2010

Hemender
1/10/2010

Imp. English notes

English notes.
➢ Third period – 1835-1853 – on the invitation of Lord William Bentinck,
Lord Macaulay came to India and chaired the committee. After one year he
presented his recommendation which is called Macaulay minutes (1835).
➢ In his recommendation Macaulay emphasized the need of English saying
that it is necessary for the smooth functioning of the British rule and for the
spread of western knowledge and culture here.
➢ Wood’s Dispatch – It is called Magna carta of English education. He is
recommended that English should be introduced as a compulsory subject in all
classes and English should be made medium of instructions at college level.
➢ The education commission 1882- the commission recommended that
English should not be given priority over the local language (vernacular).
➢ Indian university commission 1917-19- according to this commission a
balance view is needed between the vernacular and English. It however,
highlighted the need of English in India.
➢ In 1950, Indian parliament passed a bill making Hindi the language of
admistration in central government. English was made a associated official
language.
➢ A time period of 15 years was decided to popularize Hindi so that English
may be removed from administration.
➢ In 1956, the central advisory board of education presented a three
language formula. This formula was discussed in the chief minister’s
conference in 1961. The basic formula was accepted with certain
modifications.
➢ A) First, language should be regional language. English is taught as a
second language in India. Second, English/Hindi. Third, modern European or
modern Indian language.
➢ B) First regional language. Second, English / modern European language.
Third, Hindi/modern Indian language.
➢ In 1963 an ordinance was issued to continue English as an associate
official language. Even after 1965 till the states continues the same status.
➢ Place of English before Independence-
1. It was the official language of administration and court.
2. It was the medium of instruction in school and colleges.
3. It was the medium of instruction and teaching.
4. It was a compulsory subject.
➢ Place of English after Independence- English was also dethroned from its
highest position. As a result Hindi was declared the national and official
language of the union by the Indian constitution.
1. It was declared the associated language.
2. It did not remain the medium of instruction.
3. It did not remain the medium of examination.
4. It is not the national and the official language.
5. It is not the compulsory subject.
➢ Recent position of English in India- Hindi was declared as the national
language of India. The parliament had to pass an act in 1963 for making
English an associate official language for an indefinite period.
Prominent place in educational system- In the word of Howell, “Education in
India under the British Government was first ignored them violently and
successfully opposed, than conducted on a system now universally admitted to
be the erroneous and finally placed on it present footing.” English occupies the
most important place in the educational system of our country.
Importance of English in India-
1. English as a link language- it is known to the educated people all over
the world. Therefore it is important for having inter-state links and
communication for trade, administration and management, social affairs,
cultural and educational exchange.
2. Language of international importance-“English is our major window
on the modern world” Pd. Nehru. English occupies a very important
place in the international world. It is the language understood in all the
countries of the world. So it is very helpful in foreign trade, commerce,
friendly relations.
3. Language of national importance- English language has been the official
language, yet its national importance is acknowledged. Through it Indians
maintained and still maintain their political, social, commercial and
friendly relations.
4. An official language- English language has been the official language of
India for more than 200 years. All official work of administration and
 management is done in English language in most of the states of our
country.
5. A library language- English is the key to the treasure house of
knowledge. Most of the book of higher learning and knowledge like
science, technology, medicine, agriculture, astronomy, mathematics,
anthropology, humanities etc. research books, good reference books are
found in English language. That is why English occupies the position of
library language.
6. Language of western Science and Arts- English was the key which
opened the gates of western science and arts to Indians.
7. Language of the court- English was the language of the court. Judges and
magistrates wrote and announced their decision in English. Lawyers and
barristers placed their case in English. This was the language in which all
the records of all the courts were kept even today, English occupies
important courts.
8. Language of communication- English was the language of
communiciation. All the highly placed officers and aristocratic families
talked and corresponded in English.
9. Language of trade and industry- English became the language of trade
and industry. Businessman and merchants living in the same province and
other provinces used English for the purpose of correspondence.
10. Language of our literary development- Indian writers developed their
own language and literature. The development of modern Indian novel,
short story, drama and literary criticism is entirely due to the impact of
English on Indian languages.
VALUE AND IMPORTANCE OF TEACHING ENGLISH
1. International Importance- English claims to be the international language. It
can even be called a university language. Hence, its knowledge promotes
international understanding. It overcomes his prejudices, intolerance and
narrow-mindedness. Thus, it is very helpful for fostering true internationalism
and co-operation among the nations of the world.
2. Vocational importance- Study of English as a modern foreign language has
tremendous vocational importance for us. It offers opportunities for many and
 varied vocations, like diplomatic and foreign services, commerce, medicine,
teaching law, etc.
