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Survey of
Historic Costume
tortora_FM.indd 1 5/21/09 3:01:03 PM

Survey of
Historic C
Phyllis G. Tortora
Queens College of the City University of New York
Keith Eubank
Queens College of the City University of New York
Fairchild Books
New York

c Costume
A History of Western Dress
FIFTH EDITION

Executive Editor: Olga T. Kontzias
Assistant Acquisitions Editor: Amanda Breccia
Editorial Development Director: Jennifer Crane
Assistant Development Editor: Justine Brennan
Associate Art Director: Erin Fitzsimmons
Production Director: Ginger Hillman
Senior Production Editor: Elizabeth Marotta
Copyeditor: Progressive Publishing Alternatives
Photo research: Elizabeth Greenberg and Sarah Silberg
New illustrations: Steve Stankiewicz
Cover design: Erin Fitzsimmons
Cover art: © Craig McDean / Art + Commerce
Back cover art: Copyright The Frick Collection, New York; Young Woman with Servant, Stephen Slaughter, English, 1697–
1765. Photograph courtesy, Wadsworth Atheneum, Hartford. The Ella Gallup Sumner and Mary Caitlin Sumner Collection
Fund; American Folk Art Museum, gift of the Siegman Trust, Ralph Esmerian, trustee, 2001.37.1/Photo by John Parnell.
Text design and layout: Barbara J. Barg
Copyright © 2010
Fairchild Books
All rights reserved. No part of this book covered by the copyright hereon may be reproduced or used in any form or by any
means—graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping, or information storage and retrieval
systems—without written permission of the publisher.
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 2008936655
ISBN: 978-1-56367-806-6
GST R 133004424
Printed in the United States of America
TP08

CONTENTS
Preface xix
Acknowledgments xxi
Some Notes on Using This Book xxv
Chapter One Introduction 1
Part One The A ncient Wo r l d c . 3 0 0 0 b . c . – a . d . 3 0 0 1 3

Chapter Two The Ancient Middle East c. 3500–600 b.c. 19
Chapter Three Crete and Greece c. 2900–300 b.c. 51
Chapter Four Etruria and Rome c. 800 b.c.–a.d. 400 75
Part Two The Middle A g e s c . 3 0 0 – 1 5 0 0 9 9

Chapter Five The Early Middle Ages c. 300–1300 107
Chapter Six The Late Middle Ages c. 1300–1500 145
Part Three The R enaissan c e c . 1 4 0 0 – 1 6 0 0 1 7 5

Chapter Seven The Italian Renaissance c. 1400–1600 181
Chapter Eight The Northern Renaissance c. 1500–1600 203
Part Four Baroque and R o c o c o c . 1 6 0 0 – 1 8 0 0 2 2 9

Chapter Nine The Seventeenth Century 1600–1700 237
Chapter Ten The Eighteenth Century 1700–1790 265
Part Five The Nineteent h Ce n t u r y 1 8 0 0 – 1 9 0 0 2 9 5

Chapter Eleven The Directoire Period and the Empire Period 1790–1820 307
Chapter Twelve The Romantic Period 1820–1850 327
Chapter Thirteen The Crinoline Period 1850–1869 353
Chapter Fourteen The Bustle Period and the Nineties 1870–1900 379
Part Six From the Twen t i e t h t o t h e Tw e n t y - f i r s t Ce n t u r y 1 9 0 0 – 2 0 0 8 4 1 1

Chapter Fifteen The Edwardian Period and World War I 1900–1920 417
Chapter Sixteen The Twenties, Thirties, and World War II 1920–1947 447
Chapter Seventeen The New Look: Fashion Conformity Prevails 1947–1960 495
Chapter Eighteen The Sixties and Seventies: Style Tribes Emerge 1960–1980 529
Chapter Nineteen The Eighties, the Nineties, and the Twenty-first Century
1980–2008 579
Bibliography 652
Credits 659
Index 661

EXTENDED CONTENTS
Preface xix The Family 23

Acknowledgments xxi Fabrics and Cloth Production 23
Some Notes on Using This Book xxv Sources of Evidence about Sumerian Costume 23
Mesopotamian Costume/Sumerian Costume
CHAPTER ONE for Men and Women: c. 3500–2500 b.c. 24
Introduction 1 Costume Components for Men and Women 24
The Origins of Dress 1 Mesopotamian Costume/Later Sumerians and
Limitations to the Design of Garments 2 Babylonians: c. 2500–1000 b.c. 24
Common Themes in Costume History Costume Components for Men/Military Dress:
across Time 3 c. 2500–1000 b.c. 25
Functions of Dress in the Social Context 3 Costume Components for Men/Civilian Dress:
Clothing as a Means of Social Communication 5 c. 2500–1000 b.c. 26
The Historical Context 5 Costume Components for Women:
Cross-Cultural Influences 6 c. 2500–1000 b.c. 26
Geography, the Natural Environment, and Ecology 7 Mesopotamian Costume/Later Babylonians and the
Clothing as an Art Form 7 Assyrians: c. 1000–600 b.c. 27
The Phenomenon of Fashion in Western Dress 8 The Tunic 28
Sources of Evidence for the Study of Historic Costume Components for Men: c. 1000–600 b.c. 28
Costume 9 Costume Components for Men/Military Dress 29
Summary 10 Costume Components for Women:
Notes 11 c. 1000–600 b.c. 29
Selected Readings 11 Mesopotamian Costume for Children:
c. 3500–600 b.c. 30
Part One Egyptian Civilization 30
The Ancient World c. 3000 b.c. – a.d. 300 13 Social Structure 30
Table I.1 Civilizations of the Ancient World 14 Sources of Evidence for the Study of Egyptian
Decorative Arts Table 14 Costume 31
Egyptian Art 31
CHAPTER TWO The Contents of Tombs 31
The Ancient Middle East c. 3500–600 b.c. 19 Egyptian Decorative Motifs 32
Chronology 18 Contributions of Artisans to Costume 32
Historical Background: Mesopotamia 20 Textile Production and Technology 32
Historical Background: Egypt 20 Jewelry 33
Differences in the Development of Egyptian Egyptian Costume: c. 3000–300 b.c. 33
and Mesopotamian Civilizations 21 Costume Terminology 34
Mesopotamian Civilization 22 Table 2.1 Garments Worn by Egyptian Men and
Social Structure 22 Women during Various Historical Periods 34
vii

viii Extended Contents
Egyptian Costume for Men: c. 3000–300 b.c. 35 Greek Costume for Men and Women:
Costume Components for Men 35 650–300 b.c. 62
Contemporary Comments 2.1 35 Table 3.1 Types of Chitons Worn by Greek Men
Egyptian Costume for Women: 3000–300 b.c. 38 and Women 62
Costume Components for Women 38 Costume Components for Men and Women 63
Costume Components for Men and Women 41 Contemporary Comments 3.1 64
Egyptian Costume for Children: 3000–300 b.c. 43 Illustrated Table 3.1 Examples of Hairstyles
Illustrated Table 2.1 Some of the Headdresses and Headdress Worn by Men and Women
Worn in Ancient Egypt 44 in Greece 66
Egyptian Costume for Specialized Occupations 45 Greek Costume for Children: 650–300 b.c. 67
Military Costume 45 Costume Components for Children 68
Religious Costume 45 Greek Costume for Specialized Occupations
Costume for Musicians, Dancers, and Acrobats 45 or Occasions 68
Summary 45 Wedding Dress 68
Themes 45 Contemporary Comments 3.2 69
Visual Summary Table 46 Military Costume 69
Later Survivals of Mesopotamian and Theatrical Costume 70
Egyptian Dress 47 Summary 70
Notes 48 Themes 70
Selected Readings 48 Visual Summary Table 71
Later Survivals of Greek Dress 72
CHAPTER THREE Notes 72
Crete and Greece c. 2900–300 b.c. 51 Selected Readings 73
Chronology 50
Minoan and Mycenaean Civilizations 52 CHAPTER FOUR
Historical Background 52 Etruria and Rome c. 800 b.c.–a.d. 400 75
Social Organization and Material Culture of Minoan Chronology 74
and Mycenaean Civilizations 52 The Etruscans 76
Art and Technology of Minoan and Mycenaean Historical Background 76
Civilizations 53 Social Life of the Etruscans 76
Minoan Costume for Men and Women: Art and Trade of the Etruscans 77
2900–1100 b.c. 53 Etruscan Costume for Men and Women:
Costume Components for Men and Women 54 c. 800–200 b.c. 77
Minoan Costume for Children: 2900–1100 b.c. 57 Costume Components for Men and Women 77
Transitions in the Dominant Styles 57 Etruscan Costume for Children: c. 800–200 b.c. 80
Greek Civilization 57 The Romans 80
Historical Background 57 Historical Background 80
Social Organization of the Greek Civilization 58 Social Life in the Roman Empire 81
Fabrics and Cloth Production 60 Fabrics and Clothing Production 81
Sources of Evidence for the Study of Greek Sources of Evidence for the Study of Roman
Costume 61 Costume 82
Greek Art 61 Roman Costume for Men and Women 83
The Toga 83

Extended Contents ix
Table 4.1 The Appearance and Significance of Byzantine Costume for Men: a.d. 300–1450 110
Various Types of Togas 83 Costume Components for Men 110
Contemporary Comments 4.1 85 Byzantine Costume for Women: a.d. 300–1453 113
Costume Components for Men: Costume Components for Women 113
500 b.c.–a.d. 400 87 Byzantine Costume for Men and Women:
Costume Components for Women: a.d. 300–1450 114
500 b.c.–a.d. 400 87 Costume Components for Men and Women 114
Costume Components for Men and Women: Western Europe from the Fall of the Roman Empire
500 b.c.–a.d. 400 90 to a.d. 900 115
Illustrated Table 4.1 Examples of Hairstyles Historical Background: The Fall of the Roman
and Headdress Worn by Men and Women Empire 115
during the Roman Empire 91 Historical Background: The Merovingian and
Roman Costume for Children: 500 b.c.–a.d. 400 92 Carolingian Dynasties 115
Military Costume for Men during the Roman Sources of Evidence about Costume 116
Empire 92 Costume in Western Europe: Fall of the Roman
Roman Costume for Special Events 93 Empire to a.d. 900 116
The Synthesis 93 The Production of Cloth 116
Bridal Costume 93 Costume for Men: The Merovingian and Carolingian
Religious Garb 93 Dynasties 117
Changes in Costume during the Declining Years Costume Components for Men: The Merovingian
of the Roman Empire 93 Period 117
Summary 94 Costume Components for Men: The Carolingian
Differences between Greek, Etruscan, and Roman Period 117
Costume 94 Contemporary Comments 5.1 118
Themes in Etruscan and Roman Dress 94 Costume for Women: The Merovingian and
Visual Summary Table 95 Carolingian Dynasties 118
Survivals of Etruscan and Roman Dress 95 Costume Components for Women: The Merovingian
Notes 96 Period 118
Selected Readings 96 Costume Components for Women: The Carolingian
Period 119
Part Two Clerical Costume in the Early Middle Ages 119
The Middle Ages c. 300–1500 99 Dress of Priests 119
Decorative Arts Table 104 Monastic Dress 120
Historical Background: The 10th–13th Centuries 121
CHAPTER FIVE The Feudal Monarchies 121
The Early Middle Ages c. 300–1300 107 Political Developments in Europe: 900–1300 122
Chronology 106 The German Dynasties 122
The Byzantine Period c. 339–1453 108 Anglo-Saxon and Norman Britain 123
Historical Background 108 The French Kings 123
Social Organization in the Byzantine Period 109 Factors Related to Developments in Costume 123
Culture, Art, and Technology in the Byzantine The Crusades 123
Period 109 Medieval Castles and Courts 124

Extended Contents
Town Life 124 Fashion Change Becomes Evident 151

Early Indications of Fashion Changes 124 Costume for Men: 14th Century 151
Fabric Production 124 Costume Components for Men: 14th Century 151
Art 125 Costume for Women: 14th Century 155
Costume in the 10th and 11th Centuries 126 Costume Components for Women: 14th Century 155
Costume Components for Men: 10th and 11th Illustrated Table 6.1 Late Middle Ages
Centuries 126 Accessories 156
Costume Components for Women: 10th and 11th Costume for Men and Women: 15th Century 158
Centuries 128 Costume for Men: 15th Century 158
Costume for Men and Women: 12th Century 129 Contemporary Comments 6.2 159
Costume Components for Men: 12th Century 130 Costume for Women: 15th Century 162
Costume Components for Women: 12th Century 131 Illustrated Table 6.2 Evolution and Styles of
Problems of Costume Terminology in the 13th 15th‑Century Headdress for Women 167
Century 132 Costume for Children: 14th and 15th Centuries 168
Contemporary Comments 5.2 133 Dress for Rites of Passage 168
Table 5.1 Old English and French Costume Costume for Specialized Occupations 169
Terms 134 Student Dress 169
Costume in the 13th Century 135 Military Dress 169
Costume Components for Men: 13th Century 135 Summary 170
Costume for Women: 13th Century 137 Themes 170
Accessories of Dress for Men and Women: Visual Summary Table 171
10th–13th Centuries 138 Survivals of Styles from the Late Middle Ages 172
Military Costume 138 Notes 172
Visual Summary Table 140 Selected Readings 173
Summary 141
Themes 141 Part Three
Origins, Developments, and Survivals of Byzantine The Renaissance c. 1400–1600 175
and Early Medieval Styles 141 Decorative Arts Table 178
Notes 142
Selected Readings 143 CHAPTER SEVEN
The Italian Renaissance c. 1400–1600 181
CHAPTER SIX Chronology 180
The Late Middle Ages c. 1300 –1500 145 Historical Background 182
Chronology 144 The Political Organization in Renaissance Italy 182
Historical Background 146 Life in Renaissance Italy 182
Medieval Social Structure 147 The Production and Acquisition of Textiles 183
The Peasant 147 The Cloth Industries in Renaissance Italy 183
The Nobility 147 The Manufacture and Acquisition of Clothing 184
The Bourgeoisie 148 Cross-Cultural Influences from the Middle East 184
Contemporary Comments 6.1 149 Sources of Evidence about Costume 184
Fabrics and Tailors 149 Contemporary Comments 7.1 185
Sources of Evidence for the Study of Costume 150 Costume for Men and Women: 1400–1600 185
Art 150 Costume for Men: 1400–1450 185
Documentary Sources 150 Costume for Women: 1400–1450 185

