http://www.teachersdomain.org/resource/ipy07.sci.life.eco.

discant/

INTRODUCTION

Centered asymmetrically around the South Pole and largely south

of the Antarctic Circle, Antarctica is the southernmost continent
and is surrounded by the Southern Ocean; alternatively, it may be
considered to be surrounded by the southern Pacific, Atlantic, and
Indian Oceans, or by the southern waters of the World Ocean. It
covers more than 14,000,000 km2 (5,400,000 sq mi), making it the
fifth-largest continent, in area after Asia, Africa, North America,
and South America.It is about 1.3 times as large as Europe .About
98% of Antarctica is covered by ice, which averages at least 1.6
kilometres (1.0 mi) in thickness.

Antarctica, on average, is the coldest, driest, and windiest

continent, and has the highest average elevation of all the
continents.[2] Antarctica is considered a desert, with annual
precipitation of only 200 mm (8 inches) along the coast and far less
inland.[3] There are no permanent human residents but anywhere
from 1,000 to 5,000 people reside throughout the year at the
research stations scattered across the continent. Only cold-adapted
plants and animals survive there, including penguins, seals,
nematodes, Tardigrades, mites, many types of algae and other
microorganisms, and tundra vegetation.

PHYSICAL FEATURES

The continent of Antarctica is made up of two

regions: the East Antarctica (often called the Greater
Antarctica) and the West Antarctica (or the Lesser
Antarctica).

Transantarctic Mountains - Crossing the entire

continent, this mountain range consists of peaks that
are 2000 to 4000 meters high, with it's highest peak
of Mt. Kirkpatrick(next to the Beardmore Glacier)
standing 4530m tall.
Running from the Weddell Sea to the Ross Sea, it is
3500 km long and 100 to 300 km wide, and
separates the continent of Antarctica into two
regions.

Dry valleys- The Transantarctic Mountain chain has

the largest of the ice-free rocky areas known as dry
valleys.
They are found in the land near the McMurdo Cove
across from the Ross Island.
The foot of the valley is 0 to 500 meters above sea
level and the surrounding peaks are 1500 to 2500
meters high.

(A new mineral called Antarcticite, a form of calcium

chloride(CaCl) crystal, was also found here.)

East Antarctica- Having all the four important poles in

Antarctica (South pole, South Magnetic pole, South
Geomagnetic pole, Unreachable pole), East
Antarctica covers more than half of the continent,
and is mainly located in Eastern Longitudes.
(The land here consists of rocks that are more than
570 million years old, making it one of the oldest
rocks in the world.)
The central region of Antarctica is a vast ice plateau
about 3,000 meters above sea level.
Bordering the plateau, the coast of East Antarctica is
marked by mountains, valleys, and glaciers.
To the north of the plateau lies the ranges of Kottas,
Mulig Hoffman, Wolthat, Ser Rondane, Belgica, and
the Yamato Moutains.
West Antarctica- West Antarctica is a collection of
islands, which includes the Antarctic Peninsula, held
together by the ice cap.
It contains hardly any old rocks of the East, and has
volcanoes that are not seen anywhere else in
Antarctica.
(West Antarctica developed as part of the Ring of
Fire, a chain of volcanoes encircling the Pacific
Ocean).
The Antarctic Peninsula is a mountainous, S-shaped
land, that is in fact a continuation of the Andes
Mountains of South America.
West Antarctica also has several other mountain
ranges and volcanoes.
The highest peak in Antarctica is Vinson
Massif(5140m) in the Ellsworth Mountains, south of
the peninsula.

(Coastal Waters- At the opposite ends of the

Transantarctic Mountains, two large gulfs cut into
Antarctica.
They are the Ross Sea and the Weddell Sea.
Named after the reknowned explorers, there are also
the Bellingshausen and the Amundsen Seas
bordering the West Antarctica.
Numerous bays are found indenting the coastline,
and channels, like the Bransfield Strait, seperates the
offshore islands from the mainland.)

Volcanoes- Volcanoes are even found in the continent

of ice and snow.
At least 10 of them are recognized today, although
only 2 are still active-- the Deception Island and Mt.
Erebus on Ross Island.

Deception Island (63.0 degrees S, 60.5 degrees W) is

a horse shoe-shaped volcanic island lying west of the
Antarctica Peninsula.
The island is only the top of the volcano that lies
mostly under water.
In the middle of the island is Foster Bay, a caldera
having hot springs, and the only beach in Antarctica
where it's able to swim.
(Mt. Erebus(3,794 m) was the first volcano found in
Antarctica.)

Climate

When talking about Antarctica's climate, the word

"extreme" could not be left out.
All the factors that make up the weather-
temperature, wind, precipitaion- are extreme
compared to any part of the world.

