MAY,2006 - gANTO_g ~

THERMAL POWER PLANT FAMILIARISATION VOLUME-II (BOILER AND AUXILIARIES)

S.VISW ANA THAN DIRECTOR NPTI·SR, NEYVELI

NATIONAL POWER TRAINING INSTITUTE An ISO 9001:2000 & ISO 14001 Organisation (Ministry of Power, Govt. of India)

NPTI Complex, Sector-33, Faridabad-121 003 (INDIA)

PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION

. Volume-II of the' manual on 'Thermal Power Plant Familiarisation" which deals with Boiler. and Auxiliaries was first published in December,1993 as a general text for the trainees attending Graduate Engineers Course at NPTI. It was well received by the trainees, faculty and others concerned with Human Resource Development in the Power Sector.

The Second Edition of this volume was brought out in March-2003 which incorporates the suggestions received from the users of the earlier edition and was designed to suit the need of the students of One Year Post Graduate Diploma Course in Thermal Power Plant Engineering conducted by NPTI.

This manual has now been updated and revised with necessary corrections and modifications to make it more users friendly. This manual will serve as a valuable reference to the Engineers working in Power Stations.

I acknowledge the contribution of Shri S.vishwanathan, Director, NPTI (SR), Neyveli in updating this manual.

Any suggestions for improving this edition are cordially welcome.

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(Dr. N.S.Saxena)

b Director General

~~ National Power Training Institute

-2007

Faridabad - 121 003

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PREFACE·

Thermal Power Plants playa prominent role in the total power generation in the country. The thermal component of the installed capacity as on date is about 75% and coal is and will ' continue to be the basic fuel for most of the Thermal Power Schemes as the other sources like oil and gas are limited. The situation as it is, with the increase in coal requirements of Thermal Power Stations, the quality of coal has gradually deteriorated. The average calorific value has come down to about 3000-3500 kcallkg and the ash content has gone up to as high as 45%. As coal is being produced in open cast mining, adopted on a large scale to increase the production in the shortest possible time, it has sand inclusions; shale, stones etc., with disastrous effect on fuel preparation equipment and Boiler components and auxiliary equipments. The ash in the Indian Coal contains a high percentage of Silica and Alumina, which are highly abrasive. Use of such coal leads to excessive wear and tear of CHP equipments, Coal Mills, fuel piping, Bumer scrolls, Boiler furnaces & tubular panels, casings of 10 fans and ash handling/disposal machinery affecting their availability and life and causing substantial increase in 0 & M costs, thus decreasing the overall utilisation of the installed capacity. Although the Indian coals have the advantage of low sulphur content, not exceeding 0.5% and comparatively high ash fusion temperatures which are conducive to economic Boiler design, their high inert content have posed difficult problems on account of highly abrasive nature.

In view of the large reserves of low-grade coal found in India, a deliberate policy decision was taken to use these low-grade coals for power generation. Power/Process Industry Boilers have accordingly been designed over the past to burn these Low grade Coals. Therefore the design of the Boiler and its auxiliaries is greatly influenced by the quality of Coal and its ash content, resulting in the substantial increase in the cost of the equipment and every effort has to be made based on the experience, feed back and the available Technology. These are the compelling reasons to understand the intricate design of the Boiler, its pressure parts and the line of equipments in the circuit right up to the chimney.

NPTI has brought out a compendium of 6 volumes on 'Thermal Power Plant Familiarisation' updating them from time to time to fuse in with the relevant upgraded technologies in their subsequent editions. The author of Vol-II in the series, Shri S. Viswanathan is a Dy.Director at NPTI's Southern Region Institute at Neyveli. Shri Viswanathan, a very active faculty member and professional trainer is vigorously associated with the furthering of the institute's diverse activities contributing towards, its qualitative progress and fostering knowledge base, I hope that the extra outreach efforts of Shri Viswanathan in reshaping the entire material into its new format, systematically piecing together all relevant information would reach a wide circulation of the engineering fraternity thus fulfilling the main objectives of lucidly placing the intricate aspects for easy assimilation and conceptual understanding.

