1.

6 Scales
Usually the word scale is used for an instrument used for drawing straight lines.
But actually in Engineer’s language scale means the proportion or ratio between the
dimensions adopted for the drawing and the corresponding dimensions of the object. It
can be indicated in two different ways. Example: The actual dimensions of the room say
10m x 8m can not be adopted on the drawing. In suitable proportion the dimensions
should be reduced in order to adopt conveniently on the drawing sheet. If the room is
represented by a rectangle of 10cm x 8cm size on the drawing sheet that means the actual
size is reduced by 100 times.
1.6.1 Representing scales: The proportion between the drawing and the object can be
represented by two ways as follows:
a) Scale: - 1cm = 1m or 1cm=100cm or 1:100
b) Representative Fraction: - (RF) = 1/100 (less than one) i.e. the ratio
between the size of the drawing and the object.
There are three types of scales depending upon the proportion it indicates as
1. Reducing scale: When the dimensions on the drawing are smaller than the actual
dimensions of the object. It is represented by the scale and RF as
Scale: - 1cm=100cm or 1:100 and by RF=1/100 (less than one)

2. Full scale: Some times the actual dimensions of the object will be adopted on the
drawing then in that case it is represented by the scale and RF as
Scale: - 1cm = 1cm or 1:1 and by R.F=1/1 (equal to one).

3. Enlarging scale: In some cases when the objects are very small like inside parts of a
wrist watch, the dimensions adopted on the drawing will be bigger than the actual
dimensions of the objects then in that case it is represented by scale and RF as
Scale: - 10cm=1cm or 10:1 and by R.F= 10/1 (greater than one)

Note: The scale or R.F of a drawing is given usually below the drawing. If the
scale adopted is common for all drawings on that particular sheet, then it is given
commonly for all figures under the title of sheet.

1.7 Types of Scales and their constructions:

When an unusual proportion is to be adopted and when the ready made scales are
not available then the required scale is to be constructed on the drawing sheet itself. To
construct the scale the data required is 1) the R.F of the scale 2) The units which it has to
represent i.e. millimetres or centimetres or metres or kilometres in M.K.S or inches or
feet or yards or miles in F.P.S) The maximum length which it should measure. If the
maximum length is not given, some suitable length can be assumed.

The maximum length of the scale to be constructed on the drawing sheet =

R.F X maximum length the scale should measure.
This should be generally of 15 to 20 cms length.

Table: Metric Units Table: FPS Units

1 Kilometre (km) =10 Hecta metres (hm) 1 Mile =8 Furlongs

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1 Hectametere(hm) =10 Decametres(dam)or 0.1km 1 Furlong =220 Yards
1 Decametre(dam) =10 Metres (m) or 0.1hm 1Yard =3 Feet
1 Metre(m) =10Decimetres(dm) or 0.1dam 1 Feet =12 Inches
1 Decimetre(dm) =10 Centimetres(cm) or 0.1m
1 Centimetre(cm) =10 Millimetres (mm) or 0.1dm

The various types of scales used in practice are 1. Plain scales, 2. Diagonal scales, 3.
Vernier scales, 4. Comparative scales and 5. Scale of chords.

1.7.1 Plain Scales: Plain scales read or measure upto two units or a unit and its sub-
division, for example centimetres (cm) and millimetres (mm). When measurements are
required upto first decimal, for example 2.3 m or 4.6 cm etc. It consists of a line divided
into number of equal main parts and the first main part is sub-divided into smaller parts.
Mark zero (O) at the end of the first main part. From zero mark numbers to the main parts
or units towards right and give numbers to the sub-divisions or smaller parts towards left.
Give the names of the units and sub-units below clearly. Indicate below the name of the
scale and its R.F clearly.
The construction of the plain scale is explained below by a worked example.