(Since Antarctica is in the Southern Hemisphere, the

seasons are opposite with the Northern Hemisphere.)
The Antarctic winter lasts from May until August and
the summer lasts from December until February.
The temperatures vary in places in Antarctica.

Temperature is directly effected by the amount of

sunlight in Antarctica.
Since Antarctica can not store heat, when the sun is
high it gets warm quickly, and when the sun is low it
cools down fast.
Near the waters the warmest month is January.

The Wind: aka Katabatic

The most significant factor in Antarctic weather is

wind.
As previously said, it's the windiest continent.
The dome-shaped continent of Antarctica is the ideal
environment for Katabatic wind, or known as the
gravity wind to be formed.
Winds that sweep downward from the plateau can
average 14 meters per second.
Katabatic winds are formed in the inland plateaus
about 20 to 25 km from the coast and blows out 10
to 30 km offshore.
These powerful winds leave their marks on the
surface of the ice cap.

A blizzard is another key factor in Antarctica's

climate.
There are about nine blizzards a year .Many
explorers have been lost in blizzards.
(Winds in blizzards can be so strong and powerful
that in some, you may not even be able to see your
hand right in front of your face.)

White Desert

"Polar Desert" is what many people call the inland

plateaus of Antarctica.
As the world's driest continent, it receives an average
of 14.5 cm of precipitation each year.
Although precipitation stands for rain in many parts
of the world, here it's only in form of snow.
The inland plateaus are the driest and has only about
5 cm of snowfall each year.
This is because of the katabatic winds that pushes
away the moist air from the ocean and avoiding
clouds to form.
The average annual precipitation on coastal areas
average about 30 cm.
There are three types of snowfall seen in Antarctica.
Snow brought by the clouds of low air pressure
fronts, diamond dusts which are tiny dust of snow
falling from a clear sky, and frosts derived from
frozen steams on the surface of the ice.

The Plants

Because of such harsh and cruel weather in Antarctica now, very

few plants live there.
And there aren't any trees there either.
There are only 800 species of plants existing in Antarctica.
350 of them are lichens.
Lichens are fungus typed non-flowering plants that grow on tree
trunks, rocks, and on the ground.
They resemble moss and are very well adapted to Antarctica's
environment.

Marine Life

Given its extreme temperature, Antarctica hosts a surprising variety

of marine and animal life.
Antarctica's colorful environment includes seabirds, penguins,
seals, whales, and the unique Antarctic Fish.
This little known creature, has no red hemoglobin in its blood,
making it appear transparent and allowing it to stay comfortable in
the extreme cold.

The lack of hemoglobin serves as a natural anti-freeze.

The largest fish in the Antarctic waters is the Antarctic Cod.

The largest recorded Antarctic Cod ever caught was 162 lbs.
The average ice fish is around two feet long, and weighs around
two and a half pounds.
It is different from most fish, because it has a beak.
The mouth is inside its beak. There are only 120 species of
Antarctic Fish left.

(The Small Land Animals

The only land animals in Antarctica are very small.

They consist of protozoans and small insects.
Other than those two there are no other native land animals in
Antarctica.
However, Antarctica has many ocean animals.
The land is too warm to support much life but the water is not.
Some of the tiny ocean creatures are Zooplankton (krill) and
Phytoplankton.
These two creatures are what most of the animals in the Antarctic
live on.
Krill are tiny, red, shrimp like creatures that are the most abundant
of all the Zooplankton in Antarctica.
They measure about 1.5 inches and are very important for the
Antarctic food chain.
Krill is the main source of food for fish, penguins, birds, seals and
whales.
The Antarctic waters are filled with them. )

The Mascot of Antarctica: The penguin

, outof eighteen living species there are only seven

species of penguins that arefound in Antarctica.
They are the Adelie, Chinstrap, Gentoo, Emperor,
Macaroni, Rockhopper, and King.
The only penguins considered as "true" Antarctic penguins are the
Adelie and Emperor because they live on continental Antarctica.
The Adelie is the most common penguin (named after a French
explorer) and the Emperor is the largest.
Penguins have a waterproof coat of feathers and a thick layer of fat
both of which are essential for swimming.
Penguins are amazing swimmers but they cannot fly.
The bones of these flightless penguins are solid instead of being
hollow like most birds, making them unable to fly.
The largest of the penguins species is the emperor.
It is also the only Antarctic bird never to set foot on land.
It breeds and lives on sea ice attached to the mainland.

Other Seabirds
There are twenty-four other seabirds besides the penguin that can
survive in the harsh cold of the Antarctic.