Shri M, Arunachalam, Principal Director, NPTI, Southern Region, Neyveli has been a guiding force extending his good offices enthusiastically in bringing out this edition.

Suggestions from all the users are most welcome.

£~

March. 2003 Faridabad

(OrB.S.K_ Naidu) Director General

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THERMAL POWER PLANT FAMILIARISATION - VOL.II (BOILER AND AUXILIARIES)

CONTENTS

SL. No. TOPIC Page No.

1. Principles of Steam Generation 1
2. Development of Boilers - Types 11
3. Boiler Pressure Parts 25
4. Draught System 85
5. Soot Blowers 140
6. Pulveriser Plant 145
7. Fuel Firing System 176
8. Burner Management System 197
9. Emission Control System 204 CHAPTER!

PRINCIPLES OF STEAM GENERATION

1.0 STEAM GENERATION:

Steam Generation is the process of converting water into steam, a vapor exhibiting the properties ofa gas by application of heat. Heating water at any pressure eventually will cause it to boil and steam will be released.

1.1 SENSIBLE HEAT:

The heat required to bring the water from O°C to the boiling point is the enthalpy or heat content of the liquid measured in Kcallkg. This is also known as sensible heat. The sensible heat required to bring the water to the boiling point depends on the pressure at which the water is heated. Higher the pressure, higher will be the requirement of sensible heat.

1.2 SATURA TION TEMPERATURE :

When required sensible heat is added to water, it starts boiling with the continuation of heat addition. But both water and the steam remains at the same temperature though heat is continued to be added till the entire water is converted into steam. This temperature is the saturation temperature. For each boiling pressure there is only one saturation temperature and vice-versa. The water and steam at this temperature are termed saturated water and saturated steam respectively.

1.3 LATENT HEAT:

During the boiling process, that is after the water attains the saturation temperature, even though heat is being added the temperature remains constant.

1

This heat is being used to change the water from liquid to vapor state. This heat is the enthalpy of evaporation or the latent heat Thus, the latent heat is the - heat required to convert the saturated water into 'saturated steam. Like. sensible heat the latent heat required also depends on the pressure at which boiling occurs. Latent heat requirement decreases with increase in pressure.

1.4 CRITICAL POINT:

It can be seen in Fig. 1.1 with the increase in pressure for steam generation, the sensible heat required increases with decrease in latent heat. At every pressure between saturated water and saturated steam a phase called wet steam exists. However at one point the water turns into steam on addition of

!

I

18 Kg/crn2

'--~~~-........--.--~.._...........

I I

1/

j i /

HEAT ADDITION Kcal/Kg

Fig 1.1

sensible heat alone without going through the phase of wet steam. This occurs at a temperature of 374°C and 224.6 kg/crrr' absolute pressure. This point is called as critical point and the pressure and saturation temperature corresponding to this point are the critical pressure and critical temperature. At critical point the density of water and steam remains the same.

2

-_ ------

1.5 SUPER HEAT:

When the steam is heated out of contact with water, the steam temperature increases above saturation temperature. Such a heating is known as super heating. On superheating of the steam, the enthalpy (heat content) of the steam will increase by the amount the heat is added and the temperature of steam also will rise. The rate at which the temperature rises depends to some degree on pressure.

2.0 HEAT TRANSFER:

For effecting steam generation, it is essential to transfer heat from a source to the water. In an equipment like boiler where steam is generated all modes of heat transfer viz. conduction, convection and radiation have a part in transferring the heat released during combustion to the boiler water to make steam.

2.1 CONDUCTION:

Here the heat is transferred from one part of the material to the another or to a contiguous material through the molecules. Substances differ greatly in their ability to conduct heat. Gases and vapors are the poorest conductors, liquids are much better and metals are the best. In boilers heat transfer through conduction takes place from the outer to inner surface of the tubes carrying water for steam generation or steam for superheating.

