England into a sustainable forest for the 21st century
and beyond.
The aim of this book is to provide information for landowners who are thinking
about creating new woodland. Although every woodland scheme may have its
own set of unique particulars, the extensive experience of landowners within The
National Forest has demonstrated that there are robust guidelines that can be
applied to most situations. This book draws these guidelines together.
Well before a single tree is planted, it is very important to think about the
purpose of the woodland. Your aims will affect what woodland species will be
planted and how they will be managed. It is also essential to think of how the
woodland will ‘fit’ into the wider context of the landholding. For example:
• Will the woodland maximise the non-woodland benefits of the landholding?
• Could the woodland provide a setting for other interests such as lakes,
caravan parks, game shooting?
Factors such as these fundamentally affect the nature of the woodland created
and must be given careful and thorough consideration. Seeking early advice is
recommended. Sources of further information and advice are provided on
pages 33–36.
Timber production
Timber production can be for use on the farm, for example fencing posts, or for
commercial purposes, or both. Most (70%) of the current national timber demand
is for softwood (coniferous trees) but this market is subject to major pressure from
imports. The longer-term strategy within The National Forest is to produce high
quality timber. The majority of trees (in excess of 80%) planted in The National
Forest are hardwoods (broadleaved trees).
Shelter
Shelter can provide increased productivity for agricultural crops or livestock
enterprises through improvements in the local microclimate. Opportunities for
new or earlier crop production may be possible. The working or living environment
around homesteads or workplaces can be enhanced.
3
Screening
Woodlands can act as a screen to existing or proposed development, reduce
traffic noise or protect an area from dust and smells. Creating a woodland as a
screen can enhance recreational activities and accommodate high numbers of
people while minimising the impact on the local environment.
Game cover
Many existing mature woodlands were originally planted for game cover. Newly
planted woodland can provide high value for game and wildlife improvement. A
mixed conifer and broadleaved woodland with a significant proportion of woody
shrubs usually provides the best game wood. A carefully designed woodland is
required to maximise shooting potential. For example, the woodland must not be
draughty so good ground cover is required and perimeter hedging could be
planted. The positioning and location of glades and rides is also important. Seek
specialist advice from organisations such as the Game Conservancy Trust who
have a range of helpful information.
Education
Woodlands can provide a wide range of
educational opportunities, from a half
day tree planting event involving local
schools to focused programmes that
involve aspects of the national
curriculum, university studies or specific
arts projects. Woodland tasks such as
tree planting, weeding, thinning and use
of timber products can provide an
opportunity to train volunteers or new
entrants to the industry in forest skills. In
the wider context the general public
often enjoy being involved in woodland
projects and can learn a great deal
about their local environment.
Tree planting is a great community activity, often
involving local schools, and provides an opportunity to
learn about and improve the local environment.
4
Wildlife habitats
Planting woodland creates habitats for a variety of
plants and animals. These range from the invertebrates
such as beetles and spiders that live on the forest floor
to birds and mammals, and from mosses and flowering
plants to lichens that will inhabit the mature woodland.
Ancient woodland (where there has been continuous
woodland cover since at least 1600 AD) is the most
diverse woodland habitat. If ancient woodland exists on
or adjacent to a site then extending and protecting this
feature will be of utmost importance.
Installing boxes for the Noctule bat is one
feature of the National Forest’s Broadleaved woodland has a greater wildlife value than
Biodiversity Action Plan (BAP) and is
frequently part of new woodland schemes. coniferous (see page 6), but a compromise can be
found with the creation of mixed woodland. Shrub and
coppice and open ground areas all provide useful
The redstart – a BAP species – which
likes a mosaic of woodland habitats in
wildlife habitats. Woodland schemes make provision for
which it can feed and nest. both of these habitats so they should be considered in
the design. Indeed, unplanted land can provide great
opportunities for wildlife and can add significant value.
5
Landscape
Using available information and
studying the existing landscape will
help determine the scale and type of
woodland that may be appropriate.
Large-scale woodlands may suit
large open arable landscapes
whereas discrete woodlands may fit
better where small fields create a
more intimate setting.
The land around Bagworth in the Midlands Coalfield
The choice of species can also be has seen a significant increase in new woodland.
Mature hedges, boundary trees and church spires, Maintaining views to and from a
as seen here at Lullington, are important landscape features
to consider when planning new woodland.
woodland are very important,
particularly where there are
interesting landmarks such as
church spires, and unusual or
special natural features, and should
be allowed for in the design.
Well-designed, well-managed
woodlands can increase the value
and desirability of a property.
6
Woodland design
There are many different aspects to consider when designing a woodland plan.
The main aspects are:
1. Type of woodland 2. Woodland layout 3. Tree spacing 4. Tree suitability
Type of woodland
Broadly there are four types of woodland that can be planted. A scheme may
consist of one, some or all of the four main types described in Box 1.