Among these shorebirds are the brown skua, the wandering

albatross, the blue-eyed cormorant, the giant petrel, and the
Dominican Gull.
There are an additional twelve species of birds that live in
Antarctica but they live either inland or in shallow water.
Among these land birds are the wattled sheathbill, the South
Georgia pintail, and the South Georgia pipit.

The Seals

Another mascot of Antarctica is the seal.

(Out of the six seals living in Antarctica five are considered "true"
seals because they are "earless."
However, they're hearing is quite good both in the water and on
land.)
These five species are the Weddel, Ross, leopard, crabeater and
elephant.
The fur seal is the last specie.

Seals have blubber and fur to keep them warm.

They have an amazing ability in diving and can dive up to 2000
feet into the water.
(The Ross seal is the rarest in Antarctica as well as the smallest.
The leopard seal is the most fierce.)
The crabeater is the most common seal both in Antarctica and on
the earth.Elephant seals are the largest of the seals.
They get their name from their "trunk" which is used to scare off
other males or to attract females.
They eat only fish and squid.
The fur seal has a thick coat of fur.

And Whales
Whales are also found in Antarctica as well.
There are several species making their home in Antarctica.
The whales are split into two groups.
Baleen, which is a bristly substance found in the mouth for filtering
food such as krill, and Toothed.
The Blue Whale (a baleen) is supposedly the largest creature to
ever live on earth.
The Sperm Whale is the largest of the toothed whales.
And the largest carnivore is the orca, or killer whale.
It is also one of the most intelligent creatures too.

Antarctica's Natural Resources

Today, petroleum, coal, and about 220 minerals exist on

Antarctica, though none are in use.
In the Antarctic Peninsula, copper deposits were found, and in East
Antarctica small amounts of chromium, gold, iron, lead,
manganese, molybedenum, and zinc were discovered.
Coal beds lie within the Transantarctic Mountains, and the
possibility of petroleum in the Ross Sea and the Bransfield Strait
were revealed through drilling and coring of the earth.
Conclusion
Many fields of science are studied in Antarctica today.
The research of global climates, atmosphere and O-zone,
Earth science, ice, magnetic movements, aurora, and the
eco-system have been done in Antarctica for more than 40
years.
New areas such as astrology and simulation of space life is
thought to be opened in the future.
Antarctica, as a continent of wonder, is believed that it
holds the key for answers of important questions about the
past, present, and our future.
But to do so, we must never forget that it is infact a delicate
continent which needs our support to remain as it is for
many futures to come.
Ozone Depletion & the Green-House Effect
There are many issues concerned in Antarctica today.
Two of them involves the whole world.
Over Antarctica, there is an isolated region in the
atmosphere which moves in a circular motion called the
polar vortex.
Researchers believe that this causes a physical sink of gases
in the stratosphere (region of atmosphere 20 to 50 km
above ground).
So all the gases float downwards toward Antarctica thus
creating a hole above Antarctica.
Another problem in Antarctica is the greenhouse effect.
The earth is slowly heating up.
The burning of fossil fuels causes air pollution to occur.
This pollution blocks heat from exiting the earth's
atmosphere.
The heat is becoming trapped making the earth hotter and
hotter over the years.
Even a slight change in the earth's temperature will result in
disaster.
The reason is that the heat will eventually melt the huge ice
caps in Antarctica and in the Arctic.
If enough ice melts the ocean level will rise and will flood
many cities and lowland areas.
So many scientists are concerned and trying to figure out
ways to stop this.
Antarctica in the 21st Century

Antarctica's serenely primitive wilderness faces an uncertain future as debate continues

over the question of tapping into the continent's wealth of mineral resources.

An expected and dramatic increase in world demand for energy over the next 30 years
may expose the continent to countries and markets looking for alternative petroleum
supplies. If Antarctica is indeed eventually opened for oil exploration activities, which
many believe it will be, the potential for oil pollution occurrences such as oil tanker
spills, the dumping of waste oil, natural oil seeps and well blowouts will rise
substantially.

However, the Antarctic Treaty system currently in place offers the internationally-
owned continent an opportunity to temporarily avoid such premature exploration
activities. The continent's usefulness as a scientific tool and international research
station will continue to be taken advantage of and Antarctica will continue its important
role in providing answers to the dilemma of climate change.

Why are the Poles so cold?

 Captain A.D. Colburn, right, crew member Bill Dunn,

and others wield their ice mallets on Knorr's foredeck during the Labrador Sea cruise. Photo by George Tupper,

WHOI.