2.2 CONVECTION:

Convection heat transfer takes place by the movement of the heated medium. When a fluid is heated its density decreases. If part of a fluid mass is heated, the cooler, heavier portion acts to displace the heated portion. Cooler portions become heated in turn and are displaced. Resultis continuous flow of cooler fluid to the heated area and of heated fluid away from it. setting up a convection CUITent. The moving hot fluid becomes the heat transfer medium.

3

The convection flow when caused by density differe-nce alone is natural convection and if aided by a fan or pump it is forced convection. In a boiler mostly the tubes receive the heat from the convectional flow of hot gases from combustion chamber (furnace): Also within the tubes the water or steam picks up the heat from inner surface of the tubes by convection.

2.3 RADIATION:

All heated bodies radiate heat energy. Radiation does not require a transmission medium and it travels through vacuum as well as through a gas. Radiation travels like light waves. The amount of energy a body radiates depends to some degree on its size, shape and substance but mainly on the fourth power of the body's absolute temperature. Within a boiler all the tube sections surrounding the combustion chamber or in the vicinity of furnace receive heat by radiation.

3.0 BOILING:

When a container of water is heated, steam forms in bubbles at the heated surface. These bubbles are displaced by heavier - steam free water and circulation currents bring bubbles to the surface where steam is released. This process, boiling, can take place in two ways.

i) Nucleate Boiling

ji) Film Boiling

3.1 NUCLEATE BOILING: (Fig 1.2.)

When the water droplets, adhered to the inner surface of a container heated upon, receive the heat from the inner wall and the droplets are individually converted into steam bubbles, As these bubbles grow in size, they get themselves detached from the wall and move up through the water body due to low density.

4

Fig 1.2.

Other water droplets occupy their space and this process continues as long as the container is heated. This process of individual bubble formation is termed as Nucleate Boiling. Under this condition the inner walls are always in contact with water droplets and so the inner wall temperature normally remain around the saturation temperature corresponding to the pressure.

3.2 FILM BOILING: (Figl.3.)

If the heat flux (heat added per unit area in unit time) to the container is greatly increased before individual bubbles detach from the wall more steam bubbles adjacent to each other will be formed. These adjacent bubbles of steam coalesce to form a steam film on the inner wall of the heating surface. That is between the inner wall and water body a steam film, which is a poor conductor of heat, will be formed. This reduces the heat flow from the heating surface to water but the steam film gets superheated and so the metal temperature increases. This phenomenon is caped Film boiling. The deviation of boiling process from Nucleate boiling condition to film boiling is termed as Departure from Nucleate Boiling (DNB). Occurrence of DNB in steam generation process leads to overheating of the metal.

5

Fig 1.3

4.0 HEATING SURFACE:

For evaporation of water into steam,. essentially the water needs to be held in a container, which has to be heated. The walls of the container, through which heat is transferred to water, form the heating surface. A boiler, which provides steam of large quantity,. must have sufficient heating surface. Though the arrangement of heating surface in a boiler depends on the type of boiler, for more practical purpose and in large capacity boilers generating steam for Power Generation or Industrial applications the heating surfaces are in the form of round tubes, Through these tubes placed in heating zones water or steam will be circulated to receive sensible heat, latent heat and superheat.

A boiler will have number of circuits of heating surfaces such as economiser, water wails, boiler bank, super heater and re heater for efficiently transferring the heat of combustion to the water and steam. They may absorb heat either by radiation, convection or both.

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5.0 CIRCULATION:

Flow of water, steam or both through the tube circuits of a boiler is termed as the Circulation. An _ adequate circulation is necessary for all the circuits to remove the heat and cool the beating surfaces thereby keeping the surfaces within the temperature limits of the material. In circuits where water is evaporated into steam sufficient circulation will be needed to avoid the deposit of salts from water on the surfaces (scaling).