3. Educational importance- English is a direct medium to acquiring knowledge
of modern arts, science, humanities technology etc. it is equally important for
statesmen and politicians, scientist and doctors and educationists, businessman
and research workers. They enrich their knowledge and experience by reading
English books and journals.
4. Cultural importance- English widens one’s cultural and intellectual horizon.
It develops scientific, technical and commercial relations with other countries.
It imparts the knowledge of foreign nations and cultures. Thus it further
requires mutual understanding and co-operation.
• English is the lingua franca of the world.
• It is the language through which we can exchange our views with the people
of other countries.
• Its study facilitates the establishment of international contacts between
different nations of the world.
• Its study gives an opportunity to Indians to get employment not only in
India but also in other countries.
• It has given an opportunity to study English literature which is so vast and
so rich.
• It has opened the gates of western science and technology for us.
• It serves as a common language of Indians, and thus it brings closer the
people residing in different parts of India.
• It is the language of trade and industries in India.
• Almost our great leaders, famous scientists, renowned philosophers and
well known authors are the product of English education.
• English is one of the most developing languages of the world. It has always
been a source of development in the entire sphere of human activities.
Principles of foreign language teaching
In India English is taught bath as a second language and foreign
language. The term second language is used because it has
become a lingua franca between speakers of the different
languages of the world. The English teacher should teach English
language in such a way that the desire goal of learning may be
achieved. There are different approaches for the teaching and
learning process of language such as psychological, linguistic and
pedagogical principles. These principles are based upon keen
observation, research and experimentation. These principles are
very useful for English teacher to raise the standard of English
language. Foreign language teachers must keep in mind the
following principles to achieve effectiveness in their teaching.
1. Principle of naturalness- The mother tongue is always learned easily because
there is a natural environment for learning mother tongue. But this is not true
with foreign language. The child encounters this language all of sudden in one
of his classes and only 4 or 6 period in a week. Therefore it becomes difficult
for him to learn the language. Hence, the natural environment should be
provided by-
a. Talking to students in the foreign language in the class, in the playground
etc.
b. Arranging for group discussions.
1. The principle of motivation- Motivation is the core of learning. Perhaps no
other principle is so important as of motivation because a student motivated to
learn foreign language can himself manage to learn the language. But to
motivate students to learn the foreign language is an up-hill task as there is no
internal force for learning this language. Mother tongue is learnt in a
motivational state because the child wants to express his thoughts and ideas.
The process goes like this- internal desires to express ideas. Motivation to
learn language. Learning the mother language.
Motivation can be classified into two parts- internal and external motivation.
Internal motivation related to the internal nature of the individual emotions.
The child is motivated by his own ambitions and desires. But sometimes, the
learner is not internally motivated; there would be the need of internal
motivation for learner to achieve the particular objectives of English teaching.
External motivation is created and developed by the English teacher in the
learner. The purpose of motivation is to create zeal to learn something new in
language. A child learns mother tongue is a easier way because there is an
internal desire of a child to express his feelings and thoughts in his mother
tongue. But to learn a foreign language like English it is rather difficult on the
part of English teacher to motivate him internally. This can be made easy by
 creating the external motivation which can be developed with the help of
pictures, models, maps, charts, and audio-visual aids.
2. The principles of habit formation- Language teaching is an art. Like all
other arts is it needs sustained’practice and drill’. Habit is the second nature of
man which makes the speech automatic and natural. Habit formation includes
following types of habits-
1. Habit of listening to the sounds of English words.
2. Habit of spesking English with proper accent and intonation.
3. Habit of speaking English with even speed.
4. Habit of reading aloud with articulation.
5. Habit of using words and word phrases in their proper contest.
6. Habit of using correct structures in simple conversation.
7. Habit of writing but simple and correct English in good handwriting.
8. Habit of expression.
9. Habit of consulting dictionary and diary keeping.
10.Habit of reading newspapers, magazines, journals and books of general
interest.
1. The principles of multiple line of approach- According to the principle, an
English teacher should adopt many approaches to reach the goal. Some of the
common approaches to the teaching English are given below-
1. The social approach.
2. The cultural approach.
3. The functional approach.
4. The conventional approach.
5. The behavioral approach.
6. The oral-aural approach.
7. The structural approach.
8. The situational approach.
9. Communicative approach.
1. The principle of conducive environment- The child learns his mother
tongue more rapidly because he is given a conductive environment for
speaking the language and he is exposed to the environment where this
language is spoken and written. He finds language exposure at home, school
and society. The habit of listening, speaking, reading and writing all require
 the constant practice and exposure which is possible only in a conductive
environment.