There are a number of reasons why the polar regions remains cold, even in summer. The primary reason is

that the sun is low on the horizon all day. Thus, solar energy needs to pass through more atmosphere to get

to the ground. In addition, the high reflectivity (albedo) of snow and ice surfaces means that very little of the

energy that reaches the ground (or ocean, or ice) stays there. Therefore, the heat gained during the long

summer days is small and highly dependent on topography and albedo. For instance, wet tundra and bare

ground absorb more solar radiation than ice sheets.

In addition to being cold, the Arctic and Antarctic are also very dry. In fact, the Antarctic is the driest

continent on Earth. This is due in part to the fact that colder air can hold less moisture than warm air. This is

because the molecules of air are packed so tightly that it's as if the moisture has been squeezed out of it.

Why is Antarctica colder than the Arctic?

There are two key reasons why Antarctica is colder than the Arctic.

First, since Antarctica is a giant landmass, it receives very little heat from the ocean. In comparison, the

Arctic's icy cover is relatively thin and it has an entire ocean underneath it. While the water is anything but

warm, it usually stays around 30° F, which is often significantly warmer than the air above the ice. Some of

this heat makes its way through the ice to the air, moderating temperatures somewhat. Also, even in winter

areas of open water are present in the pack ice, allowing more ocean heat to escape into the air.

The second reason is elevation. As you go up in altitude, the air temperature decreases (by 6.5C for each 1

km). Since the average elevation of Antarctica is 2.3 km, the air is much colder compared to the Arctic

Ocean, which is at sea level.

http://library.thinkquest.org/28779/geography3.html
 Why is Antarctica

the Coldest Place on Earth?

Antarctica is no doubt the coldest, windiest, and the driest place on Earth.
Temperatures drop down easily to -70 degrees C, and the lowest temperature ever, -89.6
degrees C, was recorded at Russia's Vostok Station in 1983.
Every minute parts of Antarctica are swept away by the harsh blizzard, yet the inland
plateaus are drier than the Sahara: only 50mm of precipitaion- snow and frost- fall each
year.
Trapped in ice, Antarctica has the most severe natural environment on Earth. But why?
Why are the Poles Cold?

When we think of the coldest places on Earth, the places that give us the shudder just
thinking about it, the north and south poles directly come to our minds.
But why are they cold?

1. Difference in the amount of sunlight

Because the Earth is round, the amount of sunlight recieved from the Sun differs with
regions.
The regions across the equator gets the most and the poles the least.
In the polar regions, the sun does not rise much from the horizon even in summer
solstice(the day having the longest daytime in the year).
Compared with the sun that is directly above our heads, the sun that is just above the
horizon is cooler.

2. 6 months of winter and 6 months of summer

In most places around the world the sun appears daily.

Usually, the daytime is longer in summer and the nighttime is longer in winter.
But not here in the polar regions.
As you near the poles, the day and night gets even longer, and the sense of season and
"day" is lost.
The North and South poles both experience 6 months of day and 6 months of night every
year.
Although the poles receive sunlight in the 6 months of summer, more are lost in the
following 6 months of winter, making the poles the coldest place on earth.

3. The presence of ICE

The most important reason of why the poles are cold is the presence of ice.
In Antarctica, massive white sheets of ice cover the whole continent and in the Arctic
region as well.
The color of the ground plays an important role when absorbing the sun's heat.
Since the ice is tremendously white, instead of absorbing the sun's energy, the ice sheet act
as a mirror which directly reflects it back into space.
Antarctica would be a much warmer place if it was not for the vast ice that covered it.
When thinking about the global climate, two important factors could never be left out.
They are the waters that cover 70% of the Earth and the atmosphere, both circulating
constantly on the Earth's surface.
The water and the atmosphere carries heat to various places on the planet by means of wind
and ocean current.
Without them, the regions of the equator would be a much hotter place and the polar
regions colder than ever.

Temperature

of Antarctica
 ...

...

The Scientist

Antarctica has no native human inhabitants.

In the summer, which is January, Antarctica has about 4,115 people from twenty-three
different countries.
In the Antarctic winter months of July and August, Antarctica has approximately 1,046
people from sixteen countries.
There are only 42 people that live in Antarctica year-round, who come together from
eighteen countries.
In 1978, Emilio de Palma was the first baby ever born in Antarctica as noted in an
investigation by the Argentinean Government to see if Antarctica was suitable for family
life.
Just a note: Living in Antarctica means no telephone, radio broadcasting, television, or the
Internet, which to some of us might be like murder.
But there are other sources of entertainment, too.
Bowling alleys are found in some stations and in the winter seasons of Antarctica, the
MidWinter Festival takes place in the research centers of many countries where people
engage in activities like movies, singing, and having fun.

Antarctic Treaty

Through the Antarctic Treaty, Antarctica has been preserved.

