MODULE-I

THEORY OF METAL CUTTING

Introduction to Manufacturing Process

Manufacturing is the economical term for making goods and services available to satisfy
human wants. Manufacturing processes are classified in to many ways.

The principal types of manufacturing are:

1. Process type manufacturing- it involves a continues flow of materials through a series

of process steps to obtain a finished product like chemicals.
2. Fabrication type manufacturing- it involves manufacturing of individual parts or
components by a series of operations, such as rolling, machining and welding. Here
the processes like Casting; Forming; Machining; Grinding and Finishing;
Unconventional machining; joining; Heat treatment
3. Assembly-type manufacturing – in this type of manufacturing the parts or components
are put together to get a complete product such as machine.

The manufacturing process are classified as

I. Constant mass process:

1. Casting - a) sand casting, b) shell mould casting,
c) Precision investment casting, d) Plaster mould casting,
e) Permanent mould casting, f) Die casting,
g) Centrifugal casting
2. Metal Forming Processes:
a) Rolling b) Drop forging c) Press forging
d) Upset forging e) Extrusion f) Wire Drawing
g) Sheet metal Operations.
3. Powder Metallurgy processing
4. Heat treatment.
II. Metal Removing processes:
1. Machining:
a) Turning b) Drilling c) Milling
d) Shaping and planning e) Sawing f) Broaching
2. Grinding and finishing
3. Unconventional machining
III. Metal addition Processes:
1. Welding and allied process:
a) Gas welding b) Electric arc welding
c) Electric resistance welding d) Thermit welding
e) Cold welding f) Brazing
g) Soldering.
2. Mechanical Joining:
a) Bolting b) Riveting, etc.

1.1
Review of Deformation of metals

When materials are subjected to external loads they are distorted or deformed. The
deformation may be elastic, plastic or fracture. When the material returned to its original
configuration on removal of external loads, the deformation is elastic in nature but when it
does not returns to its original configuration then the material is said to be deformed
plastically. In case of fracture a part of the original body or material is completely separated
from the rest.

Ductility and Toughness

The term ductility is commonly used to describe the ability of a material to undergo
plastic deformation before fracture. Similarly toughness is the ability to absorb energy in
plastic deformation up to the point of fracture. Toughness therefore functions of both strength
and ductility. The limit of usual deformation is however function of total strain which can be
imposed on a metal before necking occurs. In view of this a suitable measure of useful ductility
is the total strain at the onset of necking. Similarly toughness can be defined in terms of the
area under the stress strain curve up to the point of necking.

Plane strain Deformation

Most metal working problems are analyzed in terms of plane strain deformation i.e. the
plastic flow occurs entirely in one plane with no deformation in the direction perpendicular to
the plane. For example, let us consider the compression of a wide strip between two flat face as
shown in figure below. The dies overlap the strip in its width direction (W1) narrow in breadth
(W2). When W1>10W2, lateral strains are negligible and plane deformation is obtained.

Fig.1-1 plane strain deformation

Thus in plane strain deformation.

a. The deformation is every where parallel to a given plane (x,y plane in the above fig.)
b. The deformation is independent of z.

1.2
METALCUTTING

This refers to only those processes where material removal is affected by the relative
motion between tool made of harder material and the work piece.

Principles of metal cutting

1. The cutting tool removes the material from the work piece therefore; the material of the tool
is always harder than that of work piece.
2. The tool should be strong enough and held rigidly on a proper support, so that it can
withstand the heavy pressure during cutting.
3. The shape of the tool should be designed in such a manner that its cutting edge produces the
maximum cutting effect on the material of the job.
4. For carrying out the process of cutting, the work piece and cutting tool must be moved
relative to each other for setting the depth of cut. Such a relative motion is produced by a
combination of rotary and translatory movement either of the work piece or of the cutting tool
or both. The nature of this relative motion between the tool, and the work piece varies for
different metal cutting processes like turning, shaping, planning, boring etc. as shown in the
table below.

Operation Motion of job Motion of cutting tool

Turning Rotary Forward translation

Boring Forward translation Rotation
Drilling Fixed Rotation as well as translatory feed
Planing Translatory Intermittent translation
Milling Translatory Rotation

Nature of the relative motion for the various cutting operations

Factors affecting metal cutting

1. Work material
2. Cutting tool material
3. Cutting tool geometry
4. Cutting speed
5. Feed rate
6. Depth of cut
7. Cutting fluid used.
• Metal cutting operations are performed on machine tools using cutting
tools
• In this process wastage of material in the form of chip occurs.

