Food Dispersions

Nearly all foods contain water

Nutrients + water Food

Nutrients are dispersed in water
Questions
1. How are these nutrients dispersed in water
2. How does the nutrients interact with the water and
with each other
3. How do these nutrients remain in the form in which
they exist and give the characteristics of the food
 Components of food
• There are many ways to think of dinner.
You could simply divide the meal into the
appetizers, main course and dessert.
• Or you could categorize the foods based on
their protein, carbohydrate, fat and mineral
content. This division is more complex,
since the foods may fall into more than one
category. (For example, the steak contains
protein, minerals and fat, as well as water.)
 Components of food

Another method is to divide the food according to how

particles are dispersed in it:
In other words, how solids, liquids and gases are
suspended, or dissolved, in other solids, liquids, and
gases.
For example, cranberry juice is a liquid that contains
insoluble solids (fibers) and dissolved solids
(sugars).
Jam is also a liquid with a solid (sugar) dissolved in it.
However, this liquid is suspended in pectin, which is
an insoluble solid.
 Dispersions
These dispersions are further classified as
true solutions,
colloids and
suspensions.
 True solution
The simplest category is a true solution. Dissolving a
solid into a liquid (such as salt into water or sugar
into coffee) results in a solution.
Almost every food contains some amount of liquid
solvent, usually water. Because of this, all foods
with water contain solutions. With water as a
solvent, the dispersed phase, or solute, can be a
gas, liquid, or solid.
 True solution
• What do an apple, a steak, and a carbonated
beverage have in common? They all contain
solutions . The type of solution varies according
to the kind of solute in the food.
• Apple particles may contain dissolved acids,
sugars or salts.
• In the steak, dispersed salts and sugars create true
solutions.
• And the carbonated beverage contains not only
dissolved sugars and salts, but small gas bubbles
dispersed in the liquid.
 Homogeneous dispersion vs Dispersed
particles
• Food scientists generally think of water from two
points of view.
• First, the functional properties view defines a
"true solution" as a homogeneous dispersion in
which the solute is evenly distributed throughout
the dispersing liquid and shows no tendency
whatsoever to separate.
• Second, the dispersed particles view defines a
solution as a dispersion in which the dispersed
particles are single molecules, or ions, or both.
 Colloids

In a colloidal system, particles are disperse

throughout the food without dissolving.
In other words, food ingredients remain
separate, but are distributed evenly (more or
less) throughout the system
 Suspensions
A suspension is the most complex system.
Suspensions contain particles of solid
matter which are large enough to settle out.
Sometimes you can see the particles and
other times you cannot, depending on the
dispersing medium and the size and shape
of the particles.
 How dispersions differ
• How can you tell if food is a true solution,
colloid or suspension? These systems differ
from each other in at least 20 or 30 ways.
Three most critical ways dispersions differ
are:
• the size of the particle,
• colligative properties, and
• ability of the particles to settle out of the
system
 Size of particles
True solutions have the smallest dispersed
particles. These particles are usually less
than 1 nanometer in size.
 Ability to settle out
Some particles are unable to dissolve or
become evenly dispersed; instead, they
visibly "settle out" from food, like fruit
settles out from gelatine. The result is a
suspension.
 Ability to settle out-contd
• In true solutions, particles do not settle out
over time. Instead, the solute (in this case,
sugar) dissolves completely into the water.
 Ability to settle out-contd
• Adding dry milk solids to water creates a
colloid. The lactose and salts in the solids
are dissolved into a solution, but the
proteins are colloid ally dispersed.
 Ability to settle out-contd
• The particles in colloidal systems may settle
out over time; however, most foods would
become inedible (or, like milk, would spoil)
before the colloids become visible.
 Size of particles
Unfortunately, there are exceptions to size for some
colloids and suspensions.
• For example, when cornstarch is added to water, it
settles out to form a suspension. Yet if the water is
heated, the cornstarch granules fill with water,
swell, and form a colloid.
• For this reason, food scientists also consider the
ability of particles to "settle out" and colligative
properties when distinguishing between the two
systems.
true solutions have the smallest
dispersed particles. These particles are
usually less than 1 nanometer in size.

In suspensions, dispersed
particles are generally larger
than 0.2 micrometer.