Antarctica is only the few areas of the world remaining where humans have not greatly
changed the environment.
Today, some say that Antarctica should be a Wilderness Park of the world, where no
development would be permitted.

In 1905, the International Geographic Congress, met in London, and agreed on making
Antarctica the main focus of world exploration.
This summit started years of government sponsored national expeditions.
After the International Geophysical Year (IGY) held from 1957 to 58, in 1959, President
Dwight D. Eisenhower proposed the idea of a treaty to preserve a lasting freedom, and a
peaceful status for the continent.
The twelve leading countries signed the Antarctic Treaty in Washington on December 1,
1959 and was put into action on June 23, 1961.
It set-up the basis for government and for the legal management of Antarctica.
Governmental matters over Antarctica are decided at meetings in which member nations
participate.
There are 42 member nations, 26 that vote and 16 nations that just participate.
7 of the 26 voting nations claim portions of Antarctica as national territory.
The U.S. and other nations do not have claims, but have retained the right to make a claim.
Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, Norway, New Zealand and the United Kingdom have
all claimed pieces of Antarctica, but the land is still not under any country's rule.
There are 14 articles to the Antarctic Treaty which starts with a preamble saying ". . .
that is in the interest of all mankind that Antarctica shall continue forever to be used
exclusively for peaceful purposes and shall not become the scene or object of international
discord."
Article I prohibits military activity and says that Antarctica can only be used for peaceful
purposes such as scientific research.
Article II states that scientific investigation and cooperation between countries can
continue.
Article III allows the transfer of information and personnel between countries under the
supervision of the United Nations and other International Agencies.
Article IV defines no territorial boundaries in Antarctica nor does it allow any new claims
while the treaty is in effect.
Article V makes it illegal to dispose of radioactive wastes in Antarctica, or to have nuclear
explosives on Antarctica.
Article VI puts the treaty into effect in all land, and ice shelves below 60 degrees South
latitude.
Article VII declares that treaty-state observers can access any stations, installations and
equipment with advance notice of all affairs of state.
Article VIII gives power to the participating countries to regulate their own scientists and
observers.
Article IX states that frequent meetings between member nations must take place.
Article X insures the preservation of the Treaty by member nations.
Article XI states that disagreements must be settled peacefully or by the I.C.J. Articles
XII, XIII, and XIV must be constantly upheld, interpreted and amended by the member
nations.
There have been over 170 adopted changes to the treaty.
These changes include the agreed measures for the conservation of Antarctic fauna and
flora; convention for the conservation of Antarctic seals; convention on the conservation
of Antarctic marine living resources.
The Antarctic Conservation Act is part of the U.S. Constitution and allows for civil and
criminal penalties for unauthorized and illegal deeds.
Antarctic Treaty serves as a model for peaceful international relations and cooperation.
In 1991, a 50 year ban on mining activity was secured to restore Antarctica for the future.

Maitri is India's second permanent research station in Antarctica. It was built and
finished in 1989, after the first station Dakshina Gangotri was buried in ice and
abandoned in 1990-91[1]. Maitri is situated on the rocky mountainous region called
Schirmacher Oasis.

Contents
[hide]

• 1 Facilities
• 2 Milestones
• 3 Expeditions
• 4 External links

• 5 References

[edit] Facilities
The station has modern facilities to carry out research in various disciplines, such as
biology, earth sciences, glaciology, atmospheric sciences, meteorology, cold region
engineering, communication, human physiology and medicine. It has a capacity to
accommodate 25 people for winter. Fresh water is provided through a fresh water lake
named Lake Priyadarshini, in front of Maitri.

[edit] Milestones
India's commitment to polar science can be summarized by the following milestones:

• 19 August 1983: India was admitted to the Antarctic Treaty and soon thereafter
obtained Consultative Status.
• 1983: The permanent station Dakshin Gangotri was built, where the first
Wintering was conducted.
• 1 October 1984: India was admitted as a member of the Scientific Committee on
Antarctic Research (SCAR).
• 1986: India became a member of Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic
Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR).
• 1988-1989: India built its second indigenous station ‘Maitri’.
• 1997: India ratified the Environment Protocol to the Antarctic Treaty, thus
upholding its commitment to preserve the pristine continent.
• 2005: India completed its first 25 years in Antarctica and launched an expedition
in Dec 2005 called the Silver Jubilee Indian Antarctic Expedition.