CUTTING TOOLS

Classification

The Cutting tools are classified broadly as

1. Single Point Cutting Tool

1.3
 These tools have only one cutting edge; such as lathe tools, shaper tools, planer tools,
boring tools, etc.
2. Multipoint Cutting tool
Solid tool, Brazed tool, inserted bit tool.
These tools have more than one cutting edge; such as milling cutters, drills,
broaches, grinding wheels, etc.
The cutting tool can also be classified according to the type of motion as

1. Linear motion tools – e.g. Lathe tools, broaches, planer tools, shaper tools etc.
2. Rotary motion tools – e.g. milling cutters, grinding wheels etc.
3. Linear and rotary tools – drills, taps, horning tools etc.

Single Point cutting Tool – Tool geometry

Fig 1.7 shows a single point cutting tool. Although these tools have traditionally been
produced from solid tool-steel bars, they have been so largely replaced by carbide or other
inserts of various shapes and sizes.
A single point cutting tool consists of a sharpened cutting part called its point of tool on
shank. The point of the tool is bounded by the face

Tool Elements:

1. Shank – it is the main body of the tool at one end of which the cutting portion is
formed.
2. Flank- the surface below and adjacent to the cutting edge is called the flank of the
tool.
3. Face- the surface on which the chip slides is called face of the tool.
4. Heel – it is the intersection of flank and base of the tool.
5. Nose- it is the point where the side cutting edge and end cutting edge intersect.
6. Neck- the portion which is reduced in section to form necessary cutting edges and
angles is called neck.
7. Cutting edge- it is the edge on the face of the tool which removes the material from
the work piece.
Tool Angles:

i) Side cutting edge angle – It is the angle between the side cutting edge and side of
the tool shank. This angle prevents interference as the tool enters the work material.
Its satisfactory values vary from 15o to 30o for general machining.
- Also known as lead angle
- Complementary angle is called approach angle.
ii) End cutting Edge angle – This is the angle between the end cutting edge and a
line normal to the tool shank.
This angle provides a clearance or relief to the trailing end of the cutting edge to
prevent rubbing or drag between the machined surface and the trailing part of the
cutting edge. Only a small angle is sufficient for this purpose. An angle of 8o to 15o
has been found satisfactory for side cutting tools like boring and turning
End cutting tool, like cut off and necking tools often have no end cutting edge angle.

iii) Side Relief angle- It is the angle between the portion of the side flank immediately
below the side cutting edge and a line perpendicular to the base of the tool, and
measured at right angles to the side flank.
1.4
 iv) End Relief Angle – It is the angle between the portion of the end flank
immediately below the end cutting edge and a line perpendicular to the base of the
tool, and measured at right angles to the end flank. This angle range from 5o to 15o
for general turning.
Small relief angles are necessary to give strength to cutting edge when machining
hard and strong materials.
Tools with increased values of relief angle penetrate and cut the work material more
efficiently and this reduces the cutting forces.
Too large relief angles weaken the cutting edge and there is less mass to absorb and
conduct the heat away from the cutting edge.
v) Back rake angle – It is the angle between the face of the tool and a line parallel to
the base of the tool measured in a plane (perpendicular) through the side cutting
edge.
- This angle is positive, if the side cutting edge slopes downwards from the
point towards the shank and is negative if the slope of the side cutting
edge is reverse.

vi) Side rake angle-It is the angle between tool face and a line parallel to the base of
the tool and measured in a plane perpendicular to the base and side cutting edge.
- This angle gives the slope of the face of the tool from the cutting edge.
- The side rake is positive if the slope is away from the cutting edge and
negative if slope is towards the cutting edge.
- The rake angle specifies the ease with which a metal is cut.
- Higher the rake angle better is the cutting and lesser is the cutting forces.
There is a maximum value for the rake angle and this is generally of the
order of 15o for HSS cutting mild steel.
- It is also possible zero rake angle. Used in case of highly brittle tool
materials such as carbide, diamond etc.
vii) Clearance angle – Angle between the machined surface and under side of the tool
called the flank face.
- The clearance angle is provided such that the tool will not rub the
machined surface thus spoiling the surface and increasing the cutting
forces.
- A very large clearance angle reduces strength of the tool tip, and hence a
normal angle of 5o to 6o is used.
viii) Nose angle- It is the angle between side cutting edge and end cutting edge.

- Nose radius is provided to remove the fragile corner of the tool; it

increases the tool life and improves surface finish. Too large nose radius
will induce chatter. Recommended values of nose radius are as follows.

R = 0.4 mm for delicate components

≥ 1.5 mm for heavy depth of cut, interupted cuts and heavy cuts.
= 0.4 mm to 1.2 mm for disposable carbide inserts for common use.
= 1.2 mm to 1.6 mm for heavy duty inserts.
Rake angles
The rake angles serve the following functions:

a). it allows the chip to flow in convenient directions.