Extended Contents xi
Costume for Men: 1450–1500 187 Costume for Men: 1515–1550 210
Costume for Women: 1450–1500 189 Costume for Men: 1550–1600 211
Costume for Men: 16th Century 192 Costume for Women: 16th Century 214
Costume for Women: 16th Century 193 Costume for Women: 1500–1530 215
Illustrated Table 7.1 Italian Renaissance: Costume for Women in Germany: 1530–1575 215
Accessories 194 Costume for Women in Other Northern European
Regional Distinctions in Costume for Men and Countries: 1530–1575 216
Women: 15th and 16th Centuries 195 Costume Components for Women: 1575–1600 219
Distinctive Venetian Costume for Women 195 Costume Accessories for Men and Women:
Distinctive Venetian Costume for Men 195 16th Century 220
Contemporary Comments 7.2 196 Illustrated Table 8.1 Northern Renaissance:
Venetian Dress for Officials 197 Accessories 221
Costume for Children During the Italian Costume for Children: 16th Century 223
Renaissance 197 Summary 224
Summary 198 Themes 224
Themes 198 Visual Summary Table 225
Visual Summary Table 199 Survivals of 16th Century Dress 226
Survival of Italian Renaissance Styles 200 Notes 226
Notes 200 Selected Readings 226
Selected Readings 201
Part Four
CHAPTER EIGHT Baroque and Rococo c. 1600–1800 229
The Northern Renaissance c. 1500–1600 203 The Arts During the Baroque and Rococo
Chronology 202 Periods 229
Historical Background 204 Expanding Trade with the Far East 230
Developments in Germany 204 The Cotton Trade with India 231
Developments in Spain 204 The Industrial Revolution 232
Developments in England 205 The Consumer Society and the Acceleration of
Developments in France 205 Fashion Change 232
Factors in the Dissemination of Fashion Notes 233
Information 206 Decorative Arts Table 234
Table 8.1 Royal Intermarriages during the
16th Century 206 CHAPTER NINE
Cross-Cultural Influences from the Middle East 206 The Seventeenth Century 1600–1700 237
Textiles 207 Chronology 236
Changes in Technology 207 Historical Background 238
Decorative Techniques of the 16th Century 207 France 238
Sources of Evidence for the Study of Costume 208 England 239
Art 208 Social Life During the 17th Century 239
Documentary Sources 208 The French Court 239
Actual Garments 208 England 240
Costume for Men and Women: 16th Century 208 Holland 240
Costume for Men: 1500–1515 208 America 240

xii Extended Contents
Some Distinctive Costume Traditions 241 Sources of Information about Costume 270
Puritan Costume 241 The American Colonies in the 18th Century 270
Spanish Costume 242 Urban Clothing Styles 270
Production and Acquisition of Textiles and Working-class and Rural Dress 270
Clothing 242 Some Influences on Costume in the 18th Century
Sources of Evidence of Historic Costume 243 271
Costume for Men: 17th Century 244 Costume for Men: 18th Century 271
Costume for Men: 1625–1650 244 Costume for Men: Up to Mid-18th Century 272
Table 9.1 Terms Describing Men’s Trouser-type Contemporary Comments 10.2 273
Garments: 16th Century to 19th Century 245 Changes in Men’s Costume After the Mid-18th
Costume for Men: 1650–1680 247 Century 274
Contemporary Comments 9.1 249 Costume for Men: After the Mid-18th Century 275
Costume for Men: 1680–1710 250 Illustrated Table 10.1 18th-Century Accessories
Costume for Women: 17th Century 251 278
Costume for Women: 1630–1660 251 Costume for Women: 18th Century 279
Illustrated Table 9.1 17th-century Accessories 252 Costume for Women: 1715–1730 280
Costume for Women: 1660–1680 254 Costume for Women: 1730–1760 281
Contemporary Comments 9.2 257 Other Costume Components for Women:
Costume for Children: 17th Century 258 The 18th Century 284
Costume Components for Children 259 Illustrated Table 10.2 Typical Women’s Hairstyles
Summary 260 and Headdress in the 18th Century 286
Themes 260 Costumes for Active Sports for Men and Women:
Visual Summary Table 261 The 18th Century 287
Survivals of 17th Century Styles 262 Costume for Children: The 18th Century 287
Notes 263 First Half of the 18th Century 287
Selected Readings 263 Second Half of the 18th Century 288
Summary 290
CHAPTER TEN Themes 290
The Eighteenth Century 1700–1790 265 Visual Summary Table 291
Chronology 264 Survivals of 18th Century Dress 292
Historical Background 266 Notes 292
The Arts 266 Selected Readings 293
Social Life in 18th-century France 267
Contemporary Comments 10.1 268 Part Five
Social Life of the Affluent in 18th-century The Nineteenth Century 1800–1900 295
England 268 Historical Background 295
Production and Acquisition of Clothing France 295
and Textiles 269 England 295
Advances in Textile Technology 269 Italy and Austria 295
Home versus Factory Production of Cloth 269 The United States 296
Clothing Manufacture and Sale 269 Industrialization 299

Extended Contents xiii
Cross-Cultural Influences on Fashion 299 CHAPTER TWELVE

Textiles from India 299 The Romantic Period 1820–1850 327
Resumption of Trade with Japan 300 Chronology 326
Morality and Values in the 19th Century 301 Historical Background 328
Dress Reform for Women 302 England 328
Changes in Clothing for Men 302 France 328
The End of an Age 303 The United States 329
Notes 303 Women’s Social Roles and Clothing Styles 330
Decorative Arts Table 304 Manufacture and Acquisition of Clothing and
Textiles 330
CHAPTER ELEVEN Sources of Evidence about Costume 330
The Directoire Period and the Empire Period Costume for Women: The Romantic Period 331
1790–1820 307 Costume for Women: 1820–1835 331
Chronology 306 Costume for Women: 1836–1850 335
Historical Background 308 Illustrated Table 12.1 Examples of Women’s
France: The Revolution and the Directory 308 Hairstyles and Headdress: 1820–1850 337
France: The Empire 310 Costume Components for Women: 1820–1850 338
England 311 Illustrated Table 12.2 Romantic Period:
Contemporary Comments 11.1 312 Accessories 339
The United States 313 Costume for Men: The Romantic Period 340
The Arts and Costume Styles of the Period 313 Costume for Men: 1820–1840 340
The Revolution in Men’s Clothes 314 Costume for Men: 1840–1850 342
Production and Acquisition of Clothing Costume for Men: 1820–1850 343
and Textiles 314 Costume for Children: The Romantic Period 344
Sources of Information about Costume 315 Costume Components for Girls 345
Costume for Women: Directoire and Empire Costume Components for Boys 345
Periods 315 Contemporary Comments 12.1 346
Illustrated Table 11.1 Typical Women’s Hairstyles Clothing for Slaves in North America 347
and Headdress in the Empire Period 318 Summary 348
Costume for Men: Directoire and Empire Themes 348
Periods 319 Visual Summary Table 349
Illustrated Table 11.2 Empire Period: Survivals of Romantic Period Costume Styles 350
Accessories 320 Notes 350
Costume for Children: The Empire Period 323 Selected Readings 351
Costume for Girls 323
Costume for Boys 323 CHAPTER THIRTEEN
Summary 323 The Crinoline Period 1850–1869 353
Themes 323 Chronology 352
Visual Summary Table 324 Historical Background 354
Survivals of Empire Style Costume 324 Worth and the Paris Couture 354
Notes 324 England 354
Selected Readings 325 France 354

xiv Extended Contents
The United States 355 Sources of Evidence about Costume 384

Contemporary Comments 13.1 357 Costume for Women: The Bustle Period,
Production of Clothing: The Sewing Machine 358 1870–1890 385
Early Attempts at Dress Reform: The “Bloomer” General Features of Women’s Costume:
Costume 358 1870–1890 385
Gymnastics for Women 359 Contemporary Comments 14.1 385
Sources of Evidence about Costume 359 Specific Features of Women’s Dress Styles during
Costume for Men and Women: The Crinoline Different Phases of the Bustle Period 387
Period 360 Illustrated Table 14.1 Selected Undergarments for
Costume for Women: 1850–1870 361 Women, Men, and Children: 1870–1900 388
Illustrated Table 13.1 Selected Undergarments for Illustrated Table 14.2 Selected Hats and Hairstyles
Women, Men, and Children: 1850–1870 364 for Women: 1870–1900 394
Illustrated Table 13.2 Typical Women’s Hairstyles Illustrated Table 14.3 Selected Footwear for
and Headdress: 1850–1870 368 Women and Men: 1870–1900 395
Illustrated Table 13.3 Accessories: Crinoline Costume for Women: The Nineties 396
Period, 1850–1870 369 Costume Components for Women 396
Costume for Men: 1850–1870 370 Illustrated Table 14.4 Bustle Period and Nineties
Costume for Children: The Crinoline Period 372 Accessories: 1870–1900 398
Costume for Boys and Girls: 1850–1870 372 Costume for Men: 1870–1900 401
Costume for Boys: After Age 5 or 6 373 Costume for Children: 1870–1900 403
Summary 374 Costume Components for Girls 403
Themes 374 Costume Components for Boys 404
Visual Summary Table 375 Costume for Boys and Girls 404
Survivals of Crinoline Period Costume Styles 376 Table 14.1 Typical Stages in the Acquisition of Adult
Notes 377 Clothing in the Late 19th Century 405
Selected Readings 377 Mourning Costume in the Second Half of the
19th Century 405
CHAPTER FOURTEEN Summary 406
The Bustle Period and the Nineties 1870–1900 379 Themes 406
Chronology 378 Visual Summary Table 407
Historical Background: 1870–1890 380 Survivals of Bustle and Nineties Costume Styles 408
Historical Background: 1890–1900 380 Notes 408
Social Life: 1870–1900 380 Selected Readings 409
Sports for Women 381
The Manufacture and Acquisition of Clothing Part Six
and Textiles 381 From the Twentieth to the Twenty-first Century
Textile Technology 381 1900–2008 411
Ready-to-Wear Clothing 382 Art and Costume 412
Merchandising of Ready-to-Wear 383 Globalization of Fashion 413
The Visual Arts and Costume 383 New Media Depict Dress 413
Aesthetic Dress 383 Decorative Arts Table 414
Art Nouveau 384

Extended Contents xv
CHAPTER FIFTEEN CHAPTER SIXTEEN

The Edwardian Period and World War I The Twenties, Thirties, and World War II
1900–1920 417 1920–1947 447
Chronology 416 Chronology 446
Historical Background 418 Historical Background 448
The United States 418 The Twenties 448
Great Britain and France at the Turn of the Changes in the Social Life of the Twenties 449
Century 418 The Thirties 450
World War I 418 Contemporary Comments 16.1 450
The Effect of the War on Fashions 419 World War II 451
Influences on Fashion 419 Some Influences on Fashions 451
The French Couture and Paul Poiret 419 The Movies 451
Contemporary Comments 15.1 420 Contemporary Comments 16.2 452
Fortuny 421 Royalty and Cafe Society 454
Oriental Influences on Art and Fashion 422 Sports 454
The Changing Social Roles of American Women 422 The Automobile 454
The Automobile 423 Production and Acquisition of Textiles and
American High Society 424 Clothing 454
The Production and Acquisition of Clothing 424 Technological Developments Affecting Fashion 454
Sources of Information About Costume 424 The French Couture 455
Costume for Women: 1900–1920 424 American Designers 457
Costume Components for Women: 1900–1908 424 Table 16.1 Designers of the French Couture:
Illustrated Table 15.1 Selected Undergarments for 1920–1947 458
Women, Men, and Children: 1900–1920 426 Théâtre de la Mode 461
Illustrated Table 15.2 Selected Hairstyles and Hats Art Movements and Their Influence on
for Women: 1900–1920 429 Fashion 462
Illustrated Table 15.3 Selected Examples of Art Deco 462
Footwear for Women: 1900–1920 430 Surrealism 462
Illustrated Table 15.4 Accessories: 1900–1920 431 Sources of Information about Costume 462
Costume for Women: 1918–1920 436 Illustrated Table 16.1 Selected Undergarments
Costume for Men: 1900–1920 437 for Women, Men, and Boys: 1920–1947 464
Costume for Children: 1900–1920 441 Illustrated Table 16.2 Selected Hairstyles and Hats
Costume for Girls 441 for Women: 1920–1947 468
Costume for Boys 442 Costume for Women: 1930–1947 469
Costume for Boys and Girls 442 Illustrated Table 16.3 Selected Examples of
Summary 443 Footwear for Women: 1920–1947 471
Themes 443 Costume for Women: 1920–1947 474
Survivals of Edwardian and World War I Styles 443 Illustrated Table 16.4 Accessories: 1920–1947
Visual Summary Table 444 479
Notes 445 Costume for Men: 1920–1947 480
Selected Readings 445 Costume for Children: 1920–1947 487

xvi Extended Contents
Costume for Girls 487 Illustrated Table 17.2 Typical Hats for Women:
Costume for Boys 487 1947–1960 515
Costume for Boys and Girls 488 Illustrated Table 17.3 Selected Examples of
Illustrated Table 16.5 Children’s Clothing Styles: Popular Footwear: 1947–1960 516
1920–1938 489 Illustrated Table 17.4 Accessories: 1947–1960 517
Costume for the Teenage Market 490 Signs of Silhouette Changes: 1954–1960 518
Summary 490 Costume for Men: 1947–1960 519
Themes 490 Clothing for Active Sports 522
Visual Summary Table 491 Costume for Children: 1947–1960 523
Survivals of Styles of the 1920s and 1930s 492 Costume for Infants and Preschool Children 523
Notes 492 Costume Components for Girls 523
Selected Readings 493 Illustrated Table 17.5 Children’s Clothing Styles:
1947–1960 524
CHAPTER SEVENTEEN Costume for Boys 524
The New Look: Fashion Conformity Prevails Costume for Boys and Girls 524
1947–1960 495 Summary 525
Chronology 494 Themes 525
Historical Background 496 Survival of New Look Styles 525
International Developments: 1947–1960 496 Visual Summary Table 526
The United States: 1947–1960 497 Notes 527
Influences on Fashion 499 Selected Readings 527
The Silent Generation Moves to the Suburbs 499
Fashion Influences from the Young 499 CHAPTER EIGHTEEN
The Impact of Television 500 The Sixties and Seventies: Style Tribes Emerge
Internationalism 500 1960–1980 529
Production and Acquisition of Clothing and Chronology 528
Textiles 502 Historical Background 530
The Fabric Revolution 502 Europe and the Soviet Union 530
The Changing Couture 502 The Middle East 530
The American Mass Market 504 Africa and the End of Colonialism 530
Table 17.1 Influential Paris-Based Designers, The Emergence of Japan as an Economic Power 530
1947–1960 504 The United States 531
New Centers of Fashion Design 505 The Impact of Social Change on Fashion 535
Costume for Women: 1947–1960 505 Style Tribes and Street Styles 535
Table 17.2 Some Major American Fashion Designers Some Style Tribes of 1960–1980 535
Who Came to Prominence during World War II The Women’s Movement 538
and Were Important in the 1950s 506 The Civil Rights Movement 539
Style Features of the New Look 507 Other Influences in Fashion 539
Costume for Women: 1947–1954 507 The White House Influences Styles 539
Contemporary Comments 17.1 508 Table 18.1 Some Media Influences on Fashion:
Women, Men, and Boys: 1947–1960 509 Political Events 541