W E 1.1 A 3 cm long line represents a length of 4.5 metres. Extend this line to
measure upto 30 metres and show on it units of metre and 5 metre. Show the length
of 22 metres on this line. Fig 1.10

Fig 1.10
i) The scale has to represent metre and 5 metres, hence it is a Plain scale.
ii) Given that 3cm represents 4.5metres or 450cm, Hence 1cm represents 450/3=150cm,
hence scale is 1cm=150cm or 1:150: R.F=1/150
iii) Maximum length to read is 30metres; Length of the scale is 20cm. i.e.
(1/150)x30x100 = 20cm

Construction: Draw a straight line of 20cm length and divide into 6 equal parts.
Divide again first part into 5 equal parts. Give numbers as shown. To represent 22 metres,
take 4 main parts to represent 20 metres and 2 small parts to represent 2metres. Give
names as A and B so that the distance between A and B is 22 metres as shown.

Note: Assume height of the plain scale as 1 cm.

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W E 1.2 Construct a plain scale of 1:5 to show decimeters and centimeters and to
read upto 1 metre. Show the length of 7.4 decimetres on it. Fig 1.11

Fig 1.11

i) The scale has to represent decimetre and 1/10 of decimeter.

ii) Given that the scale is 1:5 that is R.F=1/5
iii) Maximum length to read is 1 metre; Length of the scale=(1/5)x1x100=20cm

Construction: Draw a straight line of 20cm length and divide into 10 equal parts.
Divide again first part into 10 equal parts. Give numbers as shown. To represent 7.4
decimetres, take 7 main parts to represent 7 decimetres and 4 small parts to represent 0.4
decimetres. Give names as A and B so that the distance between A and B is 7.4
decimetres as shown.

1.7.2 Diagonal Scales: Diagonal scales are used to read or measure upto three units.
For example: decimetres (dm), centimetres (cm) and millimetres (mm) or miles, furlongs
and yards etc. This scale is used when very small distances such as 0.1 mm are to be
accurately measured or when measurements are required upto second decimal.

For example: 2.35dm or 4.68km etc.

Small divisions of short lines are obtained by the principle of diagonal division, as
explained below:

Principle of diagonal scale: To divide a given line AB into small divisions in multiples
of 1/10 its length for example 0.1AB; 0.2AB etc. as shown in Fig 1.12

Fig 1.12

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Procedure: i) Draw AB of given length
ii) At one end, say at B draw a line perpendicular to AB.
iii) Mark 10 equal divisions by taking some convenient length starting from B and ending
with C.
iv) Give numbers from 9, 8, 7----1 as shown.
v) Join C to A and from 9 to 1, draw parallels to AB, cutting AC at 9′, 8′, ------ 1′ etc.
vi) From the similar triangles 1′1C, 2′2C ------- 9′9C and ABC, C5=(1/2)BC=0.5BC and
5′5=(1/2)AB=0.5AB. Similarly 1′1=0.1AB, 2′2=0.2AB etc
Thus each horizontal line below AB will be shorter by (1/10)AB, giving lengths in
multiples of 0.1AB

W.E 1.3: An area of 144 sqcm on a map represents an area of 9 sqkm on the field.
Find the R.F.of the scale for this map and draw a diagonal scale to show kilometers,
hectametres and decameters and to measure upto 5 kilometres. Indicate on the scale
a distance of 3 kilometres, 5 hectametres and 6 decametres or 3.56km. Fig 1.13

The area on the map is 144 sqcm and the area on the field is 9 sqkm.
Take square root on both sides. Then 12cm=3 km or Scale is 1 cm= 0.25km or 2.5x104
cm; RF=1/(2.5x104)
Length of the scale to read upto 5 km is RF X 5 km= 1/(2.5x104) X 5x105 =20cm

Fig 1.13

Construction: Draw a line AB of 20 cm and construct a rectangle on it, by taking AD

5cm as shown. Divide AB into 5 equal parts and number them from second part starting
with 0 to 4 towards right side to indicate kilometers (km). Divide 0A into 10 equal parts,
each part represents a hectametre (hm). Divide AD into 10 equal parts, each part
represents one decametre (dam). Join diagonals as shown.
To mark 3.56km, take it as sum of 3.50km and 0.06km. On the plain scale take 3.5km
and on the diagonal at 5 upto 6 parts diagonally which is equal to 0.06km, giving a total
of 3.56km as shown by MN.

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Note: Assume the height of the diagonal scale AD as 5cm for dividing it into 10 equal
parts conveniently.