1.5
 b). it reduces the cutting force required to shear the metal and consequently increases
the tool life.
c). It provides keenness to the cutting edge and improves the surface finish.
d). it also reduces power consumption.

Positive and negative rake angles

The rake angle may be positive, zero or negative. Larger the rake angle, smaller the
cutting angle and lower the cutting force and the power consumption. However increasing the
rake angle decreases the cutting angle, this leaves less metal at the point of the tool to support
the cutting edge and conduct away the heat. It thus reduces the strength of the cutting edge. A
practical rake angle represents a compromise between a large angle for easier cutting and a
small angle for the tool strength. In general, the tools used for cutting hard metals are given
smaller rake angles. Where as those used for cutting softer metal contain larger rake angles. An
exception is brass which is machined with small or negative rake angle to prevent the tool from
digging in to work. Tools may be given zero rake angles for machining brittle metals like cast
iron.
If the rake angle is positive, the force on the tool is directed towards the cutting edge,
therefore, it tends to chip or break the cutting edge. If negative rake angle is used, the cutting
force is directed back in to the body of the too away from the cutting edge, which gives
protection to the cutting edge. The use of negative rake angle increased the cutting force. But at
higher cutting speeds, at which carbide cutting tools can be used, this increase in force is less
than at normal cutting speeds. High cutting speeds are therefore always used with negative
rakes, which needs angle power of machine tool. The use of indexable inserts has also
promoted the use of negative rake angles.

Positive rake angles are recommended under the following conditions:

1. For machining low strength ferrous and non ferrous metals and work hardening
materials.
2. For machining at low cutting speed.
3. When the set up lacks strength and rigidity.
4. For machining long shafts of small diameters.
5. When using low power machining.

Negative rake angles are recommended under the following conditions.

1. For machining high strength alloys.

2. Where there are heavy impact loads as in interrupted machining.
3. For rigid setups and when cutting at high speeds.
4. When carbide tools are used.

Tool Signature ( Tool Designation)

1.6
 FIG 1-2a: Single Point Cutting Tool

FIG 1-2b : Single Point Cutting Tool

The seven important elements comprise the signature of the cutting tool and are always stated
in the following order:
i) Back rake angle
ii) Side rake angle
iii) End relief angle
iv) Side relief angle
v) End cutting edge angle
vi) Side cutting edge angle
vii) Nose radius.

It is usual to omit the symbols for degrees and mm, simply listing numerical value for
each component.
E.g. A typical tool signature is 0-10-6-6-8-90-1

1.7
 METHODS OF MACHINING

There are two methods of metal cutting depending on the arrangement of the cutting
edge with respect to the direction of relative work tool motion:

1. Orthogonal Cutting or Two dimensional cutting

In this case the cutting edge of the tool is at right angles to the line of action or
path of the tool. In this method, the direction of chip flow velocity is normal to the
cutting edge of the tool and the chip coils in a tight flat spiral. The cutting edge in
orthogonal cutting is longer than width of cut. Cutting forces acts on a small area and
therefore, the life of the cutting tool is less. Orthogonal cutting is confined mainly to
such operations as knife turning, broaching and slotting etc.

When the tool is pushed in to the work piece, a layer of material is removed from
the work piece and it slides over the front face of the tool called rake face. When the
cutting edge of the wedge is perpendicular to the cutting velocity, the process is
called orthogonal cutting. In this case the chip slides directly up to the tool face.

2. Oblique Cutting or three dimensional cutting

In this case the cutting edge is inclined to the direction of tool feed or work feed.
The chip flows sideways in a long curl. The direction of chip flow velocity is at an
angle with the normal to the cutting edge of the tool. The cutting edge may or may
not be longer than the width of cut. The depth of cut and feed is same in both cases,
but the force which cuts and shears the metal cuts on longer area in case of oblique
cutting. The heat developed per unit area is also less in oblique cutting. Because of
these two reasons the tool will have a longer life. Secondly, the oblique tool will
remove more metal in the same life as compared to orthogonal tool.

In most practical metal cutting processes, the cutting edge of the tool is not
perpendicular to the cutting velocity but set at angle normal to the cutting velocity.
Cutting in this case takes place in three dimensions (turning or milling) and
represents the general case of oblique cutting. In oblique cutting a lateral direction of
chip movement is obtained.