Woodland layout
The layout of the woodland has to consider a number of important factors:
The types of woodland will have been decided at the design stage, taking into
account the aims of the woodland and its site conditions. The mix of species
within woodland types and their distribution now needs to be decided. There are
three options for the establishment of the trees. They can be planted as groups,
in lines or in an intimate mixture.
Groups
The advantage of this system is that in a mixed planting tree groups (varying
from 20 to 60 of each species) will grow at the same rate, ensuring survival of all
the species and resulting in a woodland that has all species represented. This is a
robust and straightforward technique which can maximise the long-term value of
the wood.
Lines
This option is the easiest to manage and suits mechanised planting and
harvesting. However, care must be taken to avoid planting different species in
alternate rows, especially on sloping ground, as this can create what is known as
the ‘pyjama pattern’, because of the obvious stripes that are visible from a
distance.
Intimate mixture
This is a random mix of the major tree species. In appearance this mix is the
most desirable but in management terms it is the most difficult to achieve. Failure
to manage correctly will result in the faster growing species shading out the
slower ones and the desired design will fail to materialise.
8
Tree spacing
Tree spacing can vary according to the types of species being planted and the type
of woodland desired and will affect future management practice. Examples of
spacing are shown in Box 2; the one selected will depend on your objectives.
Regular spacing is much easier to manage especially when the trees are small as
it is easier to find them when they are in rows. It also allows the site manager to
consider management techniques such as mechanised inter-row swiping and
motorised spraying to control competing vegetation, methods which are fast and
efficient (see pages 18 and 25).
Tree suitability
The suitability of a tree species to a particular site will depend on a number of
factors. These include: soil condition, location, altitude and exposure. Tables 1 and
2 on pages 10–11 indicate the suitability of different tree and shrub species to
location and soil conditions. Table 3 on page 11 shows the suitability of trees and
shrubs for shelter. Possible end-uses for their timber are shown in Table 4, page 12.
9
When considering what species are suitable, also think about the overall
balance of the woodland and what the woodland is for. Where timber is
a main aim, concentrating on a smaller number of species may be
desired. For example, consider planting three principal timber species
(about 70% in total), two to three medium height species (20% in total)
to provide balance and colour and three to four species of woody shrubs
(10% in total) to give low cover.
Planting
Now that you have thought about the design of your woodland, it’s time to get
some trees into the ground! In addition to planting techniques and the types of
trees, you need to consider site preparation and the best time of year to plant.
Seven main elements are involved in the initial planting of a wood.
How to plant
There are four options: self-planting, hired help, professional tree planting
contractors or mechanical planters.
Self-planting
This is the cheapest option in terms of direct cost, and can be done at your own
convenience. Be realistic about the amount of time that it may take, time which
may not be readily available or would be better used elsewhere. Typically someone
who is not used to planting will manage to plant about 400–500 trees in a day.
Hired help
Using hired help will greatly reduce the physical workload but will still necessitate
organising the planting team. This requires a high level of personnel management
and the ability to interpret and implement the carefully considered design plans
effectively.
14
It is accepted practice to put a tree replacement (or ‘beat-up’) clause into the
initial contract, making the contractors responsible for replacing any trees that fail
to establish over a specified time (usually the first two growing seasons). This will
encourage contractors to take better care with the initial planting.
Mechanical planter
Using a mechanical planter is cheaper than hand planting and can give significant
savings in time. A machine planter can plant as many as 10,000 trees per day in
large new woodlands with a simple layout. They are less labour intensive than
manual planting but are not ideally
suited to sloping ground and are
dependent on drier and more friable
soil conditions. If conditions are not
perfect there can be problems with
the trees not being planted
completely upright. Drying out and
cracking of the ground can occur
where the planter has travelled,
Machine planting at Grey Lodge Wood, Ratby. Note the raised leading to exposed roots and tree
spray booms (front) and the planting machine (rear)
mounted on the tractor.
mortality.
15
Types of trees
There is a range of planting stock types to choose from and the choice will
depend on species and situation. The stock types include bare root transplants,
cell grown, whips, feathered whips, standards and setts. Box 3 describes the
different types and explains the advantages and disadvantages of each. As a
general rule, for most large-scale woodland planting, it is most cost effective to
use 15–20 cm cell grown conifers and 40–60 cm bare rooted broadleaves. It is
recommended that the trees are sourced from a reputable forest nursery.
The National Forest is committed to the use of trees of local provenance, i.e.
those grown from British seed, which have improved growth, better chances of
survival and support native wildlife.
When to plant
Trees should be planted between November and the end of March and before
they start coming into bud. Budding can be suppressed by nurseries that keep
trees in cold storage. The season can be extended from October and into May by
using cell grown stock. Planting late in the season increases the risk of tree mortality.