The dispersed particles in colloidal

systems range from 1 nanometer to
0.2 micrometer
 Physical changes of foods
Change in state of matter from solid, to liquid,
to gas requires energy input.
A change from gas, to liquid, to solid requires
energy removal. Such changes occur
frequently in the preparation of foods..
• Such a change also alters the way water
influences the properties of food. For
example, ice (which is a solid) has a
restricted and well-defined structure.
 Physical changes of foods
• If energy is applied -- in this case, heat
energy -- the structure becomes fluid and
the orientation of molecules is less
definitive.
• Finally, if the water changes to a gas
(steam), the structure becomes a single
molecule of H2O
 Latent Heat

A change in the state of matter requires energy

(which is usually measured in calories) but no
temperature change. Each gram of pure water
requires 1 calorie to raise its temperature by 1
degree C.
• Latent heat requirements have many implications
in both the processing and preparation of foods.
• For example, in the preparation of frozen food, at
least 80 calories must be removed for every gram
of water which is changed from liquid to ice. Ice
cream and frozen desserts also require significant
energy removal to form ice crystals.
 Latent Heat

• On the other hand, dehydrating and drying

fruits and vegetables requires input of
energy to convert liquid water into water
vapor.
Since fruits and vegetables may consist of at
least 90 percent water, the cost of
processing is significant
• For example, this diagram shows the amount of latent heat required to bring 1 gram of
ice to its melting point, changing it from a solid state to a liquid state without a rise in
temperature. How many calories are required to change 1 gram of ice at 0 degrees to
water?
 Colligative properties
Colligative properties in foods include:
boiling point,
freezing point,
osmosis and
water activity.
 Colligative properties
• The colligative properties in true solutions
are strongly affected by the dispersed
particles.
• These properties are slightly affected by the
dispersed phase of colloids.
• The dispersed particles do not affect
colligative properties of suspensions
 Boiling and freezing points
• The number of particles dissolved in a
solution significantly affects both boiling
and freezing points
• Every gram of solute particles added to
water lowers the freezing point by a precise
amount
 Boiling and freezing points
The boiling point of water is 100 degrees
Celsius (C), which is equal to 212 degrees
Fahrenheit (F). The freezing point of water
is 0 degrees Celsius, or 32 degrees
Fahrenheit.
Boiling and freezing points-contd

Adding 1 gram molecular weight of sugar to

1 liter of water increases boiling temperature
by 0.52 degrees C, while the same amount
lowers freezing temperature to -1.86 degrees
C.
For example, in household measurement
terms, it would take 6.1 cups of sugar to
change the boiling temperature of 1 liter of
water by 1.86 degrees C, compared to 1.71
cups of sugar to change freezing point by the
same amount.
 Boiling and freezing points
Compared to a nonionizing solute, an ionizing solute (like
salt) has a far greater impact on the freezing
temperature of water. The amount that the freezing
temperature lowers depends on the number of particles
into which the ionizing solute dissolves.