Fig 1.3(a)
1.8
 Fig 1.3 (b)

Comparison between ‘Orthogonal Cutting’ & ‘Oblique Cutting’

S. Aspects Orthogonal Cutting Oblique Cutting

No.
Inclination of the Inclined at an angle with
Perpendicular to the
1 cutting edge of the the normal to the
direction of tool travel
tool. direction of tool travel.
Clearance of the work The cutting edge clears the The cutting edge may or
2 piece width by the width of the work piece on May not clear the width of
cutting edge. either ends. the work piece.
The chip flows over the
The chip flows on the tool
tool face and direction of
face making an angle with
chip flow velocity is
3 The chip movement. the normal on the cutting
normal to the cutting
edge. The chip flows
edge. The chip coils in a
sideways in a long curl.
tight flat spiral.
Only two components of
the cutting force acting on
Number of Three components of the
the tool. These two
components of forces (mutually
4. components are
cutting force acting perpendicular) act at the
perpendicular to each
on the tool. cutting edge.
other and can be
represented in a plane.
The maximum chip
Maximum chip Maximum chip thickness thickness may not occur at
5.
thickness occurrence. occurs at its middle middle.

6. Tool life. Less. More.

1.9
Mechanism of Chip Formation

The cutting tool removes metal in the form of chips. As the tool advances material in
front of the tool is compressed and when this compression exceeded, it is separated from the
work piece and flows plastically in the form of chip.
The plastic flow takes place in the localized region called shear plane, which extends
from the cutting edge obliquely up to the uncut surface in front of the tool. The grains of the
metal in front of the cutting edge of the tool start elongating along the line LM and continue to
do so until they are completely deformed along the line NP. Thus the deformation does not
occur sharply along a plane but it occurs along a narrow band shear zone at the order of 0.025
mm. In figure the region between the lines LM and NP is called shear zone. After passing out
the shear zone, the deformed metal in the form of chip slides along the tool face due to velocity
of tool. Actually the shear zone is wedge shaped which is thicker near the tool face at the right
than at the left. This causes curling of the chip in the metal cutting. Again the owing to the non
uniform distribution of forces at the chip tool interface and on the shear plane, the shear plane
is not straight but slightly curved concave downwards. This causes the chip curl away from the
surface of the tool.

FIG- 1-4; Chip Formation

Every machining operation involves the formation of chips, the nature of which depends
up on the operation, properties of the work piece material and cutting conditions.

Types of Chips
Chips produced belong to following category
1. Continuous chip
2. Discontinuous chip
3. Built-up chip.
Continues Chip
• These are produced while machining more ductile material. This is most
desirable
• This is like a ribbon flows along the rake face.
• Some ideal conditions that promote continues chips in metal are
- Small chip thickness (fine speed).
- Small cutting edge.
- Large rake angle.
- High cutting speed
- Less friction between chip tool interface though efficient lubrication.
- Ductile work materials.

Advantages
1. These are most useful chips.
1.10
 2. Surface finish obtained is good.
3. Cutting is smooth.
4. Higher tool life.
5. Lower power consumption.
Disadvantages
1. Due to large coil of chips, chip disposal is a problem.
2. Chip breakers are to be used to allow the chips to break.

Fig 1-5
Discontinues Chips

• These are produced when cutting more brittle materials like grey cast iron, bronze and
hard brass.
• Chip produced is in the form of discontinues segments.
• Easier in the view of chip disposal.
• But the cutting force becomes unstable due to variation coinciding with fracturing cycle.
• Discontinues chips are produced under the following conditions
- low cutting speeds
- small rake angles
- higher depth of cut( large chip thickness)

Built Up Chip

When machining ductile materials, conditions of high local temperature and extreme
pressure in the cutting zone and also high friction in the tool-chip interface may cause the work
material to adhere or weld to the cutting edge of the tool forming the built up edge (BUE). This
causes the finished surface to be rough. However since the cutting is being carried by the BUE
and not the actual tool tip, the life of the cutting tool increases while cutting with BUE. That
way BUE is not harmful in rough machining.
• In general low cutting speed, high feed and small rake angle are conducive to
BUE formation
• Presence of BUE increases power transmission.

1.11
CHIP CONTROL

The control and disposal of chips in high speed production turning, is important to
protect both the operator and the tools. The long and ribbon type continues chip that curls
round the cutting tool has sharp edges and can inflict deep, painful and dangerous cuts. It
should never be handled with the bare hands. A swarf rake should be used to drag it away from
the working zone of the machine.
The usual procedure to avoid the formation of continues chips is to break the chip
intermittently with a chip breaker.
Fig (a) shows the schematic illustration of the action of the chip breaker. The chip
breaker decreases the radius of the curvature of this chip. Fig (b) shows the chip breaker
clamped on the rake face of a cutting tool.

Chip Breaker
Fig 1-6

FORCE OF A SINGLE POINT TOOL [Ref: fig. 1.3 (a)]

The work material offers resistance to the cutting tool, during metal cutting. This
resistance is overcome by the cutting force applied to the tool face. The work done by this force
in cutting is expended in shearing the chip from the work, deforming the chip and overcoming
the friction of the chip on the tool face and tool flank on the cutting surface.

The magnitude of the cutting force depends on the following factors;

- Work material
- Rate of feed
- Depth of cut
- Tool angles
- Cutting speed
- Coolant used, etc.