Extended Contents xvii
The Space Age 541 CHAPTER NINETEEN

The Fine Arts 542 The Eighties, the Nineties, and the Twenty-first
Ethnic Looks 543 Century 1980–2008 579
The Changing Fashion Industry 543 Chronology 578
Increasing Variety in Fashion Segments 543 Historical Background: International 580
Attempts to Curb Fashion Changes 544 The Cold War Ends 580
Changes in Fashion Design 544 Progress Continues toward European Union 580
Contemporary Comments 18.1 545 The Middle East 580
Labeling and Licensing 546 Japanese Economic Influences 581
Designers of Men’s Clothing 546 Historical Background: United States 582
Costume for Women: 1960–1980 546 Political and Economic Developments 582
Table 18.2 Influential Designers in Paris and Other Energy and Environmental Issues 583
Fashion Centers: 1960–1980 547 The Changing American Family 585
Costume for Women: 1960–1974 550 Changes in the Roles of Women 586
Illustrated Table 18.1 Selected Undergarments The Computer Revolution 586
for Women and Men: 1960–1980 551 The New Immigrants 587
Illustrated Table 18.2 Typical Hats and Hairstyles AIDS 588
for Women: 1960–1980 558 The Fashion Industry Undergoes Changes 589
Illustrated Table 18.3 Selected Examples Table 19.1 Some Style Tribes and Their Impact on
of Popular Footwear for Women and Men: Mainstream Fashion 590
1960–1980 559 Postmodernism 592
Illustrated Table 18.4 Accessories: Elements of the Fashion System 592
1960–1980 560 The Role of Haute Couture in the 1980s and
The Introduction of the Midi: 1970–1974 561 1990s 593
Changes in Costume for Women: 1974–1980 562 Ready-to-Wear 594
Contemporary Comments 18.2 563 Table 19.2 Some Prominent Designers
Costume for Men: 1960–1980 567 Working in Paris and Other Fashion Centers:
Costume for Children: 1960–1980 572 1980–2008 596
Infants and Toddlers 572 Changes in the Production and Retailing of
Preschool and School-Age Children 572 Apparel 598
Costume for Girls 572 Table 19.3 Some American Designers Who Became
Illustrated Table 18.5 Children’s Clothing Styles: Prominent in the Period 1980–2008 600
1960–1980 573 The Origins of Major Fashion Trends of
Costume for Boys 574 1980–2008 602
Costume for Boys and Girls 574 Retro Fashions 602
Summary 574 Contemporary Comments 19.1 603
Themes 574 Various Social Groups Influence Fashion 604
Visual Summary Table 575 Current Events 607
Survivals of Styles of 1960–1980 576 The Media as Fashion Influences 608
Notes 576 Table 19.4 Some Media Influences on Fashion:
Selected Readings 576 1980–2008 609
Influences from the Fine Arts 610

xviii Extended Contents
Demographic Changes 610 Costume Components for Men: 1974–2008 635

Contemporary Comments 19.2 611 Costume for Children: 1980–2008 641
The Trend to Casual Dress 612 Infants and Preschool-Age Children 641
High-Tech Fabrics 612 School-Age Children: Trends Affecting Boys and
Contemporary Comments 19.3 614 Girls 642
Fashionable Fabrics 615 Costume Components for Girls 643
Sports and Activewear 615 Costume Components for Boys 643
Costume Components for Women: 1980–1995 616 Illustrated Table 19.5 Children’s Clothing Styles:
Women and Men: 1980–2008 619 Summary 646
Illustrated Table 19.2 Typical Hairstyles Visual Summary Table 647
and Headcoverings for Women and Men: New Views of Fashion 648
1980–2008 624 Notes 650
Illustrated Table 19.3 Selected Examples Selected Readings 651
of Popular Footwear for Women, Men,
and Children: 1980–2008 626 Bibliography 652
Costume Components for Women: 1995–2008 627 Credits 659
Illustrated Table 19.4 Accessories: Index 661
1980–2008 629

PREFACE
W
ith each new edition of a book some ele- artists of the era. Taken together, these new color fea-
ments of that book change. And those tures will help the reader enter more fully into these
changes may provide an opportunity to periods of Western history.
focus on some aspect that adds to the usefulness of Dress of each era must be viewed within the con-
the publication. Survey of Historic Costume has, from text of the period. To assist readers who may have a
its beginnings, taken seriously the need to accompany limited background in history, a brief summary of the
the text with appropriate illustrations. The history of major historical developments related to the chapter
costume is in major part a visual history. In this fifth is provided. Clothing is a part of the basic equipment
edition, the major change is the incorporation of full for everyday life, and so in each chapter brief note is
color throughout the book. Although a separate color made of some of the important aspects of the life of
section has been a feature of previous editions, having the people of the time. Where the arts, specific indi-
the color illustrations throughout the book enriches viduals, events, or societal values can be seen to influ-
the text and the concepts. ence styles, these are discussed. The technology and
Survey of Historic Costume is intended for use as a economy of the production and distribution of fabrics
basic text for readers who desire an overview of the his- often influence clothing; therefore, changes in tech-
tory of costume in the West. We continue to empha- nology for the making of cloth and clothes and in
size A History of Western Dress so that readers will rec- the economic systems of production and distribution
ognize that the book focuses on historic costume in are noted where appropriate. As the fashion industry
the Western world and makes no attempt to survey the becomes more complex in the 20th century, changes
vast topic of historic costume in all parts of the world. in its organization and function are stressed.
Our purpose is to present a survey of this vast subject After the setting has been delineated, specific styles
rather than an infinitely detailed picture. At the same of each period worn by men, by women, and by chil-
time, it is our intention to make that picture as com- dren are described. Organization and contents are par-
plete as possible within the limitations of space. allel in all chapters, and all elements of dress, ranging
All chapters after the introduction of chapter 1 begin from undergarments to accessories, are included for
with a chronology of important events during the time every period. In this way a rather detailed picture of
period covered in the chapter. A new element in this costume can be provided even within the space limita-
edition is the inclusion of illustrations that relate to tions imposed on a single volume.
aspects of some of the items in the chronology. These We also believe that it is important for readers to
photographs are joined to the relevant events with have depictions of costume from original source mate-
a dotted line. Six other groups of photographs are rials available not only to illustrate some of the unfamil-
located in Decorative and Fine Arts Tables, which appear iar terms, but also to supplement the general, survey
at the end of each of the six parts into which the book approach of the text. The captions of the illustrations
is divided. These illustrations provide a sense of the not only identify various parts of the costume and pro-
aesthetic context that surrounded individuals living at vide the contemporary names for elements of the styles,
this time. The objects shown range from textiles of the but also identify the aspects of the pictures that provide
period, furniture, domestic and monumental architec- supporting evidence to the costume historian of the
ture to sculpture and paintings by some of the greatest nature of costume at this period. The material in the
xix

xx Preface
captions of illustrations is as important as the contents tume and also to provide some of the detailed analyses
of the book and should be read as carefully as the text. of costume topics that are not possible in a text that
Tables and illustrated tables are utilized throughout surveys so broad a topic.
the book in an attempt to summarize material briefly A bibliography at the end of the book lists some of
and effectively. Each chapter includes at least one box the many books written about historic costume, orga-
in which comments from contemporary sources on nized by topic. This bibliography does not duplicate
some aspect of clothing are reproduced. These quo- materials listed at the end of each chapter, nor does
tations are intended to provide readers with a flavor it include books dealing with techniques of theatrical
of the attitudes toward clothing that individuals of the costuming or sociocultural aspects of dress.
period held as well as contemporary descriptions. Several tools have been provided for readers. Each
Historic costume reference books and materials chapter contains a chronology listing important dates
(particularly for some of the early periods where actual and events in the order in which they occurred. Many
records are confusing, contradictory, and scarce) show of the words for items of historic costume are not
marked differences in terminology and content. We English terms. Where the pronunciation of these
have attempted to present as accurate a summary as terms is not obvious, a phonetic pronunciation of the
possible and one that we hope is free from the tendency word is provided in parentheses just after the word.
to present largely apocryphal stories of the origins of New features in this edition are many. The text and
styles as fact. When such material is introduced, it is illustrations have been updated to 2008. The results
clearly labeled as questionable or as legend. of recent research have been incorporated in the text
In this text, the terms clothes and clothing are syn- where they are relevant. New illustrations have been
onymous and mean wearing apparel. Dress is a general added throughout. The most important of these are
term that includes not only garments, but also aspects the Visual Summary Tables that present a visual and
of personal appearance that can be changed, such as verbal summary for each chapter. The idea of recur-
grooming. Style is the predominant form of dress of ring themes or concepts in dress introduced in the
any given period or culture. Styles may persist for very third edition continues, as do the sections that identify
long or shorter periods of time. Fashion is synonymous and illustrate later revivals of styles from each period.
with style after the latter part of the Medieval Period but The index is organized so that it can be utilized as
implies styles of relatively short duration. Costume is a glossary of terms. Terms printed in boldface type are
used as a synonym for dress by those who work in the defined within the text; the page numbers printed in
museum field and by many scholars who study historic bold type immediately after these words in the index
dress. Some scholars prefer the use of the word dress are the pages on which these words are defined or
because to many people costume means dress used in explained.
the theater or in dance or for masquerade. Two supplementary publications are available for
Bibliographies at the end of each chapter are those using this book as an academic textbook. One is
intended to serve three purposes. They list books that an Instructor’s Guide, the other is a PowerPoint. Both
contain a good cross section of illustrations of original can be obtained from the publisher. The Instructor’s
source materials for costumes of the period covered in Guide provides information about sources of DVD
that chapter. They identify books that provide a more and video materials that complement and amplify this
complete picture of life in the period covered so that book and Web sites that provide information about
those who desire can learn more about the period. costume, as well as suggested teaching strategies and
Finally, periodical articles dealing with costume or evaluative techniques.
related topics are cited. The purpose of including such The PowerPoint program is an interactive visual
articles is to introduce students to some of the jour- presentation. Beginning with early civilizations in
nals that are sources of further information about cos- Mesopotamia and Egypt and ending in 2008, the

Preface xxi
program parallels the organization of the book as it work of Heard. For the 16th through the 19th centu-
reviews the geographic, economic, and artistic context ries, the several volumes of handbooks on costume by
for each culture and period in the history of Western the Cunningtons, and that by Mrs. Cunnington and
dress. Visuals provide users with a wide array of pri- Alan Mansfield for the 20th century, were among the
mary source images from all periods in combination most useful of the materials cited. Not only were they
with drawings and diagrams showing the structure of a superlative source for detailed information, but they
clothing, and photographs of actual garments. A spe- were also a helpful tool for cross-checking conflicting
cial feature is the inclusion of links to the Internet for information.
additional visuals and further research and study. For menswear of the 20th century, the Esquire
Encyclopedia of 20th Century Men’s Fashion was by
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS far the most useful secondary source an author or
No person, even after a lifetime of study, can be researcher could find with its wealth of detailed infor-
expected to be knowledgeable in all aspects of historic mation quoted directly from the fashion press and its
costume solely on the basis of his or her own research. many illustrations from the periods covered in this
Fortunately there are many individuals who have spe- book. For women’s fashions in the 20th century, prob-
cialized in certain countries or periods and whose ably the most extensive reference prepared to date is
work has been invaluable in the preparation of a broad Vogue History of 20th Century Fashion. For information
survey of this type. It is important that these sources about fashion designers, Who’s Who in Fashion, fourth
be given special acknowledgment beyond a citation in edition, by Anne Stegemeyer was invaluable.
footnotes or a listing in the bibliography. Underclothing has been thoroughly illustrated
Elizabeth Barber’s books on prehistoric textiles, and explored in the books by C. W. Cunnington, Nora
which contain both the results of the most recent Waugh, and Elizabeth Ewing. Waugh’s work is espe-
scholarship and her interesting insights, were very use- cially helpful in its inclusion of quotations from the
ful. For materials dealing with costume of the ancient literature of various periods concerning different types
world, the books of Mary Houston and Lillian Wilson of undergarments. For some specialized material in
were of inestimable help, while the work of Gillian the area of bathing costume, Claudia Kidwell’s mono-
Vogelsang-Eastwood on Egyptian dress and of Judith graph was useful, as was the work she and Marjorie
Sebesta and Larissa Bonfante (editors) on Roman Christman did on American ready-to-wear.
dress added new information. The work of Larissa The works of François Boucher and Millia Davenport
Bonfante served as a basis for much of the material on should be noted for their wealth of illustrative mate-
Etruscan costume and related Greek styles. rial drawn from sources from the various periods,
For the Medieval Period, Joan Evans’s work on although we recommend that readers approach these
costume of the Middle Ages and the fine handbook books armed with a magnifying glass.
by Phillis and Cecil Willet Cunnington were invalu- A number of scholars have explored the many com-
able. Goddard’s work on French costume of the 11th plex changes that fashion has undergone in the 20th
and 12th centuries also provided useful information, and 21st centuries. We note particularly the work of
as did works by Piponnier and Mane and by Koslin Ted Polhemus, Amy de la Haye, and Cathie Dingwall
and Snyder. A recent addition to scholarship about on “style tribes,” Diana Crane’s insightful work on the
the Middle Ages that is helpful in understanding the contemporary fashion system, as well Valerie Steele’s
beginnings of fashion change is Sarah-Grace Heller’s corpus of work.
Fashion in Medieval France. Books on subjects related to fashion and fashion
Elizabeth Birbiri’s fine study of Italian Renaissance design in the recent past have proliferated. There are
costume provided not only detailed information but too many to cite specifically.
a wealth of excellent illustrative materials, as did the