• 1 gram molecular weight ionizing solute per liter = -

1.86 degrees C decrease in freezing point per particle
 Boiling and freezing points
For example, using salt (which divides into two
particles) lowers the freezing temperature of water
twice as much as a nonionizing solute (like sugar)
-- by -3.72 degrees C per gram molecular weight
of the solute per liter of water.
An ionizing solute that divides into three particles
would lower the freezing temperature of water
three times lower than a nonionizing solute, and so
on.
 Saturated solutions
All true solutions consist of dispersed
particles (the solute) in a liquid solvent; in
foods, the liquid is usually water.
• These true solutions may have different
characteristics, depending on the
concentration of the solute.
• This concentration is defined as Saturation.
 Supersaturated solutions
Most foods contain unsaturated and saturated
solutions.
Supersaturated solutions. critical to preparing
candies and table salt.
Supersaturated solutions are relatively
unstable, and solute tends to precipitate out
of the mixture to form crystals, resulting in
a saturated solution.
 Saturated Solution
• To understand saturation,
think of adding sugar to iced tea. Initially, this
combination forms an unsaturated solution
because the solution (the tea) dissolves all the
solute (the sugar), yet has the ability to dissolve
even more.
• If you continue to add sugar to the tea, eventually
you'll reach a point when the sugar will no longer
dissolve. That's because the solution dissolves all
the solute it can hold at a given temperature. At
this point, the solution is Saturated
 Supersaturated solution
• Finally, let's say you want to dissolve more
sugar into the tea after it's reached
saturation point at a given temperature. You
may be able to do this by heating the tea,
dissolving all the sugar possible at this high
temperature, then cooling the tea without
precipitating the sugar. A solution that
contains more solute than normal at a
specified temperature is called Supersaturated
 Water Activity
Water activity, or Aw, is the ability of water to take
part in biological or chemical reactions. As solute
is added to water, the water forms a structure
around it. At that point, the water surrounding the
solute is no longer available.
 Water Activity
• Pure water has an Aw of 1.0. A high level of water
activity, in the range of .75 to .95, means that the
food permits growth of bacteria, yeast and molds.
Aw decreases as solutes (such as salt and sugar)
are dissolved in food.
• A low Aw level means that the food is less likely
to allow the growth of molds, yeasts and other
detrimental biological and chemical reactions.
 Water Activity
• Foods are processed and produced for shelf
stability based on water activity. As you'll see
on the graph, foods with a low Aw level have
fewer reactions; therefore, they have a longer
shelf life.
 Suspension
• In some foods, the three states of matter
may appear to dominate as separate entities
in the mixture. Foods consisting of a liquid
with particles visibly settling out are called
suspension.
• The particles may be solids, gases or even
other liquids. The system is further
complicated because each of the three states
may exist as a solution and/or colloid.
 Suspension-contd
• Jello with fruit is an example of a
suspension. The chef prepares a liquid
gelatin sol to the consistency of egg white.
When fruit pieces are added they settle out,
forming a suspension. If the preparation is
done properly, the liquid sol will change to
a gel, trapping the fruit. .
 Suspension-contd
• An example of another suspension is
cornstarch (a solid) added to water. If left
standing, the cornstarch will settle out.
• A liquid that visibly settles out from a
liquid is also a suspension. For example, if
non-homogenized milk is left in a container,
large globules of fat will rise to the surface.
This suspension -- cream -- is then easily
removed
 Colloidal system
A colloidal system is made up of large
molecules of a substance dispersed in
water.
The molecules form the disperse phase.
The disperse phase may be solid, liquid
or gaseous and the properties of
colloidal systems are dependent on the
large surface area of the disperse
phase.
 Behaviour of colloids
• During the processing and cooking of food,
colloids behave in different ways, depending
on a number of conditions. These include:
• The particle size and extent of dispersion
may be affected by:
• heat
• beating
• pH: acid or alkaline conditions affect food
colloids in different ways.
 Behavior of colloids-contd
For example, in breadmaking, acidic
conditions during fermentation may
increase gluten dispersion but in biscuit
and cake manufacture, alkaline
conditions have this effect, the
difference being due to the relative
proportions of water and fat.
 Behavior of colloids-contd

• Acidic conditions will cause milk

protein(casein) to curdle and become
non-colloidal. A further reduction in pH
will reverse this process. Control of pH
is therefore very important in food
manufacture.
• enzyme activity: amylase and
proteinase can increase or decrease
particle size and dispersion in starch
and protein colloids, respectively.
 Behavior of colloids-contd

• Acidic conditions will cause milk

protein(casein) to curdle and become
non-colloidal. A further reduction in pH
will reverse this process. Control of pH
is therefore very important in food
manufacture.
• enzyme activity: amylase and
proteinase can increase or decrease
particle size and dispersion in starch
and protein colloids respectively.
 Examples of colloidal systems

a. For example, before cooking, the egg consisted of

a protein (solid) in a liquid as a sol. Cooking the
egg converted it into a firm gel with the solid now
forming a matrix, trapping the liquid.
b. The butter on the toast is an emulsion, formed by
dispersion of a liquid (water) into a liquid (oil)
with crystalline fat and other ingredients.
 Colloids
Remember:
Colloids consists of 2 phases:
Continuous phase (dispersing phase)
Discontinuous phase (dispersed phase)
For example, margarine, oil is the Continuous
phase (dispersing phase) while water is the
Discontinuous phase (dispersed phase)
 Colloidal systems