W.E 1.4 Draw a diagonal scale of R.F=5/1 to read 1/5cm and 1/25 cm and to
measure upto 5cm. Mark on the scale a distance of 2.32 cm. Fig 1.14.

Given that RF = 5/1 and it should read upto 5 cm. Therefore length of the scale
=5X5/1=25cm.
Construction: Draw a line AB of 25 cm and construct a rectangle on it taking by AD as
5cm as shown.
Divide AB into 5 equal parts and number them from second part starting with 0 to 4 on
the right side.
Divide 0A into 5 equal parts, each part represents (1/5)th cm or 0.2cm.
Join diagonals as shown and indicate divisions on the vertical AD as multiples of (1/25).

R.F=5/1
Fig 1.14

To indicate 2.32cm on the scale, rewrite it as sum of 2.2cm and 0.12cm. 0.2cm is equal to
1/5cm and 0.12cm is equal to 3/25cm. So take on the main scale 2.2cm i.e. 2 + 1/5 and
diagonally upto 3 parts from 1/5, giving a total of 2.32cm.

1.7.3 Vernier Scales: Just as diagonal scales, vernier scales also are used to read or
measure upto three units. For example: decimetres (dm), centimetres (cm) and
millimetres (mm) or miles, furlongs and yards etc. This scale is used when very small
(minute) distances such as 0.1 mm are to be accurately measured or when measurements
are required upto second decimal.
For example: 2.35dm or 4.68km etc.
A vernier scale consists of two parts i) a primary and ii) a secondary called by
vernier. The primary is like a plain scale. Instead of sub-dividing diagonally, division is
done by using a vernier here. The graduations on the vernier are derived from those on
the primary scale.

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 Fig 1.15 Vernier

Principle of vernier: The Fig 1.15 shows a part of the plain scale in which the length
OA represents 10 cm or 100mm. Divide OA into 10 equal parts, each part will represent
1 cm or 10mm. To divide each of these small parts again into 10 parts in order to measure
upto millimetre is very difficault. Take length OB equal to (10+1) parts i.e.11 parts or
equal to {OA +(1/10)OA}, thus representing 11 cm. Divide OB into 10 parts i.e. divide
11 parts into 10 parts. Each part on OB represents 1.1 cm or 11 mm. The difference
between one part of OB and one part of OA is 0.1cm or 1mm. Similarly between two
parts is 0.2cm or 2 mm. The scale OB constructed on the upper side of OA is called as
vernier. The combination of the primary or plain and vernier is called the vernier scale.
Least count of a vernier is the difference of one primary scale division and one vernier
scale division.
The same W E of 1.3 and 1.4 did by diagonal scale are here done by Vernier Scale

W.E 1.5: An area of 144 sq.cm on a map represents an area of 9 sq.km on the field.
Find the R.Fof the scale for this map and draw a diagonal scale to show kilometers,
hectametres and decameters and to measure upto 5 kilometres. Indicate on the scale
a distance of 3 kilometres, 5 hectametres and 6 decametres. Fig 1.16

The area on the map is 144 sqcm and the area on the field is 9 sqkm.
Take square roots of both. Then 12cm=3km or
Hence Scale is 1 cm= 2.5x104 cm or by RF=1/(2.5x104)
Length of the scale to read upto 5km= RF X 5km= 1/(2.5x104) X 5x105 =20cm

Fig 1.16

Construction: Construct plain scale taking 20cm and divide into 5 parts to read Km.
Divide the first part again into 10 parts to represent hectametres and give numbers as
shown.

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Construct the vernier by taking 11 small parts of the plain scale and divide into 10 parts.
Each part represents 1.1 hectametres i.e 1 hectametre and 1 decametre.
To mark 3.56km length, take it as sum of 2.90km and 0.66km. On the main scale take
2.9km and on the verneir scale take 6 parts from 0 towards left to represent 0.66km,
giving a total of 3.56 km as shown.

Note: - Always split the given dimension into two parts such that one part
to read on the plain scale and the other part on the vernier scale which
should be a multiple of vernier division.