2. The principle of proper order- The language learning is a skill which
involves listening, speaking, reading and writing. Proper order of learning a
language is: LSRW. According to Mr. J.A. bright- LSWR.
3. The principle of proportion- The principle of proportion means that the
English teacher should lay equal emphasis on all the aspects and skill of
teaching English.j
4. The principle of linking with life- it is the duty of an English teacher that he
should encourage his students to use the structures of English language in
their daily life situations. The students come in the close contact with their
teacher, classmates, playmates and other members of the society.
5. The principle of selection and gradation- Selection and guadation is another
important principle to be kept in mind by teacher. Selection leads to gradation
and gradation precedes selection. Theacher has to select material for his
teaching. The material and aid should be in accordance with the physical and
mental age and health of the children. The teacher must bear in mind all the
general maxims. Gradation means that the teacher has to keep in his mind that
first thing comes first and last comes lastly. The matter to be taught must form
a psychological unit so as to create a logical sequence in the mental
development of the children.
Maxims of English teaching- Maxims of teaching are the formulas and
general rules of teaching drawn from experiences of teacher, educationist and
psychologist. These maxims are of great importance and useful to get the
positive outcomes of teaching-learning process.
1. From known to unknown
2. From simple to complex
3. From indefinite to definite
4. From concrete to abstract
5. From analysis to synthesis
6. From particular to general
7. From real to unreal
8. From whole to part
9. From induction to deduction
 10. From psychological to logical
General aims of teaching English-
1. Semantic aim- it is related to the meaning and understanding of word
and sentences of a language.
2. Phonetic aim- it deals with sound, spellings and pronunciation aspects of
the language.
3. Graphic aim- it deals with the visual symbols of languages and hence it
is related to writing.
4. Phonetic cum graphic aim- it deals with the reading aspect of the
language.
Objectives or special aims of teaching English-
Besides these general aims, the teacher should have definite,
clear cut aims of each lessons. These are called as ‘objectives’
of short term aims. These objectives should be precise,
expressing and clear. These specific aims should be according
to the teaching points. And it really necessary for a teacher to
know what he has to do and achieve during a particular
lesson.
According to Dr. B. S. Bloom- “Educational objectives
are the desired goal or outcome at which instructions is
aimed.”

Types of objectives
Cognitive domain Affective domain Psychomotor/conat
ive
Knowledge Receiving Perceiving
Comprehension Valuing Imitation
Application Conceptualization Manipulation
Analysis Organization Precision
Synthesis Responding Articulation
Evaluation Characterization Naturalization

Difference between aim and objective- Aims and objectives of education are the
foundation stones of a teaching-learning process.
Aim Objective
Ultimate goal Temporary goal
Destination Vehicle
Ends Means
Ideal Practicable
Long term Short term
Not achievable Achievable
General Specific
Behavioral changes Non-behavioral changes
Educational planning Instructional or teaching planning
Mother tongue- Mother tongue is the language that a child learns
from his mother. He begins the learning of this language in his
infancy. “The mother tongue is as natural for the development of
the man’s mind.” Communication through mother tongue begins at
the earlier stage of life.
Mother tongue helps the child in all the kinds of thinking. All the
mental operations like, inquiring, reasoning, analyzing, elaborating,
discussing etc, are carried on in the mother tongue. Mother tongue
is the basis of all work. The child begins to learn new words, their
use in their context and thus acquire an ability of expression with
carity, case and correctness. All this happens in a natural way. The
child acquire linguistic skills by constant use and practise at home,
in and outside the class-room, in his friend circle and wherever he
goes.
Place of mother-tongue in the teaching of English- The
supporters of the Direct Method forbid the use of mother tongue in
the teaching of English. Some teacher says that the use of mother
tongue is an obstacle to the learning of English. Other regards the
coordination of the teaching of the mother tongue and English as
one of the cardinal principles of the teaching method.
Justification of the use of mother tongue- We should not
make the extreme use of mother tongue and translate each and
every word, phrase and sentence into the mother tongue. And we
also should not totally avoid the use of mother tongue.
Precautions in the use of mother tongue-
1. He should use English speech, objects, pictures, sketches and other possible
means to communicate the idea represented by the word.
2. He should use the mothor tongue only when all his methods fail.
3. After giving an equivalent in the mother tongue he should get quickly into
English. If necessary he should explain the grammatical points in the mother
tongue but not forget to get back quickly into English.
4. To test the pupils to comprehension, he can ask the meaning of word in the
mother tongue.
