Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
REFERENCE
LIBRARY
A project of Volunteers in Asia
by Allen R. lnversin
Copyright 0 1986
202-857-9696
Additional copies of this book cau be ordered from the NRECA International Foundation.
Order forms, with publication and shipping costs, can be found at the back of this book.
PREFACE
Although worldwide interest in harnessing small-hydro- efficiency implies greater cost and therefore less
power resources by means of micro-hydropower plants accessibility to the technology). Turbines c,zn then be
(less than about 100 kW) is increasing, few published fabricated locally rather than be imported. Where labor
guides exist for those implementing such projects. costs are low and labor abundant, there is no need for
Some publications deal primarily with larger small- expensive, capital-intensive designs, which would again
hydropower plants, leaving developers of micro-hydro- restrict accessibility to this technology. And where
power sites with few options but to reduce the s&e of power requirements are simple, there is no need to incur
designs and approaches to implementation that are more the costs of the sophisticated hardware necessary to
appropriate for large plants. Consequently, such publi- meet exacting western standards.
cations unconsciously promote the development of
micro-hydropower schemes that do not take advantage The technology associated with micro-hydropower
of the unique factors encountered in implementing plants in developing countries spans a much broader
plants at the “micro’ end of the small-hydropower range of options than that for large-hydropower plants.
range-factors which must be considered if this resource Penstocks, fur example, can range from 25 mm plastic
is to be harnessed cost-effectively. Other publications pipe snaking downhill to a 1000 mm steel penstoak with
cover micro-hydropower technology but are incomplete, massive concrete anchor blocks designed to maintain
for example, making only cursory mention of power stability on whatever foundation they may rest. Elec-
canals, even though a survey of micro-hydropower trical frequency may be controlled by sophisticated
plants around the world would indicate that power governors or plants may be operated with no governing
canals are used at most sites. 4nd finally, most publi- whatsoever. In addition to generating ac power, micro-
cations are written primarily for a western audience and hydropower plants can generate dc power or even
address western needs within the context of western mechanical power. The Sourcebook is therefore faced
standards and realities. with the challenging task of covering each of these
options. The reader must also realize that even though
Although those implementing micro-hydropower plants an option may not be appropriate Eor d larger hydro-
have gained a wealth of experience during the last power scheme, it may still represent a valid approach
several decades, few have documented their efforts. under a new set of circumstances. It is only by chal-
Therefore, beginning with my personal efforts at lenging conventional approaches that viable micro-
implementing a micro-hydropower project in Papua New hydropower schemes can be developed.
Guinea 10 years ago and continuing with numerous over-
seas consultancies with NRECA the last 5 years, I have In some countries, local technical expertise has been
gathered technical inEormation and practical exper- developed, otten by trial and error. For these persons,
iences that address the needs of those interested in the Sourcebook can provide a reference and guide to
implementing micro-hydropower schemes in developing help them build on their experiences. In other coun-
countries. In this Sourcebook, I present detailed tries, local expertise is not readily available and consul-
descriptions of many aspects of planning and imple- tants may be employed. However, few consultants have
menting such schemes and document experiences from experience either in implementing cost-effective micro-
around the world. hydropower schemes or in the conditions encountered in
rural areas of developing countries. Also, the high costs
Small hydropower can make a substantial impact in of consultants can :;ignificantly increase the cost of
developing countries where significant waterpower implementing a scheme. For these reasons, resorting to
resources exist and where economically viable alterna- consultants is often not a viable option. In such cases,
tives are few. This publication focuses on these coun- the Sourcebook can serve as a detailed primer for per-
tries’ needs and meeting those needs within the particu- sons with basic technical aptitude, covering many
lar constraints found there. Although the theory of aspects of planning for, designing, and implementing
micro-hydropower applies universally, conditions found micro-hydropower schemes.
in developing countries make certain designs and
approaches used in industrialized nations less applicable The Sourcebook is a preliminary effort to prepare a ref-
there. The reader must keep this in mind. For example, erence book which covers many of the aspects of plan-
where water resources are abundant and energy needs ning and implementing micro-hydropower schemes in
are modest, less emphasis needs to be placed on maxi- developing countries. Although many more useful
mizing turbine efficiency (especially because greater experiences and additional information might be added
V
to those already included in this publication, it seems subsequent edititn. And anyone who has already imple-
appropriate to make available the material already mented micro-hydropower schemes is invited to submit
gathered. In so doing, I hope that in addition to provid- written descriptions accompanied by drawings and
ing useful information, the Sourcebook encourages read- photographs (preferably black and white) of his efforts
ers to submit information bzdxir experiences for which might be of value to others undertaking similar
future editions and that it provides a foundation on projects. Any comments or general suggestions would
wnich to build a more comprehensive reference. I also also be welcomed.
hope that future editions can cover other areas of
interest, such as mechanical and electrical end uses and Allen R. Inversin
their implications on system design and plant operation, Micro-Hydropower Engineer
approaches for managing micro-hydropower plants and International Programs Division
programs, options for tariff structures and their social National Rural Electric Cooperative Association
and financial implications, and operation and mainte- 1800 Massachusetts Avenue N.W.
nance of small plants. Washington, D.C. 20036
The Micro-Hydropower Sourcebook was initiated in 1981 visit projects in the field; Chartdanai Chartpolrak with
under a Cooperative Agreement between the National the National Energy Administration (NEA), who accom-
Rural Electiic Cooperative Association (NRECA) and panied me on visits to micro-hydropower schemes in
the Office of Energy of the U.S. Agency for Interna- Thailand for which he was responsible; Rupert Arm-
tional Development (USAID) as part of a broader USAID strong Evans from Cornwall, England, who has a vast
effort to assist developing countries in their efforts to body of experiences from his full-time involvement in
harness indigenous renewable energy resources. -3e the manufacture of hydropower equipment and the
Sourcebook has been completed with the support of the implementation of micro- and mini-hydropower schemes
NRECA International Foundation, a newly formed non- in the United Kingdom and overseas; Jaime Lobo Guer-
profit organization. rero of the Universidad de 10s Andes in BogotEi, who is
committed to designing technologies to make them
The idea of a publication to address the needs of those more accessible to those in rural areas and eagerly
implementing micro-hydropower schemes in developing shared the results of his work with me; Rik Hothersall,
countries had its roots in my initial work in Papua New who also became involvad in the field of micro-hydro-
Guinea &NC), where Professor Jack Woodward first power while teaching in PNG and kept me informed of
introduced me to this field. During his last year as head his efforts; Dale Nafziger, who shared his photographs
of the Department of Electrical and Communication and experiences gained while working with the United
Engineering at the PNG University of Technology, he Mission to Nepal (UMN); Domingo Wong, who accom-
initiated the implementation of a micro-hydropower panied me on visits to sites that the Instituto de Recur-
scheme requested by the villagers of Baindoang. When SOS HidrLulicos y ElectriEicacIon (IRHE) had imple-
he returned to the University of Auckland in 1977 to mented in Panama and freely shared with me project
head the Department of Electrical Engineering, I found successes as well as shortcomings; and Robert Yoder, an
myself in the driver’s seat and had my first hands-on engineer sensitive to the needs and problems found in
experience implementing a micro-hydropower project. rural areas, with 8 years of experience with the UMN,
At the same time, Ian Bean, an agricultura! develop- who was my guide and translator on a 2-week trek
ment officer stationed at the remote government out- through the nil1 region of Nepal to visit schemes imple-
post of Pindiu, began implementing very small micro- mented by the UMN, contributed to the case study on
hydropower plants of rudimentary design in four isolated Nepal, and showed by example that micro-hydropower
mountain communities in PNG. While learning from his technology can indeed be viable in rural areas oE devel-
experiences, I found his enthusiasm at meeting the chal- oping countries.
lenge of adapting a sophisticated technology for use in a
setting where modern tcchnol lgy is largely unknown Others have shared their experiences from implement-
contagious. The desire to assist others in meeting this ing or managing their own schemes: staff of the Alter-
challenge has been an instrumental factor in deciding to nate Hydra Energy Centre in Roorkee, India, imple-
write this book. menting schemes and undertaking research in hydro-
power generation and productive end uses; Geoff Bishop,
During the past 5 years while I have been working part 3 mining engineer who was implementing a 220 kW
time on the Sourcebook, numerous people around the scheme to provide power to the mission station of the
world have contributed in one way or another. I am par- Eglise Episcopale du Burundi in Buhiga and to an admin-
ticularly indebted to the following individuals who have istrative center and agricultural school in Karuzi;
generously shared their time and experiences with me: Githuki Chege, a simple farmer in Kenya with several
Dr. M. Abdullah, Dean, Faculty of Engineering of the water-powered mills and an eagerness to try something
North-West Frontier Province (NWFP) University of new; Brot Coburn, who was involved in several renew-
Science and Technology in Peshawar, Pakistan, who able energy technologies in Nepal and implemented a
accompanied me on several occasions on site visits to micro-hydropower scheme near the base of Mt. Everest:
the NWFP where he had implemented several dozen Bernard C&tinon, a French coop&ant, who managed the
schemes and patiently answered my innumerable ques- implementation of several schemes for the Ministry of
tions; Andreas Bachmann, who, while with the Swiss Rural Development in Burundi; Martin Dietz, who was
Association for Technical Assistance (SATA) and later involved in a cooperatively administered micro-hydro-
with UNICEF, was involved in a variety of renewable power scheme with the UMN in Nepal; Gary Duncan and
energy projects and shared with me numerous publica- Mike Smith, two Peace Corps vc!unteers who were
tions he had prepared on his activities as well as time to undertaking an ambitious micro-hydropower project in a
vii
remote part of Liberia; Peter Garman, who research&d In addition, a number of individuals have assisted with
water-current turbines on the Nile in the Sudan; Harry this effort by reviewing, or in some cases contributing
Langhorne, a private individual who built his own plant substantively to, portions of the Sourcebook. These
from scratch, which is still providing the base power to include Dr. Maurice Albertson, Gfessor in the Civil
his home in the Appalachian Mountains in Virginia, Engineering Department of Colorado State University;
before it became in vogue; P&e Landolt and P&e Dr. Roger Ardt, Director, and Dr. John Gulliver, Asso-
Pristt, who managed micro-hydropower plants supplying ciate Professor, from St. Anthony Falls Hydraulic Labo-
power to their mission stations in Musongati and Giheta, ratory at the University of Minnesota; Bard Jackson,
Burundi, respectively; Graham Leschke, who managed a Principal Engineer wRith NRECA’s International Pro-
scheme in PNG and accompanied me on visits to other grams Division; Martin Johnson, President of The John-
plants in the area managed by missions; Soheyl Motta- son Company in Montpelier, Vermont; Mike Johnson,
hedah, an Iranian-born Canadian committed to develop- President of Hydro-Tech Systems Inc. of Chattaroy,
ment of the rural areas in eastern Zaire and founder of Washington; Ed Kramer, former General Manager of
the Soci6t6 de DBveloppement Rural du Zaire Himal Hydra and General Construction Pvt. Ltd. of
(SODERZA), who built his first turbine with no prior Nepal; Dr. Pedro Restrepo, Systems Analyst with
experience and implemented a complete project in the Dynamics Research Corp.; and Dr. Calvin Warnick,
space of only a couple of months; Harald Mucker, a Professor Emeritus at the University of Idaho.
German engineer directing a program for implementing
micro-hydropower plants in the Department of Cusco, Finally, preparing the Micro-Hydropower Sourcebook
Peru, for the Proyecto Minicentrales Hidroe&tricas would have been a signficantly more difficult and time-
(PROMIHDEC), using locally fabricated turbines; the consuming undertaking had it not been for the assis-
staff of the Small Hyde1 Development Board (SHDB) of tance of a number of individuals: Elizabeth Graham,
Nepal involved in the implementation. of a number of who not only edited portions of this publication but also
small-hydropower plants around the country; Bruno made innumerable contributions throughout which
VSgtli, an enterprising Swiss *vho was singlehandedly shaped the final form of this publication; Darrell McIn-
constructing a road across a &.Jrtion of PNG and accon- tire, who stuck with it over several years to carefully
panicd me on an exhausting, all-day trek to visit a prepare most of the illustrations in their final form;
micro-hydropower plant in Bz-ndi; John Wood, who Barbara Shapiro, who conscientiously and carefully
designed and built an ingenious automatic rack-raking edited the entire publication; Kitty Anderson, who
device for his plant in Ireland; and Gary and Connie inputted innumerable drafts and revisions on the word
Young, who rehabilitated and managed a plant that pro- processor, never knowing when they would end; and
vided power to the school and hospital complex of the Carol King, who patiently took all the pieces and laid
Mission Evangelique des Amis at Mibimba, Burundi. them out in their final format.
viii
27ABLEOFCONTENTs
Preface v
Acknowledgment vii
‘t’hble of contents ix
I. INTRODUCTION
Need for energy for rural development 1
Micrehydmpower: An appropriate energy source 1
Perceived obstacles to viable micmhydmpower schemes 4
Overview of the Micro-Hydropower Sourcebook 5
II. MEASURING HEAD AND DISCHARGE
Lntroduction 9
Measurement oi discharge 9
Bucket method 10 *.
Velocity-ama method 11
Determining the area 12
Determining the stream velocity 12
Float method 13
Velocity-head rod 13
Current meter 14
Deternming discharge 15
Weir method 16
Salt-dilution method 19
Slope-area method 19
Stage-discharge method 20
Moasuroment of hoad 21
Using a level 22
Using a clinometer 23
Us@ a pressure gage 24
Using an altimeter 24
III. STREAhMtIW CHARACXEIUSTICSAND DESIGN FMW 21
Introduction 27
Schemes using less than annual minimum streamf!ow 27
Schemes using greater than annual minimum streamflow 28
Gaged sites 28
Data collection 28
Data processing 29
Ungaged sites 32
Estimating mr?anannual flow 33
Using runoff data 33
Using ratio of areas 36
Correlating flows 38
ix
Estimating minimum flow 37
Estimating a flowduration curve 38
Determining power and energy potential from a flow-duration curve 38
Alternative turbine configurations 42
v. CIVIL WORKS 63
Introduction 63
Qualitative overview 64
Dam or weir 64
Increasing head 65
Providing storage 65
Diverting flow 67
Intake 67
Power conduit 68
Forebay 72
Penstock 74
Powerhouse 77
nilrace 78
Design and construction details 78
Dams and weirs 78
Intakes 84
Power conduits 96
Dotermining canal dimensinns and slope 96
Velocity in a canal 96
Roughness coefficient 98
Cross-sectional pmfiie 98
Pmcedure 99
Excavation 104
Canal lining 104
Brick or stone-masonry 106
Concrete 107
Soil-cement 108
Drainage 108
Fs~board and spillways 109
Dmp structures 110
Circumventing obstacles 112
Flumes 112
Inverted siphons 115
Culverts 116
Sizing low-pressure conduits 118
Wrebalys 118
Penstocks 124
Materials 124
Sizing penstock pipes 125
Selecting pipe diameter 125
Selecting wall thickness 133
Expansion joints 136
Support piers, anchors, and thrusthlocks 138
Support piers 138
Anchors 140
Thrustblocks 144
Reducing the forces acting on a structure 145
Conditions for stability 146
Air valves 147
Powerhouses 150
Other components 154
Gates and valves 154
Stoplogs 154
Sliding gates 155
Gate valves 158
Butterfly valves 159
spillweys 159
Overflow spillways 160
Shaft spillways 166
Siphon spillways 161
nashracks and skimmers 162
%ashracks 162
Skimmers 165
Settling basins 166
xi
Belt drives 193
Flat belt? 193
V-belts 193
Timing belts 194
Chain drives 194
Gear boxes 194
xii
Monitoring equipment 223
Switchgear 223
Protection equipment 223
X. CASE STUDIES 225
Introduction 225
Private-sector approach to implementing microhydropower schemes in Nepal 226
Immduction 226
Background 226
Butwal 226
Program history 227
llsdmical designs 229
Selection of turbine type 229
7brbine design 230
Design of a typical mill :installation 231
Installation teams 233
Installation of a mill 234
Site selection 234
Site layout 235
Quote for the installation 236
Design, fabrication, and delivery 23?
Installation 238
Design modifications 240
costs 240
Other developments 241
Hardware 241
Mechanical heat generator 241
Heat storage cooker 242
Mill lighting 243
Cooperative approach to implementation 245
Observations 246
End uses and viability of microhydropower plants 246
Appropriateness of micro-hydropower technology 247
Villagec4mplemented micro-hydropower schemes in Pakistan 248
Introduction 248
Background 248
Implementation and cperation 249
‘IBchnical designs 252
Civil works 253
Intake area 253
Power canal 253
Forebay 254
Penstock 254
Powerhouse 255
lbrbo-generating equipment 256
‘Ihrbine 2S6
Generator 257
Governing 257
Distribution 258
costs 258
Observations 259
Expanding the scale of the program 259
Increasing the capacity of the plants 260
Benefits to the rural sector 261
Replication in other countries 261
Implications of design on long-term costs 262
Other project descriptions 263
A.PPENDKEs 265
A. Conversion factors and constants 265
B. Significant figures 267
C. Guide to field determina?ion of soil type 269
...
Xl11
D. Prepuring concrete 270
E. Masonry 272
E Water hammer 274
REPERENCES 277
INDEX 263
xiv
I. INTRODUCTION
Introduction 1
Fig. 1.2. This micro-hydropower plant is integrated with
an irrigation scheme, using excess water to genemte power
for a nearby town, thereby displacing the diesel fuel that
would otherwise be used.
Fig. 1.3. Water falling about 5 m through an open flume to opemted micro-hydropower plants are found in a number
a Pelton turbine built of wood provides sufficient power to of countries throughout the world and have often been in
saw timber. Examples of such locally designed, b::ilt, and use for generations.
2 Introduction
Fig. 1.5. Women in rumf areas spend numerous hours per- MPPU manufactured in Nepal (p. 1781, here shown per-
forming tedious, strenuous, and energydemanding tasks forming the same task performed by the woman at the
such as milling grain for domestic consumption. Such left, primarily addresses these needs, although electricity
areas need mechanical more than electrical energy. The can also be genemted if desired (see Fig. 7.3).
nature of micro-hydropower resources coincides more depending on their end use, from systems incorporating
closely with the dispersed nature of rural populations; it only a generator with no governing or speed control
permits energy to bc genrratcd near where it is to be devices to stand-alone, fully automated systems gener-
used, leading to reduced transmission costs (Fig. 1.6). ating utility-grade power.
Several types of turbines commonly used with micro- Whereas large-hydropower schemes incorporate massive
hydropower schemes lend themselves to sim& designs dams and major civil works, relying heavily on steel and
and fabrication techniques, which in turn<ncocrage - concrete, a wide rangeof designs and materials for the
their local manufacture (Fig. 1.7). Because the turbine civil
-- works components is possible for micro-hydropower
can bc one of the more expensive components of a schemes (Fig. 1.8). Dams are rarely used, and the civil
micro-hydropower scheme , considerable savings are pos- works for numerous schemes have been built with sev-
sible if locally fabricated equipment is used. Efficiency eral bags of cement as the only material imported into
is not necessarily a major consideratio.1 if adequate the area.
water resources are available which they often are;
neither is the need for high-quality and long-lasting tur- Finally, large-hydropower schemes, primarily because
bines if turbinrs can easily be repaired locally. In addi- they impound a large body of water behind a dam, can
tion, designs for turbo-generating units vary widely have a variety of adverse impacts on the surrounding
Fig. 1.6. Micro-hydropower is one of the few means of providing useful amounts of energy to remote communities.
Introduction 3
area: flooding of arable land; social dislocation;
increased incidence of certain diseases; and decreased
fish populations. because micro-hydropower schemes
involve move modest undertakings and seldom require
dams, social and environmental concerns are rarely
raised.
Fig. 1.8. These two schemes, which each generate of the power canal, foreboy, and powerhouse are visible in
5-l 0 kW, illustmte the range of design options possible to both schemes. The penstock to the plant at the left is
those implementing micro-hydropower projects. A portion buried.
4 Introduction
for implementing such schemes has increased their OVERVIRW OF THE MICRO-HYDROPOWER SOURCE-
inefficiency, resulting in further increases in the BOOK
effort and cost of installing small plants.
Although micro-hydropower technology has the poten-
l The high costs and difficulties of central government tial to make a significant contribution at an acceptable
agencies operating and maintaining plants in remote cost, the factors summarized above have discouraged
areas further discourage the development of these the widespread development of this technology. The
plants. Reducing the staff for a 30 kW plant in purpose of the Micro-Hydropower Sourcebook is to
Nepal to 14 may be a step in the right direction but address primarily the technical issues encountered in
one person selected from the village who would be the planning, design, implementation, and operation of
backed up by technical assistance from a regional or micro-hydropower plants. However, numerous other
central agency when needed would be a more appro- factors, some mentioned above, must be considered
priate staff for such a plant. AlthouGh high staffing carefully if a successful micv:o-hydropower plant or pro-
costs is another factor which contributes to the gram is to be implemented.
impression that micro-hydropower plants ar++ inap-
propriate, the problem is with conventional govern- An essential requirement for hydropower generation is a
ment approaches to implementation and operation of stream with a combination of adequate head-the drop
small-hydropower plants and is not intrinsic in the in elevation-over a reasonable reach of the stream and
technology. In Papua New Guinea, for example, adequate flow to meet the expected demand for the
several private plants with capacities of up to power to be generated. The Sorrcebook therefore
100 kW are run with the part-time inputs of a single begins with the chapter, Ikll@?URING HEAD AND DXS-
person. CHARGE, which describes a range of methods for
measuring these two parameters which is sufficiently
It is increasingly recognized that the development of broad to address most situations.
micro-hydropower schemes holds out more promise for
contributing to rural development than for significantly Although the head between any two points at a specific
increasing a nation’s indigenous energy-generating capa- site remains unchanged over time, the same cannot be
city. If the government is to implement such schemes, said of flow, the other critical parameter. Flow is
their effective implementation requires that the affected by several factors, primarily precipitation, but
government agency involved in rural development, also geological features, the nature of the soil, vegeta-
cooperatives, small industries, or possibly agriculture, tion cover, agriculture practices, temperature, and
rather than that involved in the power sector should land-use patterns in the catchment basin. Measuring
take on the responsibility. The government of Burundi, flow at one po:nt in time is of little use in planning for a
for example, has placed the development of small- hydropower pla*+ because that flow may not be tepte-
hydropower plants under the Ministry of Rural Devel- sentative of the flow available most of the time. The
opment. Governments might also find it beneficial to chapter, STRRAMFLOW CHARACTERISTICS AND
encourage active private-sector involvement in this sec- DESIGN FLOW. reviews methods of teducine flow data
tor. For example, whereas the government of Nepal has gathered over a period of time to forms whiih can be
encountered high costs for implmementing and operat- used to size turbines and predict the effect of flow
ing micro-hydropower schemes, a number of private variations on the power and energy genemted over the
companies have demonstrated their ability to cost- year. Because few streamgaging data are available at
effectively implement micro-hydropower plants to most micro-hy&opowet sites, several methods for pre
directly drive agro-processing equipment and generate dieting flow characteristics at an ungaged site are also
small quantities of electrical power. Because of these described.
experiences, His Majesty’s Government recently ruled
that private individuals are now free to generate and Now that the reader has been introduced to techniques
sell electric power generated by their micro-hydropower for measuring both head and flow, the next task is to
plants. The United States, where the national grid is prospect for a potential site. This means selecting a
well established, provides another example of where site with sufficient head so that the available flow can
legislation mandating that utilities purchase any power meet projected power needs. Although a plant might be
offered to them has significantly encouraged the cost- located at the base of a waterfall, it is mote likely to be
effective development of small-hydropower resources found along a stream such as that shown in Fig. 1.9. In
by the private sector. selecting a site, it is essential to undersand the options
for laying out a hydropower scheme and the features to
There are numerous examples from around the world look for in locating the intake and powerhouse along the
which illustrate where the apparent obstacles to effec- stream. These are described in the next chapter, SlTR
tively implementing micro-hydropower schemes have SRLRCTION AND RASK LAYOUT. At the end ofthis
been overcome. These highlight the fact that this is chapter, examples ate presented which illustrate how
possible and that there is a need to consider alternative and why some existing hydropower plants were laid out
approaches to implementing and managing such schemes as they were.
in order that indigenous waterpower resources can be
harnessed to contribute most beneficially to the devel- Once the site has been selected and the basic layout
opment of the rural areas. prepared as described in the previous chapter, it is
Introduction 5
FL@ 1.9. A typical ccuntryside where a small-hydropc bwer plant might be located to exploit a drop in c.ievaZion “Hg’?
6 Introduction
and flow input and the nature of the electrical output Generation and direct use of mechanical power presents
(or mechanical output, if no electricity is to be gener- several advantage over the generation of electrical
ated). The equipment supplier will then include the power (Fig. 1.11). The chapter, HYJBROFOWERJ
necessary components within the black box to comply ELECTRICAL VS. MECEANICAL, compares the advan-
with the site conditions and the customer’s needs. To tages and disadvantages of electrical and mechanical
ensure that a unit meets the needs of the customer as power generation.
closely as possible, however, the supplier should also be
given a more thorough description of site conditions and In generating electrical or mechanical power, it is fre-
end uses. quently necessary to control the speed of the turbine.
Several devices are conventionally used for this purpose,
From the point of view of someone wishing to imple- but they are generally costly and sophisticated. The
me::+ a plant that can be easily operated, maintained, chapter, GO VERNING, reviews the purpoee of governing
and repaired, some knowledge of the function and oper- and the extent of control required for various types of
ation of each component is critical. The chapters on end uses, permitting the site developer to choose the
turbo-generating equipment provide the reader with level of goveming required to meet specific site condi-
some of the basic information necessary to understand tions and consumer needs. It also describes several con-
the purpose and function of each component and thus to ventional as well as nonconventional approaches to
design an appropriate scheme with the ,greatest possibi- governing.
lity of success.
The chapter, ELECTRICAL ASPECTS, discusses the
Although a thorough knowledge of the theory of hydrau- basic decisions which must be made before the electri-
lic turbines is not essential, an understanding of the cal design is initiated and the generating equipment is
-.-&--:-+4-m nf
b ZSiC* C~Z~~L~G~S,.L.C~ (L,. .Jarioaus tT*bine types will aid in specified: whether ac or dc power is better suited and,
ensuring a better designed system. The chapter, TUR- if ac, whether single- or three-phase power should be
BINES, reviews the design and operation of the basic generated. It then reviews the function of the genera-
turbine types and outlines the data which must be fur- tor and other electrical components and the information
nished to a supplier to ensure that the correct turbine is necessary to specify these properly.
supplied. For those interested in fabricating their own
turbine, several publications are already available, and The final chapter, CASE STUDIES, presents descriptions
designs are not repeated here. This chapter contains of micro-hydropower programs in several countries,
general information on adaptability of various turbines both to illustrate how technical issues were addressed
to fabrication and references to publications that pro- and to discuss other issues which are encountered in
vide further details. mounting such a program.
0 0,4 0
7 CARPENTRY k?
1
0 3 Pulp beater
4 Paper press
8 5 Generator
8 6 Grain mill
7 Turbine
6JVats
v
0 9 Wood store
Fig. 1.11. The 13 kW turbine at a mill in Phaplu, Nepal, under way to install a mecnanicaf neat generator to Doll
directly drives u variety of machinery; the generation of paper pulp and dry the finished paper, saving the fuelwOod
electricity provides a secondary benefit. Work Is presently which is traditionally used.
Introduction 7
II, MZAS~G HEAD AND DISCHARGE
MEASUREMENT OF DISCHARGE
EXAMPLE 2.1 Be&use this volume entered the drum in 3.6 8, the
discharge is
iin empty 2OWiter oil drum (H = 82 cm) is used to
measure the’discharge in a creek. A trough is 170 I
crudely constructed to channel all the flow (Fig. 2.2). Qy3.6 =471/s
Then, by measuring the depth of water captured in time relatively straight, smooth17 flowing portion of the
“t”, the volume “V” of that water can be determined and stream of generally uniform width. The streambed in
used to determine the discharge: this area should be well-defined and not covered with
boulders, tree trunks, or thick grasses.
Q=; (2.2)
This method looks at the volume of water flowing across
a cross-section of the stream every second (Fig. 2.4).
Velocity-area ,method
-_ The discharge or flow “Q” (m3/s) is then derived using
the following equation:
For this method, an appropriate point is selected along
the stream to be gaged. This point should be along a Q=Av (2.3)
A = (4 dl + 2 d2 + 4 d3 + . . . + 4 d,) F
vS
= surface velocity of the stream
where
v = average velocity through a partial area
A = stream cross-sectional area (m”) p = average velocity of the stream
v = average stream velocity through area “A” (m/s)
Determining area
D
vs= F (2.5)
P = cv, (2.6)
ii = cv
S (2.7)
Section AA
graduations A
7 r loo-l -l
I I I I I
I I I a I I
L metal shoe A 4-l
Fig. 2.8. A velociC)+head rod with dimensions shown in millimeters.
4
-velocity rod
stream, the average stream velocity can be derived
using Eq. (2.6).
In smooth flow, the rod can easily be read and the accu-
racy of the velocity measured should be within 3%. In
turbulent flow, the reading might fluctuate by several
centimeters, but the accuracy of the measured velocity
should still be within 10%.
ii
vs = &ii (2.8) ; 1.0 -
22
A graph of surface velocity versus the rise of water i-
against the rod is shown in Fig 2.10. If, for example, brn
the water rises 17 cm, the surface velocity at that point
is about 1.8 m/s.
01 I I , I I I I 1
Current meter. This is the most common method for 0 10 20 30
measuring velocities at any depth in larger streams and
rivers which are not turbulent. It requires special h (velocity head, cm)
equipment and is necessary only where accuracy is
required. This is generally not the case with micro- Fig.2.10. A g!xph of surface velocity vs. velocity head
hydropower installations. measured with a velocity rd.
d2 + d3
a3= (-1~ (2.10)
Determining discharge
where:
Q = discharge over weir (m3/s)
L = length of notch (as defined
in sketch, in m)
h = head (m)
Most equations for the discharge through sharp-crested in head measurement noted above, the error in dis-
weirs are not accurate for heads less than about 5 cm. charge would be 20%.
On the other hand, few discharge measurements have
been made on sharp-crested weirs for heads greater If a single weir is to be used, the notch must be wide
than about 0.5 m. Therefore, if a sharp-crested weir is enough to convey the largest expected discharge with-
to be used, it might be suggested that the weir be out exceeding the maximum head “h” for which the weir
selected so that “h” will be in the range of 0.050.50 m is designed. It is therefore necessary to have some feel
(32). A triangular weir could consequently be used to for the range of discharges found in a stream --before
measure discharges in the range of 3.0-300 C/s. This is a constructing a weir.
significant variation which can be measured with a sin-
gle weir. The rectangular weir described in Fig. 2.14 The weir should be set at the lower end of a pool suffi-
can be used to measure discharges greater than about ciently long and deep to give a smooth flow toward the
5 P/s. Mowever, a triangular weir can gage a greater notch, preferably with a velocity less than 0.15 m/s. If
range of discharges than can any single rectangular this is not possible, the formula for discharge would
weir. With the head increasing from 0.05 m to 0.55 m, have to be corrected for the effect of the stream‘s
the flow through a triangular weir would increase about velocity of approach.
100 times (from 3.0 to 300 f/s), whereas flow through a
rectangular weir would increase only about 40 times. After the weir is constructed, a method for measuring
the head “h” should be included. This measurement
If a weir has been properly constructed, the principal should be made far enough upstream of the weir to pre-
errors arise from measurement of head. For a rectan- vent the reading from being affected by the downward
gular or Cipoletti weir, the percentage error in dis- curve of the water heading through the notch. A dis-
charge is 1.5 times the percentage error in head meas- tance at least four times the head is usually recom-
urement. Therefore, if a head measurement of 6.0 cm mended. One method for determining “h” is to drive a
is in error by 0.5 cm, or 0.5/6.0 = 8%, the error in dis- stake into the streambed until it is precisely level with
charge would be about 12%. For a triangular weir, the the lower edge of the notch, as shown in Fig. 2.14. It
percentage error in discharge is 2.5 times the percent- should be far enough to one side of the notch to be in
age error in head measurement. For the same 8% error comparatively still water. To measure head “h”, a scale
0.8
For discharge through:
I. rectangular weir - read “q” on left-hand
scale and multiply by (L - 0.2 h)
2. Cipoletti weir - read “q” on left-hand
scale and multiply by L
0.6
3. triangular weir - read “Q” directly on
right-hand scale
2
.