Orthogonal cutting: Resultant R = Fa 2 + Ft 2

1.12
 Oblique cutting: Resultant R = Fa 2 + Fr 2 + Ft 2
Ft is always largest of the three components
Fa due to feed motion is about 35 to55 % of Ft
Fr which tends to pull back the work piece is about 25 to 30 % of Ft

MECHANISM OF METAL CUTTING

The basic mechanism by which chips are formed during the process of metal cutting is
that of deformation of the material, lying ahead of the cutting edge of the tool, because of the
shearing action. Shear Zone, Shear Plane and Shear Angle
When cutting tool is introduced in to the work material, plastic deformation takes place
in a narrow region in the vicinity of the cutting edge. This region is called shear zone. (See fig
1.7). The width of this zone is small and therefore chip formation is always described as a
process of successive shears of thin layers of the work material along particular surfaces. At
high speeds this zone can be assumed to be restricted to a plane called shear plane. Inclination
of this plane is called shear angle (ø). In fig-1.9 the sharp line LM separated the deformed and
un deformed work material and indicates the projection of the shear plane.
The value of shear angle depends on work piece materials, cutting conditions, material
of tool, geometry of tool. When the shear angle is small the plane of shear will be larger, chip is
thicker and therefore higher force is required to remove the chip. When shear angle is large,
the plane of shear will be shorter, the chip is thinner and hence less force is required to remove
the chip. The shear angle is determined from chip thickness ratio(r).

Fig- 1.7

1.13
 Fig-1.8

CHIP THICKNESS RATIO

The mach inability of the material is expressed by chip thickness ratio.

From fig Depth of cut, t = LM sin φ

Chip thickness, tc = LM cos(φ - α )

Then chip thickness ratio, r = t / tc

LM sin φ sin φ
r = =
LM cos(φ - α ) cos φ cos α + sin φ sin α

1
r =
cot φ cos α + sin α

r (cot φ cosα + sin α ) = 1

1 − r sin α
cot φ cos α =
r
r cos α
ie. tan φ =
1 − r sin α

r co s α
φ = tan − 1
1 − r sin α

the cutting ratio or chip thickness ratio is always less than unity, and can be measured by
measuring depth of cut and chip thickness. But actually it is difficult to measure the chip
thickness due to one side being rough.

1.14
But , volume of metal removed = volume of chip

b .t .l.ρ = bc .tc . lc ρ c
Where b, t, l, ρ are width, thickness or depth of cut, length and density of metal cut and c
stands for chip
It is found that, width is same as that of metal and density also,

r = t / tc = lc / l

lc – length of chip, l – length of uncut chip.

Cutting ratio is also defined as ratio of chip velocity Vc to cutting speed V. the ratio Vc/V can be
found by finding the kinetic forces acting on the chip.

SHEAR ANGLE AND ITS RELEVANCE

Shear Zone

The chip formation in metal cutting is due to the plastic shear of the work material in a zone
known as shear zone. Between the chip and the work material, there will be a transition zone
of plastic deformation. Within this zone the stress changes continuously as the movement of
deformed material progresses. The plastic work flow of material around the tip of the cutting
tool can be observed in fig 1-11, the deformation process may be studied by grid technique and
photo micrographic methods. The results of such studies are schematically given in fig-1-12
because of the work hardening effect of the machined surface and friction between tool and
work the outer layer of finished metal surface of the work immediately below the tool is also
subjected to additional deformation. As the plastically deformed metal grains move from the
boundary oabc to boundary od the shear strain increases. The upper boundary surface at
which plastic strain occurs is subjected to continue plastic deformation is inclined at an angle ø
and is defined as shear plane angle. The grains elongated in the direction known as “direction
of flow or crystal elongation” and are inclined at an angle ψ known as grain elongation angle.
The angle ø will depend on the geometry of the cutting tool, the material being cut, the
thickness of material removed and cutting speed. It is to be noted that the chip formation in
metal cutting is basically a large deformation process at very high strain rate.