In a circuit if the fluid enters at the inlet and leaves the outlet to the next circuit it is a once through system. Ifpart of the fluid from the outlet of the circuit is returned to the inlet of the same circuit it is a re circulation system. In a boiler the following circuits always adopt once through system.

i) Economiser

ii) Super heaters

iii) Re heaters

In these circuits the inlet pressure of the fluid effects the circulation. The water walls or evaporator circuits of a boiler will have either a once through or re circulation system. Many boilers for these circuits adopt only re circulation system.

5.1 CIRCULATION TYPES:

In the evaporating circuits of a steam-generating unit, the circulation may be produced naturally by the action of the force of gravity, mechanically by means of pumps or by a combination of the [WOo Accordingly there are three types of circulation as follows:

i) Natural circulation

ii) Forced circulation

7

=---

EAT

iii) Assisted circulation.

5.1.1 NATURAL CIRCULATION:

DOWN COMER

NATURAL CIRCULA nON Fig 1.4.

This is adopted in re circulation systems. In the Fig. 1.4 water from the econorniser circuit enters a drum and joins the circulation system. Water entering the drum flows down through the down comer pipes kept in non heating zone and enters the bottom of the water wall tubes, that is the evaporator section. As these tubes are heated by furnace radiation, a part of the water is converted to steam and the mixture flows back to the drum. In the drum the steam is separated. Remaining water mixes with the incoming water from the econorruser and the cycle is repeated. This sort of steam generation is adopted to

i) prevent the dissolved salts In water, precipitating and depositing scale on the surface of tubes when all the water in the rube is

evaporated to steam.

i i) ensure the inner walls of the tubes are continuously wetted with water and to have nucleate boiling throughout the tubes.

The circulation in this case takes place on the thermo-siphon principle.

The down comers contain relatively cold water. whereas the water wall tubes

8

contain steam water mixture, whose density is comparatively less. This density difference is the driving force for the mixture to over come the frictional resistance. Circulation takes place at such a rate that the driving force and frictional resistance are balanced.

Fig 1.5.

As the pressure increases the difference in density between water and steam reduces as shown in Fig 1.5. Thus the hydrostatic head available will not be able to overcome the frictional resistance for a flow corresponding to the minimum requirement of cooling of water wall tubes. Therefore natural circulation is limited to boiler with drum operating pressure around 175 kg/crrr'.

5.1.2 ASSISTED CIRCULATION:

Beyond 175 kg/cm2 of pressure in a re circulation system, circulation through the evaporator is to be assisted with mechanical pumps to overcome frictional losses in the tubes. A pump called Boiler circulation pump will be placed between the drum and water wall tubes inlet to do this function.

9

In such a system some times "to regulate the flow through various tubes in accordance to the amount of heat received orifice plates will be used at the inlet of the tubes. Such a system is known as Controlled Circulation.

5.1.3 FORCED CIRCULATION:

In the once through systems of sub critical pressure or in boilers operating above critical pressure, the water from the feed supply is pumped to the inlet end or ends of the heat absorbing circuits. This is called forced circulation. Evaporation or change of state gradually takes place along the length of the circuit and when evaporation is complete, further progress through the heated circuits results in superheating the vapor. Conventionally this type of forced circulation requires no stearn and water drum.

S.2 CIRCULA TION NUMBER:

The circulation number is the ratio of the quantity of water-steam mixture flowing through the circuit to the quantity of steam produced in the circuit. In other words if 10 kg of water is circulated for each kg of steam generated, the circulation number is 10. The circulation number for a boiler will be decided considering many factors especially to ensure nucleate boiling is maintained for all operating conditions.

Higher circulation number reduces the chance of scale formation m evaporating tubes and DNB but needs more evaporating surface.

The general practice adopted for circulation number in various boilers is:

i) ii) iii)

atural Circulation Industrial boiler latural Circulation Utility boiler Assisted Circulation boilers

JO to IS 7 to 9

2 to 4

IV) Forced Circulation/Once through boiler

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CHAPTEJ12 DEVELOPMENT OF BOILERS - TYPES

1.0 INTRODUCTION:

The use of steam can be traced back as far as 150 Be. At about that time Hero of Alexandria in his treatise Pneumatica described about devices which used the exp-ansive force of steam to raise water above its natural level. The Egyptians may have used it even earlier but it was not until 1712 that any development of an Industrial nature took place.