N
El
-3 0.4
0.2
C
30 40 50 60
h (here in cm)
Sa.IMilution method
A more detailed description of this method based on v = average flow velocity in channel (m/s)
work by Andrew Brown, lTlS Micro-Hydro Engineer, is r = hydraulic radius = A/P
found in “Stream Flow Measurement by Salt Dilution A = cross-sectional area of flow (m2)
As mentioned in Weir metbod(p. 16), one method of The gage itself must be placed so that it is accessible at
measuring discharge is to construct a notched weir and all stages and its datum remains constant. it should be
measure the depth of water, or stage, behind the weir. referred to bench marks entirely removed from the gage
The stage-discharge method is similar to the weir so that, if disturbed, it may be replaced to the same
method except that, rather than a notch, some physical datum. The gage should not be situated where it is
feature of the stream downstream of the gage controls exposed to possible damage from debris nor where silt
the relation between stage and discharge. When this deposited by the normal current can cut off the connec-
controlling feature is situated in a short reach of the tion between it and the free water level of the flowing
stream, a “control section” is said to exist. This might water. It is not necessary, however, that the site also
be a stretch of rapids where there is at least a moderate be suitable for measuring discharge in order to calibrate
fall or a culvert with a cascading discharge. If the the gage. This can be done upstream or downstream
stage-discharge relationship is governed by the slope, from the gaging site, if the flow is steady and no water
MEASUREMENT OF HEAD these methods often can also be used for final deter-
mination of gross head, although the apprzte method
Measuring the available head is often seen as a task for must then be selected, especially for sites with very low
a surveyor, but for all schemes, much quicker and less heads or small penstock gradients. Because the power
costly methods can be used for the preliminary deter- available from a given turbine is proportional to H3i2,
mination of head. For micro-hydropower schemes, the percentage error in the power output due to incor-
Using a level
posed intake to the penstock. The final reading “hf” It should be noted that, using this method, two tasks
might be less than the full distance “h”. The totalhead have to be performed simultaneously-viewing along the
is then level to some point X. while at the same time viewing
the bubble to ensure th at the carpenter’s level is exactly
= nh + hf (2.15) horizontal. Clearly this can be performed by two per-
Hg sons. If only one person is available, he can perform
where n is the number of intermediary points between X both tasks using a small mirror oriented at 45’ to the
and Y. In preparing the stake, the distance “h” selected axis of the level; this permits the bubble to be viewed
should enable convenient sighting along the level from a from the same position from which the aighting to the
standing position slightly below the stake. next point Xi is made. If a tripod is available to which
the level can be secured, the level can be mounted hori-
This method requires that head be measured from the zontally first and then the sightings can be made.
point of lowest elevation and that measurement pro-
gress upward along the slope. Surveyors with transits The error in measurement of gross head using this
can progress downhill but then a longer stadia or level- method depends on the average gradient of the slope.
ing rod would be required. If going from the powerhouse The error is positioning the level horizontally may aver-
to intake locations requires going downhill for a portion age itself out over the entire distance. The error in
of the distance (Fig. 2.251, the method described sighting along the level might not, depending on the
requires that segments be measured separately from the user. With a little care, on a fairly steep slope of 1:2
lowest to highest points. The corresponding changes in (vertical to horizontal) or about 30°, error should be less
elevation are then added or subtracted as appropriate to than 2%4%. For a fairly level grade of l:lO, error
derive the gross head “Hgn. increases considerably, to possibly lo%- 20%.
-Using a clinometer
This method requires a clinometer or Abney level tv
measure vertical angles. The view through the eyepiece
of this device is split so that while the instrument can
be aimed at the next station up (or down) the hill, an
attached graduated arc can be oriented horizontally by
means of a spirit level which is also visible through the
Flg. 2.25. Determintng the gross head over undulating ter- eyepiece. The angle of elevation “0” in the direction
min. being sighted can then be determined. Though clinom-
Fig. 2.26. Using a clInometer to determ!ne gross head between two points, X and Y.
eters are available with or without magnification, To apply this method, the distance between the pro-
sighting is often easier through one without. posed penstock inlet and powerhouse is measured in
increments approximately equal to the length of the
In using a clinometer, a measuring tape is stretched tubing (Fig. 2.27). The pressure reading is noted for
between two stakes of equal length to determine the each increment. The sum of all these readings, con-
distance “L” between the two stakes (Fig. 2.26). A cli- verted to meters, will equal the gross head.
nometer resting on one stake is used to measure the
angle of elevation (or depression ) “0” to the top of the
next stake. A trigonometric function, sine, is then used
to convert these two readings to the difference in ele- plastic tubing
vation of the two points “h”. The gross head at the site filled with water
is then determined by completing a table such as that
shown in Fig. 2.25.
Another factor affecting altimeter readings is the If a single altimeter is used without correction, errors
change in pressure accompanying a change in weather. can amount to 3-30 m or more. With corrections made
These changes can be gradual or sudden. Tropical for regular daily pressure variations, this error can be
storms and depressions can cause variations of 15 m or reduced considerably. If two altimeters are used, errors
more within half an hour. These storms can also be very can be reduced to about *l m per measurement.
local, with considerable variation in pressure over
several kilometers (30). Instrument temperature can also affect the altitude
reading, but altimeters are often compensated for this
When high humidity accompanies high temperature, effect and corrections need not be applied unless the
relative humidity also affects altimeter readings. The temperature changes by more than about 10 ‘C.
Gaged sites
Data collection
Fig. 3.2. A typIca flow hydrogmph. The dashed lines in&ate average monthly flows.
0.8 0.8
0.6
J F M AMJ J A S 0 N 2 4 6 8 10 12
Calrndar month Number of months flow exceeded
Fig. 3.4. The relationship of an avemge monthly flow hydmgmph with the corresponding flow-duration curve.
0 0
JFMAMJJASOND 0 100 200 300 365
Calendar date Number of days flow equalled or exceeded
LA---,
0 20 40 60 80 100
Percent exceedance
-. -- . . _^ - . _ _- - ._
(m3/s) Ott Nov Dee Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sept T~:al Days %
10.0 / 0.3
7.00 a 5.5
5.00 3 5. P
4.00 7 I. 9
3.00 B a.4
16 +w
ad w
w 12
4% i&P
Ed a4
/M 5.2
/La 4.3
c?d 64
J&J 99
36d 100-
Fig. 3.6. Sample worksheet for calculating an annual flow dumtion curve for a single year.
ungaged sites
(a) (bl
rig. 3.~. A nmoyf map (a) permlrs esttmatlng tne mean mean annual minfall (0) and runoff coefftcient (c) can also
annual flow if thz dmlnage area is known. A knowledge of be used to determine runoff.
Fig. 3.10. A comparison of runoff curves (in mm) from the in 1980 Hydrology Data (15). Th%number in parentheses
Atlas of World Water Balance (1) with walues of runoff for represents the dminage area Ikm 1 associated with each
%e pefTW of recoti derivedfrom actual ffeld data four& gciging station.
20
1 along the line with a 4S” slope.
o’llD+
. l 4.0 0
L
I
10
I
I
20
I
I
40
(
tion of water for irrigation
can significantly
because irrigation
affect minimum
upstream of a proposed site
flows, especially
is used during the dry or low-flow
QA (m3/s) season. Because minimum flows are relatively small,
the nature of the riverbed can also have a significant
Fig. 3.11. Flows in one irregularly gaged stream are impact on the available flow. In some cases, either part
plotted on log-log paper against simultaneous flows in a or all of the stream may flow within the streambed’s
gaged stream in the same region. The 19 readings used coarse alluvium while the bed itself appears dry.
were taken at about equal intervals during 1980 (151.
The most reliable way of ascertaining minimum flow is
The line in the graph in Fig. 3.11 represents the best fit to visit the stream toward the end of the dry season,
of the.points representing flow measurements at the gage it, and ask the people nearby to compare the rela-
ungaged site X and the gaged site A on corresponding tive magnitude of that flow with past .ninimum flows.
days. If this line has a slope of 1.0 (or, equivalently, lies Many people living by a stream rely on it for agricul-
at 45O) as it is in this case, the flows are proportional to ture, bathing, washing, and/or drinking and are well
each other. Therefore, because the mean annual flow at aware of its characteristics through the years. It is
site A was calculated earlier to be 5.7 m3/s, the corre- essential that the questions asked of villagers not be
sponding mean annual flow for site X can be found from biased, that they draw as objective a response as possi-
Fig. 3.11 to be 2.0 m3/s. ble-not the answer they assume the questioner would
If the line has some other slope, flows at the two sites
r’Lg. 3.12. The specific minimum flow CPki/km2) for the are not proportional. In this case, the values of flow for
period 1971-80 for various catchments in central Punama,
several exceedance values are taken from the flow-
delinected by the shaded areas, varies considerably. The
duration for the gaged site (Fig. 3.13b), and each flow is
actual year of minimum flow ts fndicsted in parentheses.
converted to the corresponding flow at the ungaged site
using the line on the log-log plot (Fig. 3.11). The latter
like to hear. Several villagers should be questioned flows are then plotted against the original exceedance
independently. values to obtain the desired curve (Fig. 3.13e).
Figure 3.13 illustrates how this approach is applied in Determining power ad energy potential from a flow-
the case of the ungaged site X referred to earlier, once duration curve
the flow-duration curve for the gaged site A has been
prepared (Fig. 3.13b). Using runoff data as described in If a run-of-river hydropower scheme requires flows
the first of the three approaches de cribed earlier greater than the minimum streamftow for power gener-
(p. 33), a mean annual flow of 2.9 m5 /s was estimated ation, it is useful to know the variation of flow over the
for site X. Applying this estimate of the mean annual year to select the most appropriate turbine configura-
flow, flows on the flow-duration curve for site A should tion. For this purpose, information presented in the
be reduced to (2.9)/(5.7) or 51% to get the corresponding form of a flow-duration curve is most useful.
b)
[a)
gaged 12 1
Flow-duration
curve for
I
site A for
period 1974-82
km 2
Percent exceedance
6 (4
6
‘.
Ratio of areas . Correlation
.
..
.. of flows
..
a 4 -a
-.
-.
m$ -.
*.
*.
l.
cf 2 *.
0%.
l -..
--.*
--..
--_
01 I 1 I 01 I 1 I 01 I 1 1
0 33 50 100 0 33 50 100 0 33 50 100
Percent exceedance Percent exceedance Percent exceedance
Fig. 3.13. An approximation for a flow-duration curve at ween flows (e). In this example, the flow-duration cwve
an ungaged site (a) can be obtained from a flow-duration for the “ungaged” site is actually Imown and is represented
cme at a gaged site 0, modified by regional runoff data by the dotted Hnes for the sake of comparison
(c), the mtio of dminage areas Id), or by correlation bet-
t
This would be the design flow of the turbine. The flow-
I I I I I I 1 I I ‘- duration curve (Fig. 3.16) shows that peak power would
OO 20 40 60 80 0 be available 28% of the year. The curve also shows
that, for example, 50 kW which requires
Percent exceedance
Fig. 3.14. The flow-duration curve for a stream at a Q=,l6$33 = 0.17 m3/s
micro-hydropower site used In the following discussions.
would be available 80% of the time (or 42 weeks of the
0.6 ye=) y d that there would always be available at least
0.12m /sor
I’ = (6.0)(0.12)(50) = 36 kW
0.5
0.6
0.4
0.5
5.
$j 0.3
0.4
a
0.2 Ti
m; 0.3
a
0.1
0.2
cL
'0 40 60 80 100 0.1
Percent exceedance
the annual energy potential of a site is easy to calculate Fig. 3.16. The shaded area represents all the flow that
mathematically. This is not the case when varying would be available for the genemtion of qwer if the max-
flows are used. In this case, a graphical approach is imum capacity of the turbine were 0.30 m /s.
used. For this simple example, the basis for this
approach is as follows. The power “P” available from If it is assumed that conversion efficiency from water-
the turbine is proportional to the flow “Q” used power to electricity remains constant over the entire
(because, in this case, the power equation leads to P = range of flows (at 60% in this case), the total energy
300 Q), which is graphically represented by the height of available would be equal to the area under the curve
the shaded portion. Doubling the heighL of the shaded when the appropriate scales are used (Fig. 3.17). That
area, for example, would mean that double the flow is area (or energy potential) can be estimated by adding
used and that double the power would be generated. the areas of rectangles and/or trapezoids, for example.
Because power is proportional to flow (on the vertical The energy potential “El ’ of this site would then be:
0.3
Hours exceedance 8 Oh
‘j;
(1 yd
$
Fig. 3.17. Same curve as in the previous &ure with scales a
changed to illustmte that the energy potential is simply
equal to the shaded area.
This value represents the annual energy that is poten- Fig. 3.18. The shaded area reptvsents the flow that would
tially available. Although it is imperative financially to be amilabla for power genemtfon if the maximum output
make productive use of all energy that can be gener- of the urb-genemtl “3 unit were 90 kW (requiring
ated, this is rarely done at isolated plants. Rather, the 0.30 m 5/s) and 0.50 m /s were left in the stream to meet
load is often at a maximum during early evening hours, environmental needs.
with little or no use for the power during the day. In
these cases, knowing a site’s power potential may be Although the peak power is not affected, the length of
more useful. than knowing its annual energy potential. time for which it is available is reduced from 28% of
For example, it is more important to know that, in spite the year to only 21%. Because a small but year-round
of the fact that the turbine can generate 90 kW, the portion of the flow is now no longer available for power
power output may not exceed 40 kW for several weeks generation, the total energy capacity of the site is also
each year. When a plant is interconnected to a grid, all reduced. Now only about 510,000 kWh/year is available.
the excess energy can usually be used. In this latter A comparison of areas under the respective curves
case, a knowledge of the annual energy potential has a (Figs. 3.16 and 3.18) shows that, although the same tur-
direct impact of the financial viability of the plant. bine is used, only 83% of the energy originally available
from the powerplant is now available. In addition, the
Whether a plant is isolated or grid-connected, several flow which must be left in the stream has its largest
factors reduce the power and annual energy potential impact during low-flow periods when, in this case, a
available at that site. These factors relate to environ- maximum power output is as low as 21 kW, or about half
mental considerations and turbine operating character- of what would be possible if all the available water had
istics. been used.
Unless the stream being tapped dries out each year, A second factor which reduces the usable power and
some forms of aquatic life are present, and a minimum energy available from a turbine is its operating charac-
flow should be maintained in the streambed between the teristics. Turbines are designed to operate most effi-
location of the intake to the power scheme and the tail- ciently at their design flow. How a specific turbine
race where the flow is returned to the stream. Diver- selected for a site operates at a lower than design flow
sion of water that reduces streamflow to below this depends on the type and configuration of the turbine.
minimum flow should not be undertaken. Countries For example, fixed-blade propeller turbines function
concerned with environmental issues frequently specify well over only a limited range of flows; Pelton turbines
minimum streamflow by law. In instances where the operate efficiently over a wide range of flows. (See
TURBINES, p. 171, for a more detailed discussion.) In for sizing a turbine for an isolated scheme. / A know-
any case, no turbine operates efficiently from zero ledge of&e shape of the upper end of the/curve is not
through to design flow. Generator efficiency also required for this purpose; its precise s $e is therefore
decreases with decreasing output. These factors further of no concern. However, the peak val le is of impor-
affect the output of a hydropower plant. tance in laying out the scheme and s:zing 7 spillways so
that flood flows can be accommod .ted and do not
The overall efficiency is a function of factors such as adversely affect the operation ar.i integrity of the
head losses in the penstock, power output, and type, scheme. J
design, and condition of the turbine, generator, and cou-
pling between the two. To continue with the previous The criteria used to select ne design flow for the tur-
example, assume a more realistic variation of overall bine(s) at a micro-hydrop cRer plant are determined
conversion efficiency with flow as illustrated in largely by how the plan wiI1 he used. In the industri-
Fig. 3.19 and not fixed at 60% as was assumed earlier. alized countries wher, / hydropower plants are frequently
Under specific circumstances, efficiency may be better interconnected to thh national grid, a common criterion
or worse than that shown in this figure; however, the is to maximize th?revenues generated by energy sales
effect of a varying efficiency on the annual energy and to the utility over the costs incurred in implementing
power potential of a turbine, illustrated in the example and operating the plant. If a low value of flow is
below, remains unchanged. selected for power generation (Fig. 3.21a), the full
capacity of./ehe turbine may be used but the high cost
per kilowatt of a small plant would make it difficult to
recoup the investment from the revenues generated. If
a large’design flow is selected to take advantage of the
economies of scale (Fig. 3.21b), the plant will not be
used to full capacity and costly generating capacity will
remain idle most of the year. In addition, because of
the operating characteristics of turbo-generating
equipment, flows below a certain percent of design flow
could not be used. An optimum design flow exists some-
where in between (Fig. 3.21~) where economies of scale
keep costs reasonable but where the plant’s capacity
will be used more effectively. If the cost of the equip-
ment and the revenues generated for various design
flows can be calculated, the actual value of the design
flow can be obtained. This is not complicated and
should be done if the economics of a specific project is
important. Wamick provides a more indepth discussion
of the issues in Hydropower Engineering (106).
0 20 40 60 80 100
In developing countries, power is commonly generated
Percent of design flow at isolated locations. In this case, rather than most
Fig. 3.19. The efficiency curve for the micro-hydropower efficiently exploiting the flow available in a stream, the
scheme considered In the example. objective is to use only that flow which is required to
meet the specific needs of the consumers. It is usually
To determine this effect, it is necessary to use the orig- more important to have power year-round, and needs
inal form of the powerequation [Eq. (4.2)). The actual are probably more limited. Therefore, although
procedure for doing this is illustrated in Fig. 3.20. The Fig. 3.21~ may represent the optimum design flow for a
energy potential at ‘the proposed plant is equal to the grid-connected scheme where the power and energy
shaded area under the curve in Fig. 3.20~. Therefore, demands are virtually unlimited, the design flow shown
by considering the actual operating characteristics of in Fig. 3.21a might represent the optimum for an iso-
the turbo-generating equipment, the total annual energy lated scheme.
available is further reduced to 88% of the previous case
(Fig. 3.18, assuming constant efficiency) or, equiva-
lently, 73% of the energy that would have been avail- AItenrative turbine conf+mdcxm
able if no flow had been kept in the stream and if over-
all efficiency had been constant (Fig. 3.17). Further- Whether the plant is grid-connected or iwlated, if con-
more, there are times each year when only about 10 kW ventional turbine designs are used-turbines which per-
would be available, significantly less than the 36 kW mit flow regulation-valves and actuating mechanisms,
which would have been available had environmental con- automatic or manual, add to the cost and complezity of
siderations and turbine characteristics not been con- micro-hydropower schemes. In cases where this is of
sidered. concern, alternative turbine configurations are possible.
This is especially the case when simple, locally fabri-
It should be clear from the preceding discussion that cated turbines are being considered and the local capa-
only the lower portion of the flow-duration curve, from city to fabricate complicated valves and actuating
about 20%-100% exceedance, is generally of importance mechanisms has not yet been developed.
I : 1 I I I I I
0 20 40 60
o- ’
0 20 : 40 60 80 100 overall efficiency (%)
:
I Percent exceedance
:
: (cl
I Example:
I
: l From graph (a), it can be seen that, for
; E2’ total potential ennual 30% of the year, a discharge of at least
i energy production 0.28 m”/s is found in the stream, of which
: 0.23 m3/s can be used for the generation
120 - \ : of power.
l From graph (b), the overall efficiency at
this flow can be found to bc 57%.
l Using the power equation (with Hg = 50 m):
P = 9.8 e, Q Hg
= 490 e, Q
= 490(0.57) (0.23)
= 64 kW
Therefore, for 30% of the year, at least
64 kW is available. This, in turn, has been
plotted on graph (c).
Percent exceedance
Fig. 3.20. An illustmtion of how the /low dwution and and energy a\lnilabfe from a hydropower plant.
effiCienCy cows are used to derive the potential power
Flow-regulation for the purpose of governing the turbo- accommodated, The turbine would operate at its high-
generating unit-keeping the speed constant by match- est efficiency (its design flow). If a peak power of
ing power available from the turbine with the power 90 kW were required from the plant described in the
demand of the consume.can be eliminated by use of a previous example, the power and energy potential shown
load controller or by proper design of the entire system in Fig. 3.22 would be attainable. Although savings in
(see APPR0ACRES TO GOVERN’IN G, p. 201). Flow- cost and complexity have been gained through this
regulation for the purpose of making better use of the choice, the energy potential of this site would be
varying streamflow can also be addressed without reduced to only 38% of what would be available if flow-
resorting to costly and relatively sophisticated valves or regulating devices had been used with the turbine
gates and actuating mechanisms. (Fig. 3.20). The considerably reduced quantity of energy
available would generally be of importance only if the
An obvious simplification to reduce cost is to eliminate plant were grid-connected. In this case, available
all the valves and actuating mechanisms which permit streamflow which is not harnessed would represent a
the turbine to use a wide range of flows. Of course, if a loss of potential revenue from the sale of electricity.
single turbine were used, only a single flow could be Extra costs of sensors, valves, and activating mecha-
L
tage of backup genera.tion capability if needed but
also the disadvantage of higher cost.
If two turbines (or two nozzles) which accommodate A complication is encountered when electrical power is
equal design flows of 0.15 m3/s are used (each with a generated using two turbines at an isolated site, with
capacity of 45 kW), the water that would be available each turbine coupled to a generator. In this case, gov-
for power generation is shown in Fig. 3.23. With this ernors would be needed to keep the generators synchro-
flow-duration curve and peak design flow, the ~3 nized. But this would add considerably to the cost of
energy available would be 82% greater than that from the equipment. Another option would be for both tur-
the single 90 kW turbine using a constant flow. More bines to drive the same generator, but the generator
important, some power would be available 57% of the would operate less efficiently when driven by the
time rather than 21%, as was the case with a single tur- smaller turbine. With a grid-connected unit, the grid
bine. On the other hand, the annual energy available itself would govern the generators, and no governor
would be 31% less than that obtained using a single tur- would be needed.
bine with streamflow sensing devices, flow-regulating
valves, and associated activating mechanisms. Although It is also interesting to compare water usage in this last
the cost of the turbo-generating equipment might be case, where turbines (or nozzles) of two different sizes
reduced, so is the annual energy potential, and therefore are used, to that in the previously described case, where
potential revenue from the sale of electricity. a single turbine with sensors and flow-regulating valves
is used (Fig. 3.20). Although the more sophisticated,
single turbine generates 15% more energy than the two
constant-flow turbines (or nozzles), it consumes 30%
more water. This is because the two turbines (or two
nozzles) each always operate at peak efficiency
(because they each operate only at their design flow),
whereas the single turbine uses smaller-than-design
flows less efficiently and therefore requires more.
01 I 1 I I I I I I I
0 20 40 60 80 0
Percent exceedance
In Fig. 4.1, if water flows from point A down to point B It is also possible to generate power with water falling
along any path by 9 means-along the riverbed or an from point A (at the water’s surface) through the tur-
open canal or through a pipe--it loses energy at a rate bine to point B at the base of the dam (Fig. 4.2). Such
equal to micro-hydropower schemes are less common but the
general relationship given by the power equation in
P = 9.8 Q H (4.1) Eq. (4.1) is still valid and can bc used to determine the
g theoretical power potential from such a site. However,
where it can be seen from the power equation that, with the
low head available at a micro-hydropower dam site, a
P = power lyt by the water (kW) relatively larger flow would be required to generate the
Q = flow (m /a) same power. This would require a larger, and costlier,
= rate at which water descends from A to B turbine.
Hg 1 gross head (m)
- drrp i.1 elevation from A to B I \ I
Fig. 4.1. Water loses &ha same energy no matter which The expression for power noted previously assumes that
path it follows from point A Co point B. no power losses are incurred in conveying the water to
the turbine. ‘;il reality, some power is lost in the con-
The water might, for example, follow the riverbed from veyance structures-intake, canals, pipes and/or pen-
A to B along path (a). In this case, the water loses this stock--as well as within the turbine and generator.
power through friction and through turbulence. The
power dissipates itself throngh erosion in the riverbed,
heating of the water*, producing spray and air currents, * Because of water’s high heat capacity, its resulting
etc. temperature rise is not noticeable. In theory, assuming
all the power lost by the water goes toward heating that
Or the water might flow from A to B along path (b) water, the temperature rise would amount to only
through a pipe which includes a turbine. The water 0.024 “C for a 10 m drop.
Nature ok the streambed Fig. 4.7. The best location for an intake fs genemlly along
a stmight stretch of a stream (al. Location (b) is suscepti-
The elevation of the intake to a hydropower scheme is ble to more severe damage from high flows, and sediment
established at the time of construction. Without a per- tends to accumulate in front of location (4.
I
Fig. 4.8. A poor choice for the location of the intake ha
meant significant work in clearing stones and sediment
accumulating in front of the intake. power / \ several stones naturally placed
canal serving as a boulders restricting
diversion weir flow into branch off
main stream
Natural features along the stream
1
might enter the intake during high flows and also keep Competing uses for water
out larger debris which might otherwise damage the
intake. The boulders might also provide some protec- Other existing or envisioned uses for the water in the
tion to the power canal that conveys water from the stream must be considered in siting the intake to a
intake toward the penutock. It is necessary to be alert hydropower scheme, especially if these uses require a
to other similar uses of the natural features along a sizable portion of the available water. In a number of
stream. .\untries, water is used primarily for irrigation and
i
power generation must take a subordinate position. If
the flow required for power generation might affect irrigation
irrigation, several options are available to accommodate
both uses:
irrigation scheme by extracting water from higher tion of a scheme is access to the intake throughout the
up into a narrow valley unsuitable for agriculture. In year. Easy access is needed during the construction
this case, the original length of the irrigation canal phase of a project to facilitate the movement of sup-
was very short, so no significant effort was wasted plies. But it also may be needed on a regular basis for
in excavating another canal. cleaning out the area behind a dam or weir, removing
debris which has accumulated on the intake trashrack,
In addition to irrigation, all other potential uses of the and removing sediment from the settling basin. Access
water in the arca, such as for fisheries development and may be occasionally needed to undertake repairs to the
potable water supplies, must be considered. intake structure or to seal the intake prior to repairing
the penstock. Though an intake should be properly
designed to function during times of heavy flows, these
Ease of accessibility are the times when trouble is most likely to occur and
when the intake should be accessible in safety.
Though each of the preceding factors may affect the
final location of the intake from a technical point of
view, one factor which is critical for the proper opera-
Fig. 4.13. At this site, irrigation water was initially the old intake to increase awilable head. After water
diverted through an intake at t’ J center of the left photo- leaves the turbine, a covered tailmce leads it into the old
gmph. The powerhouse visible on the left was later con- irrigation canal (right photogmph). With this approach, the
strutted, and water for power genemtion is diverted into a hydropower plant has no adverse impact on irrigation PMC-
power canal from the same stream somewhat upstream of ticed in the area.
Fig. 4.14. Head and power loat because the powerhouse is a A draft tube can be used below the turbine to return
set above tailwater level (a) can be reduced by setting the the water to the tailrace (Fig. 4.14~). Using a draft
turbine below the floor of the powerhouse (bj or by using c tube, it is possible to regain most of the distance
dmft tube Ic). “h”. Almost the entire drop from A to B is then
available, even though the turbine itself may be
The minimum distance “h” is determined by a very basic located considerably above point B. (A discussion of
consideration. For structural and safety reasons, as the operation of a draft tube can be found in Cross-
well as for reasons of accessibility for equipment opera- flow turbines, p. 178.)
tion and maintenance, the floor of the powerhouse
should be kept above water level at all times. There- There is, however, still a limit to how high above
fore, the maximum flood stage--the highest river level tailwater level a turbine using a draft tube can be
expected over the operating life of the plant-usually set. If it is set too high, cavitation can occur which
sets the minimum distance of the powerhouse above the can damage the runner (see Propeller turbines,
river. Lack of recorded data might make it difficult to p. 182). The maximum elevation of the runner above
determine precisely the flood stage of the river. How- tailwater depends on altitude, water temperature,
ever, this information might be obtained by interviewing and turbine characteristics. The turbine manufac-
turer can specify the maximum head that can be CASE EXAMPLES
recovered by using a draft tube.
Salleri/Chialsa RJepaI)
Although it is possible to include a draft tube with a
Pelton or Turgo impulse turbine for high-head sites, A contour map of the region of the Salleri/Chialsa small
as is done with the crossflow impulse turbine, it is hydel (hydroelectric! project is shown in Fig. 4.17.
virtually never done. Because of the large head Typical of myny sites, the river to be tapped has a grad-
under which these turbines operate, any distance of ual fall (in this case, a gradient of about 5%). This map
the turbine above tailwater produces a loss of power shows an area (circled) where a relatively steep drop is
of only several percent at most. available and a penstock could be located. To minimize
Fig. 4.17. Contour map of the proposed Sa!leri/Chialsa this would require water to be brought from some distance
(Nepal) site. A sharp drop can be found in the circled area; wtream.
Musongati &rutidi)
After the plant had been operational for some time, it To provide power to the mission facilities and staff at
was decided that more power would be required. This the Eglise Episcopale de Burundi at Buhiga and to serve
was accomplished by extending the penstock farther several loads at the administrative center of the com-
down the gorge to gain an additional 20 m of head, mune at Karuzi 10 km away, a 220 kW plant is being
increasing the power potential by about 50% if the same installed at the site shown in Fig. 4.20. It is a fairly
flow were used. At this site, the additional power which typical site for Burundi--two flat, swampy areas joined
could have been gained by extending the pentock even by a short stretch of rapids with a gradient of about 5%.
farther downstream would have been offset by the To maximize power available from the site, as much of
increasing cost for the penstock pipe. the drop between these two areas as possible ,~a3 to be
Fig. 4.20. A composite photogmph of the Buhiga site dmwn in Fig. 4.21.
.-._..___.--
lg. 4.21. Contour map (with 2 m contours) showing the layout of the mcr.jor components
. I\-
at the Buhiga site.
Fig. 4.23. This low-head installation at GihLta, Burundi, the use of a power canal to reduce penstock length and
designed to accommodate three 30 kW turbines, illustrates maximize local inputs.
_Bishalalo (Zaire) distance back to the stream. With a low head, a signifi-
cant flow is required to generate 60 kW, and it would
The layout at this site was straightforward to develop. have been necessary to import a long, costly length of
A steep series of cascades falling lo-15 m is located by steel penstock pipe. By excavating for the powerhouse
thr roaclsid(J (Fig. 4.25). A power canal is used to con- (Fig. 4.26), it could be located near the forebay, reduc-
vey water from the head of the fall a short distance ing significantly the length of penstock pipe required
away from the steep section adjacent to the Call to (Fig. 4.27). This also required the excavation for a tail-
facilitate> construction of the penstosk and powerhouse. race in rock to return the water emerging from the tur-
A penstock then convcays water to the turbine, after bine back to the stream. Though a.11the excavation was
which the water is divertecl back to the stream below done manually, this approach proved more appropriate
the fall. in this situation.
Gently rolling terrain is found in the vicinity of the One case in which laying out a hydropower scheme
Ruyigi micro-hydropower scheme. Along the Sanzu becomes trivial is along irrigation canals. The designers
River, a small stone-masonry dam is used to create of these canals have already addressed the problem of
several meters of head and an additional 5-6 m is gained
by means of a 800 m canal which carries water to the (a)
forebay. But from this point, there is a considerable ,.- forebay
ib)
Fig. 4.26. To minimize penstock length, the powerhouse Fig. 4.27. Two possible options for developing the sanle
was built in rock below ground level. The foreby is site at Ruyigi: (a) using a long penstock and (b) using a
located 10-20 m behind the powerhouse but is not visible. short penstock but with considerable extra excavation
The structure to the right houses an 11 kV tmnsformer. required for the powerhouse and tailmce.
Fig. 4.28. At this mill, a traditional wooden vertical-axis irrigation canal to mill gmin. The Intake to the drop is
turbine harnesses the energy available at a drop along an shown at Zhe tight, with mill behfnd.
dam or 1
penstock
reg. 3.1. An lflustmtion of all principal components which scheme has been laid out at the site shown in Fig. 1.9.
might be included at a micro-hydropower site. This
Civil works 63
* explain the function(s) each serves, how it serves l possibly increase problems with maintenance.
?se, and its relationship to other components; and
On the other hand, excluding a dam when it should be
l identify the factors which determine when each included may result in inadequate potential for meeting
component should be included as part of the overall present and future power generation needs. Rather than
scheme. a dam, a weir is sometimes used. Although the terms
“dam” and “weir” are commonly used interchangeably,
In addition to incorporating only components necessary they are not regarded as synonymous terms in this pub-
for cost-effective implementation of a scheme, it is lication; they are each defined by the functions they
also necessary to be careful in the design of each com- serve. As used in this text, a dam is a structure that
ponent used. Although designs of individual components can fulfill either or both of two basic functions:
might be standardized, there is still no single standard
design to suit all sites. The second major section of this l A dam can be used to increase available head.
chapter, DESI- AND CONSTRUCTION DETAILS, Where the terrain is relatively flat, there may be a
covers the design of individual components. Its objec- need to create head so that the required power can
tives are: be generated from the available streamflow. A dam
serves this function by raising the level of water
l to provide a more detailed look at each component; behind it, thereby increasing the difference between
the elevation of the water upstream and downstream
l to raise awareness of the range of potential prob- of the dam.
lems which might be encountered in the installation,
operation, and maintenance of that component; v A dam can also be used to create a reservoir to store
water. At micro-hydropower sites, the streamflow
a to identify factors which must be considered in may be insufficient to meet the peak power demand
designing and sizing each component and explain how with the available head, and a dam cannot add signi-
these actually affect designs and dimensions; ficantly to that head. In these cases, a dam might
be included to store excess water in times of high
l to present alternative materials that might be used flow or low power demand to make it available at
to reduce cost of construction; and times of low flow or increased demand. Except at
very-low-head sites, most dams are used only to
l to document some design options for each compo- store water; they do not significantly increase the
nent, which might be adapted as presented or serve available head.
as a catalyst for new designs.