Velocity Relationship In Orthogonal Cutting

1.15
 FIG- 1.9

Cutting velocity (V) = velocity of tool relative to the work piece

Velocity of chip (Vc) = velocity with which the chip moves over the rake face
Velocity of shear (Vs) = velocity with which the metal of the work piece shears along the
shear plane.
The cutting velocity Vc and rake angle α are always known; the values of Vf and Vs can be
calculated as follows:
→ → →
Ref to fig, velocity diagram V = Vc + Vs
Using sin rule

Vc Vs V
= =
sin MSL sin MLS sin LMS

Simplifying
Vc Vs V
= =
sin φ sin ( 90 − φ ) + (φ − α )  sin {180 − [(90 − φ + φ − α ) + φ ]}
Vc Vs V
= =
sin φ sin [90 − α ] sin {90 − (φ − α )}
Vc Vs V
= =
sin φ cos α cos(φ − α )

V sin φ
Vc =
cos(φ − α )
V cos α
Vs =
cos(φ − α )

FORCES ON THE CHIP (Merchant’s Analysis)

There are usually two schools of thought

1.16
 1. Deformation zone is very thin and planar as shown in fig (a)
2. The actual deformation zone is very thick with a fan shape assign fig(b)

The first, ie. The thin zone model is more useful for analytical purposes.
The current analysis based on Merchant’s thin shear plane model which considers the
minimum energy principle. This method is applicable at high cutting speeds which are
generally practiced in production.

Assumptions
i) Work moves with a uniform velocity.
ii) The surface where the shear occurs is a plane.
iii) The tool is perfectly sharp there is no contact along the clearance face.
iv) The cutting edge is a straight line which extends perpendicular to the direction of
motion and generates plane surface as the work moves past it.
v) Width of the tool is greater than the width of the work.
vi) The stresses on the shear plane are uniformly distributed.
vii) Uncut chip thickness is constant.
viii) A continues chip is produced without any built up edge.
ix) The chip does not flow to either side, or there is no side spread.

FIG- 1.10

Ft – Tangential or cutting force

Ff – Feed force
- forces acting on the tool and measured by dynamometer

Fc- Compressive force on the shear plane

Fs – Shear force on the shear plane

- Forces exerted by the work piece on the chip.

1.17
F – Frictional force along the rake face of tool
N – Normal force at the rake face of tool

- Forces exerted by the tool on the chip

Ref fig – (b)
α – tool rake angle, ø – shear plane angle, β – angle of friction

Now F = PW + WL
F = Ff cos α + Ft sin α
N = MP = UW − UQ

F Ff cos α + Ft sin α
=
N Ft cos α − Ff sin α
Dividing by cosα we get
F F + Ft tan α F
= f but = tan β = µ , coefficient of friction
N Ft − Ff tan α N
Where F and N are the components of resultat tool force R

Now, Fs = Ft cos φ − F f sin φ

Fc = F f cos φ + Ft sin φ
Ft = R cos( β − α )
F f = R sin( β − α )
Fs = R cos( β − α + φ ) or R cos(φ + β − α )

From the above equaions,

Ft R cos( β − α )
=
Fs R c o s (φ + β − α )

 cos( β − α ) 
F t = F s  
 c o s (φ + β − α ) 

1.18
 STRESS AND STRAIN ON THE CHIP

Geometry of Chip formation

Fig-1.11

Since the chips are formed due to the plastic deformation of the work piece material,
they experience stress and strain.

As – area of shear plane,

A = (b x t) = cross sectional area of un cut chip

= As sin ø

b – width of cut, t – un cut chip thickness.

Mean normal stress (σ) :

Fc Fc F c × s in φ
σ = = =
As A / s in φ A
[F c o s φ + Ft s in φ ] × s in φ
σ = f

Fs Fs ×sinφ
Mean shear stress, τ = =
As A
τ.b.t
Fs =
sinφ

But we have, Fs = Ft cosφ - Ff sinφ

1.19
 Fs F cos φ − Ff sin φ (Ft cos φ − Ff sin φ ) sin φ
τ= = t =
As As A

SHEAR STRAIN

To evaluate the shear strains, let us take the help of Piispanen’s model as shown in fig. (He
considered un deformed metal as a stack of cards which would slide over one another as wedge
shaped tools moved under these cards. Though this idea is an oversimplified one, it accounts
for a number of features that are found in practice. A practical example is when paraffin is
cut; a block wise slip is clearly evident.

∆s BA BD + DA
Shear strain ε = = =
∆y CD CD
ε = cot φ + tan (φ − α )

cos φ sin(φ − α )
= +
sin φ cos(φ − α )
cos φ .cos(φ − α ) + sin φ .sin(φ − α )
=
sin φ .cos(φ − α )
cos[φ − (φ − α )]
=
sin φ .cos(φ − α )

∆s Vs cos α V
strain rate is given by : ε= = = ×
∆y × ∆t ∆y cos(φ − α ) ∆y

Where ∆y – thickness of deformation zone

t- time to achieve final value of strain

Work Done During Metal Cutting and Specific Cutting Energy

Most of the energy consumed in metal cutting is utilized for plastic deformation.

Total work done in cutting, W = Ft x V

Work done in shear Ws = Fs x Vs
Work done in friction, Wf = F x Vc
Thus, W = Ft x V = Fs Vs + F.Vc

Fs – shear force on the shear plane,

F – Frictional force along the rake face of the tool,
V- Cutting velocity
Vs- Velocity of shear
1.20
 Vc – velocity with which the chip moves over the rake face of the cutting tool.