Colloidal systems in foods are:

emulsions
sols
gels
foams
 Colloidal systems
• Liquid dispersed into liquid forms an
emulsion, such as mayonnaise.
• A solid dispersed into a liquid forms a Sol.
Here, cooked starch is colloid ally dispersed
in a liquid to make gravy.
• A liquid trapped in a solid creates a gel,
like gelatin dessert.
• Air dispersed into a liquid forms a foam,
such as whipping cream.
 Unique colloidal systems
Colloids, true solutions and suspensions may all be found
in the same food.
For example, fresh milk from a dairy farm contains milk
protein solids, which are colloid ally dispersed as a sol.
Some of the fat may be naturally emulsified as a liquid in
liquid emulsion.
Sugars, salts and water-soluble vitamins are present in
solution.
And if the milk is not homogenized, the unemulsified,
suspended fat will "cream" or settle on top of the milk
 Properties of colloidal dispersions

The general properties of colloidal

dispersions
• surface activity - colloids can, in some
circumstances act as surface active
agents as in the formation of foams.
• viscosity - colloids can vary in consistency
from sols, which appear as solutions, to a
high degree of plasticity - a gel.
 Starch colloids
• Starch granules form a suspension in cold
water but when heated to above 60°C, the
granules rupture releasing polymeric starch
(amylose and amylopectin) to form a colloid
dispersion.
• With increasing concentrations of starch, the
colloid becomes more viscous because
connections are formed between the
molecules.
• Eventually the colloid becomes a gel (i.e.
semi-solid) but this may be reversed by
stirring or heating to break the connections
 Starch colloids

A wide range of products made from

colloidal starch consist of foams
stabilized by coagulated protein (bread,
cakes, biscuits, many snack foods and
breakfast cereals). The viscous
properties are widely employed in
sauces and soups.
 .
Starch colloids-contd

The essence of food manufacture is to

produce a consistent product
consistently - an objective that may be
thwarted by the small but definitive
differences of behavior of natural
starches. This has resulted in the
development and widespread use of a
range of modified starches.
 Protein colloids
In nature, protein usually occurs as a colloidal
dispersion, sometimes in a highly organized
state as in muscle.
Protein colloids exhibit all the properties of
colloid dispersions and all the susceptibilities
to changes induced by pH, but have the
added property that when heated the protein
denatures (i.e. coagulates) so that the
colloidal is 'set' or stabilized.
Most baked products utilize this phenomenon
as does the cooking of meat and fish.
 Emulsion
• An emulsion is a mixture of two components
which normally do not mix, such as oil and
water, in which one component is distributed as
droplets in the other.
• They are described as being immiscible. The
droplet component is known as the 'dispersed'
phase and the other as the 'continuous' phase.
• In food, most emulsions are oil in water or water
in oil so that the commonly used emulsifiers
exhibit solubility in fat and water. Emulsifiers
make the emulsion permanent.
 Emulsions

Liquid/liquid systems of 2 immiscible

substances are called emulsion. Substances
or particle size = 10-100 microns.
Examples: butter (w/o), margarine (w/o),
mayonnaise (o/w), salad dressing (o/w),
milk (o/w), cream (o/w)
CHEMICAL STRUCTURE OF SOME COMMON
EMULSIFIERS (SURFACTANTS)
 Stabilizers
• Stabilizers are other substances in
common use to make emulsions
permanent.
• starches and modified starches are
examples, as are proteins, which have
the added attribute(property) that when
heated they may coagulate leading to
rigid or semi rigid structures as in
meringues, bread and cakes.
 Foam
• A foam is similar to an emulsion but the
dispersed element is gaseous in nature,
usually air or carbon dioxide (produced
by fermentation).
• Commonly a foam is formed in an oil in
water emulsion (e.g. ice cream). Usually
the gaseous phase is enclosed in
protein membrane derived from egg
white.
 Foam-contd

• The droplet size in both emulsions and

foams is dependent on the amount of
energy used to create the dispersion
(e.g. mechanical beating), the
effectiveness of the emulsifier and of
the stabilising substance.
 Some desirable characteristics of food
emulsifers

1. Ability to reduce interfacial tension below 10

dynes/cm
2. Ability to be rapidly absorbed at the interface
3. Ability to function effectively at low
concentrations
4. Resistance to chemical change
5. Lack of odor, color, and toxicity
6. Economical
 FOAM
• Gas is dispersed in liquid or semi-liquid.
• Dispersed-phase: gas
• Continuous-phase: liquid
• It requires a 3rd component possessing
protective or stabilizing properties to
maintain the dispersion.
• Example: whipped topping
 FOAM

The important foam stability factors are:

1. Surface tension
2. Concentration of separate phase
3. Presence of foaming agent to lower surface
tension
4. Viscosity of liquid - the higher the
viscosity, the more stable the foam.
5. Presence and thickness of adsorption layer
(a 3rd stabilizing material
 GEL

• semi-solid state with 2 continuous phases.