When adequate head and flow are both available, no dam
This chapter deals primarily with projects in the micro- is required. Water is essentially used at a rate no
hydropower range (less than 100 kW). As projects grester than that with which it “runs” down the river.
increase in size, however, the same factors must be Such a scheme is called a “run-of-river” scheme. A por-
considered, although their impact of the final designs tion of the flow in the steam is simply directed toward
may differ as project size increases. In addition, only the powerhouse and then rejoins the original stream.
components relevant to micro-hydropower schemes are The vast majority of micro-hydropower schemes are
described; surge tanks, arch dams, and power tunnels, run-of-river.
which are rarely used with micro-hydropower schemes,
are not covered. A run-of-river installation is sometimes misunderstood
to be one in which the turbine is placed directly in the
river. However, this is more properly referred to as an
QUALITAnvE OVERVIEW installation using an in-stream or water-current turbine
(p. 187). As can be seen from the preceding definition,
Dam or weir although an in-stream turbine installation is also run-of-
river, the term “run-of-river” is much broader.
A dam is generally thought to be an intrinsic part of any
hydropower scheme, and this is frequently the case with As noted in LOCATING THE INTAKE (p. 52), the intake
large hydroelectric projects. However, a dam, like any to a hydropower scheme should be situated to prevent
component of a hydropower scheme, serves specific riverborne debris and unusually large flows from being
functions, and it is necessary to become familiar with funneled into the intake, especially during heavy rains.
these functions to determine whether a dam is actually At the same time, there is a need to ensure that an ade-
required. Because of the number of disciplines-such as quate flow of water is diverted toward the intake to
soil mechanics, geology, and structures--which must be generate power during times of low flows. To accom-
considered, an experienced civil engineer is frequently plish this, a low diversion structure of temporary or
required to design and supervise construction of a dam. permanent construction, commonly called a weir, is
Including a dam when it is not essential will: often constructed across a part or all of the stream. As
used in this publication, a weir is a structure specifi-
l require that technical expertise be found; cally designed to divert the required flow into the
l incur the expense of building the structure; intake, not to store water. It might either channel the
l lengthen the time before the scheme is operational; flow toward the intake or simply provide the required
and depth of water at the intake for flow to enter of its own
64 Civil works
accord. Where the streambed is susceptible to erorjon, effort required for its construction. It should be noted
a weir also maintains the level of the streambed con- here that, regardless of the head, a power conduit-fre-
stant near the intake; otherwise, the streambed might quently an open canal-is a most common means of
erode so badly that the stream eventually will be too increasing head (Fig. 5.2~). If the terrain is suitable,
low for water to enter the intake. this is often more cost-effective than either a dam or a
long penstock.
The following discussion describes the circumstances
under which a dam or weir would be incorporated in a A dam incorporated at a low-head site can significantly
hydropower scheme to fulfill each of these three func- increase the head and therefore the power potential at
tions. that site. At higher-head sites, dams are generally not
incorporated to increase head because the incre-3se due
to the added height of water behind the dam does not
Inaeasing head justify the additional construction effort required
(Fig. 5.3).
If the terrain in the vicinity of a site is relatively flat,
the head available for power generation can be /dam
increased by conveying the water over a considerable
distance by means of a pressure pipe or penstock
(Fig. 5.2a). However, in areas with little slope, the
increased length and diameter of a penstock necessary
to obtain the required head and power would made this
option costly. This may be true even in fairly hilly ter-
rain if the gradient or slope of the stream itself is
small. For a stream with a very small gradient or slope,
incorporating a dam (Fig. 5.2b) may be the only viable
option for increasing head. All the head would then be (a) Using a dam at this
concentrated near the dam and powerhouse, markedly lower-head site
reducing the dimensions and cost of the penstock. If a increases available head
dam is to be constructed, the topography of the area and power by 200%.
must be suitable, most probably a section of a stream
with relatively steep banks. However, even at micro-
hydropower sites with very low head, a dam is rarely
built to increase head because of significant cost and 20 m
I
1
/
4
(b) Using a dam at this
higher-head site
/ increases head and
power by only 10%.
Civil works 65
impoundment behind the dam should have the capa-
city to store this excess to meet peak power
demands on a daily basis.
l Because the power which can be generated is propor- l If a dam is to be a major component of a micro-
tional to the product of net head and flow, the hydropower scheme, its inclusion must be deter-
higher the available head, the lower the flow mined by calculations based on realistic streamflow
required to generate a given power. Lower required information. If streamflow information is not avail-
flows reduce the required storage volume and there- able but flow seems to be sufficient for most of the
fore the dam’s size and cost. In effect, the higher year, a scheme might initially incorporate a simple
the head, the more effective a given storage volume. weir across the stream to bring the powerplant on
In addition, the smaller storage volume required for line with minimum delay. Then, after more data are
a higher-head scheme implies potentially fewer obtained, a decision can be made on the advisability
adverse environmental impacts. of replacing the weir with a dam.
66 Civil works
A micro-hydropower project with a capacity of 30 kVZ
under a head of 60 m is being implemented near the
village of Yandohun in the fairly remote northern
corner of Liberia. Based on occasional observations
of the stream to be used and comments by the villag-
ers? the streamflow was thought to be above the
80 t/s required to generate full power for all but two
months of the year. The only existing streamflow
data were gathered during a week at the end of the
dry season when the low flow was measured as 7 f/s.
Initial plans were to build a sizable stone-masonry
gravity dam about 40 m long and 2 m high. This was
intended to retain sufficient water to rur~ the plant at
half power for a 12-hour period for several days at
the minimum observed flow or, equivalently, for
shorter periods over correspondingly more days. Ffg. 5.5. A comptxite view of the dam site for a 30 kW
Because of its design, the turbine could not operate hydrrrpower scheme in Yandohun, Lfberla.
at less than half power without modification.
When the plant was visited, work on the dam had half power to be generated part of each day for
been underway for some time but with little progress the remaining 5%10% of the year. Because the
(Fig. 5.5). Construction proved time-consuming. The impoundmentwas too small to permit storage of
volume of the dam was large, and the stone was water from the earlier rainy season, it would still
obtained by building fires on bedrock to crack it. The be impossible to guarantee water for power gea-
stone was then broken with hammers to obtain aggre- eration at all times. Therefore, not much would
gate. be gained by constructing a dam. In this case, an
effort to modify one of the two fixed nozzles by
It was recommended that the dam not be completed reducing its size would be more appropriate than
but built only high enough to serve as a weir. The to construct a dam because it would permit at
weir could be built up at some later date if desirable. least some power to be generated
- at all times
This recommendation had the following advantages: with no storage.
e The plant could be operational with minimum o A delay in building the dam to full height would
delay. The project was ambitious even without permit the operators of the plant to determine
the dam, and the villagers needed to begin realis- whether the silt and bed loads carried downstream
ing some of the benefits of their efforts as soon and caught behind the weir would present prob-
as possible. lems should a dam be built later. After the plant
begins operation, more flow data during the dry
e Streamflow observations showed that without a season-information needed for proper dam siz-
dam, flow was adequate 85% of the time (10 ing-could be gathered. At the same time, the
months) to generate full power and that, for villagers could decide whether having electricity
another 5%‘0-10%of the time, the flow would for part of the day during the remainder of the
probably be sufficient to operate at half power all dry season would be worth the additional time and
day. Construction of the dam would only permit expense required to complete the dam.
Civil works 67
o the financial capital available for its construction;
and
e the relative capital vs. labor resources available for
construction, operation, and maintenance of the
structure.
68 Civil works
Fig. 5.8. A stone-masonry power canal.
flow, its alignment shoulcl near!y coincide with a con- Although tunnels 6re rarely included within micro-
tour line. Depending on the topography of the area, hydropower schemes to convey water a significant dis-
portions of this conduit may be supported above the tance, short tunnels may prove useful along power
ground (such as when ir crosses ravines) or placed canals where a rock outcropping must be crossed. These
underground in a pipe (such as when it crosses a road). can be seen alung traditional irrigation canals in coun-
tries such as Nepal.
A pipe can serve as a low-pressure power conduit to
convey water from the intake to the beginning of the
pcnstock. The pipe has an advantage over the c‘anal in
that it eliminates components such as spillways, drop
structur(?s, and drainage which are usually incorporated
in the tIcsign of power canals. It also does not nred to
remain level but can follow the rise and fall of the ter-
rain it traverses. On the other hand, a pipe often must
be imported and generally costs more than a canal,
especially a simple canal excavated in earth. However,
lengths of pipe are sometimes included along sections of
the power conduit where a canal is not possible
(Fig. 5.9).
Civil works 69
Unlike most of the other components, the power Conduit l first option-$140,000 for the penstock plus the cost
is not an essential part of every hydropower scheme. of excavating a trench for the 1000 m penstock if
Where the drop in elevation is concentrated near the required;
powerhouse and there is a significant horizonal distance
between the intake on the stream and this drop, a power l second option-$6000 for the penstock plus the cost
conduit is used to reduce the cost of the civil works. of excavating a 1000 m canal and a trench for the
Rather than using a costly penstock pipe for the entire 100 m penstock if required.
distance, a power conduit conveys the water from the
intake to a point as close to above the powerhouse a Assume further that the cost of the turbo-generating
possible. The design objective is to make the penstock equipment for this 50 kW plant is $BOO/kW or a total of
as steep as possible to reduce the diameter and length- $40,000. The long penstock in the first option would add
and therefore the cost-of the required penstock pipe. $140,000, making it the major cost component of the
The cost OL the conduit itself mubt then be added, but project. The price of the penstock proposed in the sec-
the conduit frequently can be constructed at a fraction ond option, however, would contribute only marginally
of the cost of a penstock, especially if local materials to the cost of the project.
rather than imported steel, concrete, or plastic pipe can
be used. In the second option, the cost of the canal itself must be
considered. If the the canal is constructed as a self-
To illustrate this point, consider a scheme that extends help project, only the cost of materials for any lining
approximately 1 km, a distance not uncommon for a deemed necessary or for a section of the canal which
micro-hydropower scheme. Assume that this site, with requires special attention, such as a supported section,
a gross head of 30 m, requires about 300 C/s to generate would be incurred. If canal construction requires con-
50 kW (Fig. 5.10). One option is to convey the water tract labor or heavy equipment or if the terrain is diffi-
through a penstock from the intake to the turbine. This cult, larger costs could result, perhaps making the first
would require 1000 m of 600 mm-diameter pipe. How- option more appropriate.
ever, if there were a rapid drop near the powerhouse
which would require only 100 m of pipe to obtain approx- Although a power canal can considerably reduce costs,
imately the same head, a second option would be to the existence of a significant horizontal distance
convey the water 1 km from the stream to the inlet of between an intake on the stream and the powerhouse is
that penstock pipe with as small a head loss as possible. not sufficient reason to include a power canal or other
form of power conduit in the design of a hydropower
scheme. It is always necessary to compare the costs of
This is where a power conduit, perhaps in the form of a these two options--a long penstock vs. a conduit and
canal, can play a role. With a drop of only 1 m over its short penstock-and to consider the nature of the ter-
I km length from the intake to the penstock, the rain and the potential construction and maintenance
required flow can b conveyed with a canal cross-sec- problems associated with each option.
tion of about 0.2 m f . Then, only a 100 m length of
400 mm penstock pipe would be required to convey this The principal disadvantage of incorporating a power
flow from the end of the canal to the turbine. canal when the topography is suitable is that, unlike a
penstock, a canal is usually open. Because it is more
In summary, the first option requires 1000 m of 600 mm exposed to the elements, it requires more upkeep. Fall-
penstock, whereas the second option requires 100 m of ing trees or landslides might obstruct the flow, exces-
400 mm penstock and the excavation of 1000 m of canal. sive runoEf uphill of the canal might cause sections to
For a clearer impression of the cost implications, wash away, or sediment in the incoming water might
assume that 400 mm steel pipe costs $60/m and settle out along the canal. Although properly designing
600 mm pipe costs $140/m. The costs for each option a scheme can prevent many such problems, a penstock
would be: pipe is less susceptible than a canal to these problems.
1 km 4
Fig. 5.10. These two approaches to developing the some site can lead to constdembk differences in cO3t.
70 Civil works
As mentioned, a low-pressure pipe can also serve as a forebay of sufficient size will be needed to serve as a
power conduit. This avoids some of the disadvantages settling area before the water enters the penstock.
of using an open canal. By using a low-pressure conduit,
especially at medium- and high-head sites, a less costly When the power canal must cross difficult terrain or an
pipe can be used because a pipe wall thinner than that obstruction such as a ravine, streambed, topographical
used for the pressure penstock is necessary. A low- depression, or road, any one of several approaches might
pressure conduit generally will cost more than an earth be adopted:
canal.
e The slope of the canal can be maintained and the
Because power canals are the most commonly used form canal supported above this obstruction in a flume
of power conduit, Power conduits (p. 96) deals primarily (p. 112) constructed of wood, steel, or concrete
with their design and construction; however, some (Fig. 5.11).
information on the use of pipes as power conduits is also
included. o The slope of the canal can be maintained, with a
structure to reroute that obstruction over the canal
Depending on the length, slope, and dimensions of the (Fig. 5.12) which would then flow in a culvert
power canal, spillways (p. 159) might be incorporated at (p. 116).
appropriate intervals. When they are used, provisions
must be made to ensure that any overflow leaving via
the spillways will not undermine the canal or other
components. Spillways are necessary if there is any
chance that a canal might overflow if excess water
enters the canal, although proper design of the intake
should minimize this possibility. Spillways are also
necessary if dirt from landslides or other debris entering
a canal could restrict the flow, causing water to back up
until the canal overflows.
Civil works 71
Fig. 5.15. Gabions are used to protect the foundation of a
Fig. 5.13. An inverted siphon conveys water across the canal conveying water for power genemtion and irrigation.
main Kathmandu-Pokham road in Nepal to irrigate fields
and power a traditional water mill. it is to serve for storage. In some cases, it is virtually
nonexistent. To be most cost-effective, the forebay
sary to ensure that the stream cannot undermine this must be of a size adequate to fulfill its function, neither
conduit (Figs. 5.15 and 5.200). It is also important to be significantly larger nor smaller.
aware of springs which may either undermine power
conduits or cause landslides above them (see Fig. 5.30). The forebay can serve several purposes:
72 Civil works
required by the turbine at times of reduced load Lo Incoming water can carry sizable quantities of floating
leave by the spillway. ‘Where a load-controlling debris. A trashrack (p. 162) is often included at the
device is used with the turbine (see Iamb controller, inlet to the penstock to prevent this debris from enter-
p. 204), penstock flow remains constant, thus elimi- ing the penstock and turbine. Skimmers (p. 165) are also
nating the need for storage to compensate for tran- used occasionally (Fig. 5.17). If excess water is suffi-
sient flow variations. cient, the spillway can be located to remove most of the
floating debris automatically.
Several important components are usually included in
the forebay. These include a spillway, a scouring gate, A gate or valve (p. 154) should he incorporated to drain
a gate to the penstock, a trashrack, and possibly a vent. the forebay so that any sediment which has entered and
settled can be removed easily. Draining is also required
On occasion, the flow entering the forebay may exceed -hen the forebay is being repaired. The flow through
the flow leaving via the penstock, such as when a gate the drain can be led away in the same canal that
at the intake has been set improperly, when the valve to removes the overflow from the spillway(s) at the fore-
the turbine has been closed, or during heavy rains when bay. When the penstock must be emptied for repairs, a
excess flows enter the canal from the stream or from valve might be incorporated at the beginning of the pen-
runoff uphill of the canal. For this reason, it is advisa- stock. However, because such a valve would be the
ble to include a spillway (p. 159) in one wall of the fore- same size as the penstock, it can be costly. In addition,
bay. The water passing over the spillway must be it would only be used infrequently. A less costly
diverted properly to prevent erosion that might under- approach is to ensure no water enters the forebay, by
mine the forebay, penstock, or powerhouse (Fig. 5.16). closing a gate either at the intake to the scheme or just
The dimensions and slope of a spillway ca.aal must be before the forebay (if a spillway is located just
adequate to convey safely the maximum flow which upstream of that gate). To ensure that water which
might ever enter the forebay. A natural rock ravine might unexpectedly enter the forebay does not cause
might serve that purpose. If a gate is located at the erosion along the penstock under repair or flood the
entrance to the forebay to prevent water from entering powerhouse, a gate is often placed just before the inlet
during its repair or cleaning out, the canai wall just to the penstock. This gate is usually a stoplog because
before this gate must also incorporate a spillway large it is used infrequently and is inexpensive.
enough to ptarmit any water descending the canal to be
diverted safely.
Civil works 73
As is described in Penstock? an air vent (p. 76) is often
used as a safety precaution against collapse of the pen-
stock pipe. One design option would be to incorporate
this pipe in the wall of the forebay just below the inlet
to the penstock (see Fig. 5.109).
Penstock
74 Civil works
force which may have to be held in check arises from
hydrostatic pressures acting at bends along the pen-
stock; wit.h an exposed pipe, this is also one of the prin-
cipal forces an anchor must resist. For pipes with
welded or mechanically joined sections, soil reaction
forces may be adequate to prevent movement of the
pipe. For loosely coupled pipe, such as PVC pipe with
push-together joints where an elastometric ring that fits
in a groove of a pipe section’s*bell end provides a water-
tight seal, anchoring may be necessary. If a bend is
concave downward so that the thrust acting at the bend
acts upward, an anchor is used to counter this force by
means of its weight. Where the pipe is laid in a trench
and bends are either in a horizontal plane or concave
upward, thrustblocks (p. 1441 are used to tr.ansfer the
thrust to the undisturbed soil. These do not rely on
their mass to provide the necessary restraining force.
Civil works 75
decreases the velocity of the water descending the pipe.
If the penstock is unusually long, however, either of
these ilpproaches may increase the cost of the penstock
pipe considerably. To reduce cost, a design for a hydra- - water level during
power scheme which minimizes penstock length-possi- normal operation
bly using a power canal to convey the water most of the
horizontal distance from the intake to the powerhouse--
should be sought. Pressures can also be reduced by
designing the system to prevent rapid closure of any
valves preceding the turbine.
76 Civil works
facilities. This is not generally the case for micro-
hydroelectric schemes, except for those built by institu-
tions in the habit of designing and implementing larger
schemes (Fig. 5.23). If project size and cost are to be
minimized, a powerhouse should be sized to house only
the turbo-generating equipment, with sufficient space
on all sides to permit easy access for installation, oper-
ation, maintenance, and repair. The only exception is a
plant designed to accommodate mechanically driven
agro-processing equipment or other machinery. In this
case, additional space is required for the equipment
operators and customers bringing their crops to be pro-
cessed.
Powerhouse
The powerhouse protects the turbine, generator, and Fig. 5.24. At this site which has been in opemtion since
other electrical and mechanical equipment. Its size and 1975, a simple metal box hinged on one side and a belt
configuration depend on the functions it serves. Con- guard protect the turbo-generating equipment from the
ventionally, it is large enough to include not only this elements. See Fig. 6.9 for a view of the unit with the
equipment but also a workshop, office, and sanitary cover removed.
Civil works 77
access to the turbo-generating equipment is not fre- head, more care is necessary because head losses can be
quently required. more significant. Flow in a tailrace canill is governed
by the same law governing flow in power canals (see
With some low-head axial-flow turbines in the bulb con- Determining canal dimensions and slope, p. 96).
figuration, both the turbine and generator are located in
the water passageway (see Fig. 6.12b); only cables car-
rying the power emerge. In this case, neither power- DESIGN AND CONSTEXJCTION DETAaS
house nor simple cover is required. Any switchgear near
the turbo-generating equipment can be placed in a small Dams and weks
weatherproof enclosure.
This section emphasizes <J&s, because a majority of
The location of the powerhouse is as important as is its micro-hydropower schemes in developing c,Iuntries only
design. For a discussion of this subject, see LOCATING need water to be diverted into the intake. However,
THE F’OWERHOUSE (p. 56). because there ix sometimes also a need for water stor-
age or for increasing head, several types of dams are
also reviewed.
Tailrace
Where water resources are adequate, the simplest
The tailrace is usually a short, open canal which leads and least costly diversiorl structure is a weir of loose
the water from the powerhouse back into a stream- boulders extending across part or all of the stream
generally the stream from which the water came (Fig. 5.26). This is clearly a temporary structure, but
(Fig. 5.25). It is a component of every scheme except that is one of its virtues. Large flows, common in the
low-head plants where the water emerges from a draft tropics, sweep the structure away, permitting boulders,
tube directly into the stream. tree trunks and branches, sediment, and other debris to
pass the intake unhindered. There is no structure in the
stream which restrains debris and sediment and has to
be cleared out manually after the flows have subsided.
An.d a weir is not needed during periods of high ilows,
because the level of the stream is already sufficient for
adequate water to enter the intake. The only disadvan-
tage of this approach is that it requires a manual effort
to rebuild the weir when flows recede. This is a minor
effort, however, and many developing countries have no
shortage of labor. Such temporary weirs are found in all
countries where irrigation has been practiced tradition-
ally and are used at virtually all of the hundreds of
modern micro-hydropower plants in Nepal and Pakistan.
Fig. 5.25. This tailmce will carry water from the power-
house back to the stream. The short penstock can be seen
behind the powerhouse (also see Fig. 5.1211.
78 civil works
intake to
weir
Fig. 5.27. Though the weir was ruptured by flood flows and
has never been rebuilt, the plant run by Electroperu con-
tinues to operate using flows diverted into the intake by
means of a temporary weir of boulders slightly upstream.
Where a streambed is likely to lower over time, leaving stones is frequently constructed across the stream near
the intake high and dry, the previous approach has been the crest of the sill to divert flow toward the intake
modified to include a permanent sill across the stream- during low flows.
bed (Fig. 5.29). At some sites (Fig. 5.301, a sill con-
structed of box gabions and mattresses--stone-filled, The sill in Fig. 5.32 is a variation of the concrete sill
wire baskets-is used to stabilize the area around the just mentioned and was designed to overcome the need
intake. At others, gabions are keyed into the streambed to build a temporary stone weir during low-flow periods.
ad overlaid with reinforced concrete (Fig. 5.31). In
addition to these permanent sills, a simple weir of loose
Civil works 79
stream, perpendicular to its present orientation but still
at the head of the rapids, would have required a much
shorter weir, avoided a major problem which was
encountered, and functioned as well (see Gihhta
rnunmdil, p. 59).
80 Civil works
debris which would otherwise accumulate in front of
this trashrack. If the trashrack were exposed and the
crest were lower at the end away from the intake,
debris would tend to accumulate in front of the intake
trashrack, requiring more frequent cleaning. This is not
critical in the case illustrated, because the entire trash-
rack is below water level.
At times, the crest of the weir is constructed lower ported by vertical pins embedded in sockets in the spill-
near the intake end of the weir (Fig. 5.59). If the intake way crest (Fig. 5.37). To prevent the boards from fall-
trashrack were located partially above water level, any ing over if the water level behind them drops too low,
excess water overflowing the weir would carry away they are loosely fastened to the pins by wire. Com-
monly, solid steel rods or pipes are used as pins. Sock-
ets are usually pipe sections set vertically in the con-
Fig. 5.35. .4lthough this scheme had been shut down for masonry or concrete
repairs on the penstock, it is apparent that, by crossing the crest of weir
stream obliquely, the weir has caused the stream to tmns-
port and drop bed load and sediment directly in front of A
the intake. Fig. 5.37. Cross-sectional view of a weir with flashboards.
Civil works 81
Crete crest of the weir (or spillway) and sized SO that
the pins fit in loosely. Occasionally sprinkling ashes
behind the flashboards can prevent leakage around
them. If the boards are removed before times of high
flows, any accumulated sediment can be swept down-
stream.
82 Civil works
Fig. 5.41. The portion of a stone-masonry dam on the left
bunk has been completed. Laborers are excamting for tke
i gabions remaining portion while an earth cofferdam visible at the
left keeps water outside the work area. Buttresses support
the outside walls of the settling basin at the far right.
Fig. 5.40. This design of a weir with drop intake and Another timber dam is a wooden frame and deck dam
wingwalls, proposed for use at a site in Nepal, reduces the (Fig. 5.421, which can be built on either earth or rock
width of the stream at this point. To preclude any adverse foundation. It is composed of a timber deck supported
impect on thfs structure during flood flows, the increase in by a timber frame. This is not a gravity dam; the
stage upstream of the weir caused by constriction of the weight of water is the principal force holding the dam in
flow must be considered during the design phase. (One- place. Wooden dams deteriorate rapidly if not continu-
meter contours are shown.) ously wet.
m Piping-the carrying away of finer foundation mate- Although earth dams can be built on almost any founda-
rial when water seeps beneath the dam under suffi- tion, as can earth weirs (Fig. 5.431, they are rarely used -
cient pressure and velocity--can be a significant
problem and undermine the structure, unless the dam
is built on bedrock.
Civil works 83
Fig. 5.43. The purpose of this permanent earth weir, been incorporated in the design. With the considerable
covered with hand-placed riprap, is to divert Water into seepage which can be seen emerging from the toe of the
the intake for irrigation and power generation. Because dam (photo 011 right), such a structure could not be used for
this stream carries little bsd load, no sluicing gate has stomge.
in micro-hydropower schemes. Earth dams have been lined with concrete to protect against erosion and
built safely to immeuse dimensions; however, small should lead well below the toe of the dam.
dams fail far more often, probably because inadequate
attention is given to studying the foundation conditions To build a durable structure, it is necessary to analyze
and to properly designing and constructing the struc- the condition of the foundation and core and embank-
ture. Failure of a dam is most commonly caused either ment materials. This, in turn, requires a working know-
by seepage through or under the dam or by overtopping ledge of soil mechanics. A simple introduction to these
of the structure during periods of high flows. various considerations in the construction of earth dams
can be found in “Ponds--Planning, Design, Construction”
To keep seepage to a minimum, an earth dam consists of (20).
an impervious core which extends well into the impcr-
vious foundation and is located in the central or
upstream portion of the dam. Generally, this core is Intakes
constructed of properly compacted clayey material.
Cost is reduced if this material can be found near the An intake must be designed to address the conditions
site. If not, a concrete wall or steel sheet piling can be encountered at a specific site. There is no standard
used instead. It is then covered with an upstream and design. Even a person who has been involved in the
downstream shell or embankments of well-compacted design of several schemes and has used the same basis
soil which provide structural support for the core. The design must modify it to satisfy site-specific conditions.
slope of these embankments is commonly 1:2 to 1:3, but As discussed in the overview of intakes (p. 67), four
the actual value depends on the stability of the material basic components are usually incorporated in any
used. The upstream surface is sometimes covered with intake-trashracks. eates. snillwavs. and a settling
riprap to prevent wavs action from eroding it. If a pipe basin. The gates (p.Y154)Said YilIways (p. 159) are
is placed through an earth dam, antiseep collars should incorporated into the design of an intake primarily to
be used around the pipe. These retard seepage along the control the quantity of water entering. To control the
outside of the pipe by increasing the length of the quality of that water, trashracks and skimmers (p. 162)
seepage path. As a general rule, collars should increase and settling basins (p. 166) are used. For each site, it
the length of the seepage path by 25% (71). must be decided whether each component is necessary
and, if so, what size and design are appropriate. All
If no impervious foundation can be economically four components might be incorporated in the intake
reached or if the foundation consists of plastic clay, the at some sites, whereas few, if any, might be used at
site will require more careful investigation. An earth others, depending on site conditions. In addition to
dam on a bedrock foundation should present no problem, these components, the orientation of the intake with
unless the rock contains seams or crevices through respect to the stream is another important factor which
which water may escape too rapidly. can be used to control, to some degree, both the quality
and quantity of water entering an intake.
To ensure that the dam is not overtopped, the design
must incorporate a spillway sized to discharge safely Because all components of an intake structure, which
the maximum expected flow. This spillway is often are noted above, are also commonly found at other
84 Civil works
points in a hydropower scheme, specific design consid-
erations for each of these are discussed in Other corn--
~+ents (p. 154). Th is section presents a variety of
designs which are currently in use and illustrates how
each of these components mighht be incorporated in the
clesign of an intake.
Civil works 85
I
Because this simple pipe intake requires that all points is then primed and ready for operation as soon as the
along the pipe be below water level, some excavation lower end of the pipe is opened.
will be necessary. If this is not possible because the
stream flows over bedrock or because the water is to be One component which is frequently included even with a
t&en over an existing dam or weir, a siphon intake can rudimentary intake to a canal is a gate (p, 154) to con-
be used. In this case, the outlet of the pipe must be trol ot stop the flow of water (Fig. 5.46). The flow into
lower in elevation than the inlet for the siphon to func- a canal might have to be stopped when the turbine is not
tion. A siphon intake generally leads directly into the
penstock; therefore, debris and sediment must be
removed before they enter the siphon. A trashrack or
screen should be provided at the inlet to the siphon to
remove floating debris. The pond or body of water
behind a dam or weir in which the inlet to the siphon is
placed serves as a settling basin to remove the sediment
carried by the incoming stream. Because an air vent is
not possibie with a siphon intake, it is essentiai that the
inlet never be obstructed during operation of the siphon.
In add=, the lift through a siphon is limited to
several meters because greater heads can lead to col-
lapse of the pipe. Air valves (p. 76) describes the max-
imum safe head which can be accommodated by unrein-
forced pipe.
Fig. 5.47. ‘These intakes to two hydropower schemes in rary stone weir (also see Fig. 5.31). In the illustration at
Papua New Guinea Incorpomte only gates. In the iltustm- the right, small gates pivoted along their lower edge con-
tion at the left, the smal1 dry-season flow flowing crt the trol water admitted at tight angle to the streamflow (also
right is diverted toward a well-shielded intake by a tern/W- see Fig. 5.32).
86 civil works
Fig. 5.47 are oriented perpendicular to the stream and
each incorporates only a gate to control flow into
unlined earth canal. No settling atea, trashrack, or
spillways are used at these intakes.
Civil works 87
spillway should be wide enough to accommodate most of because the reservoir itself serves this function.
the excess flow before it enters the csnal (see Spill- Although this might simplify the design of the intake
ways, p. 159). A spillway that is too narrow can cause structure,. sediment will gradually fill the reservoir,
the water in the canal to exceed a safe level. If a preventing it from fulfilling its original function-the
closed power conduit is used rather than a canal, a storage of water. Xn addition, whereas a properly
spillway may not be necessary. designed settling basin is relatively easy to clean, there
is no easy way to remove sediment which ?ZLS:accumu-
With a low-cost scheme using a simple unlined canal, a lated in a reservoir.
masonry wall is sometimes placed over the canal inlet
to help deflect flood waters and avert or reduce poten- If a scheme’s layout is very compaci, a separate settling
tial damage (Fig. 5.53). With traditional irrigation basin is unnecessary. In this case, the intake, power
cana!,s, the same objective isi accomplished by placing canal, and forebay virtually coincide. The short canal
the intake under large bouldt;rrs found alon ~ the stream itself then also serves as the stitling basin.
(see Fig. 4.9). 1
88 Civil works
pig. 5.54. The photograph on the left shows the primary this area. Long spillways before and arter the intake gate
settling area which is located before the intake gute. The seen in the photograph on the right ensure a fairly constant
scour gate visible at the right is used when cleaning out level in the canal.
Civil works 89
0 1 tm
(contours at 1 m interds)
*D
r
Section AA
-. - -- __. _ .
r-lg. 5.56a. views or the weir and intake for a small-hyiropowe~ project in Tabdosos, Peni Warn EZectrcqWu dmv~ings).
90 Civil works
Section BB
Section CC
I
‘\
‘\
\\
L C \
\
\\
\ Section EE
Section DD
attempt was made to approach this optimum as closely accumulated in this area would then be manually
as possible. To prevent large debris from entetig, a removed to free the gate. Regular operation of the
trashrack is placed on the stream, followed by a second gate to clean out this area probably would have avoided
trashrack to remove small debris. A settling basin after this problem.
the trashracks permits removal of sediment. To help
prevent large debris from interfering with the flow of In the design in Fig. 5.56, only a single gate has been
water through the intake, two features are incotpo- incorporated at the beginning of the power canal to con-
rated: a step in front of the trashrack prevents rolling trol flow through the intake area. Spillways along the
bed load from obstructing flow through the trashrack, settling basin regulate the volume of water directed
and a sliding gate just downstream of thii area permits toward this gate. Because there is no gate at the
any accumulated debris to be flushed out periodically. entrance to the intake area, it cannot be drained if
repair work is necessary. Including slots for a stop-log
Extending the wall located between the weir and scour- in front of the initial trashrack might have been advis-
ing ares to a position in front of the trashrack erures able.
that scouring velocities in front of the trashrack are
high enough to remove this debris. A steep gradient in Another conventional design incorporating the four
this area also facilitates this task. However, if scouring basic components is illustrated in Fig. 5.57. The area in
is delayed, accumulated debris testing against the gate front of the intake (a) is paved to facilitate cleaning
can interfere with its operation. This problem was sediment when the sliding gate (b) in the weir is opened.
encountered at a larger plant in Nepal (see Fig. 5.51) A stoplog (c) can be closed to permit cleaning of the
where the sliding gate could not even be forced open. settling area (d) or repair of components downstream.
The proposed solution at this site was to shut down the Accumulated sediment can be removed through the slid-
plant, divert all the flow over the weir during the dry ing gate (e). A trashrack (f) removes any floating debris
season, and drain the water remaining in the gate area from the water before it passes a gate (g) which regu-
through the underground intake. Debris which has lates the flow into the canal (93).