2.0 BOILER:

A boiler or steam generator essentially is a container into which water can be fed and steam can be taken out at desired pressure, temperature and flow. This calls for application of heat on the container. For that the boiler should have a facility to bum a fuel and release the heat. The functions of a boiler or stearn generator thus can be stated as (i) to convert chemical energy of the fuel into heat energy (ii) to transfer this heat energy to water for evaporation as well to steam for super heating. The working of a boiler is represented as a block diagram in Fig.2.1.

FEED WATER

--t>

STEAM GENERA nON

HEAT .. + t HEAT
GENERATION TRANSFER
• • I
• • •
mRNACE
• BOILER DRUM
mEL BURNING EVAPORATIVE TUBES
EQUIPMENT • SUPER HEATER
• REHIEATER
• ECONOMISER
AIR HEATER •

AUXIUARIES 8" ACCESSORIES

AJEL PREPARATION DRAUGHT SYSTEM

ASH REI\10VAL INSTRUI'r'lENT A nON ETC.

Fig.2.1.

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3.0 THREE GENERATIONS OF BOILER:

Boiler design has been an evolutionary process over the past three centuries. Various types of Boilers have been developed to suit the requirements of the day. Developments are oriented towards increased steam 'generating capability, efficiency, safety etc. and trouble free operation. Though many types of .boilers were developed almost during same period, for convenience sake the development of boilers can be taken into broadly three generations as follows.

First Generation Second Generation Third Generation

Shell Type Boilers Fire/Smoke Tube Boilers Water Tube Boilers.

3.1 SHELL TYPE BOILER:

This is the earliest type of boiler. It has a simple shell with a feed pipe and steam outlet, mounted on a brick setting called furnace. Fuel is burnt on a grate within the setting and the heat released was directed over the lower shell surface before most of it went out the flue. There are many variants in this type basically on the shape of the shell. The shells are made of riveted wrought iron plates.

SHELL TYPE BOILER Fig.2.2.

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· The major disadvantage of shell type boiler is' its very low heat transfer area compared to the shell size. Heating a single large vessel of water is remarkably inefficient. Further for increasing steam generating capability the size of the shell only has to be increased which. has its own limitations. These boilers are generating steam at very low pressures close to atmospheric 'pressure only.

3.2 FIRE/SMOKE TUBE BOILER:

Invention of steam engines in the 18th century called for better boilers of higher steaming capabilities. To meet this requirement Fire/Smoke tube boilers were developed. Here attempt is made to bring more of the water into close contact with the heat. This boiler is also having a shell containing water as shown in Fig.2.3. The hot combustion products (Flue gas) from the furnace are directed through the tubes within the shell and immersed in water. The shell is having provision for the admission of feed water and to take out steam. The water in the shell cools the hot gases passing through the tubes. The gases coming out of the tubes are collected in a smoke box and let out into the chimney. Such a fire tube design not only provides more heating surface, but also helps to distribute steam formation more uniformly throughout the mass of water. These types of boilers . are still in use in industrial applications having a low steam demand.

FlUEGAS OUTLET

STEAM OUTLET WATER LEVEL

fIRE TUBES

.:

BOILER SHELL

FIRE TUBE BOILER

Fig.2.3

13

Though the fire tube boilers are better than shell type boilers still there are certain difficulties. Fire tube boiler also needs a shell to hold the water for steam generation, the size of which has to be increased with increase in steaming capacity. The solid residues of combustion present in the hot gases will settle inside the tubes, thereby reduce the heat transfer as well choke the tubes. Hence these boilers also will not be suitable for applications like power generation where a large quantity of steam will be required.