xxii Preface
Having begun by citing some of the books to which of America have consistently provided settings for
we are indebted, we also acknowledge libraries that the reporting of new research and the interchange
were especially helpful from the first edition to this edi- of ideas with colleagues from around the world, and
tion: the Costume Institute Library of the Metropolitan these opportunities to hear about the latest scholar-
Museum of Art, the Pierpont Morgan Library in ship have been much appreciated.
New York City, the research library of the New York A number of anonymous reviewers had offered
Public Library, the Queens College Library, the Port suggestions over the many years during which the
Washington Public Library, the library of the Fashion first edition was developed, and their input continues
Institute of Technology, Alderman Library and Darden to influence subsequent editions. Prior to publication
Graduate School of Business Administration Library, of the first edition, Elizabeth Ann Coleman, curator,
University of Virginia, the Charlottesville branches of author, and scholar, did a careful reading and made
the Jefferson-Madison Regional Library, the Briarcliff excellent suggestions to the chapters on the 19th and
Public Library, the Westchester Public Library system, 20th centuries.
and the library of Westchester Community College. We express grateful thanks, also, to the many users
Some individuals also deserve special recognition. and readers of previous editions who have made help-
The late Vincent Tortora took many of the photographs ful suggestions for revisions. Among those who have
used in this and previous editions and also reviewed consistently offered sound advice are included Patricia
and corrected phonetic pronunciations. His encour- Warner of the University of Massachusetts at Amherst,
agement and contributions made this book possible. Patricia Cunningham of the Ohio State University, and
We missed his assistance in this edition. Linda Welters of the University of Rhode Island, who
Thanks to Nan Mutnick, who assisted with the not only offered valuable critiques and suggestions,
research about twenty-first century fashionable dress. but willingly shared resources. Other readers selected
Don Kurka, artist and Emeritus Professor, University by the publisher were also very helpful.
of Tennessee, offered invaluable advice on illustrative Working with Fairchild Books was, as always,
material for the fine arts pages for the 20th and 21st cen- a pleasure. Sincere appreciation is due to Olga T.
turies. We appreciate the willingness of designer Rob Kontzias, Executive Editor, who once again smoothed
Hillestad, who provided photographs of his fine work. the way for this project. Elizabeth Marotta, Senior
We are also grateful that the Huntington Historical Production Editor, always displayed cheerful effi-
Society, Huntington, New York, has continued to per- ciency and skill as she facilitated a variety of tasks.
mit reproduction of images from its collection. Other Because the new art is such an important part of this
important assistance in finding illustrative material edition we especially want to acknowledge the major
came from the Cleveland Museum, the Metropolitan efforts of Erin Fitzsimmons, Associate Art Director;
Museum of Art Photographic Services Department, Elizabeth Greenberg, Photo Researcher; and Sarah
and Jeffrey Ryan of the Museum of Modern Art. We Silberg, Photo Researcher, in searching for and locat-
express gratitude to the New York Public Library for ing the illustrations that add so much to this book.
maintaining the superlative picture collection that is Claire King designed, crafted, and produced the hand-
available to researchers. Dover Publications has been some PowerPoint program, a valuable supplement to
very generous in permitting reproduction of images this text.
from its books.
We cannot thank individually all of our colleagues 2009 Phyllis Tortora
and friends who contributed in many ways, but we Keith Eubank
would like to note that the International Textile and Briarcliff Manor, New York, and
Apparel Association (ITAA), and the Costume Society Charlottesville, Virginia

SOME NOTES ON USING THIS BOOK
H
umans select the clothing they wear for an opening page on which a chronology summarizes
many reasons. When one studies the dress important events, developments in the fine or applied
of various historical periods one may focus arts, and other developments relative to costume his-
on any or all of a variety of aspects. For some individu- tory. This chronology is accompanied by photographs
als, it is the item of costume itself that is important: illustrating selected elements on the timeline. Opposite
How did it look? Of what materials was it constructed? the chronology page is an illustration typical of the
How was it worn? For others the object itself is of lesser period and a brief paragraph about the chapter con-
importance. Instead, the interest lies in its relation- tents. Chapter textual material begins by providing a
ship to the world in which it was worn. What symbolic brief summary of historical developments in the period
meaning did it have? What status did it confer? How under study. Where those periods extend for thousands
does it reflect its times? Or, it may be that aesthetic of years, this summary is written in very broad strokes.
aspects are foremost in the mind of the reader who With shorter periods, especially those from the recent
may be viewing dress as an art form. past, the picture is presented in more detail. Following
For the most part, one looks at costume for some the setting of historical context, we introduce those
combinations of these reasons. The task of a text of sociocultural, artistic, political, economic, and/or tech-
this kind, a survey of the subject, is to attempt to sat- nological developments of the period that are relevant
isfy the needs of all readers. In doing so, some depth to or have influenced costume.
is necessarily sacrificed. From this introduction to the Each chapter also includes one or more readings
topic, individuals can go on to pursue their special from contemporary sources about some aspect of
interests more intensively, and we have provided lists dress. From these materials, readers should be able to
of resources in each chapter as well as an extensive get a glimpse of attitudes and values about clothing as
bibliography at the end of the book. These should they were expressed by individuals of that period.
enable readers to move beyond this survey to a more A detailed presentation of the specifics of costume
specialized look at areas of particular interest. for each period for men, women, and children follows
The first chapter of the book provides a general the contextual materials. These details begin with a
introduction to dress, to theories about its origins, description of the silhouette or predominant lines.
and to its functions. Common themes (recurring or From silhouette, the reader moves on to a comprehen-
unifying subjects or ideas) that can be seen in many sive review of types of clothing in the period under
costume periods are identified and discussed. Readers study.
will encounter many of these themes in subsequent Each chapter ends with a summary that identi-
chapters. fies some of the themes that are most evident in that
To guide readers we have organized each of the chapter, as well as a discussion of revivals of style ele-
Chapters 2 through 19 in much the same way. The book ments that are evident in later periods. To make these
is divided into six parts, and each part is introduced not examples more concrete, we have added an illustra-
only with some historical background but also ends tion showing one example of a twentieth or twenty-
with a two-page Decorative and Fine Arts Table, depicting first century design that has been inspired by some
a wide range of the arts of the period. Each chapter has aspect of dress important during the period.
xxiii

xxiv Some Notes on Using This Book
In any work dealing with costume, the illustra- By comparing a Visual Summary Table from one chap-
tions are particularly important. This work contains ter to that of previous and/or subsequent chapters,
several different types of illustrations. In the body of changes of fashions over time should be clear.
each chapter, illustrations come as much as possible The aforementioned list of references can lead
from works of art, drawings, or, photographs made readers to additional illustrations of the period from
at the time being discussed. Where such material is primary source materials, books that illuminate the
not readily available, redrawings are based on original sociocultural context of the period more completely,
sources or work by scholars. and some research, scholarly, or other writings about
Beginning in Chapter 6, there are Illustrated some narrower aspect of costume in this period.
Tables that depict important accessory items in addi- The index has been organized for use as a glossary
tion to illustrated tables of footwear and headwear. of terms. Immediately after each term in the index is
Photographs of works of art from early periods are a page notation in boldface italic type. Readers will
often difficult to interpret; therefore, visual sum- find a definition of this term on that page. Words that
maries that consist of clear line drawings have been are defined are printed in boldface type in both the
added at the end of all chapters. When compared to index and the text. The themes in the chapters are in
the photographs illustrating the chapters, these draw- small capital letters in both the text and index. Also,
ings should make it easier to understand what scholars as an aid to readers, when new terms for which the
believe the silhouette and construction of garments to pronunciation is not clear are introduced in the text,
have been. Visual Summary Tables consist of brief ver- a phonetic rendering of the pronunciation is provided
bal summaries of the major styles within each period in parentheses after the word.
along with a sketch of typical styles. These tables serve Our objective throughout has been to provide a
as a summary for the period covered in the chapter comprehensive survey of historic costume in the
and are intended to clarify the duration and features of Western world, one that can serve as a basis for look-
the various fashion trends in each century or decade. ing at dress from a variety of perspectives.

CHRONOLOGY
2900–2100 b.c.
Early Minoan period
2000 b.c.
Development of the city of Knossos
2100–1600 b.c.
Middle Minoan period
1600–1100 b.c.
Late Minoan period
1571–1521 b.c.
Minos, legendary ruler of Crete
c. 1450 b.c.
Eruption of volcano on the island of Thera, (now called Santorini),
destroying Cretan cities, including Knossos
1400–1200 b.c.
Domination by Myceneans
1200–750 b.c.
Dark Age of Greece
776 b.c.
First Olympic games in Greece
c. 650–480 b.c.
Archaic period
500–323 b.c.
Classical Age
Flowering of Greek philosophy, art, drama, literature
356–323 b.c.
Alexander the Great
after 323 b.c.

Hellenistic period
Decline of Greek power
tortora_ch03.indd 50 5/21/09 3:18:30 PM

c . 2 9 0 0 – 3 0 0 b.c.
CHAPTER THREE
Crete and Greece
T
he remains of Minoan Civilization can be found on the Mediterranean
island of Crete, whereas traces of the Mycenaean Civilization that
succeeded them are found on the mainland, which is now part of the
modern country of Greece. The unique dress of these early peoples did not
survive the Dark Ages that preceded the Archaic Greek Period. The culture
of the Classical Period that followed influenced the arts, philosophy, and
political thought of many later periods in Western world history. Likewise,
the styles of Greek Classical period dress have continued to inspire design
up to the present time.
51

52 PART ONE The Ancient World
MINOAN AND MYCENAEAN about 200 years earlier than the fall of Crete and it is
C I V I L I Z AT I O N S now thought that the Mycenaeans probably invaded
H istorical B ac k gro u nd and overcame the Minoans.
On the narrow island of Crete in the eastern The Mycenaean civilization extended throughout
Mediterranean, another civilization flourished over Greece, centered in more than 300 towns. The towns
much the same period of time as that of the Egyptians spread out around the palaces, which each king tried
and Mesopotamians. Named for their legendary king, to make a monument to his power and glory. The pal-
Minos, the Minoan people enjoyed peace and pros- aces were decorated with magnificent frescoes of great
perity from about 2900 to 1450 b.c. and developed artistic and technical quality. The remains of these
an elegant culture. The Minoans were a prosperous towns reveal works of architecture and large-scale
seafaring people who carried on an active trade with engineering projects, which so astounded later gen-
Egypt, Syria, Sicily, and even Spain. The Minoan peo- erations of Greeks that they thought the walls of the
ple are depicted in the wall paintings of Egypt; their Mycenaean cities and palaces had been built by giants.
pottery and other traces of their contact with foreign Other sources of information about the Mycenaeans
lands have been discovered in Asia Minor, mainland include grave sites in which the artifacts of gold and
Greece, and islands in the Aegean Sea. Their cities had silver reveal a wealthy and sophisticated civilization.
no fortifications because they depended on their fleet At the end of the 13th century, the mysterious “Sea
for protection. The pleasure-loving, secure life of the People” (whose origins are not known by historians)
Minoan people was caught by their artists in delicate, devastated the eastern Mediterranean area and ruined
brightly colored frescoes that have been found on the trade in a series of piratical raids. Many Mycenaean cit-
walls of excavated palaces in Crete and on the island ies and towns suffered. The people were driven within
of Thera. The crowning achievement of Crete was the the city walls for safety while their houses outside
palace of Knossos. Its many rooms gave rise to the the fortifications were destroyed. Mycenae survived
legend that a labyrinth under the palace housed a fear- another century before it was destroyed, probably by
some creature, half man and half bull, that devoured the Dorians, invaders from the north. Some settle-
prisoners. ments were abandoned because they had depended
Sir Arthur Evans, the English archeologist who on trade that no longer existed. Throughout Greece
first revealed the rich civilization of Crete, divided the population declined. Among the Mycenaean
Minoan history into three main periods: Early Minoan cities, Athens survived although it was somewhat
(c. 2900–2100 b.c.), Middle Minoan (c. 2100–1600 impoverished. At the beginning of the 13th century
b.c.), and Late Minoan (c. 1600–1100 b.c.). During b.c., Greece entered a Dark Age about which little is
most of the Middle Minoan period, the Minoans known; the Minoan civilization disappeared at about
maintained political control not only over Crete, but the same time.
also over what is today mainland Greece. The main-
land people, named for their most powerful city-state, S O C I A L O R G A N I Z AT I O N A N D
Mycenae, gradually grew stronger. By about 1400 M AT E R I A L C U LT U R E O F M I N O A N
b.c., in a reversal of political control, the Mycenaeans A N D M Y C E N A E A N C I V I L I Z AT I O N S
(My-seh-ne'-ans) had come to dominate Crete and the Evidence about the organization and structure of
Minoan people. Archeologists had believed that this Minoan and Mycenaean society is fragmentary.
reversal of power probably resulted from a volcanic Apparently the Minoans had what amounted to a two-
eruption on the island of Thera that caused earth- class society, with the ruling classes separated from
quakes, fires, and tidal waves that wrecked Cretan cit- the common people by a great gulf. No genuine mid-
ies. Recent discoveries, however, place this eruption dle class developed in ancient Greece.