Civil works 91
Plan view
I
Section AA
/I
Section BB
The long spillway (h) permits most of the excess water lem with this design is its complexity; fairly intricate
during times of heavy rains, as well as some floating
debris, to return to the stream.
located after the regulating
A shorter spillway
gate ensures that excess
water which might pass the gate does not greatly
increase the depth of water in the power canal. Without
formwork is required.
dardized design, the configuration
sions are changed depending
handle.
and s histication
on
Second, with this type of stan-
is fixed; only dimen-
the design flow it is to
Because there can be a large difference
between a plant th t consumes
in cost
it, if streamflow rises significantly, the extra head 0.1 mY 1s and one that consumes 10 m 9 /s, this approach
across the gate might cause a larger flow and therefore does not encourage a simple, more appropriate design
a greater depth of water in the canal. Use of a closed
power conduit rather than a canal would make a spill-
stoplog gate
way unnecessary, because a closed power conduit cannot /
overflow. A small wingwall (i) prevents flood flows A A
from overflowing the intake area into the cana!. t t
L i
Placing the trashrack after the spillway rather than at
the entrance to the intake means that much less debris trashrack
will be held back because some of it will overflow the
spillway. Also, a smaller, less costly trashrack is
requited. + ?I I
sluicing gate / stoplog groove (can/ 1 1
also accommodate
The small size of the settling area shown in Fig. 5.57 secondary trashrack)
stoplag groove,
makes it suitable only for preliminary settling. Depend-
ing on the quality of the water, more complete settling
might be required. or velocities in the power conduit
are sufficiently high to prevent settling, the forebay can
serve as a settling basin.
92 Civil works
for schemes requiring less water. Such standardized bypass-either an open channel, as shown, or a pipe-
designs inevitably imply that there are economies of which permits flow to continue while the settling basin
scale-that larger designs are more economical-and is closed for cleaning. Simple stoplogs direct the water
therefore discourage the implementation of cost-effec- through the desired area. Platforms can be incorpo-
tive micro-hydropower schemes. rated across the top of the structure behind each trash-
rack to permit access to the racks to facilitate clearing.
The basic configuration for ar.other type of standardized
design is illustrated in Fig. 5.58. Not only is the design A design resulting from work by the Swiss in the Came-
simpler, but both the shape and size can be changed to roons is shown in Fig. 5.59. Although designed as an
meet specific site conditions and flow requirements. intake for a potable water system, it exhibits several
The principal component of this intake structure is a interesting features which should be considered at
settling area. Also incorporated in the design is a intakes to hydropower schemes:
--
settling chamber
set tion
Section AA
lower water
Civil works 93
e The intake is located perpendicular to the stream,
thereby encouraging any debris suspended in the F drain piw
water to be swept by and carried downstream.
A
e The opening of the intake is located below low water
level, thereby reducing the possibility that floating t
debris will become lodged in the trashrack. At the
same time, it is above the floor of the streambed so
that bed load carried along the bottom is not swept
ln.
e A sliding gate is placed in the diversion dam just L drairx pipe Plan view
downstream of the intake, thereby permitting any
bed load or sediment which has accumulated in front access
of the intake to be scoured away by opening this
gate.
The operation
those previously
in the streambed,
of a drop intake (Fig. 5.61), also known as
a bottom or a Tirolian intake, differs significantly
described.
stretching
It is essentially
from
a canal built
across at least a portion of
perforated
w
04 civil works
both to reinforce it and to preven: large boulders car- structure is submerged, and the area behind the weir
ried downstream during the rainy season from damaging quickly fills with sediment up to the inlet to the pen-
it. Apparently, water falling through the trashrack only stock, which is nearly level with the bottom of the weir.
carries with it fine sand; anything larger is swept down- During the rainy season, students from a vocational
stream. school more than 2 km away have to come to clean out
the structure about three times per week, sometimes
Figure 5.65 illustrates an intake and weir configuration working by flashlight. A sandbag plug at the base of the
which contributes to larger maintenance requirements weir is removed to drain the area. One improvement
than should be acceptable. During operation, the intake would have been to raise the inlet to the penstock to
sluicing pipe L - -C
inclined
Section BB
Section CC
Civil works 95
accumulated
weir
Fig. 5.63. Cross-sectional view of a drop intake. In this Fig. 5.65. A concrete box &hind the small weir serves (IS
view, the canal carries water out perpendicular to the the intake. The opening on top of the intake structure is
stream before turning in the downstream direction toward usually closed with a removable concrete plug. A portion
the settling basin. (Source: 8. Vogtli) of the penstock pipe can be seen between the box and the
&se of the weir. Several features of this design could
have been improved to facilitate maintenance.
Power conduits
96 Civil works
have settled either in the reservoir or pond before the Apart from this consideration, the growth of aquatic
intake or in a settling basin just before the beginning of plants in earth canals can seriously affect their capacity
the canal. The velocity in the canal should be high in some climates. This is rarely serious if water tem-
enough so that any susp,nded material which has not perature is below 20 oC or the water is turbid or deep.
settled out in the settling area will not do so in the A mean velocity of greater than 0.7 m/s will generally
canal. To keep any silt still in suspension from settling prevent growth that can seriously affect the flow in a
Gut, t!ie average minimum flow velocity in a canal canal (38).
should be (39):
To minimize the cost and labor necessary to construct a
‘min = 0.3 m/s for silty water canal, the velocity in the canal must be maximized.
= 0.3-0.5 m/s for water carrying fine sand The greater the velocity, the smaller the required cross-
R
. l stony bed and weeds on bank
%
.C(
v
2
8
; 0.03 -m rock cuts, smooth and -
uniform
3 l dry-rubble surface
Y
2
B corrugated
semicircular
l ordinary conditions
Fig. 5.66. Values of roughness coefficient ‘W for canals constructed with different materials and finishes (32,40,83).
Civil works 97
sectional area of the canal and the smaller the volume is therefore used primarily with materials which lend
to be excavated. Canals for micro-hydropower schemes themselves to this shape. Examples are prefabricated
are often unlined because of the cost savings this concrete, sheet-metal, and wood-stave sections. Illus-
implies. However, there is a maximum permissible trations of these can be found in Plumes (p. 112).
velocity above which the hanks and bottom of an unlined
canal will start eroding. The magnitude
depends on the nature of the soil. For bare
approximate values of this maximum
in Table 5.1. APPRNDM
velocity
c2nals,
of this velocity
are shown
C (p. 269) explains how to
A trapexoldal cross-section
ascertain the nature ol the soil at a specific site. will permanently stand under
water. The nature of the soil in
TABLE 5.1. Maxfmum pe*mbfWe vekxftfes to awofd em which the canal is excavated is
sion in an earth canal (38,40,83) the major determining factor.
Clay soils, for example, can have
velocity steep slopes (see Fig. 5.71 whereas
sandy soils have flatter slopes.
Typeofsofl b/d Some soils can stand fairly steep
slope? when dry but disintegrate into a fluid mass
Fine sand 0.3-0.4
and assume a flatter slope when wet. Also, original
Sandy loam 0.4-0.6 ground which has been cut into may safely be steeper
than slopes made of the same material but filled in
Clayey loam 0.6-0.8
(Fig. 5.67). However, it is always safer to excavate the
Clay 0.8-2.0 portion of the canal carrying the water in original earth.
The level of the water table will also affect the stabil-
ity of the slope, because incoming ground water can
If the canal is lined, wear by abrasion sets the upper cause the walls of the canal to slough (38). Table 5.2
limit on velocity. For clear water in concrete canals, presents suggested slopes for the banks of unlined
velocities above 10 m/s have been found to do no harm. canals. (See APPEND= C, p. 269, for guidelines for
However, if the water contains sand, gravel, or stones, determining the type of soil in which a canal is being
damage may occur at much lower velocities. Unless the excavated.1
abrasive material is particularly bad, velocities up to
4 m/s should not injure wood or quality concrete. Thin
metal flumes may be damaged by coarse sand or gravel
/l in 1.5~
at 2-3 m/s, and the galvanizing that might cover the
sheet metal may be injured at even lower velocities
(401.
98 Civil works
TABLE5.2. tJugg&ddopeJfwthebankrof~ Rocedme. In the following approach for determining
avmls (40) the canal dimensions and slope, it is assumed that the
most efficient cross-section for the cross-sectional pro-
TypeOfSOil file adopted is to be used. This is the cross-section
Slope’
which will result in the greatest discharge for a given
For cuts in fissured rock, more or less cross-sectional area and profile. Mathematically, this
disintegrated rock, or tough hardpan 1 in l/2 permits a more direct solution to the problem. In the
actual construction, however, there is no need to adhere
For cuts in cemented gravel, stiff precisely to these .optimumn dimensions as long as the
clay soils, or ordinary hardpan I in 314 required cross-sectional area and slope are maintained.
For cuts in firm, gravelly, clay soil, It is possible to deviate considerably from these vaIues
or for side-hill cross-section in without markedly affecting the flow conveyed by the
average loam 1 in 1 canal, as seen in Fig. 5.68. In that figure, all trapezoi-
dal sections have the same area. Although section (c) is
For cuts ,or fills in average loam or the most efficient-it conveys maximum flow and would
gravelly loam 1 in 312 be the section obtained by the procedure described
For cuts or fills in loose sandy loam 1 in 2 below-there is little difference in the capacity of the
canal in spite of significant cbges in the ratio of
For cuts or fills in very sandy soil 1 in 3 depth to width.
(a) Q = 246 C/s (b) Q = 314 t/s (c) Q = 325 t/s (d) Q = 313 C/s
1 (most efficient
cross-section)
2m
Fig. 5.68. Comparison of discharge in trapezoidal con&s depth to width. In this example, A = 0.5 m’, S = 0.001, n -
identical In all aspects except for the proportions of their 0.02, and slope of bank3 = 1~1.
Civil works 99
necessary to have determined the desired velocity “v” of @ The cross-sectional area “A” (m3/s) of the water in
the water in the canal, the desired profile of the canal, the canal is determined from the basic relation
and its roughness coefficient “n”. (Guides to selecting
these were covered in the preceding sections.) It is also A+
necessary to establish the flow “Q” required for the (5.2)
generation of power before a canal can be sized. These
four elements permit the dimensions and slope of the where
canal to be determined by following the four steps
below. EXAMPLE 5.1 (p. 103) and the dashed lines on Q = flow to be conveyed by the canal (m3/s)
the accompanying graphs illustrate the procedure. v = design velocity in the canal (m/s)
In the following procedure, a parameter “r” called the A graphical solution to this equation can be found in
hydraulic radius is used. This is simply defined as Fig. 5.71.
Rectangular
0.35 .@
Trizgular
6.3)
A (m2)
Fig. 5.71. A graph for determining required cross-sectional area of flow for a given flow and velocity.
In designing an earth canal for a micro-hydropower associated with the desired slope. This is illustrated in
scheme, there is a rather narrow range within which the EXAMPLE 5.2. Then the canal dimensions can be
velocity of the flow should lie, and this velocity largely obtained from the corresponding hydraulic radius by fol-
determines the slope of the canal. The procedure lowing the fourth and final step of the general proce-
described above approaches the sizing of a power canal dure. Because a lower velocity will result from the
in this manner. Given certain flow requirements at a smaller slope, more of the suspended silt and fine sand
specific site, the slope is determined, and the canal is may settle in the canal itself (unless the water is always
laid out accordingly. clear or a sufficiently large settling area is located
upstream of the canal).
However, at certain sites, the topography may require
that a different slope be used. If the topography from Using Eqs. (5.2) and (5.3) and the appropriate expression
the area of the proposed intake on the stream to the for the hydraulic radius from Table 5.3, it is also possi-
proposed forebay location indicates that a canal with a ble to derive a mathematical expression for the hydrau-
smaller slope is necessary, a graphical approach can be lic radius of the canal required to convey the desired
used to determine its dimensions. In this case, the pro-
cedure is to select a smaller velocity than originally
chosen and find the canal slope associated with that TABLB 5.4. Expre-ssfon for truss-sectional dfmensfuns of
velocity (using the first three steps in the general pro- most effM3nt crmme ctlons for comm0n profffes
cedure described above). By going through this process
several times, it is possible to narrow in on the velocity Profile Dimensions
Semicircular diameter, d =4 r
Cross-sectional area “A” (m’)
0.1
0.03 I ’ ’ h
I I I IYrn
0.001; ] ] f
The flow 0,’ 150 l/s or, equiwlently, 0.15 m3/s is to @ If the slope of the canaI sides of 1 in 1 is selected
be conveyed in an unlined earth canal. The soti is for the soil conditions found, then this implies a
clayey loclm. What are the required cma2 slope and slope of B = 450. From the appropriate expres-
cross-sectional dimensions? sion in Table 5.3, the hydraulic radius
Because an earth canal is desired, the most appro- @ The required canal slope can be determined using
priate profile is trapezoidal. Excavation of the canal Eq. (5.3) to be
in clayey loam implies that a suitable slope for the
sides is 1 in 1. The flow velocity must be at least S =[‘“~$~]2 = O.OOi7
0.3 m/s so that silt does not settle, but it should not
exceed about 0.8 m/s to prevent erosion. Let us
select v = 0.6 m/s. For an earth canal with clean or a 17 cm drop for every 100 m of canal.
banks, Fig. 5.66 suggests that a roughness coefficient
should be II = 0.023.
@ From Table 5.4, the basic canal dimensions can be
To obtain the slope and canal dimensions, it is neces- found to be
sary to follow the four steps described previously,
using either the equations or graphs. d = 2 (0.18) = 0.36 m
4 (0.18)
If the equations are used, the sequence of steps = 1.0 P
w= sin 4!Y
shown below are followed:
@ Using Eq. (5.21, the area is found to be If the graphs rather than equations are used for this
example, the dashed lines shown in the respective
A = &! = %!? = 0~5~2 graphs illustrate how these are used to solve the first
V 0.6 three portions of this problem.
EXAMPLE 5.2
For the site considered in EXAMPLE 5.1, assume that give rise to this velocity would be found (by fol-
the area between the intake on the stream and the lowing the first three steps in the general proce-
forcbay is fairly level and that a canal cannot easily dure) to be S = 0.00056.
have a slope of greater than 0.0010. What are the
required canal dimensions for a canal with this slot?? l Because the slope is now too small, v = 0.5 m/s is
selected. The required slope would then be
For the originally selected velocity of 0.6 m/s, the s = 0.0010.
first three steps of the general procedure indicated
that a slope of 0.0017 was required. Because only a l Because this is equal to the available slope,
smaller siepe can be accommodated, lower values of v = 0.5 m/s must be the velocity which is required
velocity must be chosen until one whose slope to convey 150 f/s down the canal. The associated
matches that required is found. For example, hydraulic radius is found to be r = 0.20. Using
Table 5.4, the actual canal dimen..ions necessary
l With v = 0.6 m/s, the slope was found to be to convey 150 t/s can be determined.
s = 0.0017.
Equivalently, Eq. (5.4) can be used to approxirrate
o Because a smaller slope is available, the velocity the hydraulic radius directly. Using this equation,
associated with that slope must also be smaller. r = 0.19. Table 5.4 can then be used to determine
If v = 0.4 m/s is selected, the slope which would canal dimensions.
--
Fzcavation
The subsoil excavated from the canal can be used to canal lining
build up the bank. The top of the bank should be wide
enough io ensure stability, prevent excessive seepage, For centuries, numerous countries have used unlined
and facilitate maintenance. It shollld equal or exceed earth canals for conveying water for irrigation. These
the design flow depth in the canal but not be less than are also frequently used with micro-hydropower
about 30 cm. schemes because:
If it is necessary to fill in a slight dip and the original o they are easily built and maintained by unskilled per-
subsoil is dry, the surface should be scarified (loosened) sonnel,
to a depth of about 5 cm and moistened to ensure that it o they require no special equipment or material, and
bonds with the fill material. Fill should be added in o their initial cost is low.
approximately 7 cm layers over the sea to be filled and
then compacted manually or mechanically. Occasionally, it may be necessary to line a canal with
Fig. 5.75. The stones and cement lining this power canal Fig. 5.76. The portion of this canal where soil is not very
were necessary to limit erosion. Although more care in porous is lined with stones. The small uphill canal serves
the alignment of the canal would have reduced the slope of as a settling area for uphill runoff and is paved to facili-
the canal and losses, the termin made it difficult to cost- tate cleaning. No dminage around the canal has been
effectively use the greater head that is available. incorpomted.
Before the bricks or stones are laid on the compacted Fig. 5.81. A template which can be used for laying sec-
earth foundation, it should be wetted slightly and time tions of concrete lining.
given for the water to penetrate the soil to prevent the
mortar from drying too fast. However, the foundation Concrete sections of a lining can be hand-form&. If
should not be wet enough to cause tracking and distur- the side slopes exceed 1 in 1, forms may be necessary to
bance by the workmen. APPEND.Df E (p, 272) contains a hold the concrete in place until it sets. In placing con-
description of the procedure for constructing brick or crete by hand, some form of template is usually used. It
stone masonry. might be fabricated of steel in the form shown in
Fig. 5.81.
To reduce resistance to flow and possible seepage
through poor-quality brick or a poor joint, the masonry In preparing concrete for lining a canal, it is important
surface can be hand-plastered. l-his requires an extra to use the minimum amount of water needed for work-
level of work and is rarely done for micro-hydropower ability. Excess water will cause the concrete to slump
canals. and not stay on the canal slopes. A mixture of a 1:3:4-5
volume proportion (cement, sand, gravel) is adequate for
Concrete. Because a concrete lining requires more lining a canal (17). Further guidance is found in
cement than a brick- or stone-masonry lining, it is APPENDIX D (p. 270).
generally more costly and found less frequently in
micro-hydropower schemes. when a template is used, concrete is placed at the bot-
tom of the slope between the template sides. A straight
The excavation of a canal with a thin, unreinforced con- piece of lumber serves as a screed which is worked back
crete lining is similar to that of an earth canal. It and forth, starting at the bottom of the slope and slowly
should be done carefully to ensure that the lining con- moving up. After both sides aze finished, concrete is
forms closely to the desired profile when it is com- placed at the bottom of the canal and leveled with the
pleted; otherwise, the lining will require more material screed. All that is needed to finish the concrete surface
Drainage
Fig. 5.83. A drainage ditch to the right of the power canal
Some form of cross-drainage must be considered if the collects runoff and diverts it under the canal at seveml
canal follows a slope where, during heavy rains, runoff points along its length. The poiuer canal here has not yet
from the uphill side of the canal can enter the canal and been put into opemtion.
interfere with its proper operation.
Fig. 5.82. Any runoff which gathers within the ravine is Fig. 5.84. A drainage ditch will eventually pass under the
conveyed over the power canal by a stone-masonry struc- bottom of the power canal. At this site, the portions of
Cure. The power canal here is temporarily not in opera- the canal incorporating the drainage ditches are completed
tion. la.St.
proposed spillway to
prevent overspilling at B level of water
-------.--
(with slope = s)
of water
A horizontal
L
L --j freeboard
t 1
freeboard L _ freeboard
slope =
L I s
I I
Fig. 5.86. Water, backed up behind an obstruction in a canal, is shown about to start uncontrolled overspilling of the bank.
r
snaller crossectional area; however, this would
increase velocities, and the canal may then have to be
lined. Another alternative is to use segments of canal
head above
with the original slope and to connect these by one or
spillway which
more drops (Fig. 5.89). Appropriate design velocities
is necessary - are thereby maintained along the entire length of the
canal except at the drops. At these points, properly
designed drop structures should be included to ensure
that the energy gained by the falling water dissipates
without undermining the canal.- If the drop is not over
natural rock, it is usually necessary to construct a drop
structure of concrete, brick, stone masom-y, or timher.
Timber is usually not chosen because of its relatively
Fig. 5.87. Water level may have to rise significantly above short life. Low-cost drop structures can also be built of
the spillway crest to permit all excess flow to leave. discarded oil drums or the equivalent.
(a)
me- maximum level that the water will
attain if the flow is obstructed
nstock anywhere up to the turbine
\ intake
area
(b)
Fig 5.88. Comparison of canal depth for a short (a) and to prevent 0wwspiZZing if flow is obstructed.
tong lb) canal where the benks are constructed horizontally
f9. 5.89. Canal drops perntlt small slopes and velocities to be mainburea even wfmre a large avenge slope fs r%qufreQ
Strictly speaking, a drop is used only when the differ- diately downstream of the structure. If the canal is not
ence in elevation from one section of the canal to the lined, it is necessary to place riprap over a length of
next is small and can be effected over a relatively short several meters. Also, sufficient freebnard must be pro-
distance, sften by a vertical fall. Fig. 5.90 illustrates vided around the stiUiig basin because of the splashing
the basic configuration of one design for a drop. In this which occurs there.
case, the drop is approximately 1 m. Drops usually
include a section along which the drop in elevation takes Another design for a drop is a pipe drop structure
place and a stilling basin in which the excess energy (Fig. 5.91). A stilling basin, suitably lined, is still
gained by the falling water is dissipated. They can also needed to dissipate the energy of the incoming water.
include an inlet structure with a weir or gate designed To prevent seepage along the outside of the pipe, a con-
to control the level of water in the upstream stretch of crete apron around the inlet or coilars along its length
the canal. The water leaving a drop is often turbulent, are often used. A lid on the inlet to the pipe can func-
and this can cause erosion in the section of canal imme- tion as a check valve. The required pipe diameter for a
specific flow is found in the same manner as that for an
inverted siphon (see Inverted niphone, p. 115).
upstream canal
stilling basin
Fig. 5.94. A commcjn design for wooden flumes used to Fig. 5.96. Various joints that can be used between the
convey water to mills. wailhoar& or floorboards of a wooden flume.
100 x 250 x 5 m
upper stringer crosstie The metal sheets and all metal parts that come in con-
I n/ \ tact with them should be galvanized. When the galva-
nixing wears away, the interior surface should be
treated periodically with coal-tar paint or enamel.
Considerable other details concerning sheet metal
flumes can be found in “Design, Construction and Use of
Metal Flumes” (57).
------------
Fig. 5.101. Two examples illustrating how an inverted siphon may be used along a canal alignment to circumvent obstacles.
V
D
L
=
=
=
is =
K, =
diameter
velocity
coefficient
of siphon (m)
length of siphon (m)
in siphon (m/s)
gravitational constant (9.8 m/s2)
of losses at entrance (see
Repeating this process several times will quickly lead to
the required diameter.
Fig. 5.102. Typical dimensions (ml of an inverted siphon used in India to carry irrigation water below obstacles (83).
Fig 5.103. The steep, rocky soil slope at this site makes it
difficult to provide dminage. In this case, flat concrete
covers will eventually be placed along the length of the ‘ig. 5.104. A canal section showing flat covers to prevent
canal to prevent debris from entering. ntry of debris.
For large canals, brick arches over the canal have been
built (Fig. 5.108). However, this is generally costlier
and requires brick-masonry skills.
excavated area
Fig. 5.105. Steps in the construction of a covered stretch of cmal at Bun&, Papua New Guinea (Source: B. Vijstli).
stoplog
groove
(not to scale)
stoplog
groove
nstock
3.a
2.c
+
1s Side:
0 horizontal intake
-
0 vertical intake =
=
l n intakes with problems 4
penstock pipe
C I
1.0
o 0 intakes
V
with no problems
I
2.0 3.0
Fzl .
co.75 D +I
.
Section AA Section BB
Section CC
spillway
“‘IF-
drain *
loose 90° elbow
- -
AA
turns the surface a light yellow. But penetration depth Sizing penstock pipes
of this altered area rarely exceeds 0.003 mm. Degrada-
tion ceases when exposure ends. When sizing a penstock pipe, two parameters must be
specified:
Tests were performed across the United States to gage
the effect of ultraviolet radiation on PVC pipe. During o its diameter, which should be selected to reduce
the two years that the pipe samples were placed out., frictional and therefore energy losses within the
doors with maximum exposure to sunlight, both tensile penstock to an acceptable level, and
strength (which is directly related to pressure rating)
ant1 modulus of elasticity (which is related to the pipe’s o the thickness of its walls, which shoulcl be selected
ability to resist external loads) remained virtually to accommodate the pressures encountered during
unchanged. Impact strength was somewhat reduced but plant operation.
still within acceptable limits (7).
Selecting pipe diameter. A more widely used form of
Because long-term trends may be less clear, pipe the power equation is not Eq. (4.2) but
installed above ground should be protected from sunlight
by an opaque shield of ally thickness. The pipe can be P = 9.8 et Q H (5.11)
painted, coated, or wrapped. Because some paints and
cements contain solvents which can be detrimental to where, in addition to the variables defined earlier,
PVC, it is advisable to apply the proposed paint or coat-
ing to a sample length of pipe to ensure compatibility = efficiency of the turbine (or turbo-generating
et
and adhesion. Generally, water-based latex paints for- equipment if electricity is to be generated)
mulated for outdoor use work wel!. H = net head acting on the turbine (m)
= Hg - h(
Fig. 5.123. A layer of clay (seen stacked on the right) is Fig. 5.124. The clay lining of the forebay is covered with
being tamped on the floor of the foreboy. hand-placed ripmp.
As the value admitting water to the turbine is just “minor losses” may be greater than friction losses. The
beginning to open, the net head acting on the turbine is total head loss is simply equal to the sum of these two
equal to the gross head across the penstock, the differ- losses:
ence in elevation between the penstock inlet and the
turbine. But as soon as the water in the penstock starts hl = hf + ht (5.12)
to descend, fluid friction and turbulence result in losses
in head “h ” which reduce the actual head acting on the One means of approximating these losses is described
turbine. I!..be magnitude of these losses is approximately below. The equations used to estimate these losses are
proportional to the square of the velocity of the water based on tests in both laboratories and full-scale instal-
in the pipe. Consequently, if a less costly, smail+a- lations.
meter pipe is used to convey the same flow as a larger-
diameter pipe, the velocity and therefore the losses are The graph in Fig. 5.125 can be used to determine losses
greater in the former. Greater losses decrease a site’s caused by friction in a penstock pipe. It is based on the
net head and therefore its power potential. Thus, following equation, which is derived from Manning’s
selecting a penstock diameter is a trade-off between equation:
cost and power losses: selecting as small a diameter as
possible to minimize cost and selecting as large a dia- hf
meter as necessary to minimize losses. = 6.3s3 (5.13)
?I
Pressure or b hf n2 Q2
>sses are comprised of losses caused r= lo- (5.14)
by friction bcrween the water and the pipe “hf” and D5.3
losses caused by turbulence created by changes in velo-
city or direction of flow which occur at the inlet, bends, The very strong dependence of friction losses on pipe
valves, and enlargements or constrictions along a pipe diameter is more clearly seen in this form of the equa-
“h n, Losses caused by turbulence are commody tion. Just halving the pipe diameter for a given flow,
re Eerred to as minor losses and are small in the case of for example, increases friction losses by a factor of 401
micro-hydropower schemes with relatively long pen- The equation also shows that, for a given flow and pipe
stocks. However, if a short penstock is used, these diameter, losses are proportional to penstock length.
0.5
0.2
0.1
0.05
u
\LLY?j
I
llllllillllllllll!llllll!
* i i i i i i .kl Xi / ” !+‘!-‘!*’ *! ’
0.002
0.0011 rmml 11 11 11 11 i
Fig. 5.125. Graph used to determine head losses caused by frictfo? within a pipe.
H=Hg-ll*=80.0-3.0=77;0~m.
Fig. 5.126. The roughness coefficients for Manning’s for- if bnli friction losses are consjdered. ::
mula used in determining head loss caused by friction in a
pipe of good condition conveying water. Because the poyer‘available from a turbine with a
given flow is proportional to net head, this loss of
This is one reason that hydropower schemes are laid out head represents a loss of power through pipe friction
to minimize penstock length for a given gross head (see of 3/80 or about 4%.
DEVELOPING THE BASIC LAYOUT, p. 49).
I I inward
hooded inlet projecting pipe sharp-cornered I slightly rounded bell mouth
Type
/5
= (0.0026)(150 m) = 0.4 m
V = 1.0 m/s
hf = (0.0090)(100 m) = 0.9 m
= 0.1 t 0.4 t 0.5 t 0.2 = 1.2 and the net head is therefore
(a) b) ICI
Fig. 5.130. Knowing design flow ‘Q”, Fig. 5.125 can be and required ptpe diameter if maximum pipe velocity is
used to determine fa) head loss and pipe velocity if pipe is specified. Known variables are placed within squares and
specified, (bj required pipe diameter and associated pipe derived wriables are circled.
velocity if acceptable head loss is known, or (c) head loss
[ 1
10(Qn)2
(hO IL)
O-l9 (5.17)
A parameter used to indicate under what circumstances The effect of critical time on the magnitude of surge
water hammer pressures should be considered is called pressure is described below. It is assumed that the pen-
the critical time (s) and is defined as stock pipe has a uniform diameter and thickness along
its entire length, as is usually the case. (If not, the con-
clusions would have to be modified to take this factor
(5.18) into account. This case will not be addressed here.)
t=50 fi
S
J
where
-0 2 4 6 a 10 12 14
t = pipe thickness (mm)
p = pressure (m of water)
D = pipe internal diameter (m)
Fig. 5.132. Gmphical solution to Eq.(5.21) for determining s = design stress of pipe material (kgf/cm2)
peak pressure surge caused by a slowly Closing valve. = ultimate tensile strength/safety factor (see
Table 5.5)
surges is only transitory but it should be included unless
the hydropower scheme has been designed to preclude ,- inlet to penstock
the possibility of surge pressures. An approximation for
the absolute maximum pressure can be obtained by add-
ing the gross head at that point to the surge pressure,
assuming instantaneous gate closure at the base of the
penstock. This is illustrated in Fig. 5.133. Friction and
turbulence losses are usually negligible. The gross head
at each point is simply the difference in elevation bet-
ween the forebay water level and that point. The max-
imum surge pressure is that found by using Eq. (5.20).
This expansion and contraction can be accommodated in There are two basic designs for expansion joints: a
three ways: sleeve-type expansion joint and a bellow or diaphragm
type. The sleeve-type expansion joint is shown in
(1) If the pipe is flexible, with bends between any Figs. 5.18, 5.134, and 5.135. This assembly can be
anchors or supports, the bends can take up any incorporated at the end of one length of pipe, with the
expansion or contraction. next length of pipe fitting into it, ot can be a separate
The change in length of a pipe section between consecu- (a) The pipe would experience the following expan-
tive anchors can be determined from Eq. (5.25). If a sion:
AL = (30)(12*10’6)(20) = 0.007 m = 7 mm
stay :ing
(b) If it were rigidly held, the stress from thermal
effects which would build up in the pipe wall would
be
If the pipeline is flat, expansion joints are usually parallel to the pipe and one perpendicular to it (see
located midway between anchors to minimize movement insert in Fig. 5.138). A support pier is not designed to
of the pipe over the piers. On steep slopes, expansion resist significant longitudinal forces and is therefore
joints for steel penstocks are generally located just unaffected by the component of this weight parallel to
below the uphill anchor. Because pipe tends to slide
downhill, the pipe laying can be facilitated by working
uphill and then inserting the expansion joint to finish the
length. The anchor at the base of a steep drop rather
than the upper anchor then resists the weight of the
pipe and water; this lower anchor is usually easier to
construct. Where supports are included between conse-
cutive anchors, locating the expansion joint just below
the uphill anchor means that the force caused by fric-
tion from the movement of the pipe on each intervening
support is also transferred to the downhill anchor.
where
Fig. 5.139. The portion of pipe in contact with the con- As with any of these structures, the support piers should
crete cmdle is reinforced with an additional thickness of be placed on original soil and not on fill. The bearing
steel. area should be able to support the forces on the pier
pivot
rocker
Fig. 5. I45. A simplified representation of a typical rocker Fig. 5.146. The uphill portion of the pipe span is shown
support. contributing a force normal to its centerline.
Civil works 141
TABLE 5.6. The mag~ffufe of Uw force3 vhf& may he encomtered fn desff@q an anchor
pipe
4 I
(4) Component of weight of pipe F4 = Wp L sin a **
parallel to pipe I
:.:
(5) Thermally induced stresses (if ----4! *
F5 = 31 D t E a AT
no expansion joints included)
I I\...
* Direction of forces shown for expanding pipe; reverse directions if pipe is contracting.