3.3 WATER TUBE BOILERS:

Development of water tube boilers in the late part of 18th century and early part of 19th century brought in revolutionary charges in boiler design. An early water tube boiler is shown in Fig.2.4. Here feed water from a lower drum is circulated through a bundle of tubes called tube bank. The hot products of combustion from the furnace pass over this tube bank and heat is transferred to water through the tube metal. . Depending on the amount of heat added either all the water in the tubes will be evaporated into steam by the time it comes out of the tubes or part of the water will be converted into steam with a water steam mixture coming out of the tubes. In the later case the mixture from the tubes will be collected in a drum and after separating the steam the remaining water will be returned back to the inlet of the tubes.

EARLY WATER TUBE BOILER

Fig.2.4.

Compared to fire tube boilers, in water tube boilers there is no probJem of choking of the tubes by the solid products of combustion. Any soot deposit over the tubes can be cleaned easily even during service. As no single shell to bold the water for evaporation is required and

14

the steam generation' takes place in sub-divisions (tubes), it makes possible to design boilers of

very large capacities and high pressures. .

To-day most of the boilers used for industrial applications and almost all the boilers used for' electricity generation are water tube design only. Many developments have taken place on the early water tube boilers over the last two hundred years to make them more and more efficient. The evolution of modem power boilers from the early water tube boilers is discussed in subsequent paragraphs.

4.0 EVOLUTION OF MODERN POWER BOILER:

Simultaneous developments have taken place on all the aspects of boiler viz. Steam Generation Circuits, Combustion Chamber, Fuel and Air admission, Fuel Firing System, Flue Gas Cleaning etc. For convenience each one of them is discussed separately.

4.1 STEAM GENERA TING CIRCUITS:

The major developments in steam generating circuits of an early simple. water tube

boiler are the introduction of

Economiser,

Re circulation Concept Boiler Drum with Steam Separators

Water walled furnace

"

r

Super heaters Re heaters.

4.1.1 ECONOMISER:

In a simple water tube boiler the hot gases leaving the tube bank are having substantial amount of heat which is lost to atmosphere if the gases are directly let out to the chimney. To recover a good amount of heat from these gases between the boiler bank tubes and the chimney, coils of tubes are introduced. The feed water to the boiler is first passed through these coils before admitted to the bank tubes. This preheats the feed water and considerably cools the gases going out thereby recovering a good amount of heat, which is otherwise wasted. These coils of tubes are named as Economiser.

4.1.2 RECIRCULATION CONCEPT:

In a water tube boiler if the heat addition to the tubes is in such a way to evaporate all the water in the tubes to steam by the time it comes out of tubes it is called once through system. In such a case the dissolved salts in water gets deposited inside the tubes when only the water is evaporated. This deposit called scale is a poor conductor of heat. Due to this the heat received by the outer surface of tubes can not be transferred fully to water. This not only hampers the steam generation in tubes but increase the tube metal temperature beyond limits and ultimate failure. To over come this the heat addition to the tubes will be in such a manner to evaporate only a small fraction of water into steam and at the outlet of the tubes a mixture of

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water-steam onlybe received. This mixture directed into a steam separator is separated into steam and water. _ The water will be returned back to the boiler: tubes .. This is called as re circulation concept. Here the salts of water will not immediately deposit on the tubes but gradually their concentration build up in the boiler water., However by suitable blow down

procedures their concentration can be lowered to tolerable levels. '

Since, in the' early days of boiler development and for that matter even tin very recently no suitable method of water treatment was available to provide totally a salt free water to boilers, most of the boilers adopt only this re circulation concept to over come the scale deposits in boiler tubes.

4.1.3 DRUM WITH STEAM SEPARATORS

With the introduction of re circulation concept, there is a need for steam separation. These steam separators are housed in a boiler drum, which collects' the steam water mixture from the boiler tubes. Also the drum facilitates the mixing of water separated from the mixture with the water from the economiser before returning the same to boiler tubes.