[edit] Expeditions
The chapter of the Indian Antarctic Programme opened in December 1981 when the first
Indian Expedition was flagged off for Antarctica from Goa. It was led by S.Z. Qasim.
Subsequently, annual Antarctic expeditions have been sent through the Department of
Ocean Development and the National Centre for Antarctic & Ocean Research. So far,
twenty-one such expeditions have been launched, including one to the Weddell Sea; one
of these was a krill expedition to the southern ocean.

http://india.gov.in/sectors/science/antarctic_expedition.php

EIA Home
Contact Us

URL: http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/antarctica.html
Antarctic Expedition and Polar Science
The Antarctic Research Programme, was initiated in 1981,
is a national programme that has a multi-institutional and
multi-disciplinary approach. So far 25 scientific expeditions
have been launched on a regular basis. In addition, three
expeditions to the Southern Oceans for carrying out
research in the thrust areas of polar science including a
Weddel Sea Expedition and Krill Expedition for assessment
of Krill Resources in Antarctic waters, were also
undertaken. The Indian station Maitri situated in the Central
Droning Maud land of east Antarctica has provided a
platform to more than 1,500 personnel drawn from about 75
national laboratories, institutes, universities, survey and
service organisations to conduct experiments in all major
disciplines of polar sciences. The expeditions to Antarctica
are organised every year by National Centre for Antarctic
and Ocean Research (NCAOR) an autonomous institution
of the Ministry set up at Goa. Scientific experiments being
carried out at 787 Scientific and Technological
Developments Antarctica are in the field of Measurements
of Greenhouse gases, Tele Seismic studies, Permanent GPS
Tracking Station at Maitri, Study of Crack propagation on
Ice Sheet, Communication at Maitri. ORV Sagar Kanya
also conducted experiments in the Southern Ocean.
Dakshin Gangotri Glacier has been monitored by Indian
Scientists for the last 23 years An Ice Core Laboratory to
study the ice cores brought from the Antarctica, has become
fully operational at NCAOR, Goa.
Geography
Main article: Geography of Antarctica
See also: Extreme points of Antarctica, Antarctic territories, and List of Antarctic and
sub-Antarctic islands

A satellite composite image of Antarctica

Elevation colorized relief

Speed of ice streams

Size comparison Europe-Antarctica

Centered asymmetrically around the South Pole and largely south of the Antarctic Circle,
Antarctica is the southernmost continent and is surrounded by the Southern Ocean;
alternatively, it may be considered to be surrounded by the southern Pacific, Atlantic, and
Indian Oceans, or by the southern waters of the World Ocean. It covers more than
14,000,000 km2 (5,400,000 sq mi), making it the fifth-largest continent, about 1.3 times
as large as Europe. The coastline measures 17,968 km (11,165 mi) and is mostly
characterized by ice formations, as the following table shows:

Coastal types around Antarctica (Drewry, 1983)

Type Frequency
Ice shelf (floating ice front) 44%
Ice walls (resting on ground) 38%
Ice stream/outlet glacier (ice front or ice wall) 13%
Rock 5%
Total 100%

Maritime Antarctica

Antarctica is divided in two by the Transantarctic Mountains close to the neck between
the Ross Sea and the Weddell Sea. The portion west of the Weddell Sea and east of the
Ross Sea is called West Antarctica and the remainder East Antarctica, because they
roughly correspond to the Western and Eastern Hemispheres relative to the Greenwich
meridian.

About 98% of Antarctica is covered by the Antarctic ice sheet, a sheet of ice averaging at
least 1.6 km (1.0 mi) thick. The continent has about 90% of the world's ice (and thereby
about 70% of the world's fresh water). If all of this ice were melted, sea levels would rise
about 60 m (200 ft).[19] In most of the interior of the continent, precipitation is very low,
down to 20 mm (0.8 in) per year; in a few "blue ice" areas precipitation is lower than
mass loss by sublimation and so the local mass balance is negative. In the dry valleys the
same effect occurs over a rock base, leading to a desiccated landscape.
Climate
Main article: Climate of Antarctica

The blue ice covering Lake Fryxell, in the Transantarctic Mountains, comes from glacial
meltwater from the Canada Glacier and other smaller glaciers.

Antarctica is the coldest place on Earth. The coldest natural temperature ever recorded on
Earth was −89.2 °C (−128.6 °F) at the Russian Vostok Station in Antarctica on 21 July
1983.[31] For comparison, this is 11 °C (20 °F) colder than subliming dry ice. Antarctica is
a frozen desert with little precipitation; the South Pole itself receives less than 10 cm
(4 in) per year, on average. Temperatures reach a minimum of between −80 °C (−112 °F)
and −90 °C (−130 °F) in the interior in winter and reach a maximum of between 5 °C
(41 °F) and 15 °C (59 °F) near the coast in summer. Sunburn is often a health issue as the
snow surface reflects almost all of the ultraviolet light falling on it.[32]

East Antarctica is colder than its western counterpart because of its higher elevation.
Weather fronts rarely penetrate far into the continent, leaving the center cold and dry.
Despite the lack of precipitation over the central portion of the continent, ice there lasts
for extended time periods. Heavy snowfalls are not uncommon on the coastal portion of
the continent, where snowfalls of up to 1.22 metres (48 in) in 48 hours have been
recorded.