** Replace a by fi for contribution to force from downstream penstock section.
’ beginning of pipe
section held back by
anchor (e.g., location .s
of expansion joint)
wP L
1
+
I
= Qpvi + (-Qp’j,)
tie-down rods
Section AA
The magnitude and direction of the principal force act- Assume that a structure is being acted upon by the
ing on a thrustblock are defined by force “F3” in forces shown in Fig. 5.158(a). In addition to the forces
Table 5.6. Because buried pipe is not subject to large described previously, the combined weight “W” of the
temperature changes, expansion joints are not used and concrete mass plus pipe and water within the mass
forces “F “, “F5”, “F6”, and “F7” do not arise. Because which acts at the center of gravity of the anchor is also
of low ve Focities in a penstock, the force “Fs” caused by included.
dynamic pressure at a bend is negligible. The forces
“Fl” and “F4” resulting from the weight of the pipe are In reaction to all these forces, the foundation exerts an
distributed along the entire length of penstock and initially unknown foundation pressure and friction force
resisted by the soil. over the base of the anchor. The net effect of the fric-
tion and foundation pressure is identical to, and can be
A thrustblock is commonly a block of concrete poured replaced mathematically with, a reaction force “R” act-
after the pipe is in place. It is placed in a position to ing at an undetermined point on the anchor with a direc-
transmit the force acting on it to the ground. The tion and magnitude yet to be determined (Fig. 5.158bl.
thrustblock should be no higher than half the distance
from the ground surface to its base (Fig 5.157); other- A first step in reducing the penstock forces and weight
wise, the soil may not offer sufficient resistance to of an anchor to a single force is to resolve each force
properly restrain the thrustblock (10). The face of the into components parallel to the x and z axes. The ori-
thrustblock must be approximately perpendicular to the ginal forces are then equivalent to the sum of all the
force it is to transmit. horizontal components “EIi” and the sum of all the ver-
tical components ‘ZV” acting along the x and z axes,
Reducing the forces acting on a structure. In a previous respectively, plus a moment “EM” resulting from all the
section, a number of forces which a penstock pipe can forces around the origin (Fig. 5.158~).
exert on a support pier, anchor, or thrustblock were dis-
cussed. The next step is to design each of these struc- By translating the net vertical force “EV” a distance “d”
tures to resist these forces. It is first necessary to sim- to the right such that CM = d IX, the force ‘?X” acting
plify the problem by reducing all the forces that act on at a new point (Fig. 5.1586) is equivalent to the same
the structure to a single force that acts at a specific force acting at the origin plus the moment.
CHliicCV (5.30)
pf =y (1 f p, (5.3 1)
where
Fig. 5.158. Reducing a number of forces acting on a struc- Parenthetically, this equation also shows that if the
ture to a single force and a reaction force. The forces in reaction force on the structure acts outside the mid-
all five dtagmms ubove are equiwlent. dle third, that is, e > f/6 or e < -l/6, the minimum
Alluvial soil To serve their intended purpose, air valves must permit
an adequate flow of air into the penstock to prevent its
Soft clay collapse. The smaller the valve opening, the greater
must be the difference between pressure within the
Sand penstock and atmospheric pressure in order to pass a
given air flow. If this difference is too great, the vent
Sand and gravel cannot fulfill its purpose and the pipe will still collapse.
Sand and gravel The maximum pressure difference which any pipe can
with clay safely accommodate is a function of its thickness-to-
diameter ratio and the material from which it has been
Shale constructed, represented by the following expression:
Rock
P= zs(L,’
where
foundation pressure “pf ” would be negative or under p = maximum allowable pressure difference
tension. Clearly, this IS not possible, and the struc-
(kgf/cm2)
ture would overturn. E = Young’s modulus of elasticity (kgf/cm2)
(see Table 5.5)
In determining the stability of a structure, the most D = penstock diameter at its upper end (any unit of
adverse cases must be considered, cases in which the measure)
summation of forces or moments is a maximum. The t = wall thickness at its upper end (with same units
procedure for assessing the stability of the support pier
as D)
analyzed in EXAMPLE 5.10 (p. 148) is illustrated in I = safety factor = 5 for buried pipe
EXAMPLE 5.11. = 10 for exposed pipe (38)
EXAMPLE 5.10
A concrete support pier 0.80 m wide shaped as shown
supports a 400 mm steel penstock with a 3 mm wall.
Supports are placed at 6 m intervals down the 30’
slope. Expansion joints are used as needed. Reduce
the forces acting on the pier to a single force under
two conditions: (a) the penstock is expanding because
of a temperature increase, and (b) the penstock is con-
tracting because of a tempemture decrease.
F1 = (Wp+Ww)Lcoso
t
F2 = f F1
where
Wp =rDt
W,
= (3.1)(0.4)(0.003)(7900
= prD2/4
kgf/m3) = 30 kgf/m Z
if
W
1
(.51)(.3(l) = V07 .02
total area of its side by its width and de sity. The 0 2
density of concrete is about 2300 kgf/m 5 .
@ (.69)(.30) = l 21 .18
It is also necessary to locate the pier’s center of gra-
0 (1.2)(.20) = .24 i .14
vity where its entire weight appears concentrated.
This is determined by summing the moments of the
La = 0.63 m2 1Z.M = 0.43 m31
weight of each increment of area around any point. In
this case, the point selected is the origin of a coordi- As noted previously, the total weight of the pier is
nate system centered at the left end of the pier’s base.
To determine the moment of a rectangular area, its W = (0.63 m2)(0.80 m)(2300 kgf/m3) = 1200 kgf
weight is considered to act at its geometrical center;
for a triangular area resting on one of its two legs, its and the distance this force acts frnrn the origin is
weight is considered to act at a distance of one-third
the length of its horizontal leg from the right angle. b = \‘M/Sa = (0.43 m2)/(0.63 m) = 0.68 m
The distance “b” to the pier’s center of gravity is then
found by dividing this sum by the pier’s total area. The illustration above shows the forces acting on the
pier which the foundation must support: the weight of
the support pier itself acting at 0.68 m from the origin
and the two forces arising from the penstock.
w = 1200 0 1200
zt
LH = -780 kgf XV = 1700 kgf
(b) When the penstock is contracting, this case is simi-
ach of these forces also results in a moment “M” lar to the previous one except tha; the direction of
round the origin. These can be determined mathe- “F2” is reversed and its components are both positive.
latically by using trigonometric functions ot, just as The same steps as before ate used in finding the net
ccurate!y, gt-tphically off a scale drawing by meas- vertical and horizontal forces and moment. Then
ring the moment arm of each force around the ori-
in. Positive and negative signs are assigned, depend- EH = +410 kgf
~g on whether the moment around the origin is clock- EV = +2100 kef
&e ot counterclockwise, respectively. - EM = +1600 kgf=m
SM = 810 kgf.m
0.76 m-----r
2I 2100 kgf 0
yor the vertical force to replace the moment equal to
110 kgfom <around the origin, it must be translated The net fcrce on the foundation is the sum 3: these
;lO kgf.m/1700 kgf = 0.48 m to the right: two components. The reaction force is equal and
opposite:
I x
-0.76 m-1
-- I
Civil works 149
In ordei not to exceed this pressure, the minimum area
“A” (m ) of the vent inlet is given by the following
equation:
A= Q (5.33)
400 cfi
where
Q = flow of air through inlet (m3/s) (see below)
C = coefficient of discharge through inlet
= 0.5 for ordinary air-inlet valves
0.7 for short air-inlet pipes (38)
Powerhouses
Fig. 5.160. A small powerhorcse constructed of cinder Fig. 5.162. A powerhouse builrl of stones and earth, with a
blocks. thatch roof.
(a)
penstock
turbine
tailrace
i
/
m Before the power leaves the powerhouse, a tap Fig. 5.169. The stoplog at this site regulates the height of
should be included to provide power for lighting- water behind a stone-masonry weir.
indoors as well as possibly outdoors-and electric
outlets or power points. side of the groove or because of their buoyancy. Some-
times steel or steel and timber “logs” are used. Stoplogs
have another problem. Because they are used infre-
Other components quently, logs stored near the opening can be appro-
priated for other uses and therefore not be available
Gates and valves when they are needed.
Gates and valves control the flow through water con- In their simplest form, the stoplog grooves are vertical
veyance structures. Numerous types are in use. For rectangular notches formed in concrete (Fig. 5.170a).
micro-hydropower schemes, this discussion is limited to To reinforce their edge, they can be lined with angle
stoplogs and sliding gates and butterfly and gate valves. iron or steel channel (Figs. 5.170b and 5.17Oc, respec-
tively). Using a steel guide also facilitates insertion and
--Gates are generally used for control of flow through removal of the timbers by reducing friction and permits
open passageways or for other low-pressure applica- a more watertight seal than concrete.
tions. Sliding gates--also referred to as vertical lift
gates or sluice gates-are used where there is a :red to To stop flow through a stoplog gate completely, such as
adjust fairly frequently the flow through an openi;++ when repairs are needed downstream, inserting the tim-
Stoplogs are not usually used to adjust the flow, but to bers is rarely sufficient. Rather, to accomplish this,
stop it completely from time to time, such as when two parallel stoplogs separated by lo-20 cm could be
maintenance or repair work is needed downstream. included in a design, so that clay can be temporarily
packed between the two to provide a seal when needed.
Valves are used to control the flow through a pipe.
For micro-hydropower applications, they control flow It may also he possible to simplify construction slightly
through Ihe penstock, usually at the base of the pen- by designing trashrack grooves to accept stoplog tim-
stock-as a turbine isolation valve to permit uncoupling bers. When flow has to be stopped, the trashrack can be
of the turbine and the penstock--and occasionally at the withdrawn and replaced by these timbers.
inlet to the penstock. Gate valves are often more read-
ily available, but butterfly valves are increasing in
popularity.
F = 1000fiAh (5.34)
where
ing pole
outlet
drain /
pipe
spillway trashrack
conduit
Fig. 5.185. The intake at this site has several features too small and qutckly fiils with debris and the spillway does
which were poorly desfgned-the area of the tmshmck Is not overflow until the tmshmck itself overflows.
Fig. 5.186. Discharge coefficients for spillways of different profiles. For broad-crested profiles, a head and crest width
each less than 300 mm is assumed.
the same e:quation as for flow over an overflow spillway bends sre incorporated in the downstream leg. Water
[Eq. (5.35)j, but “L” now represents the circumference flowing down the pipe is deflected across at the second
of the spillway. If the pipe flows full, then it acts as a bend and seals off this leg. Water which continues to
siphon and passes increased flow. This flow can be flow down the pipe entrains the entrapped air, gradually
approximated by using Eq. (5.9). In this case, “hf” repre- reducing :he pressure until all the air is removed and
sents the head across the portion of pipe flowing full. the siphon is primed. The larger the gross head across
the siphon-the vertical distance between the water
Siphon spillways A siphon spillway represents a third level in the basin and the outlet of the siphon-the
type, At large powerplants, this spillway is of major greater will be the flow which is then conveyed. With
dimensions and is often incorporated in the dam itself. the rapid outflow of water, the water level in the basin
Although it has rarely been used with micro-hydropower will lower until the air vent hole is uncovered. Air
plants, its principle of operation is described here which is then drawn into the siphon breaks the prime
because it might find some application. Because it uses and the siphon stops operating. The air vent is simply a
the potentially large head across a siphon, it produces a small hole drilled into the wall of the pipe. Alterna-
significantly larger flow velocity than would be attained tively, the air vent can be eliminated, in which case the
with an overflow weir. It is therefore useful where water level would descend until the inlet to the siphon is
space available for another form of spillway is limited exposed.
<and where the water level must be kept within narrow
limits. This is frequently the case at a forebay, for
example.
A trashrack intercepts the entire flow and removes any Ftg. 5.190. A tmshmck bar spacing equal to the teeth
large debris, whether it is floating, suspended, or swept spacing of a rake facilitates removal of debris.
along the bottom. Frequently, one is located in the
intake structure to prevent debris from entering, and Trashracks can be installed by sliding them into grooves
another is placed just before the inlet to the penstock to in the concrete walls of the intake, canal, or forebay
remove smaller debris as well as other debris which may structure. When closure for maintenance or repair is
have entered the water downstream of the intake. desired, the trashracks can be removed and replaced by
Sometimes a trashrack is also located at the entrance to stoplogs. A platform on which the plant operator can
a power conduit or along a lengthy canal. A skimmer is stand while removing the debris is usua!ly erected just
used only to hold back debris floating on the water sur- downstream of the rack.
face.
cleaning
trashrack platform
64 Civil works
x -fl counterweight
Fig. 5.195. A diagrammatic representation of a mechani- was designed by John Wood and is in opemtion in EMi&)+
cal rake driven by a waterfilled oil drum (ill)). This mke mon, Ireland.
l Initially, the scraper carriage carried the counter- If changes in water level are small, a fixed skimmer can
weight, but the sizable force against the trashrack be used. Figure. 5.196 illustrates such a skimmer
and the increased drag on the carriage as it moved installed in a forebay. A trashrack is still included over
up led to unreliable operation. The drum was then the inlet to the turbine. Another approach is simply to
counterbalanced as shown in Fig. 5.195. place the trashrack under the minimum water level, as
shown in Fig. 5.59. In this case, floating debris is
l The cycling period depends on the size of the fecd- deflected by the wall of the intake and carried down-
Fipe and siphon, and the resulting 14 minute cycle stream by the excess streamflow.
sas too long for the increased volume of leaves the
device had to handle in the autumn. Consequently,
the feedpipe diameter was increased from 20 mm to
50 mm, and a valve was placed along the feedpipe to
control the filling time and therefore the cycling
period. In addition, the siphon diameter was
increased to 80 mm.
(5.40)
where
Q = flow (m3/s)
V = desired velocity through the basin (m/s)
D = basin depth (m) = canal depth in this case
L = 60+w
0
Fig. 5.199. This settltig basin just after the intake Incor-
where: pomtes two sections-one can be cleaned out whfle the
other remains in use. No scouring outlet has been incor-
L = basin length (m) pomted, and sediment has to be shoveled out.
PO
= settling velocity of smallest particle to be
removed (m/min)
opening which
stream determines cycling
(a) (b)
Fig. 5.205. A schematIc representation of the self-clean- cycle, the contauter fa slowly fllltng wItn water, then 0
Lng forebay shown in Ftg. 5.199. Two positIona durfng a the container drops, openfng the gate to permit scouring of
cyclfng period are illustrated: la) for the larger part of the the fomt~y. (Not to scale)
BASIC THEORY
Turbines 17 1
a The pressure can be first converted into kinetic TABLE 6.1. Spedffc rpeeds for wrlars types of m
energy in the form of a high-speed jet of water
emerging from a nozzle. In this case, the pressure Typeofnmner %
drop occurs across the nozzle. The water in the jet
strikes the runner, imparting its momentum to the Pelton 12-30
surface it strikes, and then drops into the tailwater Turgo 20-70
with little remaining energy. Turbines operating in Crossflow 20-80
this manner are called impulse turbines and include Francis 80-400
the Pelton, Turgo, and crossflow turbines. Propeller and Kaplan 340-1000
172 Turbines
from nozzles and striking a series of buckets mounted
N _ 1500 GGiz on the periphery of a disk (Fig. 6.2). Although this tur-
s- = 110
555’4 bine is usually not used under a head of less than about
150 m at large hydropower installations, it has been
and a Francis turbine would probably be selected. How- used down to heads of several meters at micro-hydro-
ever, if gearing is acceptable, with a gearing ratio of up power installations. The principal reason for not using
to 3:1, for example, the turbine speed required to drive this type of turbine at lower heads is that its operating
the generator could range from 500 to 4500 rev/min, speed becomes low and the runner becomes unwieldy for
with an associated specific speed in the range of 37-330. the quantity of power generated. If runner size or speed
Therefore, in addition to a Francis turbine, a Turgo, poses no obstacle, then a Pelton turbine can be used
crossflow, or two-jet Pelton turbine could also be used under fairly low heads.
in this situation.
Turbines 17 3
number of jets. The power output from a turbine is where
roughly proportional to the number of jets. Two equally
sized jets will make approximately twice the power d = jet diameter (cm)
available than that from the turbine using a single jet. Q = total flow through turbine (xn3/s)
In practice, interference between the water and runner H = net head (m)
within the casing reduces this value somewhat. When number of nozzles
“j=
two jets are used, they usually strike the rmmer at
points a little less than 90’ apart. It should be noted that the diameter “d” does not refer
to the diameter of the nozzle opening but to the jet
As head is decreased further, three or more jets can be diameter, which is equal to or, more frequently, some-
used. The runner is then set on a vertical rather than what smaller than, this opening. With a needle valve,
horizontal shaft. Rather than using more than two jets, the jet diameter is usually lo%-20% less than the nozzle
another approach is to use two runners side by side on diameter, depending on the design (38). With a simple
the same shaft or to place a runner at each end of the cylindrical nozzle with rounded entry and slight taper,
generator shaft. jet and nozzle diameters are nearly equal.
Pelton runners for micro-hydropower plants usually have Solving Eq. (4.3) for ” .” will give the minimum number
efficiencies of 70%-85%. They have the advantage of of equally sized jets t 2 at would be required to develop
being able to accommodate a wide range of flows with the design power under a given net head and flow when
nearly constant efficiency. For this to be possible, a using jets of diameter ‘d”:
turbine must be equipped either with a needle or spear
valve or with nozzles of different sizes which can be
(6.4)
turned on or off as required.
The runaway speed for a Pelton turbine-the speed of For horizontal-axis Pelton turbines, a maximum of two
the runner when, under design conditions, all external nozzles is commonly used. The maximum number of
loads are removed--is about 1.8 times its normal operat- nozzles for a Pelton turbine used in micro-hydropower
ing speed. Under these conditions, bucket speed nearly plants is commonly four, arranged around the runner on
equals jet velocity. a vertical shaft. Up to six are used in large hydropower
plants.
In preparing the powerhouse foundation to accept a Pel-
ton turbine, only a hole in the powerhouse floor is The linear velocity of the bucket for most efficient
required. It is usually rectangular and is about the size operation of the runner will equal 0.43-0.47, or about
of the outlet of the turbine casing through which the half, of the jet velocity. Using Eq. (6.2), runner speed
water leaving the turbine drops into the tailrace (see can therefore be expressed as
Fig. 5.167). If a pipe section conveys the water from
under the turbine to the tailrace, it must be large
N =38% (4.5)
enough so that the water does not back up and submerge
the runner.
where
174 Turbines
bucket size and the minimum number of buckets for
efficient operation set a limit for the minimum size of a
runner:
nb =9+15 (6.6)
m= -D (6.7)
d
where the jet diameter “d” and the runner diameter “D”
are both expressed in the same units. If too few buckets
are used, a portion of the jet passes through the runner
without striking the buckets. Using too many buckets
leads to their interference with the water leaving the
runner.
Turbines 175
the flow through each nozzle. If the design of the sys-
tem incorporates a governor, there must be a valve with
which the governor can regulate the flow. A needle
valve is commonly used for this purpose. It permits only
that flow through the penstock that is necessary to
satisfy the load imposed on the turbine by the user. Any
excess streamflow can be stored if a reservoir has been
incorporated in the scheme’s design. A needle valve can
be replaced by a much simpler and less costly deflector
placed between a fixed nozzle and the runner. This
device deflects water that is not required for power
generation away from the runner. In this case, the
water that is deflected is wasted; therefore, this option
would be suitable only where the water supply is always
adequate and no storage is necessary.
Fig. 6.4. On the left is a Peiton runner with cast buckets installation at Baindoang in Papua New Guinea. The disk
bolted to a steel disk (see A Pelton Micro-lfydro Prototype between the runner and the bearings is a slinger, designed
Desip (63) for design details). On the right, an integral to sling off any water making its way along the shaft so
castmg from Gilbert Gilkes and Gordon used at a 6 kW that it does not reach the bearings.
176 Turbines
(see the end of Alternative turbine configurations,
p. 42). If a single-jet turbine is used, it could be
designed with interchangeable nozzles of different
sizes. This approach requires that the plant be shut
down to permit changing the nozzles. The cost-reduc-
tion advantage gained may be offset by the increased
bother associated with performing this task.
Gilbert Gilkes and Gordon Limited of the United King- However, unlike a horizonal-axis Pelton turbine, the
dom developed and manufactures the Turgo turbine water flowing through the Turgo runner produces an
which can operate under a head in the range of 30- axial force and requires thrust bearings on the runner
300 m. Like a Pelton turbine, it is an impulse turbine; shaft.
however, its buckets are shaped differently and the jet
of water strikes the plane of its runner at an angle of
about 20’ rather than remaining within this plane Basic relationships
(Fig. 6.5). Whereas the volume of water which a Pelton
runner can accept is limited because the water which Turgo and Pelton runners have a similar theory of oper-
emerges from each bucket interferes with the incoming ation. Therefore, the expressions for runner speed “N”
jet as well as with adjacent buckets, the Turgo runner and jet diameter “d” are approximately equal to those
does not present this problem. Water enters the runner derived previously [Eqs. (6.2) through (6.5)). The maxi-
through one side of the runner disk and emerges from mum number of jets for a Turgo turbine conventionally
the other. Consequently, for the same jet diameter (and mounted on a horizontal shaft is two. Some small-
power output) as a Pelton turbine, a smaller-diameter hydropower equipment manufacturers have fabricated
runner can be used with the Turgo turbine. The result- small vertical-axis units with more than two nozzles.
ing higher runner speeds imply a better chance for
direct coupling of turbine and generator. This is the
principal advantage of the Turgo runner. Fabrication
A Turgo runner may prove appropriate at lower heads In addition to Gilbert Gilkes and Gordon, the People’s
where a Francis runner might otherwise have been used. Republic of China has also been manufacturing its ver-
In this case, a Turgo turbine has advantages similar to sion of a Turgo runner for micro-hydropower applica-
those of a Pelton turbine: tions, as have several small U.S. companies. The com-
plex curves used in the design of the bucket for a
o it requires no seals with glands around the shaft, “proper” Turgo runner may discourage its construction.
e it is more tolerant of sand and other particles in the However, there have been several attempts to fabricate
water, a Turgo runner. Some involved making buckets of short
o working parts are more easily accessible, sections cut from steel pipe. These were welded bet-
Turbines 1’77
ween two concentric steel bands. The iMer band was Coat~on appmachs
welded around the circumference of a steel disk that
served as the hub. The same approaches discussed previously for Pelton
turbines are applicable to Turgo turbines.
The Nepalese “ghatta” (see Fig. 10.7) is a runner whose
operation roughly approximates that of a Turgo runner.
Thousands of ghattas have been in operation in Nepal Crossflow turbines
and elsewhere for centuries, providing mechanical
power for milling (see PRX’VATESECTQR APPROACH The development of the crossflow turbine has been
To IMPLEMENTING MICRO-HYDROPOWER SCHEMES credited to both Banki and Michell, and it has been
M NEPAL, p. 226). They are built primarily
Activating Traditional
opment and Improvement
Indigenous Techniques:
of wood.
commonly
commercially
the Ossberger Turbinenfabrik
for over half a century by
in Germany. It therefore
goes by the names of the Banki, Michell,
Ossberger turbine.
or
The drum-shaped runner of a crossflow turbine is built
A recent successful undertaking in Nepal has been the of two parallel disks connected near the rim by a series
design and manufacture in Kathmandu of the Multi- of curved blades (Fig. 6.7). The individual blades have
Purpose Power Unit or, more commonly, the MPPU. simple, cylindrical symmetry, and homemade blades are
This turbine evolved as an improvement on the tradi- frequently made by cutting sections of pipe lengthwise.
tional ghatta but closely resembles
Individual hemispherical
disks and welded to a hub to approximate
ner with a small diameter ratio.
the Turgo runner.
buckets are forged from steel
FL&!. 6.6. At the left, a MPPU runner is being fabricated, At right, en MPpU unit is shown ready for delivery.
178 Turbines
flow turbine as severely. Crossflow turbines can there-
fore operate under lower heads and still generate
considerable power at a reasonable speed. When they
are used at lower heads, the drop in elevation from the
turbine to the tailwater may be a more significant per-
centage of the total head between headwater and tail-
water levels. For example, for a given design flow at a
site with a total head from ?leadwater to tailwater of
20 m, a turbine located about 2 m above the tailwater
level to keep it above the flood plain would lose 10% of
potential head and, therefore, power.
ing two-thirds,
efficiency
nozzle, one covering one-third
of the nozzle width and the other covering the remain-
it is possible to maintain fairly constant
down to about 20% of design flow. For
example, when only one-third of the design flow is
draft tube h
I
S
available for power generation, the wider vane can
completely cut off flow through two-thirds of the run- -
ner width, and the shorter vane can control the remain- i. tiiikwater
ing flow. The turbine then simply acts as if a shorter
runner were being used.
Because the maximum size of the nozzle is not limited lg. 6.8. A common design for a air valve, which is neces-
by the runner diameter as it is for a Pelton turbine, nry to keep water in the draft tube from submerging the
lower heads do not restrict the power output of a cross- unner.
Turbines 179
less head than “hs” can be recovered, because the flow Basic relat.iolIships
in the draft tube is aerated, reducing somewhat the
weight of the column of water inside. There are also “The Banki Water Turbine” (85) probably contains one of
losses caused by friction and turbulence within the draft the first descriptions in English of the design and opera-
tube. It is not possible to recover the entire head repre- tion of a crossflow turbine, along with test results of a
sented by the distance from nozzle to tailwater level; prototype. The initial portion of this publication is a
that would imply a submerged runner. Unlike reaction loose translation of the original paper by Donati Banki,
turbines, a crossflow runner has to operate in air. “Neue Wasserturbiie.”
Pelton and Turgo runners can also operate with draft For preliminq design purposes, equations and other
tubes. However, these turbines are generally used at common relationships that can be useful in approximat-
high-head sites, and the distance between the turbine ing overall runner dimensions and speed are as follows:
and tailwater is therefore insignificant compared to the
head above the turbine.
(6.8)
One difficulty in using a draft tube with a runner that
operates in air is that air within the casing will gradu- where
ally be entrained or dissolved in the water. The water
level in the draft tube will then rise, gradually submerg- A = cross-sectional area of jet (m2)
ing the runner and significantly reducing its efficiency. s (jet thickness, m) x (runner length, m)
Consequently, an air valve is incorporated in the turbine
Q = flow (m3/s)
casing (Fig. 6.8). It is adjusted so that when the water
H = net head (m)
in the draft tube is higher than the permissible suction
head “hS” (set by the turbine’s need to operate in air),
Making a first guess for a runner length and using the
the negative pressure in the casing pulls in additional
definition for “A” above will permit the jet thickness to
outside air, permitting the water column to drop
be determined. The cross-sectional width of the rec-
slightly.
tangular nozzle of a crossflow turbine is approximately
equal to the jet thickness. The runner diameter is usu-
Although a draft tube permits additional power to be
ally about 10 times the jet thickness. If the runner
generated at a specific site, stuffing boxes must be
dimensions seem unreasonable, another estimate for
located where the shaft enters the casing and the casing
runner length should be tried. Then, when the runner
must be fairly airtight. Significant leaks in the casing
diameter is found, its speed can be found as follows:
or draft tube will make the draft tube totally ineffec-
tive. Therefore, extra care and expense in the design
and fabrication of the turbine is required to gain extra
head, and therefore power, through the use of a draft
tube. where
180 Turbines
constructing a crossflow turbine after the VITA design
and implementing a hydropower scheme (Fig. 6.9) in his
article, “Hand-Made Hydro Power” (70).
Turbines 18 1
Cost-reduction approaches
With these simple nozzle designs, no valves are used to Ffg. 6.11. This runner, fabricated In a rwul workshop, is
regulate the flow. The frequency of the ac voltage covered with a wooden box during opemtion Runner and
generated is left to fluctuate somewhat. Flow into the nozzle are independently mounted on a concrete founda-
penstock is sometimes adjusted, with the penstock flow- tion
ing partially full during periods of part-load. If a gener-
ator is driven by a turbine using such simple nozzle fabrication of the Francis turbine will not be covered
designs with no flow control, use of a load controller here.
can still permit close frequency control (see Load con-
troller, p. 204).
Propeller turbines
182 Turbines
plex than others, this configuration is not often used l To eliminate bends in the passageway, the bulb tur-
with micro-hydropower schemes. bine (Fig. 6.12b) includes the generator in a bulb,
which is an extension of the propeller hub, either
There are several other configurations for this type of upstream or downstream of the runner, and this
turbine, all of which permit the flow to enter or leave eliminates the need for the shaft to go through the
with less significant changes in direction. Micro-hydro- walls of the p=Jsageway. This turbine also reduces
power turbines are commercially available in all three the excavation requirements at very low-h.Tad sites.
basic configurations described below:
l A cross between the bulb and tubular turbine that
l The runner of a tubular turbine (Fig. 6.12a) is placed permits straight-through flow and an externally
in a bend or kink in the water passageway so that the mounted generator for easier access is a right-angle
shaft can go through the wall, either upstream or drive unit (Fig. 6.12~). Because only the right-angle
downstream of the runner, to an externally mounted drive is located within the bulb, the size of both the
generator. bulb and the passageway is reduced.
Turbines 183
keep in mind the rapid closure possible with a butterfly
valve (see &Itterfly p. 159) and its impact on
surge pressures in the penstock (see discussion of surge
pressures in mSl - p. 133).
184 Turbines
widely used with micro-hydropower schemes, largely
because of their more complex design. For low-head
sites, crossflow turbines are frequently selected. Extra
gearing is then required, but this is seen a small price to
pay for a turbine that is otherwise seen as easy to
design and build.
Cost-reduction approaches
Fig. 6.14. A fixed-blade 20-inch propeller runner, with
Several approaches to reducing cost and sophistication
guide-vane assembly and turbine thraat, fabricated by a
of propeller turbines have already been mentioned. small U.S. company. The lower bearing that is visible is
These include the use of fixed-blade runners (Fig. 6.14) waterlubricated.
and a tubular configuration (Fig. 6.15).
speed can be obtained (Fig. 6.17). With the need to
Another approach to reducing overall cost is to elimi- generate large quantities of electric power, water-
nate the powerhouse entirely. A bulb turbine, with the wheels have been replaced by modern, smaller, high-
generator located with the turbine within the water pas- speed turbines.
sageway, e!iminates the need for a powerhouse. Even if
an externally mounted generator is used--for example, The Energy Primer (8) briefly describes the basic types
with a tubular or right-angle drive unit-only the gener- of waterwheels. A detailed description of sizing of an
ator itself needs to be covered, weatherproofed, and overshot waterwheel is found in “A Design Manual for
located above flood stage. A small structure can Water Wheels” (92); however, this publication does not
enclose and protect the associated controls and switch- cover its actual construction. For those interested in
gear. using a waterwheel to drive a piston pump for pumping
water, it does provide information on pump selection,
methods of driving pumps, and a simple pump design.
Waterwheels
Turbines 18 5
Fig. 6. !6. ‘This overshot waterwheel WQSone of many that
were wk!ely used in the United States to provide mechani-
cal power for a variety of industries.
Fig. 6.17. A waod-lined canal (see Fig. 5.79) decends about stage of gean’ng and a flat tMi in the mill house adds a
5 m, passing underground Oeft photograph, foreground) to second stage to mise the qpeed to the 40QOrev/min needed
strike an undershot waterwheel Crfght photograph and left to opemte the hammer mill.
photograph, center). Spur gears ore used for the first
186 Turbines
prepared by a pump manufacturer that n arkets pumps
as turbines. In addition, the Micro-hydropower Hand-
book (761 summarizes a simpie technique for converting
the-required turbine performance characteristics, based
on site cof-ditions, to the necessary pump characteris-
tics. The method gives only a rough approximation. If
the use ~1” a pump as a turbine is being considered
seriously, the manufacturer should be contacted.
Actual tests are recommended to verify a pump’s per-
f;rmance as a turbine, especially for larger, more costly
units.
MisceUaxwous
There is no question that pumps can be used as turbines. Several organizations around the world are currently
Rather, the concern is with their efficiency, cavitation involved in research and development related to the in-
characteristics, and operating rulge. stream or water-current turbine. For example, experi-
mental work is being undertaken by Nova Energy Sys-
One major difference between turbines and pumps used tems on the St. Lawrence River and by the Intermediate
as turbines is thai flow through the latter is determined Technology Development Group (ITDG) on the Nile
by the head undci which they operate; there is no effi- (Fig. 6.19). The objective of these turbines is to harness
cient way of controlling flow through a pump. On the the energy of water flowing down a gradual gradient
other hand, hydraulic turbines have efficient flow con- without the need for civil works such as dams or pcn-
trols, but this is one reason they cost more. stocks. They extract some of the kinetic energy of a
large river rather than harnessing the potential energy
lJsi?!g pumps where constant head and flow conditions of a smaller stream. The operation of some of the in-
arc available presents no difficulties. This is the reason stream turbines tested is analogous to that of a Darrius
they are used in industrial applications where process wind turbine. This type of turbine is composed of verti-
energy has to be dissipated. This is also the case at cal airfoils that are submerged in a stream and rotate
hydropower sites where adequate water is available to about a central vertical shaft which extends above the
onerate a unit at design flow whenever it is in use. water level to provide a power take-off (Fig. 6.20). The
Under these circumstances, a constant flow passes turbine can be operated below a barge or floating pon-
through the turbine. A constant power is generated that toon moored to the shore. ITDG has also successfully
can either be fed into a grid or, in an isolated applica- tested turbines with rotors similar to a conventional
tion, be controlled by of a load controller. Pumps as horizontal-axis windmill but arranged on an inclined axis
turbines are less frequently used if a hydopower plant so that the power take-off is above water level. ITDG’s
has to harness a range of flows. However, by using at work has concentrated on the development of water-
least two pumps at a site, preferably of different capa- pumping turbines with shaft power up to 1 kW, but elec-
cities, it is possible to harness a significant portion of tricity generation has also been demonstrated. Further
the energy available from varying streamflows (see details csn be found in Water Current Turbines: An
Alternative turbine configurations, p. 42). Appraisal Handbook (23).
Turbines 187
Fig. 6.19. A prototype ITDG in-stream turbine being power to pump water. The two mooring cables are joined
. on the Nile in the Sudan. The turbine is immersed
tested to u single cable to the bank of the river.
m the si !ream moving at 1.3 m/s and provides 1 kW of shaft
mooring cable
) mooring cable
(adjustable length)
two-stage belt
speed increaser
direction
._ -__~--.
of curent
floating II \
delivery pipe
turbine rotor
Fig. 6.20. Details of the in-stream turbine shown in Fig. 6.19.