Problems of effective teaching of English in Indian
schools-
Children retarded in language are often poor in their academic
achievements. The academic achievement in different subjects
depends on the mastery over the language. Language is closely
related to general intellectual development. The effective
teaching of language influences the teaching of other subjects.
English language is mostly taught as a second language in the
Indian schools.
1. No specific aim- The teaching of English is not based upon the aims and
objectives. Neither the teacher nor the students are acquainted with the aims
and objectives of teaching English. Their aim is to get go through the
examination.
2. No uniformity of the beginning stage of English teaching- Different
patterns are adopted by different states. That is why the national Standard
English language very storng state to state.
3. Over crowded classes- Our classes are over crowded. English teachers are
unable to solve the individual problems of English language.
4. Sub-standard of text books- the text books of English are of very low
standard.
5. Lack of suitable language teaching aids- our schools are not well
equepped with suitable language teaching aids.
6. Lack of effective teachers-the teaching of English in schools are in the
hand of teachers who neither know English nor are trained in the teaching
methodology.
Suggestion for improvement of teaching English in
India-
1. Aims and objective based teaching of English.
2. Uniform policy should be adopted.
3. Text books should be prepared by language experts.
 4. Teacher-pupil ratio should not be 1: 40.
5. New approaches and methods should be used.
6. Positive evaluation.
Direct method- The direct method was originated in France
in 1901. It received official sanction in 1908. Its principles
came for Germany. It is reaction against G.T. Method. The
main objective of this method was to impart a perfect
command of foreign language. It aims to create a direct bond
between the words and their meanings, thought and
expression. They thought that pupils should acquire ability to
think in the foreign language and speak them with good
pronunciation. It was known as the Natural Method. The
suggestion was that the pupil should learn the new speech in
the same manner in which he learnt his mother tongue.
Characteristics of Direct Method-
1. It creates the direct bond between word and its meaning.
2. Direct method aims to develop fluency in speech. The learner is
expected to acquire an active command over the language by developing
correct speech habits, pronunciation and intonation.
3. Minimum use of mother tongue.
4. Sentence is the unit of speech.
5. Audio-visual aids are used to explain the meaning.
6. Grammar is taught inductively.
7. Stress is given on speech.
8. Emphasis is given on pronunciation.
9. Vocabulary is taught on the basis of selection and gradation.
Merits of the Direct Method-
1. The Direct Method teaches the English language in the same manner in
which the child learns his own mother-tongue.
2. It developed fluency in speech. The pupil can speak fluently, they can
also write fairly and correctly.
3. The direct association with the English words, phrases and their meaning.
4. It enables the students to express their thoughts and feelings directly in
English without the intervention of the mother tongue.
5. It emphasizes on pronunciation of the language.
 6. It lays emphasis on oral approach.
7. It promotes practice and oral drill.
8. It gives the pupil a real command over the English language so the pupil
can communicate without hesitation.
9. Audio-visual aids are used to explain the meaning and develop interest in
teaching.
Demerits of the Direct Method-
1. It does not pay more attention on reading and writing.
2. This method ignores translation completely.
3. It ignores the teaching of grammar.
4. Only the intelligent children can be benefited by this method.
5. The method is very expensive because a lot of audio-visual material is
needed.
6. Only smart and active teachers and pupils can teach and learn through
this method. But most of the teachers have themselves got a very
defective pronunciation of English.
7. Idioms and phrases cannot be taught through this method.
8. Much time is consumed to create real life situations.
The method is not getting the importance in India due to
over-crowded classes and overburdened poor teacher. The
English teacher of our schools cannot create a conducive
environment for direct method of teaching English.
Bilingual Method- it is recently developed and invented by
Prof.C.J.Dodson of Wales. In this method, mother tongue is
used to explain the meaning of words, phrases, idioms,
sentences, structures and grammatical rules. This method
carries the merits of G.T. Method, direct method and
structural approach. The word bilingual applies to a person
who knows two languages, the mother tongue and foreign
language.
Characteristic of Bilingual Method-
1. Mother tongue is used only by the teachers while explaining the
meaning of difficult words, phrases, idioms, etc.
2. In this method, the students are given a lot of practice in the drill of
sentence pattern.
 3. Translation is done by the teacher only to explain the subject matter.
4. Mother tongue is reduced gradually and when the pupil attains a
certain level of vocabulary, he stops using mother tongue and
switches over to English.
5. Sentence is the unit of teaching.
Merits of the Bilingual Method-
1. It gives emphasis on speech practice. It is helpful in creating
linguistic habits.
2. Audio-visual aids are not much needed.
3. It saves the time, labor and energy of the teacher.
4. It is less costly.
5. It does not need trained teachers. Even a average teacher of English
can teach the lesson successfully.