At the edge of the continent, strong katabatic winds off the polar plateau often blow at
storm force. In the interior, however, wind speeds are typically moderate. During
summer, more solar radiation reaches the surface during clear days at the South Pole than
at the equator because of the 24 hours of sunlight each day at the Pole.[1]

Antarctica is colder than the Arctic for two reasons. First, much of the continent is more
than 3 kilometres (2 mi) above sea level, and temperature decreases with elevation.
Second, the Arctic Ocean covers the north polar zone: the ocean's relative warmth is
transferred through the icepack and prevents temperatures in the Arctic regions from
reaching the extremes typical of the land surface of Antarctica.

Mountain glaciation
Given the latitude, long periods of constant darkness or constant sunlight create climates
unfamiliar to human beings in much of the rest of the world. The aurora australis,
commonly known as the southern lights, is a glow observed in the night sky near the
South Pole created by the plasma-full solar winds that pass by the Earth. Another unique
spectacle is diamond dust, a ground-level cloud composed of tiny ice crystals. It generally
forms under otherwise clear or nearly clear skies, so people sometimes also refer to it as
clear-sky precipitation. A sun dog, a frequent atmospheric optical phenomenon, is a
bright "spot" beside the true sun.[32]

Population
See also: Demographics of Antarctica and List of research stations in Antarctica

Antarctica has no permanent residents, but a number of governments maintain permanent

manned research stations throughout the continent. The number of people conducting and
supporting scientific research and other work on the continent and its nearby islands
varies from about 1,000 in winter to about 5,000 in the summer. Many of the stations are
staffed year-round, the winter-over personnel typically arriving from their home countries
for a one-year assignment. An Orthodox church opened in 2004 at the Russian
Bellingshausen Station is also manned year-round by one or two priests, who are
similarly rotated every year.[33][34]

Politics

Designed by Graham Bartram, this is the most popular unofficial flag of Antarctica,
symbolizing the continent's neutrality.

HMS Endurance: the Royal Navy's Antarctic patrol ship.

Antarctica has no government, although various countries claim sovereignty in certain

regions. While few of these countries have mutually recognised each other's claims,[50] the
validity of these claims are generally not recognised universally.[1]
New claims on Antarctica have been suspended since 1959 and the continent is
considered politically neutral. Its status is regulated by the 1959 Antarctic Treaty and
other related agreements, collectively called the Antarctic Treaty System.

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Antarctica Wildlife
Antarctic Wildlife

Antarctica is a continent of extremes. It holds the title of coldest, driest and windiest
location on earth. Temperatures have been recorded as low as -129 degrees F, with winds
blasting along the coastline at speeds up to 200 mph. Its average interior precipitation is
less than a couple of inches per year, making Antarctica a peculiar and brilliant frozen
desert of snow. But even in such harsh conditions Antarctica remains the home of a large
variety of extraordinary wildlife.

Wildlife in Antarctica is most active in the austral summer months. During this time seals,
whales, penguins and a large diversity of other seabirds migrate to the continent to breed
and feed on the virtually unlimited supply of krill, crustaceans, and fish. Each summer
month has its own unique wildlife viewing opportunities not to be missed.

Antarctica cruises offer amazing wildlife viewing opportunities and the following
tables can help in planning your Antarctic travel.

Antarctic Birds

Millions of seabirds breed along the coast and offshore islands

of Antarctica. To survive in the biting environment, Antarctic
birds have waterproof plumage, and large compact bodies with
a dense layer of fat under their skin. There are nineteen species
of seabirds that breed along the continent. Due to the shortage
of snow-free nesting regions, most seabirds tend to procreate in
large, impressive concentrations making for ideal viewing
conditions for the bird enthusiasts. The birds will migrate north as the summer months
come to an end, spending the winter in more temperate climates.