188 Turbines
At a test site on the Nile, a prototype “low-cost” ttir- are also being used for low-head applications and have
bine had a payback period of less than two dry seasons the advantage of being commercial “off-the-shelf”
when used for irrigating a 0.4 ha riverside plot for vege- equipment, which can reduce plant costs. The DOE
table cultivation. funded the installation and testing of a prototype
240 kW unit in the Modesto (California) Irrigation Dis-
To increase the power density through the turbine, Nova trict. The maximum turbine efficiency was about 60%,
Energy Systems has experimented with incorporating possibly caused by mismatching of the turbine with the
surfaces upsteam of the turbine to increase the effec- site conditions, and some cavitation was also exper-
tive velocity of the flow through the rotor. This ienced (95).
increases the cost and complexity of the turbine and is
unlikely to be worthwhile for small. machines using only
a small fraction of the available streamflow TURBINE SPECIFICATIONS
Turbines 189
Fig. 6.21. Commercial micro-hylmelectric turbines and C?uckagedcrossfIow unit fabricated in Cusco, Peru, is
generators are awilable as complete “water-to-wire” shown at the left, a Pelton unit fabricated in the ilnited
pckages, significantly simplifying their installation. A States at thz right.
o Water quality should be described. If abrasive silt is mum, maximum, and the average) and powerhouse
carried in suspension, provide as much information and afterbay couflguration and dimensions.
on this as possible. What is the average water tem-
perature? o Accessibility to the site by rail, truck, boat, air, or
foot is importat. What constraints might this place
e Maximum output power desired or needed. Indicate on the size of the equipment that can be transported
whether this value represents generator or turbine to the site?
output. How rnally units are contemplated to pro-
duce this power? The site developer must be sure For quotes on packaged units for electricity generation,
that the flow and head are adequate for the power the following information would also be necessary:
desired (see SITE SELECTION AND BASK LAYOUT,
p. 47). If the site potential is inadequate, preparing o Generator type (dc, synchronous, or induction).
specifications for submission to an equipment manu-
faciurer is of no use. o Electrical output (ac or dc, voltage, number of
phases, frequency).
o An isolation valve (see Penstock, p. 74) normally is
fitted batween the end of the penstock and the tur- o C!imate (maximum ambient temperature and rela-
bine inlet. If the turbine supplier is to provide this, tive humidity). “Tropical” is usually sufficient for
the specifications for the turbine-generator package areas with high humidity.
must indicate this. The diameter of the penstock
pipe then sl~oulcl be included also. Is the valve to be m Mode of operation envisioned (manual, semi-auto-
operated ma.nually? matic, automatic, or remote control). Is the plant to
operate separately or in conjunction with an existing
e Specify the type of governing device required. power system? If the latter, give approximate
installed capacity of this system.
e Identify the type of machine(s) to be driven. Is there
3 required speed (rev/min)? o What additional equipment (control panel and pro-
tective equipment including switchgear and metering
o Give the altitude of the powerhouse site. cubicle) is to be included? If so, their design
requires a definition of transmission and distribution
o If a penstock is to supply water to the turbine, state system. Unless specified, suppliers usually provide a
its diameter (and, as noted above, its length, config- standard equipment package to comply with mini-
uration, and material used in its construction if only mum standards.
gross head at the site has been specified).
The electrical factors to be considered in specifying a
o If the powerhouse is already built, include the dis- packaged turbo-generating unit are discussed in ELEC-
tance from tailwater to the powerhouse floor (mini- TRICAL ASPECTS (p. 2 17).
190 Turbines
TURBINE PERFORMANCE UNDER NEW SlTE then
CONDlTIONS
It may be possible to reduce costs considerably by using Because the maximum torque “T” a shaft can transmit is
a secondhand turbine. proportional to the cube of the shaft diameter “dsn,
However, the flow, speed, and power output for any tur- T Qcds3 (6.15)
bine are site-specific; these are functions of the net
head under which the turbine operates. Often, the rated then
performance of a turbine is noted on its nameplate.
JN2
H1
If the turbine installed at the new site is run at the
(6.11) also have to be resized. This requires knowing their
speed (found using the pulley or gear diameter and tur-
bine speed) and the power to be transmitted.
speed specified by Eq. (6.11), the power output “P” of If a complete turbo-generating unit will be used at a
the turbine is proportional to the product of the head second site, care must be taken to ensure that it oper-
and flow. Therefore, ates properly under the new conditions. If the net head
312 at a new site is not much different from its rated head-
(6.12) no more than perhaps f20%--the runner can still be
operated at the original speed “Nl” without a significant
decrease in efficiency. Therefore, the power “P ” will
Using these three equations, it is possible to determine still be essentially equal to that found using Eq. t 6.12).
the flow consumed, the speed, and the power generated Because the runner can be operated at its original
by a turbine operating under a different head. Two fac- speed, the original gearing ratio can still be used. If the
tors must still be kept in mind-the capacity of the new head is slightly lower than the original, the original
shaft to transmit the design power and, if a reaction coupling and generator can also be used. However, if
turbine is being considered, the effect of turbine setting the new head is slightly higher, both the coupling and
on cavitation at the new site. generator must be checked to verify that they can
handle the increased power. If the net head at the new
The shaft on which a turbine is mounted is designed to site is significantly different from the original head,
transmit a given torque; too high a torque risks shearing both the coupling and the generator would need to be
of the shaft. Because thi? power transmitted by a shaft replaced.
is prop~tional to the product of shaft speed and torque,
In all cases, operating under a higher head implies larger
PaTN (6.13) turbine speeds and stresses. However, the end-use
Turbines 19 1
machinery would have no such problem, because appro- OPTIONS FOR COUPLING
priate gearing would be used to ensure that it runs at
the proper speed. , Each piece of end-use machinery is designed to perform
best at a certain speed; however, a turbine to drive that
If a reaction turbine is to be used at a new site, the machinery runs most efficiently at a speed determined
proper setting will be necessary to avoid cavitation (see by the head set by site conditions. In the optimum case,
discussion of cavitation under PropeIIer turbines, the turbine is selected to rotate at the same speed as
p. 182). A site-specific parameter called Thoma sigma the generator or other piece of machinery to which it is
“oT” is used to determine the proper turbine setting to coupled. Losses, complexity, and the number of parts
avoid cavitation. This is defined as requiring maintenance or periodic replacement are
reduced if gearing can be avoided. For these reasons, it
Ha-H,-z is best to select a turbine that will run at the speed set
am
I
= by the machinery it is to drive. For example, if a
H
1500 rev/min generator will be used, a turbine that
where preferably runs at 1500 rev/min under the available
head should be selected; then the generator can be
Ha = atmospheric pressure coupled directly to it.
= 10.3 m minus 1.1 m for every 1000 m above sea
level With large hydropower schemes, where all turbines are
H, = vapor pressure of water custom-designed, generators are always coupled directly
= 0.24 m for water at 20 ‘C to the turbine. For micro-hydropower installations,
H = net head (m) however, this may be difficult to do. If turbines are
Z = elevation above tailwater elevation of that available in standardized sizes, none of these may run at
part o! theturbine where cavitation would first the necessary speed. If the turbine was selected simply
occur (m) because of ease of fabrication, it may be impossible to
get the desired speed from that turbine for the power
Furthermore, each runner, in addition to having a unique which is required under the available head.
specific speed, also has a critical value of Thoma sigma
‘I aTC”. If Thoma sigma associated with a site is greater Whatever the reason for using a turbine that operates
than the critical value of Thoma sigma for a specific with a speed “N,” different from that required by the
runner, cavitation can be avoided. This means that end-use machinery “Nm “, it is possible to size the tur-
bine to generate the required power and then use a cou-
‘T > OTC pling to convert to the required speed. The coupling
would then require a gearing ratio, r = Nm/Nt.
or equivalently,
For most efficient operation, the gearing ratio for eaci:
‘max =H,-H,- uTCH (2) (6.20) type of coupling has an upper limit. If the speed has to
be geared up considerably and a high geari:lg ratio is
where required, several stages of gearing may be needed
(Fig. 6.22). In this case, the overall gearing ratio is
‘max = maximum allowable distance (m) of turbine equal to the product of the gearing ratios of the indivi-
above tailwater elevation (negative zmax dual stages; however, the overall coupling efficiency is
implies a turbine setting below tailwater also equal to the product of efficiencies of each stage.
elevation) Using two stages of gearing, each with an efficiency of
95%, for example, will result in a overall coupling effi-
If OTC for the runner can be obtained from the manu- ciency of (.95) or 90%. Ten percent of the energy
facturer of the turbine, use of Eq. (6.20) will give its generated by the turbine would therefore be lost.
maximum elevation above tailwater elevation to avoid
cavitation. There are several options for a coupling that permits an
increase or decrease in speed: belts, chains, and gears.
If this value cannot be obtained, another approach might Each has its advantages and disadvantages, some of
be used. The Thoma sigma for the original site can be which are discussed below.
calculated using Eq. (6.18). If the turbine has no signs
of cavitation from its use at the original site, it can be
assumed that no cavitation will occur at the new site if Direct coupling
the Thoma sigma associated with the new turbine set-
ting equals or exceeds the value at its former site. The When the turbine and the generator or other machinery
new setting, found from Eq. (6.20) by replacing “uTC” to be driven operate at the same speed and these can be
with the Thoma sigma ‘7r the former site, will be con- laid out so that their shafts are colinearydirect cou-
servative if the turbir was originally set lower than it pling can be used. This is the optimal case-virtually no
needed to have been. However, without getting data power losses are incurred, maintenance is minimal, and
from the manufactu: jr or performing tests on the tur- the system is compact. An obvious example of direct
bine, this is the best that can be achieved. coupling is a turbine runner directly mounted on the
192 Turbines
one component suddenly seize up, slippage of flat or
V-belts also protects the equipment from damage.
Because belts are elastic, the distance between pulley
centers must be adjustable to maintain appropriate ten-
sion.
Flat belts
Belt driven
-- V-belts are available with different cross-sectional
areas to transmit a range of power. Belts for a particu-
Belt drives are most often used for micro-hydropower lar application are selected based on the power to be
application because the use of either standardized tur- transmitted and the linear speed of the belt (m/s).
bines or different types of machines driven from a sin- Increasing belt speed permits increasing the power that
gle turbine usdally prevents direct coupling. Belts are can be transmitted with a particular belt, up to a limit.
also readily available and inexpensive. Several types of The diameter of the pulley or sheave should be as large
belts are used for this purpose-flat belts, V-belts, and, as possible without exceeding about 1500 m/s belt
to a lesser extent, timing belts. speed. Thera is a minimum sheave diameter with which
each type of belt should be used. Using a smaller dia-
Being made of more elastic material than chain drives meter sheave increases fatigue of the belt and reduces
or gears, belt drives can more readily absorb shock its operating life.
caused by sudden changes in loads or other factors. A
measure of the magnitude of this effect is called a ser- When the power to be transmitted exceeds the rating of
vice factor, which is multiplied to the turbine power to a single belt, several belts can be used. Belts that are
determine the design power of the belt. For hydropower essentially two or more V-belts vulcanized together are
applications, a service factor of 1.5 is adequate. Should also available under various trade names.
Turbines 193
When a V-belt is used, the recommended center dis- page, no initial tension required, and a short center dis-
tance-the distance between centers of the sheaves-is tance. They have the disadvantage of requiring proper
not less than the large sheave diameter and not more lubrication and generally being costlier than belts. Like
than the sum of the two sheave diameters. A properly direct coupling, a disadvantage of chain drives is that, if
installed belt should ride with its top surface approxi- either the turbine or generator suddenly stops, the con-
mately flush with the to;p of the sheave groove. The tinued rotation of the other because of its inertia can
groove should be deep enough do that the belt does not damage it or the coupling. Chains can transmit a wide
ride on the base of the groove; the clearance should be range of power; multiple chains-essentially parallel
about 3 mm. single chains assembled on pins common to all strands-
can be used if the capacity of a single strand is
Unlike flat belts, V-belts do not require alignment to so exceeded. The power rating of multiple-strand chains is
close a tolerance. However, unless the belts enter and proportional to the number of strands. Single-stage
leave the sheaves in the same plane as the sheaves, chain drives can accommodate gearing ratios up to
wear is accelerated and black dust which covers the about 8.
equipment is produced.
The arc of contact on a power sprocket should have at
If some machinery coupled to a turbine must be stopped least 120’ of wrap; therefore, the center distance
while the turbine continues to drive other machinery, a should not be less than the difference between the pitch
V-belt can be used between a grooved small shea./e and diameters of the two sprockets. This implies that when
a large flat-belt pulley. This permits easy removal of the speed is multiplied by 0.33 or more, which is usually
the belt when the machinery has to be disengaged. This the case, any center distance can be used.
is done in many of the micro-hydropower mills in Nepal
(see Fig. 10.18). The power ratings of chain drives are based on the num-
ber of teeth and the speed (rev/min) of the smaller
Manufacturers can provide details on the selection of sprocket.
V-belts. Additional material can be found in mechanical
engineering handbooks as well as in the Microhydro-
power Handbook (76). Gear boxea
--
194 Turbines
VII. HYDROPOV!ZR:ELECTRICALVS.
MECHANICAL
In considering harnessing the energy available from fall- Table 7.1 provides a summary comparison of the advan-
ing water, the generation of electricity immediately tages and disadvantages of electrical and mechanical
comes to mind; indeed, for many, hydropower is synon- forms of energy. These are described in further detail
ymous with hydroelectric power. This is clearly the in the following paragraphs.
case with large hydropower plants. However, an inter-
mediate step in the generation of hydroelectric power is
the generation of mechanical power, and for micro-
hydropower plants in rural areas, this form of energy
has several advantages over electrical energy. Before Many persons working in rural villages find that electri-
making a commitment to the implementation of a single city, especially for lighting, is a sought-after amenity.
installation or to a more extensive program, it is advis- However, unless the villagers are using kerosene or
able to weigh the advantages of each option in light of some other fuel which they purchase for lighting, the
local needs. At some installations, one form of energy financial resources to pay for this amenity may not be
will clearly be preferable; at others, it may prove available. Generating hydromechanical power forces a
advantageous to make both forms of energy available. focus on mechanical uses of power that probably already
Cost of p,~werplant Higher costs because additional equipment Minimal costs beyond those of the turbine
is required
Energy conversion If mechanical power is a primary function No losses other than minor coupling losses
losses of the plant, 30960% of the available if mechanical power is used directly
shaft power is lost
Starting large loads Minimum size of generator, and possibly Turbine sized by maximum load demand
turbine, must be significantly above that
of the largest single motor load
Versatility
of
Can be converted readily to other forms
energy
Other than directly driving machinery, can
only be converted to thermal energy at
the powerhouse
Some governing or control of the turbine speed is often When electricity is generated by a synchronous genera-
required to ensure proper operation of end-use appli- tor at an isolated powerplant, its frequency is deter-
ances or machinery, whether the power generzted is mined by the speed of the generator and the number of
mechanical or electrical (Fig. 8.1). poles. A four-pole generator, for example, generates
two cycles per revolution (rev) of its shaft. To generate
Hydropower schemes that include reservoirs usually 50 cycles/s (or 50 Hz), it must run at 25 rev/s9 or
require conventional governors that control the flow of 1500 rev/min. If this speed increases or decreases, the
water to the turbine. In aridition to governing the speed frequency generated increases or decreases proportion-
of the turbine and other machinery in the powerhouse, ately.
they also permit water not used for power generation
to be stored for future use. However, most micro- In addition, if a generator has a field of constant
hydropower schemes are run-of-river, and for these, a strength, the voltage it produces is proportional to its
number of approaches can be used. For isolated plants, speed. An increase in generator speed of 10% will
they range from using complex electro-mechanic- increase the output voltage by approximately 10%.
hydraulic devices to relying on manual regulation (see Most generators have some form of voltage regulation
APPROACHES TO GOVERNING, p. 201). The large dif- that varies the strength of the field in an attempt to
ferences in the cost and complexity of these approaches cancel out the effects of changes in generator speed and
make it necessary to determine the extent to which load; however, sufficient change in generator speed can
governing is required for specific end uses. If the end still affect output voltage.
uses are few and unsophisticated, as is usually the case
when a micro-hydropower scheme is first introduced All electric appliances are designed to operate at a spe-
into rural areas, simple and low-cost nonconventional cific voltage and frequency. Operating at some other
approaches can be used. frequency or voltage can adversely affect their life or
TURBINE INDUCTION
GENERATOR CONTROLLER
P&on
Crossf low
SYNCHRONOUS
Francis -+ GENERATOR
pmpe-
tips
Waterwheels
END-USE
t&C. MACHINERY -
Fig. 8.1. This dfagmm illustmtes the different approaches to control the speed of various Mnds of
installation
to gowmfng which may be utflfzed at a micro-hydropower equipment that are driven by a turbine.
Governing 199
result in improper operation. An electric clock will run equal the price of a commercial turbine and generator;
too fast if the frequency is too high. A motor will run if the turbine is fabricated locally, the cost of the
hot and its life will be reduced if the frequency is too governor can exceed considerably the cost of the turbo-
low. The life of an electric bulb is reduced significantly generating unit. However, it is these small plants that
if the voltage is increased only slightly. On the other can benefit isolated communities .!he most.
hand, a motor under load may not start and may burn
out if the voltage is much lower than that required. The cost and sophistication of components such as
governors are two reasons that hydropower plants are
For these reasons, some control over the speed of a sometimes considered inappropriate for rural areas in
generator is necessary. Because a turbine drives the ’ developing countries. But rather than depriving rural
generator, the speed of the turbine must be regulated. populations of the benefits that derive from the avail-
This is the purpose of a governing device-to govern or ability of energy because they can neither afford nor
control the speed of the turbo-generating equipment in maintain it, this technology must be made more appro-
the face of changing external electrical loads placed on priate. Simplifying and reducing the cost of governing
the generator. is one step toward achieving this. For example, were
it not for this approach, the ATDO in Pakistan could
I not have implemented dozens of 5-15 kW hydropower
Where waterpower is converted into mechanical power
to drive mechanical equipment directly, a governor is plants, many supplying power to entire villages (see
also needed if the speed at which this equipment is VIWAGER-IMPLEMENTED MICRO-HYDROPOWER
I driven is critical. For most mechanical uses, this is not SCHEMES IN PAKISTAN, p. 2481.
the case.
Simplifications in the design of governing systems are
not restricted to schemes that serve “simple” needs. A
WHY CONSIDER VARIOUS GOVERNING OPTIONS? micro-hydropower plant has been operating for several
years at the Mission Evangelique des Amis in Kibimba,
It is easy to plunge into manufacturers’ catalogs and Burundi, run by the American Friends. There, no con-
select a governor based on impressive performance ventional governing device has been used; during the
characteristics such as a frequency variation of kO.5 Hz daylight and late evening hours when the load is low,
from zero to full load. This device performs well and one family simply switches on a water heater to place
operates unattended but at a cost. additional load on the turbine to reduce its speed closer
to its nominal value. During the early evening hours
One of the costs incurred in using a governor is the when lights are on in the homes as well as in the dormi-
sophistication intrinsic to this technology and the impli- tories, the water heater is switched off. In this remote
cation this has on the long-term viability of a plant. A setting, a range of appliances found in a typical western
warning included in the publication of Gilbert Gilkes & home-incandescent and fluorescent lamps, washing
Gordon, a major turbine manufacturer, effectively machines, blender, hi-fi equipment, microwave oven,
makes the point: and refrigerator-have been operating much as they
would in New York or Paris. The approach to governing
We urge engineers who are specifying hydro- used at Kibimba is one of several described in this chap-
electric plant and particularly governors to ter.
beware of buying equipment which cannot rea-
sonably be maintained by the staff available
in the power stations in which they will be EXTENT OF GOVERNING REQUIRED
installed. A gcvernor is a good servant but can
be a bad master. A governor which operates Before deciding which approaches are appropriate in a
with a number of sensitive relays and fine ori- given circumstance--how simple or sophisticated a
fices may work beautifully in the temperate governing device must be-it is necessary to know what
climate of south Germany where a skilled variations in frequency and voltage, or what variations
instrument engineer can be sent for at 2 a.m. to in speed for mechanically driven equipment, are permis-
check a defective relay, but if the same gover- sible for the different loads planned. For example, if
nor is controlling a turbine in tropical Africa, the load can function properly with large fluctuations of
the leg of a dead locust can play hell with a fine turbine speed, a sophisticated and costly governing
b-1Iice or high humidity cause a breakdown in device to maintain accurate speed control is superflu-
a relay which has n e a . been tested for many ous, and a much simpler approach could be appropriate.
months in the manufacturer’s research labora- On the other hand, if end uses require precise regula-
tory” under the eagle eye of young engineers in tion, a more sophisticated means of governing must be
spotless white coats who krow exactly what to considered.
do if anything goes wrong. We can only utter a
warning: “It may look beautiful in colour in the For electrical loads, most devices can operate with ac
manufacturer’s catalogue, but can it be guaran- voltage fluctuations of up to flO%; even in the West,
teed to work beautifully in this particular power voltages in this range are found in the typical home.
station?” (25) Because clocks and timing mechanisms in many appli-
ances are intrinsically tied to frequency, however, it is
I
200 Governing
voltage and frequency variations common in the West, Fluorescent lamps are affected by both voltage and fre-
they do not represent the maximum variations that most quency. Wit? d voltage decrease in the range of lO%-
electrical appliances can tolerate. The acceptable vari- 15%, it becomes difficult to start a lamp. Somewhat
ation usually is significantly more, especially for fre- below this voltage, the lamp will not ignite. If the lamp
quency, and depends on the category into which the spe- is already operating, it will flicker more as voltage
cific electrical load falls--heating, lighting, trans- decreases. If voltage drops more than 25%, the lamp
former, or motor. may go out (47).
Governing 20 1
and where the necessary skill to operate and maintain it Conventional approaches
can be found.
The conventional approaches to governing originated in
The one exception to the rule that the conventional the middle of the 18th century with the advent of the
approach requires sophisticated components is when Industrial Revolution. Over time, these have evolve& in
electric power is generated using an induction generator quality and sophistication to the point where the tech-
connected to a large grid. In this case, the grid itself nology is well known and can meet exacting standards.
serves as the governor, regulating both the frequency The technology was first based on mechancial and,
and the voltage of the generator output. The responsi- later, hydraulic principles. With the @Jwth of electron-
bility for governing and regulation therefore falls on the ics, however, an increasing number of mechanical and
principal generator of power into the grid, not on the hydraulic components are being replaced by electronic
micro-hydropower plant operator. components. Some governing, notably that performed
by load controllers, is now entirely electronic.
Nonconventional approaches (p. 205) are generally used
only with plants in the micro-hydropower range, where Figure 8.2 outlines the basic approaches to governing
costs must be kept down but where usable power is still the speed of a turbo-generating unit. Until recently, all
required. These approaches rely more on proper design governing devices for hydropower plants-governors and
and manipulation of the turbine and/or load than on the associated actuating mechanisms-adjusted the flow of
use of additional equipment. Therefore, they may water through the turbine so that the waterpower input
require more manpower to operate than do automated, into a turbo-generating plant matched the load imposed
conventional approaches. Although their output is of on the plant. In this case, as more electrical power is
lower quality (characterized by larger speed, frequency, required of the plant, the load on the generator and tur-
and voltage variations), it can still be adequate to bine increases, resulting in a decrease in turbine and
satisfy the expected end use. generator speed. Through either mechanical means
(e.g., using flyballs) or electrical means (e.g., by meas-
Where mechanical or electrical power will be introduced uring frequency), the governor senses this speed reduc-
in rural areas, these nonconventional approaches may be tion. Through actuators, it then opens the appropriate
more appropriate. They allow micro-hydropower plant valves to admit more water, and therefore more water-
to be installed at reduced cost. They also increase power? through the turbine to satisfy the increased
chances for long-term viability by eliminating the need demand. Similarly, if less power is required, the gover-
for more sophisticated equipment, and they permit nor senses an increase in speed resulting from the
increased use of local manpower for operation and excess power available and causes the valve to reduce
maintenance. the waterflow through the turbine. In hydropower
schemes that include a reservoir, unused water can be
If a plant demonstrates its value and income-generating stored for times when demand for electrical power, and
uses for the power evo!ve, more sophisticated equip- therefore water, increases.
ment might be warranted later. At that time, income-
generating end uses for the power probably will be able Although electronic components now replace certain
to generate the capital necessary to cover the costs of a portions of governors, they also permit a new approach
more sophisticated and expensive plant. Also, the basic to governing. This approach, developed to meet needs
operating and maintenance skills probably will have specific to micro-hydropower, uses an electronic device
been mastered. called a load controller to maintain turbine speed and
water Mechanical
) TURBINE -b GENERATOR
Power I Power
4 : :
I (speed) (frequency)
i
I I
V or
g+ m-w-- *--------------------------------1
yiiiEq
Y
conventionally
on powerplants
L sizes
used
ofall1
J
rL
relatively recent develoPment
more commonly used with
plants with a&&s less 100
Ffg. II.& ‘Inis block diagtum illustrates how conventional components used to convert waterpower to mechanfcal and
approaches to governing are Integrated with the &SIC electrical power.
202 Governing
system frequency. Flow into the turbine is maintained
at some constant value, and constant electrical power is
generated. If the consumer requires less electrical flyball assembly (driven
power than that being generated, this is sensed elec- electrically or by turbine)
tronically and the excess electrical power is dissipated,
usually in a ballast resistor.
Although oil-pressure governors meet standards esta- l Governor characteristics, such as servomotor timing,
blished in industrialized nations, they are sophisticated should be checked periodically and appropriate
devices whose cost does not decrease in proportion to adjustments made.
Governing 203
The cost and sophistication of oil-preaslue governors of changing user loads, thereby permitting the use of a
detract from their ‘appropriateness in rural areas. They turbine with no flow-regulating devices. It replaces the
should be considered only where streamflow is relatively governor that adjusts the flow through a turbine to keep
small and provisions for the storage of water not used up with the fluctuating electrical or mechanical loads
immediately for power generation are made. and that requires speed-sensing devices, actuating
mechanisms, and valves, gates, or adjustable blades,
In Nepal, where water resources are sometimes limited depending on the type of turbine used.
and a governor was required to make more efficient use
of the available water, Balaju Yantra Shala, with Swiss The flow through the turbine is set at some value and a
assistance, developed an alternative governor design constant quantity of electrical power is generated.
which, unlike conventional designs, could be fabricated Assume that the consumer initially uses all this power.
largely in-country. To keep the device simple, a propor- Because the waterpower into the plants i:i matched to
tional-type governor, where the position of the tubine the electrical load, the generator operates as it should
valve is determined by turbine speed, was designed. It and generates power at the required frequency of, for
uses water under forebay pressure, rather than oil under example, 50 Hz. If the consumer switches off some
pressure generated by a separate pump, as the working appliances ot other loads that have been in use, the
fluid. Because of the lower workirg pressure, the sor- electrical power used becomes less than the waterpower
vocylinder that activates the turbine valve has to be available to the plant, and the turbine and generator
relatively larger in size. As with conventional govern- speed, and frequency generated, begin to increase. This
ors, a flyball assembly senses turbine speed. As the change is sensed electronically by the load controller,
speed changes with changes in load, a pilot valve con- which then adds a ballast load of sufficient size at the
nected to the flyball assembly controls the portion of generator output to dissipate power equivalent to that
the forebay prossure that actually acts on the servocy- which was switched off. Therefore, in spite of a change
linder, which in turn opens and closes the turbine valve in consumer load, the total load on the generator
to compensate for the changes in load. remains constant.
For the 30 kW plant at Dhading, Nepal, the speed devia- When a turbine is used to drive mechanical equipment in
tion from its nominal value varies from +lO% under no- addition to a generator, a load controller can maintain
load conditions to -6% at rated load to -20% under full the system speed and frequency at its design value
load. However, it remains within a range of f4% for the regardless of fluctuating mechanical and electrical
output range from about lo-25 kW and is therefore ade- loads. In “Energy for Rural Development” (591, Holland
huate under normal loads. Because of voltage regula- describes a sawmill where a 25 hp turbine mechanically
tion of the generator output, voltage remains constant drives the principal load, a saw and cable drum drive for
over ths entire range of loads. The Swiss Center for a carriage to carry the logs, and, in addition, is perma-
Appropriate technology (SKAT) is preparing Design nently coupled to an ac generator that provides power
Manual for a Simple Mechanical Governor and has for cooking with storage cookers (see Heat storage
already prepared, a summary reportmA brief descrip- cookeq p. 242) and for lighting. As soon as the saw
tion of the Eovernor and its oueration
1 can also be found starts to operate, a load controller automatically shifts
in Local Experience with Micro-Hydro Technology (78). power from the ballast load to the saw so that as much
Details of the operation of the govemor installed at power as necessary is available for cutting.
Dhading can be found in the report, The Dhadinp Micro-
Hydropower Plant i77!. This publication also discusses If a load controller is located within the powerhouse, a
the procedure for tuning the governor, which is critical controller that senses current, voltage, or shaft speed
to avoid erratic operation. can be used. However, it might prove more advanta-
geous to locate the controller away from the power-
house to use the excess power more effectively. In this
Mechanical governor case, only frequency or voltage can be used to deter-
mine the state of the system. Use of voltage may be
For micro-hydropower plants, turbines can be fairly unsatisfactory because it is affected by factors other
small, and reduced forces are required to manipulate than the total load imposed on the system: voltage
turbines valves. In these cases, mechanical governors losses in the distribution line, power factor, and the
have sometimes been used. Typically, these incorporate action of the voltage regulator incorporated in the
a flyball arrangement driven by the turbine shaft. The generator. Determining the state of the system by
output from this assembly is used directly to drive a sensing frequency is therefore the most widely used
valve on the turbine rather than to drive small interme- approach.
diary valves controlling the flow of oil. The flyballs
associated with a mechanical governor are much more The principal advantage of a load controller is that the
massive, because a significantly larger force is required overail system becomes simpler and less costly. It not
to drive the valve controlling waterflow to the turbine only eliminates the need for an intricate governor and
than to drive a pilot va!ve of ax1oil-pressure governor. actuating mechanism, but it allows the design of the
turbine to be simplified. A less sophisticated system
Load controller increases the chances for long-term viability and
reduces equipment cost considerably for plants in the
The load controller is an electronic device that main- micro-hydropower range. For example, rather than a
tains a constant electrical load on a generator in spite cost of $lO,O!lO for an oil-pressure governor for an 8 kW
204 Governing
plant, materials for a single-phase controller (excluding tance ratios of 1:2:4:8. By electronically switching
ballast loads) for the same plant could cost less than these loads in various combinations to four such bal-
$100 (31). If electronic components fail in the field, lasts, for example, the total ballast load can be varied
they probably cannot be repaired on the spot; however, in 15 -discrete steps and the frequency kept to under
a well-designed unit is composed of separate printed f1.5% as consumer load varies from zero to full load.
circuit boards that can be replaced easily with spare However, if the use of any ballast resistor is lost, some
boards kept for that purpose. control over speed may also be lost. In “Electronic Load
Governors for Small Hydro Plants” (31), Boys et al. pro-
A load controller also permits maximum use of the vide further details of this design.
energy generated. If properly planned, these uses can
generate income and, by increasing the load factor on A rudimentary load controller of this type is illustrated
the plant, can significantly reduce the cost of the in Fig. 8.4, which was designed and built a decade ago
energy generated. and is still in operation (62,70). Although it is similar to
the controller just described, there is one major differ-
When a load controller is used, flow through the turbine ence. Rather than solid-state circuitry to sense fre-
is set at some constant level (but not necessarily fully quency, it uses voltage-sensitive power relays, electro-
open) and all the water is used for power generation. mechanical devices designed to energize and de-ener-
The water used to generate power that is not used pro- gize (and thereby make or break an external circuit) at
ductively by the consumer is wasted. For run-of-river predetermined voltage levels that can be set manually.
schemes, this is irrelevant because they have no provi- Because generator voltage is related to generator speed,
sion for the storage of unused water for later productive sensing voltage gives an indication of frequency. The
use. Ho*vever, load controllers alone cannot be used relays then add or remove load, depending on whether
with schemes that have to use a limited quantity of the voltage (and therefore speed) is above or below
water efficiently and therefore include a reservoir to preset values.
store excess water during periods of low power demand.
In this case, a governor or other device that regulates
the flow of water--that decreases the volume of water
used by the turbine during periods of low demand and
leaves it to be stored in a reservoir--must be used.
Governing 205
nically straightforward approaches to controlling speed
are possible.
206 Governing
This approach can be used in parallel with the to several homes in the village where it is used for both
approaches described in operatian ap the beck&k of incandescent and fluorescent lighting. As evening
parer curve (p. 210) and Operatim in parallel with dim- approaches, a villager switches on the lights by opening
aipative lOad (p. 211) to attain even better control over the gate valve to the turbine in the powerhouse. The
speed. valve is then shut the following morning when the lights
are no longer needed. The principal complaint was that
the lights were on all night. Although they could have
canetant loads been turned off by shutting the water at the power-
house, that involved a long, often slippery trek in the
Constraints: This approach permits only the use of dark through the bush to the powerhouse, a trip that no
fired loads, such ab village lighting. However, it allows one wanted to undertake. A solution to that problem
for a bit more flexibility than may first be apparent (see would have been to install a two-way switch at the vil-
last paragraph of Large base load, p. 209). lage, with a water heater for villager use as the alter-
nate load.