Demerits of the Bilingual Method-
1. Other aspects like reading, writing are ignored.
2. There are some words, phrases and idioms in English which can not be
translated into mother tongue without loosing their correct effect.
3. English language cannot be translated into Indian language.
4. It develops the habit of translation in thinking so it stops students from
thinking freely.
5. Students are passive listeners.
6. Sometimes it becomes very difficult to bring word meanings and child
experience together.
7. Grammar is not taught systematically to the learners.
Structural approach-
This approach was popularized by central institute of English,
Hyderabad. Meaning- structure is an arrangement of words in
certain order that conveys some meaning. The different
arrangement of word patterns lead to the formation of
different structure. The following sentences have the same
words but, convey the different meaning in different
arrangement of word patterns.
Aims of structural approach-
1. To lay the foundation of English by establishing through drill and
repetition about 275 graded structure.
 2. To enable the students to attain mastery over an essential vocabulary of
about 3000 words of active use.
3. To correlate the teaching of grammar and composition with the reading
lessons.
4. To teach the four fundamental skills.
5. To lay proper emphasis on the aural-oral approach.
Types of structures-
1. Sentence structure
2. Phrase structure
3. Idiomatic structure
4. Formula structure.
Precaution-
1. The structure should be graded, illustrated, demonstrated and classified.
2. Ample practice should be given in one structure before preceding
another.
3. Pupils’ mistakes should be promptly corrected.
4. Pupils’ should be given adequate practice in speaking before they asked
for reading.
5. English teacher should be trained in this approach.
6. A teacher should keep a record of structure useful for the class which he
teaches.
7. If possible, their list should be hung in the class room.
8. Rapid speech patterns should be taught with the help of printed patterns.
9. Care should be taken to prevent practice from becoming purely
mechanical.
Advantages of structural approach-
1. Speech is emphasized.
2. Language habit formation is stressed.
3. Language materials are carefully selected and graded.
4. Students become active because they learn language through activity.
5. Language is taught in a meaningful situation.
6. Oral aspect of the language is given more importance.
7. It provides opportunities for expression.
8. Its principles of teaching are based on scientific and psychological
foundation.
 9. Child learns the functional grammar through this method.
10.It develops mastery and confidence among students.
11.It is a systematic and interesting approach.
12.Minimum wastage of time and energy.
Disadvantages of structural approach-
1. It is suitable only in the lower classes.
2. Suitable teachers are not available.
3. Only well selected sentence patterns are taught.
4. Reading, writing and vocabulary expansion are neglected.
5. It is really successful in overcrowded classroom.
6. Oral emphasis and drill work has given.
7. Knowledge of mother tongue is not exploited.
8. It emphasis on the oral work. Course cannot be completed through this
approach.
9. It demands too much language materials.
10. It needs specially planned text books which are not available easily.
11. This method cannot be applied in all the spears of teaching and testing.
Suggestions to improve this method-
1. Structures should be graded and classified.
2. English teacher should be trained in this approach.
3. Other methods should be used with this approach.
4. The syllabus of junior classes should cover the fundamental structures
of English language and a specific vocabulary.
Situational approach- in situational approach the foreign
language should be taught by forming links between the new
language items and real situations in the classroom. English
teacher tries to create a lifelike classroom situation to teach
new words and sentence pattern of language items.
Main characteristics of situational approach-
1. English teachers introduced new words and sentence patterns of the
language.
2. He creates the association with the language items and real situations.
3. Practice and drill are stressed.
4. Several examples are given on one language material in different
situations.
 5. In situational approach, quaternary technique is adopted.
6. Actions of teacher in new situations to teach a particular item are very
necessary.
7. Revision and repetitions are stressed.
8. Presentation of new vocabulary or structures is emphasized.
9. Presentation of new language items in different form of sentence.
Advantages of situational approach-
1. Situational approach is action based approach so it creates interesting
teaching.
2. It is based upon psychological principles of learning.
3. It emphasizing on listening and hearing skill of language.
4. Students behave like active learners.
Disadvantages of situational approach-
1. Situational approach is useful to the lower classes.
2. A few vocabulary and sentence patterns can be taught through this
method.
3. It is not fit for teaching prose, poetry and composition.
4. Text books can not be taught by this method.
5. Due to excessive use of drill and repetitions the classroom becomes
monotonous.
Suggestions for improvement-
1. Text book should be written on situational approach.
2. In service workshops and seminars should be arranged to train English
teachers in this approach.
3. Appropriate audio-visual materials should be used to create real life
situations in the classroom.