Breeding Birthing
Species Population Characteristics
Month Month
Albatrosses
750,000 Capable of flying 550 miles
(various Dec - July Feb - Oct
pairs per day at speeds of 50 mph
species)
Will desert their eggs if nests
Snow Petrels 1,000 pairs Oct - Nov Dec.
are overly disturbed
 Shore-feeding birds, rarely
Cormorants 10,000 pairs Aug - Oct Nov - Feb
seen out of the sight of land
Capable of spitting foul
Antarctic Several 100
Oct - Dec Jan smelling oil up to 5 feet if
Fulmars thousand
nests are threatened
Several 100 Aggressive; robbing other
Gulls Nov - Dec Jan
thousand bird's nests of eggs
Scavengers; only Antarctic
100,000
Sheathbills Sept - Nov Nov bird that does not have
pairs
webbed feet
Several Southern most bird; sightings
Skuas Oct - Dec Dec - Jan
1,000 pairs have occurred at South Pole

Penguins

One of Antarctica's most familiar wildlife, penguins are

considered by many to be the continent's signature species.
They spend over 75% of their lives as sea where they are most
comfortable. Their bodies are designed for swimming. Powerful
paddle muscles and a compact hydrodynamic body shape allow
penguins to swim up to 25 mph. Impressive and elegant in the
water, by contrast penguins awkwardly waddle and hop once
ashore.

While seventeen species of penguins can be found in the subantarctic regions - including
coastal islands - only four types of the flightless birds breed on the continent itself: the
Emperor, Adelie, Chinstrap, and Gentoo penguins.

Breeding Birthing
Species Population Characteristics
Month Month
In winter, remain at sea,
2.5 million
Adelie Sept - Oct Dec resting on pack ice and
pairs
iceberg groups
Permanent habitants of
200,000 Winter
Emperor Sept Antarctica; the only bird that
pairs months
breeds in winter
Can only dive a max. of 230
7 million
Chinstrap Oct - Nov Jan - Feb feet, lasting no more and a
pairs
half a minute
The least abundant penguin
300,000
Gentoo Sept - Oct Nov species on the subantarctic
pairs
islands
Antarctic Seals

Much of the early exploration of Antarctica and the Southern

Ocean was do to the search for new seal communities. During
the 19th and 20th century, many seals were hunted for their
valuable skins and oils. Entire populations of species were
driven to the brink of extinction. Thankfully, today, the seals
are protected by a collection of agencies, and their numbers
have continued to thrive. Because of the nutrient-rich feeding
regions, and the lack of polar bears, the Antarctic has a much larger seal population than
the Arctic. Most of the their life is spent in water, but seals must return to land to breed.
The best locations to view their breeding grounds are on the pack ice surrounding
Antarctica, or along the coastal shores of the northern islands.

Breeding Birthing
Species Population Characteristics
Month Month
Largest consumer of krill,
Austral
Crabeater 30 million Dec - Jan consuming 20-25 times their
spring
body weight a year
Their valued fur led to much
Fur 4 million Nov - Dec Nov - Jan of the early exploration of
Antarctica
Austral Only seal that eats its other
Leopard 250,000 Nov - Dec
summer seals
Austral
Ross 200,000 Nov Has a siren-like call
spring
Southern Austral Can dive deeper than 3200 ft.,
700,000 Aug - Sept
Elephant summer up to 2 hours
Lives farther south than any
other mammal, inhabiting
Weddell 800,000 Dec Sept - Oct
waters just 800 miles from
South Pole

Whales

Whales are divided into two main groups: toothed and baleen.
The only toothed whales found in the Antarctic are the Orca and
the Sperm whale, while a variety of baleen whales have been
sited: Blue, Fin, Humpback, Minke, and Southern Right. Unlike
the other wildlife of Antarctica, whales do not breed in the
region. However, they do take advantage of the nutrient-filled
waters in the austral summer, traveling great distances from
their temperate breeding waters in the north. Like seals, several species of whales were
hunted until near extinction in the mid-1900s. While regulations have been placed on
whaling activities, these magnificent giants have not seen their populations recover as
well as the seals. Today, the entire area surrounding Antarctica is recognized as a whale
sanctuary.
Species Population Size Diet Characteristics
85-100 ft. Krill, other Largest whale and the largest
Blue 11,000
long crustaceans animal ever to live on earth
80-90 ft. Squid,
Fin 100,000 Fastest of the baleen whales
long krill, fish
Very vocal, their complex
40-50 ft.
Humpback 20,000 Krill, fish songs can last 20 min. and be
long
heard 20 miles away
Only whale still hunted
Krill, fish,
Minke 500,000 30 ft. long commercially by Japan and
squid
Norway
Several Fish, birds, Hunt in packs; don't make the
25-30 ft.
Orca 100,00 marine long seasonal migrations as
long
thousand mammals other whales
Plankton, Slow and easily hunted, they
Southern Right 4,000 50 ft. long krill, are only beginning to recover
crustaceans from extinction
Giant
Swim in schools of 20-25;
squid, fish,
Sperm 750,000 50 ft. long deepest diving mammal - up
octopus,
to 1 mile
skate