In order to get better picture of the efficiency of the metal cutting operation it is
necessary to have a new parameter which does not depend on the cutting process
parameters. The specific cutting energy “Esp” is such a parameter which can be obtained
by dividing the total work done with the material removal rate (MRR).

Metal Removal rate (MRR)

Metal removal rate is defined as the volume of metal removed in unit time. It is used to
calculate time required to remove specified quantity of material from the work piece.
If t- depth of cut in mm, f- feed in mm/rev and V- cutting speed in mm/s,
Then,
Metal removal rate = V x f x t mm3/s

If metal removal rate is optimum we ca reduce the machining cost. To achieve this, the
cutting tool material should be proper, cutting tool should be properly ground and it
should support rigidly so that no case of vibration.

If b- the width of the chip, it can be taken

MRR = V.b.t

Ft × V Ft
E sp = =
V .b .t b .t
1  co s( β − α ) 
= × Fs   b y u s in g th e e q u a tio n fo r Ft
b .t  c o s (φ + β − α ) 
1  co s( β − α ) 
= × τ . As  
b .t  c o s (φ + β − α ) 
1  b .t   c o s ( β − α ) 
= τ .  
b .t  s in φ   c o s (φ + β − α )

[Since As = A/ sinø = b.t/ sinø]

τ cos(β − α )
Esp =
sin φ.cos(φ + β − α )

THEORIES ON MECHANICS OF METAL CUTTING

1) Ernst – Merchant Theory

1.21
It is based on the following assumptions:

i) The shear stress is maximum at the shear plane and it remains

constant.
ii) The expenditure is minimum in this process, ie. Shears will takes
place in a direction in which energy required for shearing is
minimum.

In Merchant’s theory

F t = R co s (ß - α )
F s = R c o s (ø + ß - α )
 cos( β − α ) 
Ft = Fs  
 cos(φ + β − α ) 

τ .b.t
Fs =
sin φ
τ .b.t cos( β − α )
Ft = ×
sin φ cos(φ + β − α )

Differentiating the above eq. w.r.t ø and equating to zero to find the value
of shear angle, ø for which Ft is minimum, i.e.:

dFt
=0
dφ
We get , cos φ .cos(φ + β − α ) − sin φ .sin(φ + β − α ) = 0
cos(φ + φ + β − α ) = 0
or cos(2φ + β − α ) = cos(π / 2)
2φ + β − α = π /2
Shear angle φ = π / 4+α / 2 − β / 2
2. Merchant theory
Merchant found that the above theory agreed well with experimental results obtained
when cutting synthetic plastics but agreed poorly with experimental results obtained for steel
machined with sintered carbide tool.
Merchant modified his theory by assuming that shear stress ‘ τ’ along the shear plane
varies linearly with normal stress, ie.,
τ = τ 0 + kσ
Where k is a constant. (τ0 is the value of τ when σ =0)
This assumption agreed with the work of Bridgman, where in experiments on poly
crystalline metals, the shear strength was shown to be dependent on the normal stress on the
plane of shear. Merchant then derived,

1.22
 2φ + β − α = C
Where, C = machining constant; its value varies from 70o to 80o for various steels.
Most recent experimental work indicates that τ remains constant for a given material over a
wide range of cutting conditions and therefore k would be expected to be zero.

3) Stabler Theory

He modified Ernst-Merchant eq: as

φ = π /4 - β + α /2

3) Lee and Shaffer Theory

Solution to the problem of the mechanics of orthogonal cutting is obtained by using the
slip line field theory. According to this theory shear occurs on a single plane. In this
analytical model it is assumed that the material being cut behaves as an ideal plastic material,
which means that the elastic strain is negligible during chip formation.
Fig shows a slip line field using shear plane model. It is assumed that there must be a
stress field within the chip to transmit the cutting forces from the shear plane to the tool face.
They represent a slip line field in which no deformation occurs although it is stressed up to the
yield point. This shows the Mohr’s circle for the stresses at the boundaries of the stressed zone,
which results in the equation:

φ = π/4 + (α − β)
A lso φ = π/4 - β + α - θ co nsid ering bu ilt up ed ge

FIG-1.12

EFFECT OF CERTAIN ANGLES ON CUTTING FORCE AND SURFACE FINISH

Rake Angle
The rake face controls the directions of he resultant force on the tool and chip flow. With
zero inclination angles or zero back rake angle chip will flow parallel to the work surface and
may cause removal problem. With appropriate inclination or back rake angle the chip can be
made to flow away from the work piece and strikes a suitable chip breaker, curl and break in to
small fragments for easy disposal. The rake angle influences the cutting forces, power and
surface finish. The larger the rake angle the lower are the cutting forces and power and better is
the surface finish. Large rake however decreases the cutting angle between the rake and
principal flank faces and less metal is available to support the tool and conduct the heat
generated due to plastic deformation and friction. Further the angle chosen could be positive or