4. Language material an associated situation should be enlisted.

-Teaching of speaking-
Basic components of speech-
1. Stress- Stress means push or emphasis in speech. we lay some emphasis
on some letters, words, phrases and idioms. If a sound is made with more
energy, the sounds come out with force. If the sound is made with less
energy, the sound comes out with less force.
There is different in stress on syllable in English.
a) There are words of two syllables in which stress is given on the first-
doc/tor, sis/ter, fi/nish.
b) There are words of two syllables with stress on the second- be/lieve,
con/duct, mis/take.
c) There are words of two syllables in which the stress is given on both-
fif/teen, up/stair, unknown.
d) There are words of three syllables with stress on first- pho/to/graphy,
ho/li/day.
e) There are words of three syllables with stress on second- dic/ta/tion,
to/mo/rrow.
f) There are words of three syllables with stress on third- un/der/stand.
g) In words of four syllables, the stress is usually given on the last but one-
e/du/ca/tion, re/ci/ta/tion.
1. Rhythm- Rhythm is the musical aspect of language and it makes
pronunciation more appealing than it would otherwise be. According to
Oxford dictionary- Rhythm is the metrical effect produced in verse, prose
music or motion by the relation in quantity, stress, time or energy
between the syllables, words, notes or movements that succeed each
other. When a person plays upon a harmonium, his fingers of hands
move form one note to the other at a regular interval. This is rhythm in
music.
2. Intonation- Intonation is sing-song quality of a language. Intonation
means modulation of voice. We have studied that when vocal cords are
kept loosely together, they vibrate. The rate at which they vibrate is
called the frequency of vibration and thus determines the pitch of the
voice. The more rapidly the vocal cords vibrate, the higher will be the
pitch.
Tune first- when the pitch in voice is at a high level and falls down
towards the end, it is called a pitch.
 Tune second- in this the pitch in voice acquires a high level at the end.
The rising pitch is indicated by this sign.
4. Pause- Pause means to stop for a while, while speaking to someone. In
English, speakers should pause after a comma, full stop etc. the cause can
change the whole meaning of the sentence.
Girls sing sweetly. Girls’ sing sweetly.
1. Juncture- Juncture is slight pause to indicate syllable break in the chain
of speed sound. It separates near identical group of words. It is used to
differentiate between two near sequence of phonemes.
Whenever when ever
Always all ways
Welcome well come
2. Fluency- Fluency means the uttering of words and sentences with no gap
or hesitation in the middle. Words should be spoken without shuttering
and stumbling over sounds and sequences of sounds.
English sound system- Letter and sounds should not be
confused and mixed up. Sounds are spoken and letters are
written. Sounds represent the language and letters
represent the script. In English language there are 26
letters.
Sounds of English language and phonetic symbols-
1. Consonant sounds.
2. Vowel sounds-
a) Pure vowel sound and monophthongs- A single vowel sound is
called pure vowel sound. They are 12 in number. /i/, /i/, /e/, /a/, /a:/,
/o/, /o:/, /u/, /u:/, /^/, /∂:/, /∂ /.
b) Diphthongs and Impure vowel sounds- when two pure vowel
sounds are mixed to produce a single sound it is called diphthongs.
Each sound starts on one vowel sound and finishes on the other.
These diphthongs are very long vowels. But the length is reduced
before voice legs consonants. They are 9 in number- ie, ai, ou, au,
oi, i∂, e∂, u∂, O∂.
Teaching of speaking and pronunciation-
“Good pronunciation is the hallmark of culture.” Pronunciation
is a matter of coordination of vocal organ to produce certain
sounds with a certain intonation.
It is true that the faculty of speech is a natural gift; we get it
polished and improved through education in our schools
providing various opportunities for its natural development. A
child learns to speak words and sentences in the same way as
he hears them spoken. The influence of teacher’s speech on
the speech habits of students is of great importance. A teacher
is an ideal model before his pupils as far as teaching of English
is concerned. Therefore, an English teacher should be very
careful to his own pronunciation for laying down the correct
speech habits of his students.
Aims of teaching of speaking-

1. Cultivation of audible and intelligible pronunciation.

2. Production of correct sounds, stress, intonation, rhythm, fluency and
pause.
3. Cultivation of the habit of speaking long sentences.
4. Developing good speech manner.
5. Expressing ideas, thoughts, and emotional feelings of others.
Causes of defective pronunciation in India-
1. Substituting sound form mother tongue- sound of Indian language is
differing from English language. In India English pronunciation is
different from region to region.
2. Lack of knowledge of phonetics- most of our English teachers do not
know about phonetics or phonology. Therefore they do not impart good
training of speech to their students. The students learn the defective
pronunciation from their teachers. This process goes on. When the
students become teacher they also impart the training of defective speech
habits.