Although it is the most restrictive approach, maintain-
ing a constant load is the simplest method of ensuring
constant frequency and voltage. Ixz this form, no Manuelcontrol
switches are included in the circuit; power is switched
on by opening the valve to the turbine wide enough to Constraints: For proper operation of the system, an
attain the nominal frequency and/or voltage. Closing operator must be available whenever needed to correct
the valve when power is no longer required switches off for changing loads. This approach can be used with a
the electricity. In this approach, neither switches nor turbine that may not have any means of flow regula-
power outlets should be included in the system. tion. Some of the options described permit governing
either from the powerhouse or from anywhere along the
One variation of this approach permits more than one distribution system.
constant load to be used. A two-way switch can be used
so that switching off one load (e.g., lighting) when it is With this approach, an operator is required to maintain
no longer needed switches on a second load of similar a relatively constant frequency manually. This can be
magnitude (e.g., a water heater). In this manner, a con- done in either of two ways-by adjusting the flow of
stant load is maintained on the generator despite the water to the turbine or by adjusting the total load
use of several loads. There are numerous variations of imposed on the generator.
this approach. (See EXAMPLE 8.2.)
It is not necessary for the operator to make the adjust-
A locally fabricated crossflow turbine capable of genei---_, iilents continually during the operation of the plant.
ating about 1 kW was installed about 400 m from the Small deviations from nominal frequency would have no
village of Gemaheng, in the rugged Saruwaged Range in adverse effect on the plant or the load. (See last para-
Papua New Guinea (see Figs. 5.165). Power is supplied graph of Large base load, p. 209.)
(..
’
EXAMPLE 8.2 : ,,pi‘, ‘) ;..;
Governing 207
Flow modification. To keep the frequency constant as
the load imposed on the generator varies, the water- ‘be ATDO in Pakistan (see YILLAGR-IMP?J&RNTRD
power to the turbine must be varied accordingly. This
1
MICRO-EYDROP0WRR %RRMM w PAKISTAN,
approach requires a turbine that includes a flow-regu- p. 248).is implementing a growing number of micro-
lating valve. Load variations can be noted by observing hydropower plants in the narthim part of the coun-
voltage or frequency readings on a meter. However, try. These are all used to generate electricity, and a
it is not necessary to observe the meters continually, number are also wed as a source of direct motive
because changes in load will result in observable power to drive small cottage industries. These
changes in light intensity. This warns the operator plants, averaging about 10 kW in size, provlde elec-
that the flow to the turbine should be increased or tricity primarily for lighting in the villages and oeca-
decreased. Reference to an electrical meter may be sionally provide power for small electric motors and,
necessary when flow is readjusted in order to return to in one case, for an arc welder. A plant operator is
nominal operating frequency. (See EXAMPLE 8.3.) responsible for maintaining the desired turbine speed,
by adjusting flow. Plants with steel penstocks have
gate valves that are used to regulate flow. Losses in
efficiency when using a gate valve are of no major
EXAMPLE 8.3
concern as adequate water is usually available. Morei
For the sample installation described, assume that commonly, flow regulation is achieved by using a
wooden gate at the inlet to the penstock. This.
the village has a load that varies from a minimum of
approach to flow control implies that ‘the penstock
16 kW to 25 kW in the evening, In this case, the tur-
may at times function only partially full. However,
bine valve would be opened until nominal voltage or
the accompanying reduction in efficiency at part-
frequency is reached. From that point on, the opera-
load is again of no consequence at these plants.
tor would continue to open or close the inlet valve as
needed to maintain these conditions. When operating
properly, the operating point would remain on the
hea,vy solid line shown in Fig. 8.7 and the frequency
would remain at a nominal 50 Hz, I
EXAMPLE 8.4
At the sample installation where the maximum con-
eumer load is 16 kW, the valve on the turbine is
opened until nominal frequency and/or voltage is
reached with this maximum load on-line. The valve
is then maintained at that setting. As the user load
decreases, the operator would switch on additional
loads to malntain the total load at 16 kW. Because
resistive loads are usually available in discrete sizes,
the actual operating point might not remain fixed but
would be somewhere along the dashed line in Fig. 8.8,
with slight accompanying changes in frequency.
25-
600 rpm
(50 Hs)
.FIg. 8.7. The solid line repmae& the Opemtlng curve
when frequency ia kept constant thrcugh flow mMtfi&
tfon Zf, after adjuat[ng the flow to opardte at‘ pdnt fa
the opemtor is not alert, further.load +arIattbw MU”
move the opemtfng point along the dashed Mne. _
208 Governing
Load mcdification. Similar in approach to that using a point (a), travels down the curve, with an accompanying
load contronis method can be used with a turbine decrease in turbine speed and generator frequency. At
that has no flow-regulating valves. Because the flow point (b), the load is such that a frequency of 50 Hz is
into the turbine remains constant, the load imposed on reached. As additional appliances are switched on, the
the generator must also remain fairly constant to pre- load imposed on the system apparently increases. How-
vent the frequency from varying significantly. This ever, as the operating point continues to move to the
requires a ballast load, also connected across the gener- left and the turbine speed continues to decrease, less
ator, to be increased or decreased manually as the user real power is actually available. What actually oc=s is
load varies. The ballast loads might be a series of light that, as additional end uses are switched on and the
bulbs or perhaps heating elements in either air or water. apparent load increases, the power actually available
A voltmeter or frequency meter can be used to monitor (which may decrease slightly, depending on the location
the generator speed so that the ballast loads can be of the operating point) is redistributed among the entire
added or removed when necessary. (See EXAMPLE 8.4.) connected load. The decreased voltage available at the
generator terminals as the turbine frequency decreases
A 20 kW Pelton unit has been providing electricity for causes this to happen automatically. For example, as
refrigeration at a farm and for domestic uses in the additional 60 W bulbs are switched on, every 60 W bulb
home near Zenag, Papua New Guinea, since the early connected to the generator will actually consume
1950s. A voltmeter is located in the kitchen- As user decreasing amounts of power because the voltage across
load changes over the day, anyone passing through the each bulb will be decreasing. (See EXAMPLE 8.5.)
kitchen would switch on or off one or more ranges in the
electric stove/oven to return the voltage, and therefore
frequency, approximately to its nominal value. .. .,-
(
‘1 ._
With the assistance,.of the Papti New ~Guixi+a*IJni~e>
Large base load sity of TecliSlogy, the villagers around the remote
village of ,Baindoang instaUe$:a Gilkes .6 kW Peltpa
Constr;lintsl This approach requires the major load on ttibo-generating set to~provide eJ&tricity to a @all ,
the turbo-generating unit to be constant and the vari- area that included a primary sc&ool, staff and 8ome
able loaii to be no more than about 30% of the constant villager housing, and a few tradk storea along a small
load to keep frequenf*y varjations within generally mountain airstrip. ) A manually operated spear halve
accepted limits. controlled flow. through the single ao$e, snd there
was no other provision for speed control. ,
When the turbine is started up, the flow through it is
adjusted so that the generator provides a slightly higher Because so load c&roller was available for install&i-
than nominal frequency with only the base load imposed tion wbeh the plant became operational, a 3.6 kW
(Fig. 8.9). The voltage may also be slightly higher than water heater Was p&manently connected to tba
its nominal value, depending on the design or adjustment generator, piovidiag hot water to,a’community wash-
of the voltage regulator. As the variable user load is ing facility.. The spear valve was opened uutil the ’ _
increased from zero, the operating point, originally at frequency of about 53.Bz.was att&6d. pen ad#-
tional variable load t+l&g.less than1 kW. (composed
of inctidesceat bultis and an occasional small power
too!) ,could~be switched c& W!@ @is load, )he f~,e-
(b) (aI quencp d&&sed .tb &bbput47 FHZ. In tbe.‘evex@$is, _ :
25
volt age fluct+ttons a$Co+p,+$ ,tbe Sreciu$acy :v~&i-
\\ atioas as lights tier6 ‘sw!tcb?$ oti a@ $ff; but) tFe
changes ik liibt, int+aei,ty ‘tier~~@&ily. n$$ic~ab;‘$
:
operating 1 Thb only times that flu&$iioq ,is i.$te$)y yeire’, I ‘:‘,
point with \ clg@p &sible were wge&‘,e”e ,be@m+er, of the ‘:
only the \ sc$oo$ plugged a 1,8 kJhLhot, &ter jug intd:a pTs+’
base load \ ggtlet at the school. ,.~a,?y$&cor&ued operat- ‘::
imposed on \ ing, at a,reduced vdltage,*and ‘tie headmqster. epent-.;,
the turbine \ elygothis cu~.of’te&.J: :,: ,’ /,:.“
\ .;:- (. ,I , .I ~.. ..,-
\ -
\
\ With a large base load, the variable portion of the user
L load must amount to no more than about a quarter of
J
the output of a turbo-generating unit to keep frequency
and voltage variation within generally accepted limits.
Frequency (Hz) If a generator is belt-driven, other approaches described
below provide more flexibility. On the other hand, if
Fig. 8.9. Opemtfng near peak power wfth a large base load the generator is driven directly by the turbine to oper-
and a small wrfable user load. The solfd line represents ate at the point of peak turbine efficiency, the options
the operating curve as increasing consumer load Is imposed available for an alternative approach to speed control
on the system. are restricted. In this case, using a large base load is
Governing 209
one of the few approaches that can be applied without As noted in Ccmstaat loads (p. 207) and Manual control
resorting to more conventional approaches. (p. 2071, these two approaches described in those sec-
tions have more flexibility than is first apparent,
because the turbine output need not be matched exactly
to the load. Although the systems in these cases are
designed to operate at the normal frequency-at the
peak of the power curve-they would still operate satis-
: factorily if either the total load were somewhat below
For the sample iastallation, a&he that the village’ (e.g., because some lights have burned out) or above
las avariable’load totaling a maximum”of 4 kW, and (e.g., because several bulbs are replaced with some of
tl-.at about 15 kW excess capacity is used on a contin- higher capacity) its normal value.
Cal basis to heat water in vats for a village dyeing ‘,
aperation. The gearing ratio between. turbine and
generator continues to be 2.5, as in I the previous Operation on the backside of power curve
sxamples. In this case, with only tbe water heating
sloments on-line, the turbine inlet valve is adjusted Constraints: This approach requires a plant with an
10 that the output frequency is about 52 Hz. As the impulse turbine large enough to generate more power
variable load increases from zero to the maximumof than is to be consumed. In addition, the flow must be
4 kW during the day, the output frequency would available to generate maximum power, even though this
decrease to about 46 Hz. Consequently, the operat- power will not be generated or consumed. If a reaction
ing point would remain along the solid line on the turbine were used with this approach, it would be
curve in Fig. 8.10 during the plant’s operation. adversely affected by cavitation. This approach can
only be used where the turbine and generator are cou-
pled by a belt that permits a choice of gearing ratio
as load increases, operating point with between the two. If a turbine is directly coupled to a
operating point only a fixed load generator, it is conventionally designed to operate at
20 moves to the left (15 kW nominal) the point of peak turbine efficiency and this approach
$ \ I cannot be used. In addition, the turbine, but not the
generator, must be capable of operating continually
near its runaway speed.
2 10 Governing
(a) 0.4 (cl
1
nominal I
turbine power output
operating
,/- point
fli //
/ J
5 /
PI /
/
I
I
/
I
I
-
Frequency (Hz) 0LN 50
(.
(d) (f)
variable
load
P
, /’
-’ --7\- 1
d
PI2 I I
//
,‘nominal
operating
point 1
‘W \
fixed
II
base
a III load\,
1 !
0 Frequency (Hz) 50
w 0 *6%
Fig. 8.11. Opemting on the backside of the power curve: back of the power curve, (d1.a gearing ratio designed to
(aI the assumed turbine power output vs. speed curve, generate 50 Hz at turbine runaway, (e) a gearing mtio
@I conventional opemting point, wfth large frequency deslgned to genemte 50 Hz at slightly below runawuy, and
Increase at runaway, (cl decreasing the gearing mtto CfI system wfth a ffxed base load and additional WrlabZe
beetween the turbine and genemtor so as to opemte on the user load opemting farther up the curve.
about &30% of the nominal speed. This might still be o With a constant base load less than the peak power
too large a speed (and frequency) variation, but it still available from the turbine and an additional variable
Fermits full use of plant capacity. user load superimposed on this, the generator could
be coupled to the turbine to generate 50 Hz at some
If the variations in the user load are less than the power lower speed (Fig. B.llf). Because the turbine’s
potential of the plant, it is possible to operate at any of power curve flattens .as its peak is approached, a
a number of points: given change in load will result in a somewhat higher
frequency variation than when no base load is
o With no constant base load and only a variable user imposed.
load imposed on the system, the generator could be
coupled to the turbine so that the nominal frequency The hydropower plant at Kibimba, Burundi, operates ic
would be generated at either the turbine runaway this fashion (see WHY CONSIDER VARIOUS GOYERN-
speed (Fig. 8.11d) or somewhat below that speed ING OPTIONS?, p. 200). Because no governor was
(Fig. 8.1 le). The actual frequency variation depends available, the plant was operated near the end of the
on what percentage of peak capacity the actual var- power curve, with the turbine operating near runaway
iation in load represents; the percentage frequency speed. In addition, during periods when the large light-
variation is about one-quarter this percentage. If ing load was off, switching on the water heater base
the electrical load varies from zero to half or 50% load brought the frequency to its nominal value during
of turbine capacity, as shown in the figure, the fre- the day when other uses were minimal.
quency variation will be about -12% or *6% (or
*3 Hz).
Ope9ation in patallel with dissipative load
One drawback of this approach is that the bearings
supporting the turbine shaft turn at about twice the Constraints: This approach requires a second load,
usual speed and that their life is therefore reduced preferably a mechanical load serving a productive pur-
by an average of 50%. pose, in addition to a primary variable load. This load
Governing 211
must be able to accommodate a range of speeds. This
approach is also applicable when the turbine is directly
coupled to the generator so that it operates at its most
efficient point. To the author’s knowledge, this
approach has not yet been tried.
1y
over a range of loads, it results in an inefficient use of turbine
the power potentially available. The approach described
in this section permits productive use of this otherwise
wasted power.
(a) 04 (cl 1
power power power that must be con- power dissipated by a
to be available sumed by dissipative load to mechanically driven heat
dissipated from obtain power characteristics
shown in (a)
generator Y //
. .*.a
: *.
: *.
: I #.
: -.
: I -.
: -..
I
-.. .: /
-..
..
-. : -----J
Frequency
change in frequency
from zero to full load
Fig. 8.12. Opemting In pamllel with a dfssipatiw load: dissipative load to achieve the preferred net power chamc
(a) desimble turbine power characteristics are shown by teristics shown in (a), and Cc)the actual power dissipation
the solid line, lb) the desired characteristics of the pamllel chamcteristics of a mechanically driven heat genemtor.
212 Governing
If coupling between the turbine and generator is
changed, this approach can be used, with the approach
described in Operation on the backside of power curve
(p. 210), for speed control. (See end of EXAMPLE 8.6.) LFsume that maximum use is to be made of outpu
rom the 25 kW turbine. Only a niaximum of 5 kV
his capacity will be used to, generate electricity;
power consumed / emainitig 50 kW ,will be used fof driving’, a mehax
PT = P1 + P2 by dissipative I :al heat generator.. Under tjaese con$itims, point
load \/ curve A and point S on &roe B in Fig&: 8,15 WOI
.*a* l e
; epresent thy +pf$atixigig points of the- &M+.l
+ect+a.l
l a I
.* l.
..
generator an&dissipating
and -dissipating lo&& respectively. As e
D. I . I ’’ rical load is removed‘ from the generator, the opa
tting point for thb electrical generator descends
- :urve A to pOint R. The freque
frequency. increases to a
imit ofof abdtit 54 Hz, at which point
poi& all the energ!
:onsumed by the dissipating load ,(point T).
I I
r I
I I
_A*
I I II 1 1 I I
0 50
Frequency (Hz)
the imposed load on the system decreases and speed -power consumed to generate eledtricity
increases above nominal speed, this device rechannels - - ---power consumed by dissipating load
the flow within the turbine to introduce disturbances
that effectively reduce the system efficiency. This
reduces the power available from the turbine to m. tch Fig. 8.15. The effqci of changfng the gearing m$o bet-
the reduced user load. -4 system developed in Colombia ween turbine a+ he+ genhmtor uxthe power odlatile
best illustrates such a design and its operation. for 6?ectrtcitygenemtlIori’ _ I’ -’ ..;
,. ..-I ,:.
,
In field installations, Jaime Lobo Guerrero of the Uni- Now consider Ghan&g the power dissipation char- ”
versidad de 10s Andes (BogotB) has been using a device acteristics of the dissipatiye.l$ad. With :a ‘heat :
he developed to control the speed of a Pelton runner. generator, tl$is can bi$ done by changing the gearing
Although the initial studies were theoretical, the actual ratio between the turbbe’and the heat generator. If
device grew out of numerous laboratory trials using a this is reduced, this load will tu&e& at the same
variety of designs and variations on those designs that nominal turbine speed, dissipating less ehergy, If the
were more a result of hunches based on experiment and (Continued on p. 2141
experience than of theoretical calculations.
Governing 2 13
To develop such a device requires d familiarity with the speed increases. For example, Fig. 8.17 depicts in a
flow pattern within a turbine under normal operating highly simplified manner the flow pattern emerging
conditions and with changes in t!lat pattern as runner from a Pelton runner rotating at different speeds.
Pelton runner
free runner -
runner outside
-!- diameter 80
\
I :
//
..I.........
*’
...j...vd-- / 60 -
jet
- runner
disk
0.8
Bucket-tojet speed ratio
Section AA
Plg. U.PU. Anouter attempt at speecl control by modifying with the shape and position shown in (aI results in reduced
flow exiting a single-jet Pelton runner: a control casing overspeed (b) (63).
Governing 215
escape, applies a back pressure on the Pelton buckets.
In addition, when three jets are used, as shown in
Fig. 8.18, the water leaving one casing tends to spoil the
jet immediately behind it, further increasing the effec-
tiveness of this method of speed control. The speed
characteristics of a Pelton runner fitted with these
devices are shown in Fig. 8.19.
To illustrate some available design options, Fig. 8.21 It may also be possible to use a similar approach with
presents the basic configuration of a number of designs other types of turbines. For example, it might be possi-
tested in the development of the Colombian design, as ble to control the speed of a crossflow turbine by incor-
well as curves representing the effect of each design on porating a flow deflector, as illustrated in Fig. 8.22.
the power output of a Pelton turbine. Although the flow at normal operating speed (solid line)
would leave the turbine largely unaffected, perhaps the
One advantage of using flow modifications is that pro- flow at greater speeds (dotted line) can be caught and
tection against runaway is intrinsic; no additional pro- redirected against the runner and used to have some
tective device is required. When the entire turbine load effect on controlling speed. There may be other
is removed, the power is dissipated within the turbine approaches to redirecting flow to control overspeeding,
and the usual runaway speeds are not attained. but these need further research and development.
0.8
0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
(runner speed)/(runaway speed)
Fig. 8.21. Test results usfng casings of various shapes placed around a Pelton runner (51).
2 16 Governing
IX. ELECTRICALASPECTS
The design of the distribution, secondary service, and If the energy (kWh) available from a well-situated, iso-
housewiring for a system served by a micro-hydropower lated installation is adequate on a daily basis but its
plant does not differ from one served by any other type power (kW) potential is less than the peak electrical
of electric power generator. Because this task is best power demand, energy available during low demand per-
addressed by an experienced electric power engineer iods must be stored to meet needs during peak demand
and electricians (except for very small schemes), this periods. This can be done two ways: by storing water
publication does not discuss these areas in detail. behind a dam or in a forebay during times of low
demand or by generating power and storing the excess in
batteries if small guantities of electrical energy are
AC VS. DC envisioned. When the only option is the second one, dc
is often generated. However, if ac is generated and a
If a micro-hydropower installation is to generate elec- load controller is used to govern turbine speed, excess
trical energy, a basic decision to be made is whether ac power could be rectified and stored in batteries at the
or dc generation is more appropriate in a specific situa- powerhouse or anywhere along the ac system. In this
tion. Selecting one or the other involves a trade-off case, an inverter (see p. 218) would be needed to con-
between the advantages of dc--storage of electrical vert dc back to ac if ac equipment is used by the con-
energy and a less sophisticated and costly overall sumer. Though batteries provide a means of storing
system--and those of ac-transmission over greater dis- power, they are heavy, relatively costly, and require
tances, ready availability of end-use appliances, and care for their proper operation and eventual disposal.
convenience.
E
rather than three phases.
three-wire,
The size of the larger anticipated system loads may 240 v
determine which of these options is most appropriate. (delta system) 87 75
Single-phase motors are available for applications that
require no more than several horsepower. For larger
loads, three-phase motors are generally used. single-phase,
three-wire,
The circuit for each phase of a three-phase generator is 4801240 v 62 31
designed to accommodate one-third of the generator’s
rated power output. Consequently, as this output is
approached, it becomes increasingly important that the three-phase,
power in each phase be balanced; otherwise, excess four-wire,
power may flow through one or two of the other cir- 4151240 v
cuits, overheating the generator windings and eventually (Y system) 58 29
causing the insulation to break down and the generator
to fail. For example, a balanced 30 kVA generator
operating at full capacity would generate 10 kVA in
each phase. If the flow through the turbine remains
unchanged but the load through one phase drops signifi- *For a short line, the conductor size is based on
cantly, the two other phases would have to accommo- keeping heating of the conductor within acceptable
date more than 10 kVA each. Adequate protection limits. For a long line, maintaining voltage drop
equipment can avoid this potential problem, which is not within acceptable limits determines conductor size.
The output of an ac generator is a current and voltage Because the voltage, current, and power vary with time,
that both change in magnitude with time. If the exter- the term “effective” signifies an average value, which is
(a) (b)
I ’
IO -
I
i/‘\.l-
energy consumed
energy returne
to generator
Fig. 9.1. The relationship between voltage, current, and factor equal to cos 30” = 0.87. In either case, the power at
power consumed by a purely resistive circuit (a) and one any instant of time is equal to the product of voltage and
with inductive and capacitive elements (b). Here, the ml- current at that time.
tage is leading the current by 30° which results in a power
The angle “#’ is a measure of how much the voltage Th generator speed is related to the number of genera-
leads the current. The actual value of the power factor tor poles and the desired output frequency in the follow-
depends on the type and size of the various loads ing manner:
imposed on the system. For a purely resistive load dis-
cussed earlier, it equals 1.0. From the example pre-
sented in Fig. 9.lb where the current and voltage are (9.4)
not in phase, the real power output is less than the
product of effective voltage and current, even though
the peak output voltage and current are the same. This where
is because some of the energy introduced into a circuit
containing inductive or capacitive elements is not actu- N = generator speed (rev/min)
ally consumed but merely stored in the lpad and sent f = output frequency (Hz), see Frequency (p. 220)
back to the generator twice during each cycle. n = number of poles
Equivalently, if the real power consumed by a purely For micro-hydropower plants, generators usually have
resistive load is the same as that consumed by a load two, four, or sometimes six poles. Because generators
also containing inductive or capacitive elements, the with four poles run at a lower speed than those with
current is greater in the latter case. For example, with two, they are used more often. Less gearing up is
a generator voltage of 240 V, a 10 kW resistive load required and bearing life is extended. If some problem
would draw 42 A. A more commonly found load with a leads to turbine runaway, a two-pole generator would
power factor of 0.8, for example, would draw 52 A or reach speeds of about 6000 rev/min with possibly disas-
25% more current, even though it still consumes 10 kW trous consequences. Four-pole generators are available
of real power. that can operate for extended periods at a runaway
speed which would be about half this value. Although
The actual current drawn is critical in the design of a six-pole generator5 have an even lower design speed,
generator, because this affects the size of the wire used their cost is somewhat higher. They are more com-
in the windings. From these discussions, it can be seen monly used for plants in the mini-hydropower range
that the real power generated does not truly indicate (100-1000 kW) where, because physically larger genera-
the current and therefore the size of the generator. tors are required, rotor speeds must be reduced in order
Rather than being specified by its real power output to reduce the otherwise increased centrifugal forces
(W or kW), a generator thus is specified by the apparent acting on the rotor.
power-the simple product of current and voltage (VA or
kVA) .
Physical char2lcteri5tics
The relationship between the real power and apparent .
power “Pa” is Other specifications might be made when a generator is
specified, ei:her as part of a packaged unit or as a sepa-
PO (in kW) = pf x Pa (in LVA) (9.3) rate purchase.
If the generator experiences a 1055 of load or excitation, If a current is flowing when the breaker opens, an arc is
both the turbine and generator will attain runaway drawn between the contacts. A breaker is designed to
speed. A supplier of a packaged unit should consider extinguish this arc as quickly as possible. This usually
this in the unit’s overall design. If a generator is pur- take; from three to eight cycles, depending on the
chased separately, some means of averting runaway design, the size of the current, and the extinguishing
speeds must be incorporated in the powerplant’s design. medium. Small breakers commonly use air as the extin-
However, it would still be advisable to specify that the guishing medium and are referred to as air circuit
generator be capable of operating at runaway speed for breakers.
at least a limited period of time. This speed depends on
turbine type and design. Approximate values are noted
in the descriptions of specific turbines in TURBINE Protection equipment
TYPES (p. 173).
Protection devices are incorporated in a powerplant
primarily to ensure that the generator is isolated from
Monitoring and protection equipment ad switchgear the external load when a fault condition that could
damage the turbo-generating equipment occurs. These
Between the generator terminals and the powerlines to are devices that sense anomalous conditions and trigger
the end-user loads, there is need for devices to monitor an appropriate response, such as signaling a circuit
the operation of the equipment, to protect the turbo- breaker to open.
generating machinery, and to permit the generator to be
isolated from the load either automatically, if a fault For the simplest svstem, protection is at least needed to
condition occurs, or manually. guard again& overcurrent. This occurs when an electric
short or excessive load causes a sustained current larger
than the current rating of the generator to be drawn
Monitoring equipment from it. The simplest overcurrent protection is a fuse.
A more expensive but more versatile and convenient
Voltage, current, and frequency are monitored to assess device is a circuit breaker, one tripped either by excess
the state of an operating system. Other parameters- current that flows through it or by a protective device
power, energy, power factor, forebay water level, etc.- that senses overcurrent. Some fuses and circuit break-
can also be monitored but are not usually of concern for ers are designed to prevent nuisance tripping when surge
micro-hydropower plants. currents are needed, such as for starting motors.
This chapter takes a broader view than the previous The second study, prepared in 1983, reviews the efforts
chapters. In addition to reviewing the designs that have of a few dedicated persons from the University of
evolved through field experiences, it describes overall Science and Technology in Peshawar, working with the
approaches to implementing large-scale micro-hydro- Appropriate Technology Development Organization in
power programs developed by several organizations. Pakistan, to implement a program of micro-hydropower
plants to generate electricity for remote villages.
The first study, prepared in 1982 with contributions Unlike the Nepalese efforts, almost no outside resources
from Robert Yoder who was personally involved in the were employed in Pakistan, yet the results illustrate
project, describes the efforts of the United Mission to what is possible with rudimentary designs and limited
Nepal in Butwal to implement its Small Turbine and Mill financial resources (Fig. 10.2).
Project. This organization and Balaju Yantra Shala in
Kathmandu have been involved in relevant research and In addition to descriptions of the Nepalese and Pakistani
development, the local manufacture of turbines, the efforts, this chapter notes other lxblications that each
packaging of turbines and end-use equipment, and pro- present a more complete view of the implementation of
grams to implement micro-hydropower mills in rural a specific micro-hydropower scheme or programs.
areas. These two groups made the first efforts to
develop a broad-based micro-hydropower program in a
developing country. Considerable resources and exper-
tise were brought from overseas, and to date, each of
the two companies has implemented well over 100
modern turbine-driven mills (Fig. 10.1) and has docu-
Fig. 10.1. A two-story mill house with the turbine and Fig. 10.2. A locally fabricated turbine has been incorpo-
milling equipment on ground level and living quarters rated as part of a very basic turbo-generating unit. Signi-
above is visible on the right. The penstock is seen emerg- ficant speed increase is necessary to drive the generator at
ing from the forebuy in the upper center of the figure. this site because of the relatively low head available.
Fig. 10.5. The kol is used for extracting oil from seed. A
heavy timber isxtated within a hollowed out boulder con-
taining the seed. The process is arduous and time-consum-
ing and the yield is relatively low.
Fig. 10.4. The dhiki, a foot-powered mortar and pestle, Fig. 10.6. One of the thousands of traditional water
has tmditionall+n used by women to hull paddy (rice). powered mills found in Nepal.
raised or lowered
to adjust clearance
between millstones
. m . . . _ .__
Fig. 10.9. Cross-sectional MBW of a cmaltlonal mill.
Turbine design
rice huller
I i bearings
I flat belt
13: flat pulley
I
(c) Butwal’s present layout
Fig. 10.18. These drawings illustrate the evolution of the area occupfed by the equipment is reduced, as are the
standard equipment layout in a mill. Note that the floor number of bearings and the ovemll complexity,
pulleys. From the drive shaft, a flat pulley to V-pulley nally, each team comprised a team leader who was a
permits easy removal of the belt; individual machines skilled mechanical tradesman (each has had BTI appren-
can then be disengaged while the turbine is running. To ticeship training), a mason, and a helper. More
facilitate the replacement of belts, D-section V-belts recently, most teams consist of only two people; this
with a common length are used throughout the mill. reduces the cost of the installation to the customer.
The only time a third person accompanies the team is
when a new employee is being trained.
hwtallation teams
If it is possible, the team leader is present during initial
An expatriate DCS director serves as project leader for discussions with a new customer who wants to install a
the Small Turbine and Mill Project, but the business water-powered mill. When the team later goes to the
chief is responsible for the day-to-day running of the field, it acts independently. It is responsible for the
project. A technical supervisor, accountant, and store- survey, site selection with the customer, and price quo-
keeper complete the permanent office staff. tation. When the team returns from its first field visit,
the leader prepares the layout design and order list for
The heart of the installation program consists of three the sites surveyed. He also supervises his team in the
or four teams that undertake work in the field. Origi- workshop assembly and in checking and packing all the
machinery for an installation before delivering it to the In every case, the potential customer must find a loca-
customer for transport. The team is responsible for tion where he either owns or can purchase land for the
installing the machinery and for any necessary followup mill and obtain rights to the required water. For this
repair work. To minimize confusion, it is best if one reason, it is extremely important that the customer
team deals with a customer from first contact to final understand the requirements of head and flow, so that
installation; however, practicalities make this impossi- he can choose likely spots before the survey team
ble. By an insistance on uniform information-recording arrives. Ideally, a new customer should visit an operat-
procedures, it has been possible for one team to survey ing water-powered mill to understand the principles
and a second team to complete the installation. Parti- involved. From their experience with irrigation, Nepal-
cipation in decision-making has prepared each team to ese farmers have a good eye for assessing a prospective
set up its own independent installation operation if DCS location and for sizing the canal needed to carry ade-
should decide to discontinue its operation. quate water from the stream to the area selected for
the forebay. This usually enables them to select a site
with adequate water, if one exists. However, the con-
Installation of a mill cept that the head is the elevation difference and not
the slope distance has often been difficult to explain.
Site selection Because they are interested in installing a mill, they
Site layout
If the streamflow is large enough that only part of it Fo:merly, customers had to include an advance of
will need to be diverted for tha mill’s use, the design Rs 2500 in “earnest money” with their orders before
flow will depend on the head available and the power DCS would take any action; however, customers often
required. The maximum flow easily conveyed in a tradi- waited until the last minute to arrange for a loan and
tional unlined irrigation canal is about 200 P/s. The flow this led to cashflow problems on the part of DCS. Since
for the most convenient canal design is 80-120 l/s. mid-1981, an advance of 50% of the DCS quotation
along with a letter of guarantee from the ADB-N has
been required. This procedure places more pressure on
Quote for the installation the customer to expedite the process.