CHAPTER THREE Crete and Greece 53
Women occupied a higher place in society than in Men’s costume is more often shown on wall paintings
most early cultures. They enjoyed equality with men, than in statuary. Many of the wall paintings have been
and they were not secluded in the household but par- restored, with details reconstructed from fragments of
ticipated with men in public festivals. They engaged the original paintings, so that inaccuracies may have
in athletics, often joining men in a favorite Minoan been incorporated into the restorations.
sport, vaulting over bulls. The position of women in
Minoan civilization was an exception in the ancient TEXTILE PRODUCTION AND TECHNOLOGY
world, possibly reflecting the importance of female Barber (1994) describes a Minoan village in which
deities. The major figure in Minoan religion was the evidence has been uncovered for spinning, weaving,
“mother goddess.” At the same time, unlike Egypt and dyeing both linen and wool textiles. Minoan wall
where queens did rule as pharaohs in some periods, paintings and other art forms such as clay figurines
the rulers of Crete were invariably men. depict brightly colored, elaborately patterned gar-
For the wealthy standards of material comfort were ments. Barber’s (1991) careful analysis of evidence
high. Several palaces have been excavated and their about Minoan textiles shows that many of the design
remains reveal that the private apartments in the pal- motifs seen in Minoan art could have been woven eas-
ace were well lighted, decorated with wall paintings ily. Many others, more difficult and time-consuming,
(frescos), and even had running water piped into are also technically possible with the types of looms
bathrooms. in use. A few could have been achieved only by tapes-
The Mycenaeans imitated many aspects of Minoan try weaving, by embroidery, or by painting on textiles.
decoration and styles, but their social organization Color was used lavishly, and skill in dyeing textiles
seems to have differed somewhat. Little is known must have been well developed.
of the manner of life of the ordinary citizen. Wealth Egyptian wall paintings of traders dressed in
apparently was concentrated in the king’s court. There Minoan garments provide evidence of trade between
was a lesser nobility and a large group of lower-class Egypt and Crete. Archeological evidence shows that
craftsmen, peasants, and shepherds. chemicals used to fix dyes on linen were imported to
Crete. A seafaring people, the Minoans undoubtedly
A rt and T echnology of M inoan traveled widely around the Mediterranean trading
and M ycenaean C ivilizations their textiles for other goods.
ART AS A SOURCE OF INFORMATION
ABOUT COSTUME MINOAN COSTUME FOR MEN
As a result of the close contacts between Mycenaeans AND WOMEN: 2900–1100 b.c.
and Minoans, the styles of clothing utilized by both In commenting on many of the objects from the early
groups were essentially the same from the Middle Greek civilizations that archeologists have found, a
Minoan period until the Later Minoan period. Most Greek archeologist George Mylonas (1966) said “. . .
of the evidence for costume during the Minoan civi- these may be likened to the illustrations of a picture
lization comes from the statuary and wall paintings book for which the scholar must provide the text.”
discovered in Crete. Some frescoes and statuary of the This text, however, can be widely divergent in its inter-
period have also been found in mainland Greece. pretations and highly subjective. Precisely the same
The costume of the small statuettes of Minoan god- comment can be made about the representations of
desses and priestesses is depicted in good detail. The costume from the Minoan period. The lack of any
dress of these statues has been taken to be characteris- body of literature, legal texts, or religious writings and
tic of the dress of upper-class women. Wall paintings even the fragmentary nature of many of the paintings
of general scenes of Minoan life confirm these details. from this period leave the costume historian at a loss

appearance of a garment depends very much on the

fibers and fabrics used. She criticizes efforts that did
not use textile fibers and fabrics of the same types that
would have been used by the Minoans.
C ost u me C omponents
for M en and W omen
GARMENTS
The garment worn closest to the skin was the loincloth,
a fitted garment that covered much the same area as
a pair of modern athletic briefs. A similar costume
(called the perizoma in Greek) was worn by Greeks and
Etruscans. (See Figure 4.1, page 77.) Loincloths were
depicted as worn by men and by women athletes. Men
and women performed athletic leaps over the horns
of bulls. For this activity they both wore loincloths,
which, when used for this purpose, were reinforced at
the crotch to protect against the horns of the bulls.
Men wore skirts. Some were short, ending at the
thigh. These apparently wrapped around the body and
generally ended in a point with a suspended, weighted
FIGURE 3.1 Restored frescoes from the palace at
tassel at center front and/or center back. They are
Knossos depict men from Crete who wear wrapped
skirts with a tassel at the front. (Photograph by Vincent shown as being made of elaborately patterned fabric.
R. Tortora.) (Figure 3.1.) Ariane Marcar (2005), in a detailed
analysis of all the known representations of
Minoan dress, identified a men’s garment that
has the appearance of modern-day shorts. But
as to the precise function of many items of in examining these depictions she could find no
dress and the conclusions that are drawn are, indication of seams at the side or at the crotch,
therefore, somewhat tentative.
Scholars differ as to whether the dress
of Minoans is more tailored and fitted or
more draped. Clearly, some depictions
FIGURE 3.2 Female Minoan Snake Deity
show closely fitting, shaped garments that
dressed in a garment typical of those
would appear to be more tailored, while depicted for women. The bodice has
others show simpler more draped styles short, slightly puffed sleeves and is
(Figure 3.1). Houston (1966) suggests open to below the breasts. Whether all
that the tailored costume of the Minoans women bared their breasts is not clear,
(Figure 3.2) may have evolved from the but figurines of either priestesses or god-
desses are represented with this bodice
early use of leather for clothing.
style. The flared skirt with horizontal bands
Attempts have been made to recon-
is one of three common skirt types. An
struct Minoan dress based on wall paint- apronlike covering extends from below the
ings and sculpture. Barber (2000), an waist to the hip area. Also see Figures 3.3
expert on early textiles, notes that the and 3.4. (Scala/Art Resource, NY.)

FIGURE 3.3 In another depiction of a snake

goddess, here is a skirt that is apparently
made from rows of ruffles. Her bodice
is made of patterned fabric or fabric
with ornamented applied bands, and she
has a round, rolled belt at the waist. Like the
goddess in Figure 3.2, she wears the apron-
like covering below her waist. (Erich Lessing/Art
Resource, NY.)
and concluded that these were wrapped and Because most depictions of this breast-
draped skirts, which she calls “kilts” as they exposing style are of priestesses, some
resemble, somewhat, the Scottish men’s authorities believe ordinary women
skirt called a kilt. Other skirts were depicted covered the breasts with sheer fabric
in longer lengths, ending either below the (Boucher 1987). Most bodices had
knee or at the ankle. Some men’s skirts sleeves that fit the arms closely. A
also appear to be made of sheep fleece, few examples have small puffs at the
not unlike the Mesopotamian kaunakes skirt. shoulders.
Women’s skirts were bell shaped and had at least Paintings and sculpture show apronlike garments
three different forms. One version was fitted at the worn by women on top of skirts. (See Figures 3.2 and
waist, and flared gently to the ground. (See Figure 3.3.) They extend in front and back to about mid-thigh.
3.2.) Another style (Figure 3.3) seemed to have been Archeologist Arthur Evans (1963) believed that this
made of a series of horizontal or V-shaped ruffles or
flounces, with each successive ruffle wider in circum-
ference than the one above it. In drawings and sculp-
ture a third form (Figure 3.4) shows a line down the
center of women’s skirts. Some scholars have inter-
preted this as a bifurcated garment similar to modern
culottes. This may, however, have been an artistic con-
vention used to depict V-shaped ruffles or could be the
overlapping edge of a wrapped skirt. Women are also
shown wearing sheep fleece skirts.
Women’s costume had a unique aspect. Smoothly
fitted bodices, laced or otherwise, fastened beneath the
breasts, leaving the breasts exposed. (See Figure 3.2.)
FIGURE 3.4 A third type of skirt is seen in wall paintings. The

exact construction is unclear. Some scholars suggest that the
garment may have been wide-legged trousers, but it seems
more likely that it is a wrapped skirt. (Scala/Art Resource, NY.)

garment was a costume worn in religious rituals by been decorative selvages, woven tapes, or embroidery.
women and that it derived from a primitive loincloth (See Figure 3.5.) Mycenaean men are more likely to be
worn originally by members of both sexes. depicted in tunics rather than skirts or loincloths.
Poncholike capes were usually worn by men in
combination with skirts. These capes covered the HAIR AND HEADDRESS
upper part of the body and appeared to consist of a Curly hair was apparently an ethnic characteristic.
rectangle of fabric, folded in half, with an opening cut Probably much of the headdress had religious signifi-
for the head. Both men and women wrapped shawl- cance and may have served as a symbol designating
like garments made from animal skins or heavy wool priest or priestess status.
around the body in cold weather. Men wore their hair long and curly or short and cut
Tight, rolled belts were apparently made from fab- close to the head. Sometimes men tied their hair into
ric or leather and decorated with metal. Belts were a braid or lock at the back of the head; sometimes they
worn by men and boys from the earliest periods and held it in place with a fillet. Hat styles include elabo-
adopted by women during later Minoan periods. rate, possibly ritual types: high, round, and crown-
Because Minoan men are shown with abnormally like with a tall plume; turbans; small caps; and wide-
small waists (which may have been an artistic conven- brimmed hats.
tion), some authorities speculate that these belts may Women’s long, curled hair was often held in place
have been placed on young boys from age 12 or 14 in with a fillet or elaborate arrangement of plain or jew-
order to constrict the development of the waist. eled bands. (See Illustrated Table 3.1, page 66.) Hats
Men and women wore T-shaped tunics with long ranged from high, tiered, brimless styles to beretlike
or short sleeves. Women’s tunics were long; men’s flat hats.
were long or short. Tunics were generally decorated
with patterned bands at the hem, along the sides, and FOOTWEAR
following the shoulderlines. These bands may have Men and women wore sandals or shoes with pointed
toes that fitted the foot closely and ended at the
ankle. Athletes (bull-leapers) wore a soft shoe with
what appears to be a short sock or ankle support.
Archeologists have found that the floors of Minoan
palaces show little wear from shoes, while entrance
stairs are worn away from the passing of shod feet.
This has led to the conclusion that people went bare-
foot indoors but wore shoes outside.
JEWELRY
Men and women wore rings, bracelets, and armlets.
Women wore necklaces. Although earrings were found
in Minoan graves, they are not generally depicted in
FIGURE 3.5 Figures depicted on a sarcophagus from the 14th
the art.
century b.c. at Hagia Triada, Crete, showing a procession of
two women and a man. The woman at the left wears a sheep-
skin skirt and a fitted bodice. The man and woman at the right COSMETICS AND GROOMING
are wearing long tunics decorated with trimming that may be Women apparently used eye makeup and, probably,
woven braid. (Courtesy of Fairchild Publications, Inc.) lip coloring. Men were clean shaven.

MINOAN COSTUME FOR After a period of more than 400 years, main-
CHILDREN: 2900–1100 b.c. land Greece emerged from the Dark Ages into the
Little evidence exists for the costume of children. Boys Archaic period. By this time costume in general
depicted in the paintings found on Thera wore little and the costume of women in particular had altered
clothing: a fishing boy wore nothing; those boxing had dramatically.
strings around their waists. Their heads were shaven
except for some locks of hair. One statuary group from G R E E K C I V I L I Z AT I O N
Mycenae shows a small boy of perhaps about 3 or 4 H istorical B ac k gro u nd
years of age dressed in a floor-length skirt and wearing Written records vanished during the Dark Ages. The
a necklace and a padded, rolled belt. Probably children political history of the period does not exist. Intellectual
wore simple costumes such as skirts or tunics. After achievements were limited to epic ballads, sung per-
puberty they undoubtedly assumed adult clothing. haps by wandering bards, which were eventually
woven into a cycle familiar to modern readers from the
TRANSITIONS IN THE poems attributed to Homer, The Iliad and The Odyssey.
DOMINANT STYLES Although he related stories about the heroes of the
Some costume historians have pointed out paral- Trojan War, which occurred during the Mycenaean
lels between the tiered skirts of Minoan women and period, his epic poems describe the life and customs of
the fringed kaunakes garments of Mesopotamia. his own times, probably before 700 b.c.
Similarities also exist in language elements between As the Dark Ages ended and Greece entered the
Crete and the Middle East. Cretan traders traveled Archaic period, c. 650–480 b.c., the Greek people
extensively throughout the Mediterranean area both began to prosper as their culture revived. Village com-
to the east and to Egypt in the south. Certainly the munities began to evolve into independent city-states
Cretan traders reached the areas of Asia Minor where that would provide the first type of democratic govern-
the kaunakes garments were worn, but even if the ori- ment with elections, juries, and government by citi-
gin of the tiered skirt for Minoan women was to be zens of the city-state.
found in the Middle East, the forms that evolved dur- In the Classical Age, c. 500–323 b.c., Greece enjoyed
ing the height of Minoan civilization differed mark- a golden age, one of the most creative eras in the his-
edly from the dress of Mesopotamia and Egypt during tory of Western civilization. Greek philosophers such
concurrent periods. as Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle pondered the nature
Sometime during the Dark Ages after the close of of the universe, the meaning of life, and ethical values.
the Minoan–Mycenaean period, the fitted, full-skirted Tragic dramatists such as Aeschylus, Sophocles, and
costume for women disappeared. Just how long it per- Euripides wrote dramas for the public dealing with the
sisted after the beginning of the Dark Ages and how nature and fate of man. The Greeks developed “his-
it came to be supplanted by the later Greek styles is tory,” a new literary form, which related and analyzed
unknown. By the time political control of Crete had past experiences. Greek sculpture glorified the human
passed to the Mycenaeans the elaborately patterned body; using new techniques to build in marble, the
fabrics declined in use, giving way to plain cloth with Greeks created architectural masterpieces.
simpler edgings. Barber (1991) speculates about this Even before the Classical Age, Greeks had for
development, saying “One wonders if the Mycenaeans centuries been establishing colonies throughout the
cheerfully bought up and wore the sumptuous Minoan Mediterranean. The first were on the western coasts
fabrics as they began to take over affairs on Crete, but of present-day Turkey, which the Greeks called Ionia.
then allowed the local native industry to fade” (p. 330). Greek settlements had also been established in Sicily,