3. Mother tongue speech habits- a child develop the speech habit of his
mother tongue. When he learns a foreign language, his mother tongue
speech habits come in the way. He thinks in his mother tongue and then
translates his thought in English.
 4. Lack of speaking opportunity- speaking opportunity is not provided by
the English teacher in the classroom. Oral drill or practice is not done.
Oral aspect of the language is totally neglected.
5. Physical disability of the child- the defective speech organs may cause
poor pronunciation of a child.
6. Teacher’s defective pronunciation- many teachers are not able to
pronounce correctly. This effect the pronunciation of their students.
7. Ignorance of the intonation- Indian children has generally no
knowledge of intonation. They replace a falling and rising intonation by
even stress on all the words. In English, falling intonation is used in
assertive sentences and rising intonation is used in interrogative
sentences.
Suggestions to improve pronunciation-
1. Oral training- the English teacher helps his students in learning,
speaking if he provides his students with oral activities and oral
practice of language materials.
2. Teaching of various aspects of pronunciation- the English teacher
should explain the various aspects of speech like vowel and consonant
and their sounds, stress, intonation and pause etc.
3. Use of appropriate audio-visual aids- a teacher of today is well
aware of the value of audio-visual aids.
4. Oral activities- oral activities like questioning, answering, reading
aloud, reciting, debating, dramatizing, conversing etc. should be
encouraged among pupils.
5. Individual attention- teacher should pay individual attention to the
special difficulties of his pupils. He should help them in pronouncing
the words correctly.
6. Analysis of long and difficult words- long and difficult words should
be analyzed and written on the black board.
7. Proper correction- the word mispronounced by the pupils must be
promptly corrected by the teacher. He should make it a point to give
the correct pronunciation only.
Types of reading-
1. Scanning reading- to go through particular information.
 2. Skimming reading- fast reading for gist or summary.
3. Intensive reading-deep and through study vertically.
4. Extensive reading- cursory reading, horizontally.
5. Loud reading- reading by students.
6. Model reading- reading by teacher.
7. Supervised reading-in somebody’s supervision.
8. Imitation reading.
9. Library reading.
Methods of teaching reading-
1. Alphabetic method
2. Phonetic method
3. Syllabic method
4. Word method
5. Phrase method
6. Sentence method
7. Story method
Aims of teaching reading English-
1. To read with correct pronunciation.
2. To read with accuracy.
3. To read with fluency.
4. To enable pupils to take pleasure in reading.
5. To enable pupils to form a habit of reading.
6. To enable the students to use ideas gained from reading in other situation.
7. To read with understanding.
Silent reading-silent reading is regarded as most important
aspect of reading. It should therefore be encouraged as soon
as children have acquired a certain amount of fluency in
reading aloud.
Advantages of silent reading-
1. It saves time and energy.
2. It creates interest in reading.
3. It ignores translation method and the frequent use of mother tongue.
4. It is used in public place.
5. It is used for higher classes.
Disadvantages of silent reading-
 1. It is not useful for the beginners.
2. It ignores pronunciation and oral drill.
3. It ignores correction-work of language.
4. It is uninteresting.
5. Supervision of teacher becomes ineffective.
Intensive reading- it means a minute and detailed study
of the prescribed prose-text. It concentrates upon language,
information and the grasping of the sense. Intensive reading is
mainly concerned with developing in students the skill of
understanding fully and accurately the written or printed
material.
Merits of intensive reading-
1. Intensive reading increases the active vocabulary.
2. It helps in learning grammar.
3. It improves the power of expression.
4. It develops the skill of questioning and answering.
5. It provides opportunities for loud reading and silent reading.
Demerits of intensive reading-
1. It does not teach grammar systematically.
2. It seldom imparts joy and pleasure.
3. Its process is long and cumbersome.
4. Students do it mainly to get through the
examination.
5. It gives too much stress on language.
Extensive reading- intensive reading must be supplemented
by extensive reading. Indian education commissions(1964-66)
strongly recommended extensive reading. It is also termed’
Rapid reading’ or independent silent reading.
Merits of extensive reading-
1. It increases vocabulary.
2. It keeps the whole class busy and active.
3. It helps in assimilation of ideas.
4. Useful for library reading.
5. It is useful for self-reading and self-studying.
Comparison of intensive and extensive reading-
Intensive reading
1. It concentrates upon the language.
1. The aim is to make a careful and
minute scrutiny.
1. Words, phrases and expressions are
studied in detail.
1. New words and phrases occurring
in the book pass into the pupil’s
active vocabulary.
1. The pupil should be able to
understand and use all common
words, phrases and expressions in
book.