W.E 1.6 Draw a verneir scale of R.F=5/1 to read 1/5cm and 1/25 cm and to measure
upto 5cm. Mark on the scale a distance of 2.32 cm. Fig 1.17.

Given that RF = 5/1 and it should read 5 cm.

Therefore length of the scale =5X5/1=25cm.

Construction: Draw a line of 25 cm and construct a rectangle on it by taking height as

1.cm as shown.
Divide that into 5 equal parts and number them from second part starting with 0 to 4 on
the right side.
Divide the first part into 5 equal parts, each part represents (1/5)th cm or 0.2cm. and
indicate as shown multiples of 1/5.
Draw a vernier taking length equal to as 6 parts i.e. 1.2 cm divided into 5 parts. Each part
is equal to 6/25 i.e (6X0.2)/5 or (1.2cm)/5 or 0.24cm.
Mark on the vernier scale towards left as 6/25, 12/25, 18/25, 24/25 and 30/25 as shown to
represent multiples of 0.24 as 0.24, 0.48, 0.72, 0.96 and 1.20.

R.F=5/1
Fig 1.17

To mark 2.32cm, rewrite it as sum of 1.6 cm and 0.72 cm. On the plain scale take 1.6 cm
towards right from 0 and on the vernier scale take 3 parts towards left from 0 equal to
0.72cm, giving a total of 2.32cm.

1.7.4 Comparative scales: These are not new scales. Any two i.e. plain or diagonal or
vernier scales having the same representative fraction (RF) but indicate different units are
called as Comparative Scales. A drawing drawn with scale reading FPS units can be

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read in metric units by means of a MKS units using comparative scale constructed with
the same RF. Comparative scales are drawn separately side by side or one above the other
like doing two same type of scales with different units.
.
1.7.5 Scale of chords: The scale of chords is used to set out of measure angles when a
protractor is not available. It is based on the lengths of chords of different angles
measured on the same arc and is considered as shown below
Construction:
1. Draw a line AB of any length as shown in the Fig 1.18 (a)
2. Erect a perpendicular BC
3. With B as centre, draw an arc AC cutting the perpendicular at a point C. Then, the arc
AC subtends an angle of 90 0 at B.
4. Divide AC into nine equal parts by dividing the arc into three equal parts first by
drawing arcs with A and C as centres and AB radius.
5. Divide each of these parts into three equal parts by trial and error method. Each of the
nine equal parts subtend an angle of 100 at B.
6. Transfer each division-point from the arc to the straight AB produced by taking A as
centre and radii equal to chords A-10, A-20 etc
7. Complete the scale by drawing a rectangle below AD as shown.
8. The distance from A to a division-point on the scale is equal to the length of the chord
of the angle subtended by it at B. Chord A-600 is equal to the radius AB.
9. In the figure, degrees are shown in multiples of 50.
W.E 1.7: Construct a scale of chords showing 50 divisions and using it set-
off angles of 250, 400, 550 and 1300. Fig 1.18 (a,b)
The construction of the scale is as given above.

Fig 1.18

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Construction: Draw any line BA. With B as centre and radius equal to chord 0-60 0
taken from the scale of chords, Draw an arc AC. With A as centre and radius equal to 0-
25 (chord of 250) cut the arc at a point C1.
Draw a line joining C1 with B. Then ∟C1BA=250. Similarly with A as centre and radius
equal to 0-400, 0-550 respectively, cut the arc at C2, C3.
Draw lines joining C2, C3 with B. Then ∟C2BA = 400 and ∟C3BA=550. For 1300, take it
as 900+400 and do just as above to get ∟C4BA=1300.
W.E 1.8 Draw a triangle having sides 8cm, 9cm and 10cm long respectively
and measure its angles with the aid of scale of chords. Fig 1.19

Fig 1.19
Construction: First construct the triangle ABC with the three sides given.
Draw arcs with A, B and C as centres and radius equal to 0-600 chord length taken from
Fig-1.18(a).
Take with divider the chord lengths A1A2, B1B2 and C1C2 and find the degrees the each
B

chord represents from the scale of chord at Fig-1.18(a) giving angles 600,500 and 700 at
A, B and C respectively.

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