This is particularly critical with bare root trees as they are prone to drying out.
Site preparation
It is vital to determine whether the ground has any innate restrictions to tree
establishment. If there is any doubt, soil pits (to about 1m in depth) should be
dug at different points within the field. If restrictions (such as a plough pan,
compacted soils or very heavy clay soils) are present this could result in limited
root growth of the trees, poor growth, high mortality and possible long-term
vulnerability to being blown over. Before planting, the plough pan should be
broken up by ripping or sub-soiling.
The site preparation is dependent on the current use of the field (pasture or
arable). For example, whether the field is rough, if there is a high incidence of
weeds, and what method of future management you are contemplating.
If planting into pasture you have to decide whether or not to keep the existing
grassland sward and plant trees into it or whether to plough the field and then
re-seed with a low productivity grass or a grass/wildflower mix before planting.
Planting straight into the grassland is the cheaper option. However, established
grassland often harbours small populations of field voles. Closing off the site to
stock or ceasing a cutting regime can result in a vole population explosion that
will put young trees at risk (see pages 23–27).
Marking out
Marking out is done for two purposes. The first is to locate the boundaries of the
planting, open space and any changes in species, for example from trees to
shrubs. This can be simply done using canes, chalk or marking paint and makes
planting easier and quicker. The second reason for marking out is to achieve
correct stocking rates and assist future management. The following methods can
be used:
1. Full grid
2. Half grid
3. Poles and string
4. Canes
Full grid
This is the quickest method of
marking out and can be done in
Spray boom being used to apply marking
advance of the planting operation. out spray prior to ground being scored at
It requires a grid to be marked out Roecliffe Wood, Packington.
Half grid
This is the same principle as a full grid but marking out is only in one direction.
This method may be used on difficult or steep terrain (which makes marking out
in two directions dangerous) or where a simplified management regime is
intended. Maintenance can only be carried out in one direction – the direction of
the row. Planting rods can be used to mark the distances of plants within the row.
19
Canes
The planting area can simply be marked out with rods or canes. This is the
easiest and fastest to set up but has the greatest room for error. The planting
distance between rows and
within rows can vary greatly.
One advantage of this
method is that it is ideal for
achieving an irregular
planting pattern. Conversely it
is the worst method for
enabling future inter-row
cutting or mechanised weed
control.
1. The spade is used to make a first slit 2. A second slit is made and levered back.
in the ground.
21
Planting The spade should be fully inserted into the ground and rolled back
over the boot (steel toe-capped boots are advisable). This opens the cut and lifts
the soil out of the notch. When the tree is inserted particular attention should be
paid to the roots. It is important to ensure that the tree is planted at the correct
depth: the soil level should be flush with the root collar, i.e. the point on the tree
where the root changes into the shoot.
To find the root collar, rub the tree stem near the root; the root collar is
the point where the colour changes.
Soil After planting, the soil should be firmed back down with the boot heel to
ensure that no air gaps are left.
Roots The roots should be completely covered by soil to avoid damage to the tree.
Ash and sweet chestnut trees tend to have larger root systems and can
be poorly planted. If you can see the root or if too much of the root collar
is exposed, then the planting is poor. Also check other species to monitor
quality. Walnut has unusually large root systems so it is important to
double check that they are planted well.
Alignment The trees should be vertical; if they are leaning over when planted
they will continue to grow at an angle, resulting in poor form and shape, and may
eventually fall over.
3. The tree is placed at the slit apex and 4. The soil is gently firmed in while
positioned at the correct depth with the holding the tree straight.
soil level flush with the root collar.
22
Tools
Figure 1 shows a selection of useful planting tools and explains their suitability
for hand planting.
Protection
Trees need to be protected from two main threats: weeds and pests.
Weed protection
Weed protection is an essential part of tree care. It is important that this is
carried out immediately after planting and again each year after that (for about
3–5 years) in order to reduce competition for water and nutrients from weeds
and grasses. The timing will vary depending on the method. There are three
possible methods: mulching, mechanical and chemical; these are described in
Box 5. On all but the smallest sites chemical weeding is likely to be the most
economic technique. Mechanical or mulching techniques may be preferred on
organic registered sites and may provide less risk to wildlife.
When to weed
Mulches should be applied straight after planting and should be inspected
regularly and reapplied as necessary.
24
Failure to control weeds in the early years will significantly restrict tree
growth for many years to follow. The presence of weeds also makes the
trees more vulnerable to other damage as it is simply harder to see and
control pests such as voles and rabbits.
As with planting it is possible to hire professional contractors to carry out this work.
For help with invasive weeds, such as ragwort, specialist advice should be sought.
26
Voles seem to particularly like ash trees – so if the ash are showing
signs of vole damage then use this as an early indication that they are
present, pose a threat and need controlling.