1. Reading by the pupils is aloud and
controlled by the teacher.
1. The help of the teacher is
maximum.
1. The detailed reading lesson is
essentially place for careful
reading.
Extensive reading
1. It concentrates upon the subject
matter.
1. The aim is only to grasp the
meaning of what is read.
1. Words, phrases and expressions are
not studied in detail.
1. New words and phrases occurring in
the book pass in to the pupil’s
passive vocabulary.
1. The pupil should be able to
understand and not use all the
common words, phrases and
expressions in the book.
1. Reading by the pupils is silent and
independent.
1. The non-detailed lesson is
minimum.
1. The non-detailed lesson is
essentially a place for no teaching or
minimum of teaching.

Audio-visual aids in the teaching of English-Due to

the outstanding developments in the educational technology in
recent years, there is an increased use of teaching aids in the
teaching process. The more we are proceeding towards
scientific and technological culture the more we will need to
teach and learn language in a scientific and objective way. The
emphasis on communication and audio-visual aids are more
effective techniques of communication.
 Audio-visual aids of teaching means the techniques, devices
and tools which can be used in teaching for their appeal to ear
and eye. They are the aids of teaching learning process to
create the interest among the students so that they may be
attentive to English teaching in the class room.
Criteria for selection of teaching aids-
1. Aids must be used when they are needed to be used.
2. They should not be too small or too large.
3. They should be very simple.
4. They should not be costly.
5. They should be teacher-made.
6. They should be displayed in a proper way.
7. They should be easy to understand.
8. They should be related to the topic under study.
9. They should not be over used.
10. They should be presented in a natural way.
Teaching aids-
Audio-aids Visual-aids Audio- Classroom
visual teaching
Printed Non- aids techniques
printed
1. Gramopho 1. Text 1. Black 1. Films 1. Language
ne book board laboratory
1. Lingua- 1. News- 1. Chart 1. Televisi 1. Play-way
phone paper on tech.
1. Headphon 1. Magazi 1. Cards 1. Excursion
e ne
1. Tape- 1. Models 1. Conversat
recorder ion
1. Radio 1. Maps 1. Oral
activities
1. Flannel 1. Phonetics
board
 1. Fixed 1. Interview
sand tray
1. Scroll 1. Practice
frame
1. Slides of 1. Action
film research
strips
1. Epidiasc 1. Gesture
ope
1. Pictures 1. Posture
1. Albums 1. Induction
1. Kinderg 1. Deductio
arten n
box
1. Montess 1. Group
ori dynamic
appratus
1. Cartoon
2. Sketch
3. Photogr
aph
4. Scrap
books
5. Puppets
6. Film
strips

Importance of audio-visual aids-

1. Making teaching learning process very effective.
 2. Avoid to monotony of the traditional method of teaching.
3. Create variety and interest to make the lessons lively and interesting.
4. Provide the inspiration and motivation to the learners for further study.
5. Develop language atmosphere in the class room.
6. Development socio-cultural life of the people of the nation and abroad.
7. Develop the positive attitude and aptitude to the language.
8. Save the time and energy of the language teacher.
9. Reduce over-dependence on learner’s mother tongue.
10. Clarify the content matter of the topic.
English text book- English text book is an important tool in
the hands of a language teacher to teach the skills of
language and the more so of a foreign language. The teacher
must be able to evaluate the text book he has to use.
Importance of English text book-
1. It makes the teaching of English systematic.
2. It checks the teaching form going astray.
3. It facilitates self learning and self-study.
4. It represents the selected position of language materials which can be
taught in a given time.
5. The language materials are graded class wise.
6. It avoids the haphazardness, unnecessary, repetition and omission in
teaching-learning process.
7. It serves as a guide to a teacher.
Characteristics of good text book-
1. Language materials in English subject should include
vocabulary(active and passive), structures (functional grammar),
comprehension (textual passage) and composition.
2. Subject matter should be based on the psychological principles.
3. Subject matter should be suited to the age of the pupils.
4. Subject matter should be linked with Indian culture, traditions,
surroundings and social life.
5. Subject matter should be varied topics e.g. prose, poetry, story,
biography, narration, conversation, description and dialogues.
6. Subject matter should be taught through different methods,
approaches, techniques and devices.
7. Subject matter should be taught by using the audio-visual aids.
8. In subject matter, it should be given stress on both the aspects oral
and written.
9. Text book develops the four language skills.
10. Words should be selected, graded and presented systematically.
11. A gook English book should contain pictures and illustrations.
12. The paper and printing of a good text book should be of good
quality.
13. Practice exercise should be given at the end of the lesson.