throughout southern Italy, and as far west as south- in work, a man might attend the assembly of the law
ern France. These centers of Greek culture and trade courts. “His recreation was found in the festivals and
helped to spread Greek culture. Etruscan costume public facilities like gymnasiums which were provided
(the Etruscans were a people living on the Italian by the city. Luxuries of diet, clothing, and furniture
peninsula whose civilization predated the that of the were for the very rich, although they, too, lived rela-
Romans) shows many resemblances to that of the tively simply. In democratic Athens extravagance and
Greeks, as do the later Roman styles. At the same ostentation were quick to attract attention and draw
time Greek costumes borrowed from the regions with censure” (Roebuck 1966).
which the Greeks came into contact, particularly from In Homeric times, women occupied a subordinate
the Middle East. position, but judging from the writings of Homer they
Greek influence was spread also by the conquests had a rather open, companionable relationship with
of Alexander the Great of Macedonia (356–323 b.c.), men. The general view of the place of women in classi-
whose father had brought Greece under his control. cal times has been that women lacked political power
Alexander carved out an empire that stretched from and had little control over their own destinies. It has
Greece and Egypt in the west to the shores of the been said that from birth to death they were under the
Indian Ocean in the east. After Alexander’s death his control of some man. Even widows or divorced women,
empire fell apart; Greek influence waned while that of although they retained title to their inherited property,
the Romans began to expand. Gradually the Romans had to be supervised by their nearest male relative.
supplanted the Greeks as the dominant force in the Marriages were arranged, and monogamy was the
Mediterranean region, although the art and the wis- rule. Girls married at about age 14 to men who were
dom of Greece continued to influence the world long usually about age 30. Scholars believe the average life
after its political power was eclipsed. span for women was about 40 years. Husbands did
not consider their wives as equals, socially or intel-
S ocial O rganization lectually, and did not appear with them in public.
of the G ree k C ivilization Secluded in the household, the wife oversaw the run-
Society in the time of Homer was made up of nobility ning of the home, where she was responsible for the
and commoners. Households were largely self-suffi- children, food, and clothing. Through the spinning
cient, each one producing its own food and clothing and weaving of fabrics and the making of clothing,
textiles. A man’s home was, quite literally, his fortress, she made a very real contribution to the economy of
protected by walls against the raiders who frequently the household.
attacked the Greek settlements, which were located Scholars differ as to how freely women could move
near the sea. around the city outside the home. The current belief is
By the Classical Age, a period for which written and that women were able to carry out at least some activi-
art records abound, Greek communities had grown ties outside the home. They had to obtain water from
into city-states, and had developed a far more sophisti- the town fountains, attended public speeches, visited
cated and urban organization. A quite detailed picture religious sanctuaries, and participated in religious fes-
of daily life in ancient Greece can be painted. Athens, tivals. Some of these activities included members of
the most famous city-state in Greece, was composed both sexes, but others were strictly for women. They
of a population of adult men (the active citizens), their could visit close friends and were permitted to attend
dependent women and children, resident foreigners, tragic plays but not comedies, perhaps because these
and slaves. tended to be bawdy. As Reeder (1995) notes, “In all
An ordinary Athenian lived in a small, unpreten- movements outside the home, a woman was supposed
tious house made of sun-dried brick that lacked cen- to be inconspicuous to the point of invisibility, and
tral heating and running water. When not engaged although the use of the veil is not yet well understood,

she was probably expected upon leaving her house to sided over the cults of goddesses and male priests over
wrap her mantle or a veil around her head so that it those of gods. To be qualified to become a priestess,
obscured part of her face and neck.” women had to come from affluent families of high
This practice may have come to Greece from Ionia social rank. Some appointments were hereditary. The
and the Near East about 530 b.c., along with such styles duties included the care of the sanctuary, especially
as the Ionic form of dress. This veiling symbolized the tending to the “holy things” kept there. Priestesses
subjugation of women to their husbands. Scholars had to pay for some of the supplies used in ceremo-
see evidence for this custom in a large number of nies. They took part in processions. Often depicted
statues of women that have been found in which veils in art carrying trays of holy objects, priestesses made
are pulled down at least partially over the face (Galt liquid offerings called libations to the goddess (see
1931) and in references in the writing of poets such Figure 3.6). They offered prayers, and participated in
as Homer. sacrifices and ritual feasting.
There were exceptions to the strict regulation Laws relating to appropriate dress for participation
of women’s activities. In Sparta, the largest and the in religious rites were inscribed within sanctuaries.
most militaristic Greek city-state, women were less These were not universal, but were developed locally
restricted, a state of affairs other Greeks found disquiet- and were different for different cults. In many sanc-
ing. The historian Plutarch described Spartan women tuaries white garments, which were associated with
as bold, masculine, and overbearing and seemed purity, were required. In some places of worship lim-
shocked at the notion that they spoke openly “even on its were placed on the cost of clothing. Purple (only
the most important subjects” (Durant 1966). available in very costly fabrics), flower-decorated or
Recently, Connelly (2007), in Portrait of a Priestess, black garments, sandals, and rings were prohibited
has shown that the office of priestess was one area in in another place. Some temples confiscated dress that
which women could attain status equal to that of men. violated prohibitions on decorated robes. In art it is
Although there are exceptions, female priestesses pre- not possible to identify priestesses by their clothing,
FIGURE 3.6 Depiction of a family performing sacrifices, c. 530 b.c. Women are dressed in blue Doric pep-
los with red cloaks. Young boys wear himation-like draped cloaks. (Scala/Art Resource, NY.)

but some of the objects they carried were signifiers of weaving of a shroud or burial sheet. After each day of
their status. One in particular, the key to the sanctuary, weaving she secretly, at night, unravels the work that
seems to have been almost universal. Unlike a mod- she has done. In this way she avoids taking a new hus-
ern key, it was a large, long, narrow piece of metal with band. Athena, goddess of wisdom, patroness of the
a sharp right-angled turn and often a circular garland city of Athens, and patroness of artisans, is credited
hung from it. in Greek mythology as being the first woman to work
Another group of women not subject to the con- with wool. As part of the religious ceremonies held
straints of married women were the prostitutes. The in Athens every four years in honor of the goddess, a
lowest class of prostitutes lived in brothels, often in magnificently patterned garment, the sacred peplos,
seaports. They dressed in such lightweight clothing was carried in procession to the temple to be placed
that literary references described them as “naked.” upon her statue. It had been woven by two women
Nudity for women was not socially acceptable. A selected from those who participated in fertility rites
slightly higher class of courtesans were the “flute associated with the cult of Athena.
girls” who entertained with music and dancing at Sheepherding was practiced in the mountainous
the otherwise all-male parties that were customary. Greek peninsula, and from those sheep wool for weav-
These women are often depicted on vase paintings ing was obtained. The Greeks also used linen, par-
where some are shown clad in ordinary dress, some ticularly after the 6th century b.c. Linen use seems to
in special short dancing costumes, and others in the have come to Greece from Egypt by way of Asia Minor,
nude. The highest class of courtesans was the hetairi, particularly from the Ionian region where many
the literal translation of the word is “companions.” Greeks had settled. Most of the linen used in Greece
These women moved freely among men. They were was imported from the Middle East and Egypt. The
often better educated than ordinary women, and island of Cos was known, in the late Greek period, for
some were known for their skill in philosophical dis- the production of silk, but scholars believe that the
putation or for their literary efforts. A few became silk produced there was made from fabrics imported
quite famous. Many dyed their hair blonde (the pre- from China by way of Persia. Weavers unraveled the
dominant hair color among Greek women was dark), fabrics, turning them into fibers by untwisting the
and it appears that the law required them to wear yarns. They combined silk fibers with linen fibers
specially decorated robes to distinguish them from in order to make the precious silk go farther. Cotton
respectable women. fiber was apparently brought to Greece by the soldiers
In the Hellenistic period (after the death of of Alexander the Great. For the most part, however,
Alexander the Great, 323 b.c.) the status of women Greek clothing was made from wool or from linen
seems to have risen somewhat. Female nudity in art (Faber CIBA Review).
increased (although it is not likely that women ever The visual evidence for Greek styles often comes
appeared nude in public), women were treated more from marble statues that have been bleached white
openly and sympathetically in drama, and, interest- over the centuries or from vase paintings that do not
ingly, the influence of the hetairi on Athenian life show color. As a result it is often mistakenly assumed
diminished. that Greek clothing had little color. Fabrics were col-
ored with dyes obtained from plants, minerals, and
F abrics and C loth P rod u ction shellfish. Decoration of fabrics during weaving or by
Spinning and weaving were considered fit occupa- embroidery was common. Greek women were gifted
tions for queens and goddesses. In Homer’s Odyssey, weavers, and they were talented in embroidery.
Ulysses’ faithful queen, Penelope, promises to choose Skill was developed in pleating fabrics, and some
a new king for Ithaca after she has completed the sort of clothes press existed for smoothing and flat-

FIGURE 3.7 Athenian women, c. 560 b.c., (left to right) preparing wool, folding cloth, spinning yarn,
weaving on an upright loom, and weighing wool fiber. These women are dressed in the form-fitting
Dorian peplos of the Archaic period. (Courtesy of The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Fletcher Fund, 1931.)
tening fabrics and pressing in pleats. Fabrics were about dress. The statuary of the 7th century b.c. begins
bleached with the fumes of a sulfur compound. to be sufficiently representational to permit some con-
Because Greek costume was draped, not cut and sewn, clusions to be drawn about costume. The later periods,
the fabric was probably woven to the correct size and particularly the Classical period, abound in represen-
did not require cutting. (See Figure 3.7.) tations of costume in sculpture and painting.
Women manufactured all of the family clothing The Greeks developed the concept of ideal human
and covers for beds, cushions, and chests. Women form and proportions. Polyclitis, a sculptor (c. 450
making cloth at home generally carried out all of the b.c.), wrote an influential treatise about his view of
steps in the process with the possible exceptions of the appropriate standard of proportions for sculptors.
dyeing and fulling. (See Figure 3.7.) Fulling is a pro- Through Greek art and writings this Greek ideal, a fig-
cess whereby wool fabrics are washed and shrunk ure about seven and a half heads high with the hipline
to produce a dense, close weave. Dyeing and fulling at wrist level halfway down the body, continued to
were both processes that produced strong, unpleas- influence ideas about perfect male and female propor-
ant odors and required both space and a good supply tions in subsequent periods and became a part of the
of water; therefore, they were not especially suited to heritage of classical influences in the Western world.
urban households. When textiles were produced com- Although Greek vase painting and sculpture pro-
mercially for sale in the marketplace, the labor was vide plenty of evidence about the construction of cloth-
divided into specialties that included wool combers, ing, the conventions of Greek art limit information
preparers of flax, spinners of yarn, dyers, fullers, and, about color in dress. Greek marble statues had been
when necessary, tailors to do the cutting and sewing. colorfully painted, but over the centuries that color has
been bleached away. Major Greek vase painting styles
SOURCES OF EVIDENCE include black figure painting, with black figures on an
FOR THE STUDY orange-red background; red figure painting, with red
OF GREEK COSTUME figures on black background; and white ground vases.
G ree k A rt Only on these latter vases can one see color.
The sculpture and vase paintings of Greece provide The Greek attitude toward nudity should be men-
evidence concerning the costume of ancient Greece. tioned in this context. Nudity was not acceptable to the
However, records from the early Archaic period are Minoans, the Mycenaeans, or the Homeric Greeks.
unclear. The art of that time was highly stylized (it is Tradition records the date at which Greek men began
called “geometric art”), and provides little information to participate in athletic events in the nude as around

720 b.c. (Bonfante 1977). Athletic games in Greece GREEK COSTUME

were part of religious ritual. Athletes performing in the FOR MEN AND WOMEN:
nude therefore had a religious context. Furthermore, 650–300 b.c.
the Greek ideal stressed not only perfection of the soul The garment called the tunic heretofore was called a
but perfection of the body as well. At about the same chiton (ky'tn) by the Greeks. Although many of the
time that nudity came into athletics, artists began to earliest depictions of Greek chitons give the impres-
make representations of the male nude. sion of a garment sewn together at the shoulders and
Depiction of female nudity did not, however, fol- under the arms, later versions were not necessar-
low. Although in earlier periods the ideal of the well- ily sewn, but often were created by taking a single
formed female body was clearly visible beneath the rectangle of fabric and wrapping it around the body,
softly flowing draperies of the costume, only in Sparta securing it at the shoulders with one or more pins.
did women participate in athletics or attend the games. (See Figure 3.7.) Variations in the appearance of chi-
Women dancers and acrobats wore, at the minimum, tons were often achieved by belting the chiton at any
a perizoma (a loincloth) and usually also a band cov- of several locations, by creating and manipulating
ering the breasts. It is only after 400 b.c., when atti- a fold over the top of the fabric, and by varying the
tudes toward women seem to have become somewhat placement of the pins at the shoulder.
less restrictive, that artists sculpted some of the now Full-length chitons were woven to the same size
famous nude or partially nude statues of women such no matter how tall or short the person who was to
as the Venus de Milo.
Table 3.1 Types of Chitons Worn by Greek Men and Women

Name of Style Worn by Length Fit Fabric Duration
chitoniskos men usually short, close to body, similar usually Archaic period to
between hip in shaping to the doric patterned wool c. 550 b.c.
and thigh peplos
Doric peplos women to ankles close to body, fastened usually Archaic period to
(See Figures 3.6 with large straight pin at patterned wool c. 550 b.c.
and 3.7.) shoulder
Ionic chiton men short or long full, longer sleeves, lightweight 550 b.c. to 480 b.c.,
(See Figures 3.8 fastened with many small wool or pleated less often from
and 3.9.) women long, to ground brooches at shoulder linen 480 b.c. to 300 b.c.
Doric chiton men short, with few narrower than Ionic, wool, linen, 400 b.c. to 100 b.c.
(See Figure 3.10.) exceptions without sleeves, fastened or silk
with one brooch (fibula)
women long at shoulders 450 b.c. to 300 b.c.
Hellenistic chiton women long similar to Doric chilton, lightweight 300 to 100 b.c.
(See Figure 3.11.) but narrower, often belted wool, linen,
just below bosom or silk
exomis working- short fastened over one sturdy, durable throughout all
(See Visual class men shoulder fabric, probably Greek periods
Summary Table.) and slaves wool