After all the information has been recorded in the field Most customers turn to the ADB-N for financing. With
notes, the technical supervisor complete3 a price quota- an interest rate of 11% and a loan repayment period of
tion based on the survey. Except for the penstock pipe seven years, it offers better financial terms than com-
which varies considerably in price, most items cost mercial banks. This loan also requires physical property
roughly the same from site to site. The cost of an as collateral. A typical loan covers all the machinery
installation also depends on the types of processing and installation costs, 85% of the land purchase, and
machinery to be included, but most customers want all 65% of the cost of the labor necessary to undertake the
three-a flour mill, rice huller, and oil expeller. The excavation and to install the machinery. A typical
quotations are valid for only three months, after which ADB-N loan covers about 80% of the entire project
a new quote must be obtained for the loan procedure. If cost. Of the first 65 mills, only four have been paid for
the customer does not take delivery of the machinery without loans. The ADB-N has officers and personnel at
TABLE I0.L Dldaiun cr reqxmdbIli#ea for the fnatd&tion of a watercpowemd mill
0 perform initial survey l obtain the necessary license to build and operate a mill
l design and fabricate turbine, penstock, l purchase the land and right-of-way for the power canal and
and other required hardware tailrace (as needed)
l purchase, inspect, and pack the milling, l arrange for water rights
hulling, and oil expelling machinery for
transport as needed l locate sufficient cash to cover at least a portion of total cost of
the installation and apply for a loan for the balance necessary
l provide technical guidance and
assistance in installing and l organize local labor to undertake the necessary work
commissioning of the plant
o undertake the necessary excavation and collection of locally
l train one of the local persons designated available materials (sand, stone, gravel)
as mill operator how to operate and
maintain the machinery l transport all the hardware and materials from Butwal to the site
Fig. 10.22. A recently received stock of oil expellers from When the customer is ready, he must make full payment
India at Butwal. for the equipment before it leaves the shop. Before the
equipment is packed for delivery, all the machinery,
such as penstock pipe, intermediate drive shaft, and parts, and supplies are checked against the order list.
mounting frames are usually ordered in quantity for One of the field teams assembles and checks parts
str ck. Orders for items not already in stock, including which are then packaged in loads that porters can carry.
the turbine and penstock bends, are placed with BEW, The order is then ready to hand over to the owner, who
which fabricates them. is responsible for arranging for porters to carry the
materials to the site (Fig. 10.24).
A year’s supply of grease and a tool kit adequate for
complete maintenance are supplied to the customer. In addition to paying the outstanding balance on the
This solves the problem of a customer’s buying poor- equipment, the customer pays the installation charge.
quality grease and the wrong tools. It also allows a field Formerly, the per-day installation charges were paid
team to perform maintenance work onsite even if it after the mill was installed to give the customer some
does not bring its own tool kit. leverage and to ensure his satisfaction with the work.
Because there has been some difficulty in collecting this
After the customer has placed his order, he is also sum after the work has been completed, payment is now
forebay removable
pipe section
Fig. 10.29. The new turbines are mounted above the mi!l
floor on a common mounting frame, which is eventually set
in concrete. Here the installation team is shown using a
string to align the pulleys.
final adjustments and operates each of the machines
under full load for several hours. The owner or operator drain /’
is also required to run the mill under the supervision of
the team until it is satisfied that he understands the
operating procedures and safety requirements. Fig. 10.30. A removable standpipe incorpomted in the
forebay design facilitates removal of the sediment. It also
serves as an overflow.
Design modifications
Observing mills in operation has also resulted in the
To obtain continuing feedback from the field in order to relocation of the turbine valve control handle, changes
improve its designs, DCS initiated a policy of team in the machine disengagement mechanisms, and other
members visiting mills, free of charge, for followup changes for the convenience and safety of the opera-
adjustments, repair, possible replacement of bearings, tors.
and observation of operating problems, whenever they
are near a mill they have installed. Even though this
policy sometimes has required an extra day of walking, CQStS
valuable information that has led to design improve-
ments has been gathered. The cost of implementing a water-powered mill is
clearly site-specific. Table 10.2 presents the costs of a
For example, one of the earliest turbine designs devel- typical mill instailed with Butwal’s assistance. The
oped a problem with the operation of the turbine inlet breakdown is graphically depicted in Fig. 10.31.
valve. Careful examination determined that the valve Although the total cost may seem high, the owner of a
shaft had been twisted, preventing the valve from clos- water-powered mill generally charges only slightly less
ing completely From observing the operator in action, than the diesel mill owner. With his low recurring oper-
it became clear that when the valve was closed, he for- ating costs, he can repay his loan in four to seven years,
got the direction in which to turn the spindle to open it depending on the terms of his contract.
again and applied a substantial force in the wrong direc-
tion. The initial solution was to paint arrows indicating Most mills installed by Butwal range from 8 to 12 kW.
the directions for opening and closing. The final The total cost of the entire water-powered mill installa-
solution, however, was to provide blocks limiting the tion, including the agro-processing machinery, is about
travel of the valve arm, thus reducing all possibility of US$ 9000 or about US$ lOOO/kW. The actual cost is
damage caused by operator error. influenced by the length of the canal required, the
length and size of the penstock, the capacity of the tur-
The clean-out opening above the turbine runner was bine, and the size of the agro-processing machinery
another design improvement that resulted from a ser- used. If the mills had been built to generate electrical
vice call. A stick that a boy had floated down the canal power, the costs per installed kilowatt would be approx-
had lodged in the runner. Without this opening, the imately the same, with the cost of the generator replac-
complete turbine had to be disassembled to gain access ing the cost of the agro-processing machinery. This
to the runner. assumes that no governor is necessary, either because
direct current is generated or because the plant is man-
Although the forebay is small, sediment eventually ually controlled, as with the Pakistani schemes imple-
accumulates on the bottom. With no sluice gate, its mented by the ATDO (see VILLAGER-IMPLEMENTED
Other developments
Hardware
outlet Because both projects are still under UMN mana.gem dnt,
tests and modifications can be made without put’,mg the
farmers at risk. Such a risk arose from the drying of
600 kg of ginger. Although the drying was successful,
the final product did not have the appearance of ginger
that traditionally is dried over a fire. As a result, the
fixed baffles product fared poorly on the market.
. -.I to power
To be a technically and economically viable source of za .
energy for cooking, micro-hydroelectric power requires supply
,.ir.*-.-.-..-i
. ..A . *.-..A .*....;
.*.. ;‘*
.... .*.*...*.._>J
a storage device thar will allow the energy that is :.a....‘.>.A. ...........*....ZC
~..~.~...~~.?.?~..~~.~ *...
generated between the normal cooking +imes to be used ..* . . .. . .I..,
r.>...>...*.. a...‘.>......... .
‘9
.*.....*
.*.......*.....I.
. ..>.2..
during these times. The full capacity 01 the generating ,~~.~..~~.....~~~.~.. *.
2
equipment could then be used by delivering energy to insulating material
this storage system continuously. This approach would (rice husk ash or
result in a higher load factor as well as in a reduced powered dry clay)
peak load requirement. As the use of hydroelectric
power expanded in the United States and Europe during
the first half of this century, commercial heat storage Fig. 10.33. Schematic of the heat stomge cooker based on
cookers that met this requirement were developed and research undertaken at Cornell University (113,114).
marketed (108). These were essentially electrical ele-
ments embedded in well-insulated cast iron blocks that conserve heat, the villagers would not be able to
stored heat until it was needed. They became popular observe or stir the food while it is cooking. Perhaps of
because of a tariff structure that encouraged the con- greater significance would be the loss of space heating
sumer to use, at a fixed tariff, all the power to a maxi- and social value traditionally associated with an open
mum limit. The last company known to have manufac- fireplace. It is interesting to note that, even among
tured heat storage cookers discontinued marketing in those who can easily afford it in Kathmandu, electricity
Norway in the early 1950s. is used rarely for cooking. It is possible that cooking
habits will not change until firewood becomes essen-
Robert Yoder recently completed research on heat stor- tially unavailable. DCS is continuing its experiments,
age cookers at Cornell University (113,114). Before this but there is a need to gather hard field data on the
work, he was involved for eight years in a number of appropriateness and acceptability of this device under
activities with DCS, ranging from project engineer on differing conditions.*
Butwal’s 1000 kW Tinau Hydroelectric Power Project to
project leader for its water-powered mill projects. The Mill lighting. Although most work to date has involved
research at Cornell University focused on a design hydropower plants used to power food-processing
incorporating stones to store heat, rather than an machinery, mill owners have remained interested in
expensive, heavy cast iron mass. Because heat conduc- generating electricity &or lighting, in part because it
tion is low both within a bed of stones and between the facilitates milling during evening hours (Fig. 10.34). As
stones and the cooking vessel, heat is transferred from a result, a direct-current mill-lighting system has been
the stones to the cooking vessel by dripping water into developed.
the hot stone bed to generate steam at atmospheric
pressure. The steam then conveys heat to the cooking Most mill installations in the hills of Nepal are several
vessel, where it condenses, drops back into the stone days’ walk from the road, and an understanding of elec-
bed, and is recycled. tricity is rare. For these reasons, several basic design
criteria were established. These included:
The laboratory unit, with a power input of 275 W, was
used for eight consecutive days to cook a typical Nepal- a a system with sufficient power to light a minimum
ese meal on a twice-daily basis, as is done in Nepal. of six bulbs;
These trials confirmed that heat storage in a bed of
stones would work for -water-based cooking.
The canal to the mill was built during a Food for Work
Program,me. The remaining work was undertaken by the
villagers, who were paid either in cash or in coupons
they could use later to buy shares in the cooperative or
services at the mill. Initial work was slow because of
weak leadership in certain villages, the villagers’ preoc-
cupation with other tasks in their fields, and the low
wages agreed upon by the committee. To expedite pro-
gress, contracts were let for specific tasks, as is the
tradition in the area.
htraduction
Fig. 10.44. At a nwnber of remote powerplants, flat belts Fig. 10.46. Turbines at a number of powerhousesare
directly couple the turbine to a variety of equipment. directly coupled to flour milling equipment.
Fig. 10.47. A temporary structure across the river diverts Fig. 10.49. A flume constructed of concrete and supported
a portion of the water into an irrfgation canal at the right. by masonry pillars conveys water from the canal to the
Similar structures are used with hydropower schemes. powerhouse (Behind the trees) at Bunjf.
Turbo-generating equipment
TABLE 10.5. A cast amlyxia tar ATDO mf cw-$Wwowr plants tin Ral Ml
5. 13,140 12,483 19,370 2,643 2,150 4,793 0.36 23,370 3,188 5,338 0.44
7.5 19,710 18,725 23,970 3,270 2,250 5,520 0.28 29,970 4,089 6,339 0.34
10. 26,280 24,966 26,770 3,652 2,350 6,002 0.23 34,770 4,744 7,094 0.28
12. 31,536 29,959 30,300 4,134 2,525 6,659 0.21 39,900 5,443 7,968 0.27
15. 39,420 37,449 36,820 5,023 2,700 7,723 0.20 48,820 6,660 9,360 0.25
l Would this require additional financial, managerial, Social and other benefits derived from electrification
and technical assistance, which would not be as that have no direct cash value may be sufficient ration-
readily available at the village level? ale for implementing a subsidized scheme. However,
this is a luxury not afforded self-supporting schemes,
Near Gilgit in the Northern Areas, the ATDO is imple- which must cover the costs they incur.
menting a 50 kW hydropower scheme, a size signifi-
cantly larger than those previously installed. Its experi-
ences with this scheme should provide insights into the Replication in other countries
problems that might be encountered in implementing
and managing larger schemes and the costs incurred. The approach undertaken by the ATDO in Pakistan pro-
vides an attractive alternative, given the prevailing
trend of high cost per installed kilowatt for small-
Benefit to the rural sector hydropower schemes around the world. However, two
points must be stressed:
A basic question is whether micro-hydropower plants
really improve the lives of the rural poor: Are the s The low costs described in this case study are for
“rich” the real beneficiaries? Is electricity a luxury, a micro-hydropower plants with an output of 5-15 kW.
projection of the needs of urban-based planners on the Until plants with higher capacities are operational,
rural population? Does it make the poor more depend- it would be unwise to extrapolate from the experi-
ent on forces largely outside their control for access to ences gained to date and to assume that the costs of
the necessary end-use appliances and expertise to main- hydropower schemes would remain low for plants of
tain both the system and the appliances? greater capacity--that may or may not be the case.
Further work in the field is necessary before this
The ATDO method of implementing schemes relies on a assumption can be substantiated.
few persons to initiate, coordinate, and manage the
entire undertaking. However, these persons, by virtue l Before it is assumed that such an approach and its
of their economic or other standing, are apt to benefit low costs can be replicated elsewhere, even for
more from the villager contributions to the scheme, installations of small capacity, the factors that have
both financial and labor. Are the villagers assisting the been instrumental in reducing the costs of the
“rich in getting richer” at their expense, or are they ATDO-assisted schemes should be considered. Some
reaping actual benefits in proportion to their inputs? of these aspects are more easily replicated outside
Can a villager withdraw from the system, if he so Pakistan than others.
This sourcebook uses metric units, which are in common lents of terms commonly used in hydropower work are
use in most of the world. Because a significant volume given below. All values are given to three significant
of literature still uses the English system, the equiva- figures.
Conversion factors
Area
Volume
Force
Appendices 26 5
Pressure
1 kPa = 0.145 psi 1 psi = 6.89 kPa psi = lb/in2 = 2.31 ft (water)
1 kgf/m2 = 0.00142 psi 1 psi = 703 kgf/m’ atm = atmosphere
= 14.7 psi = 101 k.FJa = 1.03 kgf/cm2
= 10.3 m (water) = 33.9 ft (water)
1 m (water) = 0.100 kgf/cm2
Pa = pascal = N/m2
Energy or work
Power
constants
Useful equivalents
266 Appendices
APPENDIX B
SIGNIFICANT FIGUl3ES
Many individuals who deal with numbers, including This rule is generally true; however, it should not be
engineers, do not seem to understand how to properly applied blindly. For example, although hand-held stop-
express measurements or the results of the mathemati- watches can often be read to the nearest hundredth of a
cal manipulations of such measurements properly. The second, it can take up to several tenths of a second for
advent of the hand-held calculators and personal com- a person to react and stop the watch. Consequently, it
puters that spew forth solutions to eight figures or more is fair to say that in the previous example, if the time
compound this problem. had been recorded by someone else, it might have been
9.60 s or 9.29 s, rather than 9.42 s. The tenths digits is
In determining surface velocity of a stream, for exam- clearly uncertain but can be estimated; the hundredths
ple, if the time taken for a float to cover a distance of digit can be anything from 0 to 9, and recordil:g it is
7.75 m were measured as 9.42 s using a hand-held stop- meaningless. This measurement therefore has only two
watch, how many would correctly record this as 9.4 s? significant figures.
And how many would realize that the float velocity
should be expressed as 0.82 m/s, not 0.824 m/s or When measurements are being manipulated using multi-
0.8244681 m/s, and that rather thxbeing, more precise plication, division, or related operations (such as raising
than 0.82 m/s, the latter two expressions are actually a measurement to a power), the number of significant
incorrect and misleading because they imply an accu- figures in the result is no larger than the number of sig-
racy that is not warranted? nificant figures in the least accurate measurement.
This problem is encountered during two activities: when For example, because the smallest number of significant
measurements are being made and when they are being figures of the two measurements used to determine the
manipulated mathematically. velocity of the float referred to earlier is equal to two
(in that case, the number of significant figures in the
When measurements are being made, the results cannot time measurement, 9.4 s), the velocity derived cannot
be more accurate than the instruments used to make the have more than two significant figures. This can be
measurements. When recorded, the figures included are illustrated as follows. Because there is some uncer-
all the precisely known digits read off the measuring tainty about the exact value of the tenths digit of the
device and one digit, which becomes the right-most, time measurement in this example, the time might be
which is estimated (Fig. B.l). The precisely known expressed as 9.5, 9.6, or possibly 9.2. If the actual time
digits plus the one estimated digit are called “signifi- were 9.2, the velocity measurement could be calculated
cant figures.” to be 0.84 m/s rather than the 0.82 calculated earlier.
In reality, there is also some error in the measurement
of distance, which might change this value further.
Consequently, the second digit of the result is uncer-
tain, and it would be meaningless to add a third or
fourth digit when recording the result. With the two
measurements indicated, the velocity can have no more
than two significant figures, one certain and one esti-
mated, no matter how accurate the distance measure-
ment. The least accurate measurement determines the
accuracy of the result. In the above example, it can be
seen that it is useless to measure any variable more
accurately than the least accurate measurement used in
a calculation.
Appendices 267
for most comnutations,
. and a calculator may contribute be 23 bags or possibly 26 bags-therefore, the price
only speed to the effort, not additional accuracy. should be expressed correctly as $230 (with two sig-
nificant figures, for the reasons mentioned pre-
The rule for the addition and subtraction of measure- viously). It is not known more accurately.
ments should be more obvious. If, for example, the
gross head at a site were correctly measured and l The pipe estimate is also expressed to two signifi-
recorded as 143 m and the loss from turbulence and cant figures. Although the price for the pipe even-
friction within the penstock were correctly calculated tually may be $6086 or possibly $6422, the current
as 2.3 m, the net head would be the difference, or 41 m, estimate is known to only two significant figures.
not 40.8 m. As recorded, the units digit of the head The hundreds digit is unknown and is estimated;
measurement is an estimate; the tenths digit is therefore, addiug the two costs cannot lead to an
unknown. Therefore, no matter how accurate the loss estimate more accurate than $6500, because the
calculation, the tenths digits in the difference must also tens digit for the pipe costs is completely unknown.
be completely unknown and therefore should not be In reports and proposals, however, such a cost would
included. frequently and incorrectly be expressed to four or
six decimal places, even in estimates prepared by
Another error of addition is one frequently found in engineers who should know better.
budget estimates. Suppose, for example, that the cost
of penstock pipe for a proposed micro-hydropower In using this publication, it must be kept in mind that,
scheme is estimated at $6300 and that about 25 bags of although the conversion factors and constants found in
cement at $9.25/hag (or $231.25) will be required. The APPENDIX A (p. 265) are expressed to three significant
sum of these two components would often be expressed figures, all computations in the body of the text are
as $6531.25, but this is incorrect for several reasons: expressed to two significant figures.
268 Appendices
APPENDIXC
GUIDE TQ FIFLD DETEmmON OF SOIL TYPE*
Appendices 269
APPENDIX II
PREPWG CONCRETE*
Concrete is composed of cement, sand, gravel, and have a ratio of 65% gravel and 35% sand. This is about
water. To obtain workability, strength, durability, and a 1:2:4 (cement, sand, gravel) volume proportion.
impermeability, the above ingredients must be mixed
thoroughly. Good-quality concrete should weigh from A minimum of seven bags (50 kg/bag) of cement with
about 2300 to 2350 kgf/m3. 1.2 m3 of fair to poor sangand gravel (all pit run) will
yield 3pproximately 1.0 m of quality concrete. The
1.2 m of sand and gravel should have a ratio of
Cement
--~ 40%-50% maximum of sand and 50%-60% minimum of
gravel. This is about a 1:2:3 (cement, sand, gravel) vol-
Cements are classified by their properties and chemical ume proportion.
composition. Normal setting Portland cement (Type I)
should be used for concrete structures and concrete The water/cement ratio is a critical factor in quality
watercourse linings when the concrete is not subject to concrete. Lowering the water content will result in
sulfate attacks from the soil or water. stronger concrete, but the amount of water must be
enough to produce a workable mix. Excessive water will
cause shrinkage cracks and a weak porous concrete.
Sand and gravel
-- The water/cement ratio is the ratio of the weight of
water in a mix (including the water in the sand and
Sand and gravel used in quality concrete must be clean gravel) to the weight of cement in the mix. The
and free of clay, silt, and organic matter. The presence water/cement ratio for quality concrete should be 0.45.
of these foreign materials will prevent the cement from To maintain this ratio, limit water to 20-25 C/bag of
binding the sand and gravel together and result in a cement for dry sand and gravel and 15-20 Cof water
weak and porous concrete. when wet sand and gravel are used. Using a volume
proportioning, the proportion of water is about two-
Sand particles for concreteshould be clean and hard and thirds the proportion of cement.
range in size from very fine to those that will just pass
a No. 4 sieve (4.75 mm).
270 Appendices
simultaneously with the dry materials. There is no need being placed to eliminate voids or honey combing.
for any dry mixing before the water is added. The min-
imum time of mixing should be two minutes. Screed to the grade of the forms or templates and finish
by troweling. Do not overtrowel, because this will
Hand-mixing concrete must be done on a clean water- result in flaking and a porous surface of the finishing
tight platform or wheelbarrow. The amount of ?and and concrete.
gravel should be limited to approximately 0.1 m . The
concrete mixing and its placement should be completed
within 10 minutes. Cement and sand should first be
mixed while dry until the mixture is thoroughly blended
and uniform in color. The gravel should then be added Excessive or rapid evaporation Of water from freshly
to the mixture of sand and cement and mixed by turning placed concrete will cause cracking, shrinkage, and low-
the ingredients a minimum of three times before adding quality concrete.
water. The measured amount of water then is added
and the ingredients turned a minimum of five times. Protect concrete from rapid drying or curing for five
Mixing should continue until the concrete is of a uni- days after placement. This may be accomplished by
form color. submerging in water, applying membrane curing, or
covering with continuously moist burlap, canvas, straw,
plastic, or soil.
Placing the cimaete
Do not place concrete when there is danger of frost,
Preparation before placement of concrete includes unless provision has been made to protect the concrete
compacting and moistening the soil and erecting the from freezing.
forms. If concrete is placed against dry soil and forms,
excessive water will be extracted from the concrete.
To maintain quality concrete, be sure the soil and forms Removal of forms
are moist. Forms should be clean, tight, and adequately
braced; sawdust, nails, and other debris should be Forms may be removed when the concrete attains suffi-
removed before concrete is placed. Forms treated with cient strength to support the dead loads and live loads
motor oil will facilitate removal from concrete that has imposed upon it. Generally speaking, good-quality con-
set. crete under ideal conditions will attain a strength of
approximately 35 kgf/cm’/day in the first three or four
Place the concrete immediately after mixing. Place in days; thereafter, the curing process slows down consid-
a position and manner to limit flow and subsequent erably. Table D.l can be used as a guide for removing
segregation of the gravel and sand particles. forms and placing concrete structures in moderate ser-
vice.
Thoroughly tamp and compact the concrete as it is
Concrete subject to high bending stress and wholly or almost wholly 140 kgf/cm2 108
reliant on forms for vertical support. (2000 psi)
Appendices 27 1
APPENDIX E
MASONRY*
Brick or stone masonry is frequently used in the con- should be directly over one another. The thickness of
struction of portions of the civil works for small hydro- the joints should be about 1.0 cm, and these should be
power projects, for the diversion structure, intake, and properly filled with mortar. To achieve this, mortar is
forebay, and sometimes for the powerhouse and lining of applied to the sides of the bricks already laid. The next
the power canal. The principal reasons for this are the (wet) brick is laid 3-5 cm away and then pressed toward
difficulty of obtaining cement in sufficient quantity for the first brick, squeezing out the mortar indicating that
concrete structures in many developing countries, its the joint has been filled. The joints on the surfaces to
high cost, and difficulties in transporting it to remote, be plastered or pointed (Fig. E.l) should be raked out to
rural areas. Brick or stone masonry permits use of local a depth of 1 cm before the mortar sets. The other
materials to replace some of the volume for which con- joints should be filled and struck smooth before the
crete would otherwise be necessary. Because a signifi- mortar sets. Curing is done by keeping the masonry wet
cant portion of the volume of quality concrete uses a minimum of five days by covering with wet burlap or
locally available sand and aggregate, the savings of con- other saturated material or by sprinkling with water.
crete may not be as great as they might initially appear,
but they are still significant.
stone-cement masonry
For a typical wall of brick masonry, about 20% of the
volume is joint mortar. If the surface of the structure
is plastered, an additional 5% of the volu e of brick
masonry is plaster mortgr. Although 1 m‘s of quality
conSrete requires 0.2 m of cement (six 50 kg bags),
1 m 05 plastered brick masonry requires about 25% or
I (a) 0.d] i
0.25 m of mortar or about 0.07 m of cement (two
50 kg bags). Consequently, if plastered brick masonry is
used, only about one-third of the amount of cement as
that required for poured concrete would be needed. If
the structure is not plastered, only about 25% of the
amount of cement required for poured concrete would brick-cement masonry
be needed. Further savings in concrete can be obtained
by using stones larger than bricke in the masonry.
Fig. E.1. Se&Ion views of stone- and brick- masonry work
Brick and stone masonry requires a mix of cement and with (a) joints raked in prepamtton for 0 plastering or (cl
sand to join the bricks into on impervious stable mass. polnttng.
Portland cement is used; the sand should be well graded,
clean, and free from harmful substances; and the water
should be free from undesirable impurities (see APPEN- Plastering
DDC D, p. 270).
If the surface is to be plastered, a 1:3 cement/sand ratio
The mortar for the joints should be prepared with a should be used. A good key must be provided in the
cement/sand ratio of 1:4 by volume to obtain a workable masonry work for the plaster to hold on firmly to pre-
mix; about 23 t’ of water per 50 kg sack of cement vent its crazing or cracking off. For this purpose, all
should be added with a fine spray. This assumes that joints in the masonry should be raked to a depth of 1 cm
the sand is dry. Because any mortar not used after 30 before the mortar has set. Before plaster is applied, the
minutes should be discarded, the quantity mixed each masonry should be brushed to remove all loose dust,
time should be determined accordingly. thoroughly washed with water, and watered for
272 Appendices
24 hours. A 1 cm-thick layer of plaster is then laid on smooth and watertight. A 1:2 cement/sand mortar is
the masonry. Vertical screeds or wooden strips csn be then necessary, with only enough water to make a work-
placed temporarily at regular intervals along the BUT- able mix. The surface of the masonry work is prepared
face. A straight-edge then worked sideways and upward in a manner similar to that required for plastering. ‘fhe
along the screeds ensures sufficient thickness of the joints are then filled in with the mortar and compacted
plaster and a flat surface. The surface is then finished using a pointing trowel.
with a wooden float.
Appendices 273
APPENDIX F
WmRHAMMER
274 Appendices
(1) L ,,,,
)’
p , p, (pcsitive surge)
m p = p, (static pressure, functioa of depth only)
n p < p, (negative surge)
Ig. F.1.
_ _ Movement
_- along a pipe _of
* a Pale Surge
. ..
Caused by a Sudden gate closure (shown exagyerutew.
Appendices 27 5
REFERENCES
The commonly used acronyms included within some of not referred to in tie Sourcebook but of possible
the following references are described under ACRO- interest to readers are included in OTHER
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79. Ueli Meier, Markus Eisenring, and Alex Arter,
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ACRONYMS AND ADDRRSSRS
ASCE American Society of Civil Engineers NRECA National Rural Electric Cooperative
345 East 47th Street Association
New York, NY 10017-2398 International Programs Division
1800 Massachusetts Avenue, NW
ASE Alternative Sources of Energy, Inc. Washington, DC 20036
107 S. Central Avenue
Milaca, MN 56353 NTIS National Technical Information Service
U.S. Department of Commerce
Burec Bureau of Reclamation 5285 Port Royal Road
Attn: D-922 Springfield, VA 22151
P.O. Box 25007
Denver, CO 80225-0007 A’CA Portland Cement Association
5420 Old Orchard Road
GATE German Appropriate Technology Exchange Skokie, Illinois 60077
Postfach 5180
D-6236 Eschborn 1, Fed. Rep. of Germany SKAT Swiss Center for Appropriate Tech;~.o:cqv
VarnbGelstrasse 14
GPO U.S. Government Printing Office CH-9000 St. Gallen, Switzerland
Washington, DC 20402
UNITECH The PNG University of Technology
JTDG Intermediate Technology Development Private Mail Bag
Group Lae, Papua New Guinea
9 King Street
London WCZE 8HN VlTA Volunteers in Technical Assistance
England, U.K. 3815 N. Lynn Street
Arlington, VA 22209
ITIS Intermediate Technology Industrial
Services
M yson House
Railway Terrace
Rugby CV21 3HT
England, U.K.
282 References
INDEX
A page number in bold-face type next to a listing indi- hydropower installations by country can be found in
cates the page on which the definition of that term can OTHER PROJECT DRSCmONS (p. 263).
be found. An index to locations of specific micro-
Index 283
Gear boxes, 194 Needles, 155
Gearing ratio; 192, 206
Generators
electrical, 220-223 Gil-pressure governor, 203
mechanical heat, 198, 241-242 Overflow spillway, 160
Glory-hole spillway (see Shaft spillway) Overspeed, 224 (see also Runawzsy speed)
Governing devices
load controller, 204-205
mechanical, 204 Pelton turbines, 44, 173-177
oil-pressurs governor, 203-204 with draft tube, 57
purpose, 199-200 Penstocks
basic layouts, 49-51, 65
description, 74-77
Head materials, 124-125
measurement of, 21-25 pipe diameter, 125-133
Headrace (see Power canal) wall thickness, 133-136
Heat generator (see Generators, mechanical heat) Phase imbalance, 219, 224
Heat storage coo=, 242-243 Pipe
Hoists, 156-l 57 diameter, 125-133
Hydraulic radius, 19-20, 100-104 thickness, 133-136
Hydrograph, 29-30 Pipe drop, 111
Pipir.a, 83
Pitch circle diameter, 174
Impulse turbine, 171 Power
In-stream turbines (see Water-current turbines) electrical, 220-222
Intakes Power canals
dascription, 67-68 basic layout, 51-52
designs, 84-96 construction, 104-108
location along stream, 52-55 design, 96-104
Inverted siphons, 7 1 drainage, 71, 108-109
designs, 115-116 freeboard and spil!ways, 71, iO+llO
Invcrter, 218-291 profiles, 98-99
Irrigation roughness coefficient, 97-98
integrating with, 53-55 sizing, 99-104
Isolation valve, 75, 190 velocity in, 96-98
Power conduits (see also Power canals, Low-pressure
condi
Jet ratio, 175 component of site layout, 51-52
Joints description, 6%72
in timber, 113-114 Power equation, 4849, 56
Joukovsky’s equation, 134 Power factor, 222
Powerhouses
description, 77-78
kVA, 220-221 designs, 147,150-l 54
location of, 56-57
Pressure losses
Level, 22-23 pipe friction, 126-l 29
Lining of canals, 104-108 pipe turbulence, 129
Load controllers, 202-203 Prossure relief valve, 76
Load factor, 218 Propeller turbines, 44, 182-185
Low-pressure conduits, 71, 118 setting, 57
Pumps as turbines, 44, 185-187
Manning’s equation
for canal flow, 19-20 Rating curve, 21
for pipe flow, 100, 102, 126 Reaction turbine, 171
Marine thrusters, 189 Reducing forces, 145-146
Masonry, 106-107, 272-273 conditions for stability, 146-147
Mean annual flow Right-angle drive turbine, 183,184
estimating for ungaged basins, 33-37 Roughness coefficient
Minimum flow for canals, 97-98
estimating, 37-38 for pipes, 126-127
MPPU, 178 Runaway speed, 174, 206, 223
284 Index
Runner, ?71 Tailrace, 56, 78
Runoff, 34 Thermal expansion, 74, 136-137
“Run-of-rivt-r“ schemes, 64 Thoma sigma, 184, 192
Three phase, 219
Thrustblocks, 75, 144-145
Salt-dilutior. -. .Lhod, 10, 19 Timing belts, 194
Schneider engine, 189 Tirolian intake (see Drop intake)
Seepage, 84, 105 Trashracks and skimmers, 68, 73, 88-91
Segner turbine, 189 Skimmers, 89, 165
Service factor, 193 Trashracks, 85, 88-89, 162-165
Settling basins, 68, 72, 88 Tubular turbines, 183, 185
designs, 166-170 Tunnels, 69
Shaft spillway, 160-161 Turbines (see-- &o specific turbine type)
Sharp-crested weir, 16 impulse and reaction, 171-172
Side intake, 8? miscellaneous, 187-189
Significant figures operation under new conditions, 191-192
meaning, 267-268 setting, 56-57, 184, 192
use in text, 9, 268 specifications, 189-190
Single phase, 219 Turgo turbine, 44, 177-178
Siphon (see also Inverted siphons) with draft tube, 57
intake, 86
spillway, 161-162
Skimmers (see Trashrack and skimmers) Units of measure, 265-266
Sliding gates
designs, 155-l 58
Slope-area method, 10, 19-20 Va!ves (see Gates and valves)
Soil V-belts,-@!3
types, 269 Velocity
compaction of, 104 in a canal, 96-18
Specific mean annual flow, 33 scouring, 98
Specific minimum flow, 37 Velocity-area method, 9, 11-16
Specific speed, 172-173 Velocity-head rod, 13-14
Speed Voltage, 199, 220
generator, 222 Vortices, 120-121, 163
Spillways, 68, 71, 73, 87-88, 109-110
designs, 159-162
Stability, conditions for, 146-147, 150 Water-current turbines, 64, 187-189
Stage-discharge method, 10, 20-21 Water hammer, 75, 133-136, 274-275
Standardized designs, 92-93 Waterwheels, 185
Stilling basin, 82 Wave ve!Tcity, 133, 274
stoplogs, 73 Weir method, 9, 16-19
designs, 154-l 55 Weirs (see Dams and weir)
Storage cookers (see - Heat storage cooker) Well screen, 164
Support piers, 74, 138-140 Wetted area, 109
Surge pressure (see - Water hammer) Wetted perimeter, 100
Surge tank, 76 Wicket gate, 183
Switchgear, 223
PHOTO CREDITS
Dr. M. Abdullah: 10.2, 10.42, 10.44, 10.45, 10.49, 10.52, Arturo Garrido: 6.1
10.53, 10.54 Mike Johnson: 5.46, 5.167, 6.13, 6.14, 6.15, 6.21
Broughton Coburn: 1.4, 5.161 Dale Nafziger: 10.1, 10.11, 10.13, 10.14, 13.15, 10.17,
Andreas Bachmann: 1.5, 1.6, 6.6, 6.2Z1 7.1, 7.2, 7.3 10.20, 10.21, 10.29, 10.34, 10.35, 10.37, 10.38
Peter Garman: 6.19 Robert Yoder: 10.3, 10.4, 10.5, 10.12, 10.23-10.28,
Index 285