• Continuous phase of interconnected
particles and/or macro-molecules
intermingled with
• a continuous phase of liquid phase such as
water.
Example jam and jello
 Stability of colloids
• The stability of colloids is of great importance
to food technology and is influenced by:
• surface charge - this may produce
aggregation of particles and change the
colloid to a suspension. The reverse process
may also occur.
• hydration - many food substances have an
affinity for water and can remain as a colloidal
dispersion when little water is present
because they 'hold' the water molecules
around the particles.
• (Refer to Food colloids for further slides)
CHEMICAL STRUCTURE OF SOME COMMON
EMULSIFIERS (SURFACTANTS)
 STABILITY OF A FOOD DISPERSION

1. Dispersed particle size

2. Viscosity of continuous phase
3. Dispersed phase concentration
4. Density difference between 2 phases
 Stabilizers
• Many colloids require a stabilizer to keep
the dispersed particles from separating out
(precipitating) or blending together
(coalescing). This stabilizer is frequently
called a surfactant.
• All colloidal systems may be stabilized in
part by any or all of three characteristics:
absorbed solvent layer, electrical charge,
and Brownian Movement.
Mechanisms for stabilizing colloidal systems

Electrical charge
• Dispersed colloidal particles may have an
electrical charge either because ions are
adsorbed, or groups of the colloid are ions.
• It's similar to how magnets work: "like"
polarities repel each other, keeping the
solute from coalescing with unlike charges
and possibly precipitating
Example of electrical charge stabilizing a
colloid
• For example, in milk, the large macro-molecules
of calcium caseinate have "like" charges, causing
the milk protein to exist as a sol. When milk sours,
the positive acid ions (hydrogen) change the
electrical charge of the caseinate, allowing the
caseins to bond intramolecularly and
intermolecularly. This, in turn, forms a milk gel.

• In addition to the inherent properties of the

colloid, a surfactant may contribute to the charge.
 Stability of colloids
• The stability of colloids is of great importance
to food technology and is influenced by:
• surface charge - this may produce
aggregation of particles and change the
colloid to a suspension. The reverse process
may also occur.
• hydration - many food substances have an
affinity for water and can remain as a colloidal
dispersion when little water is present
because they 'hold' the water molecules
around the particles.
• (Refer to Food colloids for further slides)
Destabilization of a
dispersion
Colligative True Solutions Colloids Suspensions
Property

Freezing Point appreciable slight influence no influence of

influence by by dispersed dispersed
dispersed particles particles
particles
Boiling Point apprecable slight influence no influence
influence

Osmosis appreciable slight influence no influence

influence

Water Activity appreciable slight influence no influence

influence
 Water
Water Functions
Important component of food.
1. Universal solvent (salt, vitamins, sugar, gases,
pigment)
2. Capable of ionizing (H3O+, OH-)
3. Affects the texture
4. Chemical reactions (hydrolysis of protein = amino
acids)
5. Stabilizing the colloids (by hydration)
6. Necessary for micro-organisms grow
Hydrogen Bond
The bond is formed due to the affinity of electro-positive
hydrogen atoms for electro-negative atoms such as O. Binding
energy of hydrogen bond is about 10% of covalent bond. H-
bond strength = 10 Kcal/mol.
 Water is a good dissolving solvent - Why?

1. Hydration of the solute by a chemical

complex such as the "hydrogen bond"
2. Physical action of dispersion of solute
molecule due to the high-activity of water
molecules at the surface of the solute.
3. The high di-electric constant of water (80x
that of vacuum) diminishes the
effectiveness of attractive forces that tend to
hold the solute molecules together
Dissolving of ions by high di-electric
constants of water
 .......tastes, looks and smells delicious,
is fresh, wholesome and pure , has
nutritional value and will do no harm if
Good food ... eaten in moderation, is produced by
methods, traditional or modern, the
producer would be proud to show the
public, has had minimal processing,
has been humane in the keeping and
slaughter of animals, has minimal
chemical content, contains no
unnecessary additives.