FIGURE 3.8 Only rarely does Greek to stab to death a messenger who
art show colors of costumes. brought the bad news of the
Here, a woman wearing almost total destruction of
a gold-colored Ionic
an Athenian military force
chiton has a laven-
der chlamydon over
in battle. According to
her shoulder. (© The Herodotus, the wear-
Metropolitan Museum of ing of the Ionic chi-
Art/Art Resource, NY/The Bothmer ton, which did not
Purchase Fund, Fletcher Fund, and utilize these large,
Rogers Fund, 1979 [1979.11.15].)
sharp pins, was man-
dated as a result. Contemporary
Comments 3.1, page 64, contains
Herodotus’s description of the scene.
Geddes (1987) relates men’s change from
wear the garment. Lengths could be easily adjusted by the Ionic chiton to the Doric chiton in the Classical
increasing or decreasing the size of the overfold. period to changes in social and political attitudes.
Over the chiton Greek men and women placed He believes that the luxurious fabrics and elaborate
shawls or cloaks. Some of the overgarments were deco- draperies of the full Ionic chiton had offered many
rative; others were utilitarian. The summary and illus- opportunities for the display of a man’s wealth. But
trations that follow describe the major costume forms beginning in the late 5th century b.c., Greek politi-
in use during the Archaic, Classical, and Hellenistic cal thought and practices encouraged values such as
periods of ancient Greek history. Various authors use fitness, equality, and a sense of “thinking alike” that
conflicting terminology to identify different types required, at the least, less flaunting of wealth. The
of chitons. The terms used here are those that Doric chiton, which had simple, relatively
seemed to the authors to be most consistently straight lines, was seen to best advantage on
used by reliable sources. a fit body and did not lend itself to ostenta-
tious display. It was, therefore, more in keep-
C ost u me C omponents ing with these new values.
for M en and W omen
THE CHITON THE HIMATION
Greek art and literature indicate that Just when the word himation (hi-mat'e-
the chiton underwent a number of ahn) came to be applied to a large rect-
changes over time. Table 3.1 sum- angle of fabric that wrapped around the
marizes the variations in the type of body is not entirely clear. (See Figures
chitons worn by men and women at
various times. Chitons are shown in
Figures 3.8 and 3.9.
The Greek author Herodotus claims FIGURE 3.9 Woman in Ionic chiton over
which she wears a chlamydon. (Atlanta
the Doric peplos style of the Archaic
Lekythos, Funerary Oil Jug, attributed to Douris,
Period was abandoned because of an
Greek, Athenian, 1st half 5th century B.C. Painted
incident toward the beginning of the white ground terra-cotta, H. 31.8cm, 500–490 B.C.
6th century b.c. in which Athenian © The Cleveland Museum of Art, Leonard G.
women supposedly used their dress pins Hanna, Jr., Fund, 1966.114.)

3.12 and 3.13.) This garment has been compared to the the himation may have been related to an emphasis
wrapped shawls of Mesopotamia. An earlier version on athletic fitness because it was easily taken off for
worn in the Archaic period seems to have been called sports, and just as easily put back on.
a chlaina (Evans 1964). Under the name himation, this
garment was in wide use by the late 5th century b.c. OTHER GARMENTS
Various methods of draping the himation are depicted The perizoma (per-i-zo'ma), Greek for a loincloth, was a
by artists, but the most common way of wearing it garment worn by men either as an undergarment or for
seems to have been with the upper corner covering athletic contests. (See Figure 4.1, page 77.) Greek vases
the left shoulder, the bulk of the fabric wrapped across show women with bands of cloth that wrapped around
the back, passed under the right arm, and draped the upper torso and, depending on how the bands were
over the left shoulder or carried across the left arm. placed, either bound or supported the breasts. Stafford
Both women and men wore this garment over a chi- has found these bands and also a garment that looks
ton. Philosophers and older gods are depicted in the much like a 21st-century sports brassiere depicted on
himation alone, without a chiton beneath, but whether vases showing women athletes. These garments seem
this was an artistic convention or actual practice is to be similar to a Roman garment called the strophium
unclear. Geddes (1987) suggests that the popularity of (see Figure 4.10, page 88).
C ontemporary Comments 3.1
H erodot u s D escribes the O rigins of the C hange

from D oric to I onic C hitons
In his history of the Persian Wars, Book V, Herodotus recounts the story of how the women of Athens were required to
change the style of their dress. Only one Athenian warrior escaped death in battle and returned, to tell the story of the
defeat.
. . . When he came back to Athens, bringing word of the calamity, the wives of those who had been sent out on the
expedition took it sorely to heart, that he alone should have survived the slaughter of all the rest; they therefore
crowded round the man, and struck him with the brooches by which their dresses were fastened1—each, as she
struck, asking him where he had left her husband. And the man died in this way. The Athenians thought the deed
of the women more horrible even than the fate of the troops; as however they did not know how to punish them,
they changed their dress and compelled them to wear the costume of the Ionians. Till this time the Athenian
women had worn a Dorian dress [see Figure 3.7.], shaped nearly like that which prevails at Corinth. Henceforth
they were made to wear the linen tunic, which does not require brooches.2 [Book V, Chapter 87.]
1
These “brooches” are not like modern broaches with safety clasps, but long, sharp, daggerlike pins.
2
Ionic styles (see Figure 3.9) were fastened with small, button-shaped closures of fibulae, probably closing more like a small safety pin.
The later revival of Dorian styles did not include the use of the daggerlike pin for fastening.
From The Persian Wars, by Herodotus, trans. by George Rawlinson. Copyright 1942 by Random House, Inc.; reprinted with permission
of Random House, Inc.

FIGURE 3.11 Greek woman wears the

Hellenistic chiton, which is belted
typically high under the breasts
and made of lightweight fabric
that molds the body lines.
(Dancing Lady, Greek, c. 50 B.C.
Marble, H. 85.4cm [with case].
© The Cleveland Museum of
Art, John L. Serverance Fund,
1965.24.)
FIGURE 3.10 Figure from a
Greek vase by Thomas Hope
(18th century). Woman fastens
the shoulder of her Doric
chiton. Notice the small weights
at the end of the drapery that
falls from her right shoulder.
(Courtesy of Dover Publications, Inc.)
The diplax (dy'plax), a small rectangle of fabric the chlamys. Its wide brim provided shade in sum-
worn by women, especially over the Ionic chiton, was mer or kept rain off the head. Though not Greek
draped in much the same way as the himation. The styles, Phrygian (frig'ee-an) bonnets, brimless caps
chlamydon (kla'mi-don) was a more complicated form with a high padded peak that fell forward, were
of the woman’s diplax in which fabric was pleated into often depicted. Phrygian bonnets in Greek art iden-
a fabric band. (See Figure 3.9.) tify wearers as foreigners from the Middle East.
Various styles of cloaks and capes were worn for This type of hat reappears in European styles in the
cool weather. The most notable example was the chla- Middle Ages.
mys (kla'mis), a rectangular cloak of leather or wool Both men and women wore the pilos (pi'los), a nar-
pinned over the right or left shoulder. Worn by men row-brimmed or brimless hat with a pointed crown.
over a chiton, especially for traveling, it could be used
as a blanket for sleeping at night. (See Figure 3.13.) HAIR AND HEADDRESS FOR WOMEN
See Illustrated Table 3.1, page 66, for a cross section of
HAIR AND HEADDRESS FOR MEN hairstyles for the period.
See Illustrated Table 3.1, for a cross section of hair- In the Archaic Period, women wore their hair long
styles for the period. in curling tresses with small curls arranged around
In the Archaic Period, long or medium-length hair the face. In the Classical Period, it was pulled into a
and beards predominated, whereas in the Classical knot or chignon at the back of the head.
Period, young men wore short hair and no beards and Fillets, scarves, ribbons, and caps were used to
older men longer hair and beards. confine the hair. Paintings and sculpture of women
Types of hats often shown in art included fitted depict veils that were worn over the head and are
caps and the petasos (pet'a-sos), usually worn with sometimes shown pulled across to cover the face.

Illustrated Table 3.1

Examples of Hairstyles and Headdress Worn by Men and Women in Greece
Youthful male figure with Bearded philosopher from Youth wearing a petasos
short, curly hair from Classical Period
Classical Period
Youth wearing a
Phrygian bonnet
Woman’s hairstyle
Women’s hairstyles depicted on Archaic Greek sculpture depicted in Minoan
wall painting
Women’s hairstyles and headdress from Classical Period depicted on vase paintings
Thomas Hope, reproduced courtesy of Dover Publications, Inc.

FOOTWEAR
Both men and women wore sandals. Men also wore
fitted shoes, ankle high or high mid-calf length; or, for
travel or warfare, leather boots that laced up the front.
(See Figures 3.12, and 3.13.)
JEWELRY
More often worn by women than men, jewelry con-
sisted of necklaces, earrings, rings, decorative pins for
fastening the chiton, and brooches.
COSMETICS
Statues and vase paintings do not reveal the extent to
which makeup was worn. Writings of the period do
record the use of perfumes. Contemporary Comments
3.2, page 69, reprints passages from The Iliad and The
Odyssey that describe not only some of the clothing
worn by women, but also cosmetics and jewels.
GREEK COSTUME FOR

CHILDREN: 650–300 b.c.
Infants were wrapped in swaddling clothes (bands of
fabric wrapped around the body) and wore close-fit-
ting, peaked caps. Swaddling babies was a common
practice throughout Europe until the 19th century
FIGURE 3.12 Greek youth wearing himation. (Courtesy of and was thought to prevent deformity of children’s
Photo Arts Company.) limbs. As the Greeks emphasized bodily perfection,
it may be that they held similar beliefs. A few repre-
FIGURE 3.13 5th century b.c. Greek vase shows (from left to right) a woman in an Ionic chiton with a shawl drawn
over her head; a naked cupid; a goddess in a Doric chiton; a woman in an Ionic chiton, a veil over her head and a
cloak over her shoulders; two men in chlamys and petasos; and a man in a himation. Older men are bearded, the
youth is clean shaven. (Courtesy of The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rogers Fund, 1907.)

sentations of infants, perhaps older ones, show them JEWELRY

wrapped in loose cloth draperies rather than in swad- Children wore earrings, necklaces, and bracelets,
dling bands. especially those in the form of a serpent.
C ost u me C omponents GREEK COSTUME FOR SPECIALIZED

for C hildren O C C U P AT I O N S O R O C C A S I O N S
Sometimes small boys are depicted in the nude. W edding D ress
School-age boys wore short, belted or unbelted chi- The Greek bride’s costume for weddings was laden
tons. Girls’ chitons were arranged much as those of with symbolism. (See Figure 3.14.) The wedding gar-
older women and belted in a variety of ways. Boys and ment had some areas that were dyed purple with a
girls wore himations; those for girls were worn over a costly dye obtained from a rare type of mollusk called
chiton and for boys, either alone or over a chiton. the murex. The bride wore a belt tied with a double
For protection outdoors, art of the period depicts knot known as a bridal or Hercules knot. The loos-
small, rectangular cloaks with clasps on the right ening of this knot, which took place on the wedding
shoulder. Another warm garment was a long cape with night, was both a symbol of and a necessary preface
a pointed hood that either closed in front or had an to the sexual union of the bride and groom. Her veil,
opening through which it could be slipped which was either a mantle pulled up over
over the head. the back of the head or a separate veil, was
colored yellow-orange with the dye from
HAIR AND HEADDRESS the saffron plant. Saffron was associated
Small children and boys had short hair. with women because of its use as a medicine
Older girls dressed their hair the same ways for menstrual problems. Over the veil was
as women. Boys and girls wore a flat-crowned placed the stephane or bridal crown. Before and
hat with a heavy roll as a brim. Girls wore a high, during the ceremony, the veil covered the bride’s
peaked hat with a flat, stiff brim. face until the ritual unveiling of the bride,
the anakalypteria, took place. Not until
FOOTWEAR this unveiling had either the bride or
Children were often shown barefoot. groom seen each other, and this part
Foot coverings included sandals and of the ceremony is thought to have
closed shoes. symbolized the bride’s willing accep-
tance of the groom.
Both bride and groom were also
crowned with laurel wreaths, a
religious symbol with divine asso-
ciations that was intended to glorify
FIGURE 3.14 Woman preparing for her the weddings of mortals. The bride
wedding. The attendant at the left is also wore special sandals called
handing her the stephane, or bridal nymphides and decked herself
crown. The bride, on the right, has a
with elaborate jewelry. (See Figure
belt—tied with a bridal knot—around
3.14.) Finally, the bride presented
her waist and is in the process of don-
ning her bridal veil. (Oil Flask [Lekythos] in the
form of an acorn © [410–400 B.C.] Museum of Fine
Arts, Boston.)