1.23
negative depending up on the tool strength. A positive back rake angle moves away the chip
from the work surface. A negative rake angle result in a stronger cutting edge. As the rake angle
is decreased the shear plane angle will be decreased, resulting in a thicker chip. But at higher
speeds the cutting force decreases and a negative rake is recommended for machining high
strength alloys, for interrupted cuts and for carbide and ceramic tools.
The rake angle for a single point HSS tools generally varies between 5 to 15 degrees
depending up on the work material, higher values being used for softer material like
aluminum. In general harder is the material lower is the rake angle.

Cutting Edge Angle

Side cutting edge angle influence the direction of chip flow. When the principle cutting
edge is perpendicular to the axis of rotation of the work i.e. when the lead angle is zero, the full
depth of cut will be in contact with the work suddenly as the tool enters into the full depth
gradually. Increasing the side cutting edge angle decreases the thickness of the chip and
increases the width of the chip for the same feed rate. Thus, for the same depth of cut the cross
sectional area of the chip will be spread over a longer cutting edge, and will permit increased
feeds. But an excessive side cutting edge angle will cause chatter and is to be avoided. For
general machining 15 to 30o is recommended.
The purpose of end cutting edge angle is to prevent rubbing of the cutting edge and the
finished surface of the work piece. An excessive angle weakens the cutting edge. At large
principle cutting edge angles, the force component which is trying to separate the tool from the
work piece increases and promotes chatter. With very small angles excessive pressure normal
to the work surface are produced, causing chatter and larger tool surface contact with difficulty
for tool penetration in to the work. 4 to 15o are recommended for general cutting conditions.

Relief Angle
End relief and side relief angles are provided to prevent rubbing of the tool on the flank
faces, i.e. below the cutting edge. Increased relief angles reduce the strength of the cutting
edge. Also, increased relief angles reduce the force required for tool penetration in to the work.
But this disadvantage is recommended for low strength materials only.

Nose Radius
A cornered pointed edge with a zero nose radius is not good for a cutting tool. Having a
curved nose radius reduces the heat concentration, improve the surface finish and strengthen
the tool point. A larger nose will permit for heavy depth of cut, higher feed and interrupted
cuts. But there is a limit for larger size of the nose radius and will cause chatter because of
longer contact with work. Thus in general, the nose radius increases the forces and the tool
chatter. In single point tools, a nose radius in the range of 0.5 to 3 mm has been found to be
quite satisfactory.

FRICTION IN METAL CUTTING

In Chip Formation, the friction occurring between the chip and the tool face is a
controlling influence.
The actual contact of two sliding surfaces through the high spots can be seen under a
microscope; this is called asperities.
When a normal load is applied, yielding occurs at the tips of the contacting asperities
and the real area of contact (Ar) increases until it is capable of supporting the applied load. This
real area of contact Ar is only a small fraction of apparent contact area (Aa) for the vast majority
of engineering applications.

1.24
 FIG-1.13 Micro view of asperities in contact

N
Ar =
σy
Where N – normal force and σ y – mean yield stress of the asperities.
It has been seen that under the influence of normal and tangential load very high
temperature are developed at the contacting asperities and the metallic bonding of the
contacting high spots can occur. Thus, sliding of one surface relating to the other must be
accompanied by shearing of the welding asperities.
When plastic deformation takes place at the contacting surfaces, then the mechanism of
friction is different because the real area of contact approaches that of the apparent area of
contact. Under these conditions the friction force is independent of normal force.
Further it has been observed that coefficient of friction increases with an increase in the
rake angle. Normally, it is expected that with an increase in the rake angle, the metal cutting
forces decrease and should normally be associated with a decrease in friction. However in
actual practice the coefficient of friction increases. This happens because the influence of the
rake angle is no the same on the different components of the cutting force. The normal force on
the rake face decreases a great extent compared to the friction force. Thus, although there is an
overall decrease in the forces friction coefficient increases. That is why it is called apparent
coefficient of friction.
In metal cutting we have sliding situations of high normal load and with a metal surface
which is chemically clean; the clean metal surface explains the high value of friction coefficient
(µ) and the high normal load and the departure from the usual laws of friction. Thus, the
friction along the rake face of a cutting tool can be considered as partially sticking and partially
sliding.
In the ‘sticking zone ‘ the shear stress constantly approaches the yield stress of the work
material, while in the ‘sliding zone’, the normal Coulomb’s laws of friction hold good.

FIG-1.14 Fig-Chip Tool Friction

1.25