28
Maintenance
Strimming This is labour intensive and frequently results in damage to the bark
at the base of the tree. However, strimming may be the only option if the trees
are planted in a pattern that is inaccessible for a machine-based mower.
• Control of competition
This includes weed and pest control (see pages 23–29). It is vital to determine the
current level, and future levels, of pests. This will influence the type of protection
used (e.g. individual guards, fencing) and determine management practices.
The creation of The National Forest is resulting in the expansion of suitable deer
habitat within a wider context of increasing deer numbers. Without adequate
control of the population, serious damage is likely to be caused to woodlands,
crops and groundflora. Appropriate woodland design (including deer fencing,
deer lawns) needs to be considered when planning a new woodland. Culling
deer offers the potential for income (stalking, game products). Management is
also important to maintain the health of deer populations. The National Forest is
encouraging landowners to work through Deer Management Groups to ensure
wise and sustainable management.
30
As the woodland area expands and matures, so the grey squirrel will need
control. Grey squirrels can seriously damage trees and can compete with and
predate on native fauna, such as dormouse and woodland birds. Trapping or
shooting are ways of control, but neighbouring landowners will need to work
together in order to be truly effective.
Ongoing management
This involves regularly checking the site to monitor the progress of tree growth
and looking out for potential problems. The following brief checklist may be
helpful.
Looking ahead
Like the trees, woodland-related opportunities can grow quickly. In The National
Forest, leisure and tourism are becoming increasingly popular and an attractive
source of income for many landowners. Markets for the timber are developing
– existing outlets are rejuvenating and new ones emerging. A woodland’s first
timber supplies will be the lower grade materials, called thinnings, that will be
produced when the trees are 20 years old. This low-grade material can be
converted into products such as logs, charcoal, rustic furniture or woodchips for
equestrian purposes or woodfuel. The development of installations that need
wood as a fuel in order to provide heat and/or electricity is a real opportunity,
both within the Forest and on a wider, national scale.
32
There is, however, no standard formula for maximising the products that can be
taken from the wood. In the past, woodland owners have sought to sell timber
as a raw, unfinished commodity. This benefits the buyer, not the grower. In The
National Forest every encouragement will be given to landowners to think
differently, to add value and to maximise opportunities. So, a maxim should be:
think beyond the trees.
33
Organisations
Forestry Commission
Willingham Road
Market Rasen
Lincolnshire Tel: 01673 842644
LN8 3RQ www.forestry.gov.uk
Regional office for Forestry Commission advice, grants and forestry policy.
Forest Research
Alice Holt Lodge
Farnham
Surrey Tel: 01420 22255
GU10 4LH www.forestry.gov.uk/forest_research
Research, development and surveys relevant to the forest industry in Britain.
Information and advice via publications, webpages, consultancies and contracts.
Much of the research effort is directed at increasing the environmental and social
benefits of trees, including biodiversity and recreation, and ensuring integrated
land management.
Northmoor Trust
Little Wittenham
Abingdon
Oxfordshire Tel: 01865 407792
OX14 4RA www.northmoortrust.co.uk
A charity that promotes wildlife and countryside conservation. It offers specialist
expertise and advice regarding walnut for quality timber production.
Ellis. J. and the SE England Conservancy Team (2003). So, you own a
woodland? Getting to know your woodland and looking after it.
Forestry Commission, Cambridge.
Kerr, G. and Williams, H.V. (1999). Woodland creation: experiences from The
National Forest. Forestry Commission Technical Paper 27. Forestry Commission,
Edinburgh.
Morgan, J.L. (1999). Forest tree seedlings – best practice in supply, treatment
and planting. Forestry Commission, Edinburgh.
Willoughby, I. and Clay, D. (1996). Herbicides for farm woodlands and short
rotation coppice. Field Book 14. HMSO, London.
Willoughby, I. and Clay, D. (1999). Herbicide update. Technical Paper 28. Forestry
Commission, Edinburgh.
Willoughby, I. and Dewar, J. (1995). The use of herbicides in the forest. Field
Book 8. HMSO, London.
Many other useful publications are listed on the Forestry Commission’s website:
www.forestry.gov.uk/publications. They can all be obtained from: Forestry
Commission Publications, PO Box 25, Wetherby, West Yorkshire LS23 7EW.
Tel: 0870 121 4180 forestry@twoten.press.net
Alternatively, contact your local Forestry Commission office.
36
Other publications
Notes
38
Creating your own farm
woodland can be a
challenging and rewarding
experience. This toolkit
provides, in a concise and
practical style, information
that can be used by all
landowners who are
considering creating
new woods on farmland. Based upon the experiences of
landowners within The National Forest,
the toolkit:
• considers the advantages of
farm woodland
• describes what type of woodland
can be planted
• highlights how to plant and
manage woodland
• gives handy hints and compares
different techniques
• points to other sources of information
• fits in a jacket pocket so that it can
be used in the field.