C o ntemporary Comments 3.2
H omer D escribes W omen ’ s G rooming and D ress
In The Iliad, [Book 14, lines 169–186], Homer describes how Hera, a goddess, beautifies herself so that she may per-
suade the god Zeus to do something she wishes.
She went to her chamber. . . . There entering she drew shut the leaves of the shining door, then first from her
adorable body washed away all stains with ambrosia,1 and next anointed herself with ambrosial sweet olive oil,
which stood there in its fragrance beside. . . . When with this she had anointed her delicate body and combed
her hair, next with her hands she arranged the shining and lovely and ambrosial curls along her immortal head,
and dressed in an ambrosial robe that Athene [another goddess] had made her carefully, smooth, and with many
figures upon it, and pinned it across her breast with a golden brooch, and circled her waist about with a zone
[belt] that floated a hundred tassels, and in the lobes of her carefully pierced ears she put rings with triple drops in
mulberry clusters, radiant with beauty, and, lovely among goddesses, she veiled her head downward with a sweet
fresh veil that glimmered pale like the sunlight. Underneath her shining feet she bound on the fair sandals.
In The Odyssey, an epic describing the adventures of Odysseus, a Greek warrior, suitors who believe Odysseus is dead
give presents to his wife Penelope. These gifts include clothing and jewels.
. . . every man sent a squire to fetch a gift—Aninoos a wide resplendent robe, embroidered fine, and fastened
with twelve brooches, pins pressed into sheathing tubes of gold; Eurymakhos, a necklace wrought in gold, with
sunray pieces of clear glinting amber. Eurydamas’s men came back with pendants, ear-drops in triple clusters of
warm lights; and from the hoard of Lord Polyktor’s son, Peisandros, came a band for her white throat, jewelled
adornment.
1
A sweet-smelling substance.
The Iliad of Homer. [N.D.] Translated with an introduction by Richmond Lattimore. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Homer: The
Odyssey 1961. Translated by Robert Fitzgerald. Garden City, NY: Doubleday.
the groom with a tunic, a chlanis, she had woven her- metal plates or disks mounted on fabric corselets and
self. This gift probably symbolized her mastery of an held up by shoulder straps. Helmets made of either
essential housewifely skill. leather or bronze that had chin straps and high crests
were intended to make warriors look more fearsome.
M ilitary C ost u me Greaves, shaped leather or metal protectors for the
Military costume during both the Archaic and lower legs, and wide metal belts and shields provided
Classical Periods varied from one city-state to another additional protection.
but usually included some form of protective cloth- In the Classical Period, chlamys-style cloaks were
ing worn over a tunic. In the Archaic Period, soldiers worn. Protective devices for common soldiers included
wore cloaks of rough wool. They protected them- a leather cuirass (kwi-ras') (a modern term for a close-
selves with such devices as breastplates made from fitting, shaped armor that covered the body), a metal

belt, and greaves. Heavily armed infantry wore a metal

or leather cuirass with a row of leather tabs hanging
down from the cuirass at the waist to protect the lower
part of body. (See Figure 3.15.) Helmets, worn either
with or without crests, became more protective. They
had extended pieces to cover the cheekbones, nose,
jaws, and neck. In both periods men either went bare-
foot, or wore high boots.
T heatrical C ost u me
The theater was important in Greece and eventually
acquired a traditional style of costume through which
the theatergoer could immediately identify the char-
acters. Male actors played all of the parts in both com-
edies and tragedies. Tragic actors wore a tragic mask,
with either tall wigs or tufts of hair fastened to the
mask, and thick-soled platform shoes. Kings, queens,
gods, goddesses, happy characters, tragic figures, and
FIGURE 3.15 Greek soldier wearing leather cuirass with
slaves were each identified by a specific style of dress,
suspended leather panels. Note that the cheek guards
special insignia, or color. For those who are interested
of the helmet are raised. When in use, these panels
in a more lengthy exploration of Greek theatrical cos- would fold down to protect the side of the face. The
tume, several references are listed in the Selected soldier wears greaves on his legs. (Courtesy of Dover
Readings at the end of this chapter. Publications, Inc.)
SUMMARY
VISUAL SUMMARY ment of Minoan styles. The resulting cross-cultural
The accompanying Visual Summary Table illustrates interchanges may also have influenced some specific
the major styles of Greek costume. Major items of garments, such as shoes and sheep fleece skirts.
Minoan dress can be seen in Figures 3.1 to 3.5. Minoan political control of Mycenae helped to
spread Minoan-influenced styles to the mainland of
THEMES Greece. Eventually political conflict in the form
Although lack of precise information about Minoan of the conquest of the Minoans and the Mycenaeans
life and culture limits our ability to explore themes by outside forces closed off information about these
related to social life, we can readily see the impact on peoples for a number of centuries.
dress of themes such as the production of textiles The Archaic and Classical Greek Periods provide
and related technology. Skills related to weaving more fertile territory for identification of important
and dyeing, especially of wool fibers, made possible themes.
the wide variety of highly ornamented fabrics used in Some of the variations in the forms of the chi-
Minoan dress. trade, exporting textiles and importing ton illustrate themes such as politics, cross-cul-
dyestuffs to and from other Mediterranean countries, tural influences, and changes in social values.
was another factor that contributed to the develop- The Ionic chiton was a style with non-Greek origins,

most probably a Middle Eastern style adopted by more compatible with the social value of equality than
Greeks in Ionia, a settlement at the far eastern end the more elaborate Ionic chiton.
of the Mediterranean. From Ionia the style spread to The shape and construction of costume for men
the mainland, where it supplanted the Doric peplos. and for women in Greece was not markedly differ-
About 480 b.c., as a result of war with Persia, a period ent. Nevertheless, the theme of gender roles does
of intense interest in the Greek past and a denigration appear in the dress of brides and in veiling of married
of oriental styles apparently led to a rejection of the women.
Ionic chiton in favor of a new style, the Doric chiton, Many writers have commented on similarities
which represented a sort of revival of the older, native between certain aspects of Greek arts and dress.
Doric peplos. For men the simpler Doric chiton was These similarities are especially notable in architec-
Visual Summary Table

Major Greek Garments
Doric peplos (c. 550 b.c.) Ionic chiton (c. 550–480 b.c.) Doric chiton (c. 400–100 b.c.)
Himation Chlamys (cloak) and petasos (hat) Exomis

ture. Decorative motifs often appear both on buildings Romanized Europe for the six centuries following the
and as ornamentation on garments. Tall, slender Doric death of Alexander the Great. It can even be argued
and Ionic building columns with their fluted surfaces that its influence in certain aspects of dress can be
have been compared to the long, pleated tubular chi- felt until the latter part of the Middle Ages. Moreover,
tons worn by the Greeks. Greek influence on dress was not limited to the civiliza-
tions that coexisted with Classical Greece. Elements of
L AT E R S U R V I VA L S Classical art have been revived during the Renaissance
OF GREEK DRESS (15th and 16th centuries), the Neoclassical Period (18th
The travels of the chiton do not end with the decline century), and the Empire Period (early 1800s.) In this
of Greek power. The spread of Greek settlements and latter period a method of belting the dress high, under
Greek culture throughout the Mediterranean world the bustline, was copied from Hellenistic chiton
resulted in the adoption of many elements of Greek styles. (See Figures 11.2 and 11.3, pages 310 and 311.)
costume by contemporary Egyptians, by the Etruscans, Called the empire waistline, this Greek-inspired style
and, later, by the Romans in Italy. was revived periodically by fashion designers of the
By way of Roman costume, Greek costume can 20th century, many of whom looked to historic peri-
be said to have served as a basis for the costume of ods for design inspiration. The soft, flowing lines of
the Greek styles seem to appeal particularly to lingerie
designers and designers of evening dress.
M odern I nfluences
NOTES
Barber, E. J. W. 1991. Prehistoric Textiles. Princeton, NJ:
Twenty-first century Princeton University Press.
echoes of women’s ———. 1994. Women’s Work: the First 20,000 Years. New
dress in ancient Greece York: W. W. Norton.
can be seen in this ———. 2000. Letter to the editor. Archeaology (Nov.–Dec.),
p. 6.
pleated, high-waisted,
Bonfante, L. 1977. Etruscan Dress. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins
softly flowing white
University Press.
gown with characteris- Boucher, F. 1987. 20,000 Years of Fashion. London: Thames
tics similar to the Doric and Hudson.
chiton. (Courtesy of Fairchild Connelly, J. B. 2007. Portrait of a Priestess: Women and Ritual
Publications, Inc.) in Ancient Greece. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University
Press.
Durant, W. 1966. The Life of Greece. The Story of Civilization,
Vol. 2. New York: Simon & Schuster, p. 84.
Evans, A, 1963. “Scenes from Minoan Life.” In J. Hawkes,
ed., The World of the Past. New York: Knopf.
Evans, M. M. 1964. “Greek Dress.” In M. Johnson, ed.,
Ancient Greek Dress. Chicago: Argonaut.
Faber, A. 1938. “Dress and Dress Materials in Greece and
Rome.” CIBA Review, p. 297.
Galt, C. 1931. “Veiled Ladies.” American Journal of Archeology,
Vol. 35, No. 4, p. 373.
Geddes, A. G. 1987. “Rags and Riches: The Costume of
Athenian Men in the Fifth Century.” Classical Quarterly,
Vol. 37, No. ii, pp. 307–331.

Houston, M. G. 1966. Ancient Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Galt, C. 1931. “Veiled Ladies.” American Journal of Archeology,
Costume. London: Adam & Charles Black. Vol. 35, No. 4, p. 373.
Marcar, A. 2005. “Reconstructing Aegean Bronze Age Fash- Geddes, A. G. 1987. “Rags and Riches: The Costume of
ion.” In L. Cleland., M. Harlow, and L. Llewellyn-Jones, Athenian Men in the Fifth Century.” Classical Quarterly,
eds., The Clothed Body in the Ancient World. Oxford: Vol. 37, No. II , p. 307.
Oxbow, p. 34. Jones, B. 2000. “Revealing Minoan Fashions.” Archeology,
Mylonas, G. 1966. Mycenae and the Mycenaean World. Princ- Vol. 53, No. 3 (May/June), p. 36.
eton, NJ: Princeton University Press, p. 136. Llewellyn-Jones, L. 2002. “A Woman’s View? Dress, Eroti-
Reeder, E. D. 1995. “Women and Men in Classical Greece.” cism, and the Ideal Female Body in Athenian Art.” In L.
In E. Reeder, ed., Pandora: Women in Classical Greece. Llewellyn-Jones, ed., Women’s Dress in the Ancient Greek
Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, p. 20. World. London: Duckworth, p. 171.
Roebuck, C. 1966. The World of Ancient Times. New York: Peterson, S. 1981. “A Costuming Scene from the Room of
Charles Scribner’s Sons, p. 366. the Ladies on Thera.” American Journal of Archeology, Vol.
Stafford, E. J. 2005. “Viewing and Obscuring the Female 85, No. 2 (Apr.), p. 211.
Breast: Glimpse of the Ancient Bra.” In L. Cleland, M. Rebak, P. 1996. “Aegean Breechcloths, Kilts, and the Kef-
Harlow, and L. Llewellyn-Jones, eds., The Clothed Body in tiu Paintings.” American Journal of Archeology. Vol. 100
the Ancient World. Oxford: Oxbow, pp. 96–110. (Jan.), p. 35.
SELECTED READINGS Daily Life

Books Containing Illustrations of Costume Browning, R., ed. 2000. The Greek World. New York: Thames
of the Period from Original Sources and Hudson.
Beard, M. and J. Henderson. 2001. Classical Art: From Greece Castleden, R. 1993. Minoans: Life in Bronze Age Crete. New
to Rome. New York: Oxford University Press. York: Routledge.
Hale, W. H. 1985. The Horizon Book of Ancient Greece. New Chadwick, J. 1976. The Mycenaean World. New York: Cam-
York: Random House. bridge University Press.
Higgins, R. 1997. Minoan and Mycenaean Art. New York: Garland, R. 1998. Daily Life of the Ancient Greeks. Westport,
Thames and Hudson. CT: Greenwood Press.
Kaltsas, N. 2003. Ancient Greek and Roman Sculpture in the Grant, M. 1992. A Social History of Greece and Rome. New
National Archaeological Museum, Athens. Los Angeles: York: Scribner/Maxwell Macmillan International.
Getty Trust. Hawkes, J. 1968. Dawn of the Gods. New York: Random
Mylonas, G. 1966. Mycenae and the Mycenaean Age. Princ- House.
eton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Lefkowitz, M. R. and M. B. Fant, eds. 1992. Women’s Life in
Preziosi, D. and L. A. Hitchcock. 2000. Aegean Art and Greece and Rome. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University
Architecture. New York: Oxford University Press. Press.
Richter, G. 1994. A Handbook of Greek Art. New York: Pomeroy, S. B. 1995. Goddesses, Whores, Wives, and Slaves:
Phaidon. Women in Classical Antiquity. New York: Schocken Books.
Robinson, C. E. 1989. Everyday Life in Ancient Greece. West-
Periodical and Other Articles port, CT: Greenwood Press.
Alexander, S. M., ed. 1978. “Information on Historical Tech-
niques, Textiles: 1. The Classical Period.” Art and Archeol- Greek Theater Costume
ogy Technical Abstracts, Vol. 15, No. 2. Brooke, I. 2003. Costume in Greek Classic Drama. Mineola,
Blundell, S. 2002. “Clutching at Clothes.” In L. Llewellyn- NY: Dover.
Jones, ed., Women’s Dress in the Ancient Greek World. Lon- Simon, E. 1982. The Ancient Theatre. New York: Methuen.
don: Duckworth, p. 143. Stone, L. M. 1981. Costume in Aristophanic Poetry. Salem,
DeBrohun, J. 2001. “Power Dressing in Ancient Greece and NH: Ayer.
Rome.” History Today, February, p. 18.
Faber, G. A. 1938. “Dress and Dress Materials in Greece and
Rome.” CIBA Review, Vol. 1, p. 296.

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Chapter One Introduction 1

Part One The A ncient Wo r l d c . 3 0 0 0 b . c . – a . d . 3 0 0 1 3

Part Two The Middle A g e s c . 3 0 0 – 1 5 0 0 9 9

Part Three The R enaissan c e c . 1 4 0 0 – 1 6 0 0 1 7 5

Part Four Baroque and R o c o c o c . 1 6 0 0 – 1 8 0 0 2 2 9

Part Five The Nineteent h Ce n t u r y 1 8 0 0 – 1 9 0 0 2 9 5

Part Six From the Twen t i e t h t o t h e Tw e n t y - f i r s t Ce n t u r y 1 9 0 0 – 2 0 0 8 4 1 1

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Preface xix The Family 23

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Town Life 124 Fashion Change Becomes Evident 151

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Cross-Cultural Influences on Fashion 299 CHAPTER TWELVE

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The United States 355 Sources of Evidence about Costume 384

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CHAPTER FIFTEEN CHAPTER SIXTEEN

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The Space Age 541 CHAPTER NINETEEN

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Demographic Changes 610 Costume Components for Men: 1974–2008 635

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after 323 b.c.

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Crete and Greece

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appearance of a garment depends very much on the

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FIGURE 3.3 In another depiction of a snake