4.1.4 WATER WALLED FURNACE:

BANK TUBES

BOILER WITH BANK TUBES

Fig.2.S

Early water tube boilers had evaporating tubes (bank tubes) placed across the flue gas path as in Fig.2.S, In this arrangement as the gases moves form one bank of tube to another the rate of heat transfer reduces due to the reduction in temperature gradient. This calls for increased heat transfer area at larer stages that will have practical limits and also increase cost. Further in such

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,. a type of boiler the combustion chamber is built up with fire bricks which is inefficient in many ways. In an effort to produce more efficient and economical steam generators, the furnace enclosure is- built up with tube walls called water walls. The water for steam generation is circulated through the water' wall tubes, which receive heat, _ by radiation, With such a arrangement, forming only 16% of the unit's total heating surface, 53% of the total heat can be absorbed as against the boiler bank tubes forming 58% of the heating surface absorbing only 22% of heat. Also the water walled furnaces increase the heat rating of furnaces (i.e. Kcal/m' Hr) tremendously as compared to a furnace built with firebricks.

4.1.5 SUPER HEATERS:

The steam separated and given out by the boiler drum is only in dry saturated condition.

For many applications, especially for running a turbine, on efficiency aspects the steam must be in superheated condition. To meet this requirement the boilers are provided with separate tube circuits in the flue gas path. These heat transfer areas are termed as super heaters. When the saturated steam from the drum is circulated through the tubes of super heaters the steam temperature increases.

4.1.6 REHEATERS:

Re heaters are provided only in boilers supplying steam to large capacity steam turbines (capacity more than 100 Mwe.). Like super heaters, re heaters are also heating surfaces in the flue gas path meant for heating the steam. The difference is, in re-heaters the steam brought back at low pressure from the turbine is heated to a higher temperature before returning back to the turbine. This is required for improving cycle efficiency.

4.2 FUEL FIRING SYSTEMS:

Coal remains as the main fuel for boilers from the early days of development till to day.

In very early boilers the coal is fed into the furnace manually by firemen. The furnace will have a grate at the bottom over which the fuel settle and burn. These being primitive method and put limitations on firing capability, mechanisation of fuel feeding were developed.

4.2.1 STOKER FIRING:

Stokers are equipment, which mechanically feed coal uniformly into a grate at the bottom of the furnace and remove the ash residue from the bottom of the furnace.

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CHAIN GRATE STOKER Fig.2.6.

In a typicaJ stoker firing arrangement, a moving chain grate mounted on sprockets is located at the bottom of the furnace. Coal fed from a hopper by a mechanical feeder falls over the moving chain grate enters the furnace and burns. At the far end of the travel, the ash is discharged over the end of the grate into the ash pit. This type of firing is termed Bed Firing.

Though stoker firing increased the firing rate capability many fold compared to manual firing, still the fuel need to be fired over a bed only which puts limitations on boiler size. As the coal is fired in lumps of size around 10 to 20 mm the combustion efficiency is also poor.

4.2.2 PULVERISED - COAL FIRING:

The next development in coal firing is burning coal in pulverised form. Here the coal is pulverised into a fine powder of size around 70 to 80 microns in a pulveriser plant. This powdered coal is then sprayed into the furnace by suitable methods. The coal burns when it floats inside the furnace. This is termed as Suspension firing. Burning coal in pulverised form makes combustion efficiency as high as 999c compared to below 80lle efficiency in stoker

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-Also as the entire volume of the furnace is utilised for combustion and no bed is reouireo to support the fuel during combustion, pulverised coal firing makes it possible to large capacity boilers. All power boilers of capacity 50 MW and above use only the coal firing.

AIR ADMISSION:

For the combustion of fuel in the boiler adequate air is need to be supplied to the furnace and the hot products of combustion are to be evacuated from furnace. In a boiler this is - done by the Draught System. Early boilers used the density difference between cool air and hot

- gas for the movement of air into the boiler. As boiler sizes increased mechanical equipments

-like fans are introduced to effe-ct the flow-of air and gas in the boiler. The modem boilers are

adopting such mechanised draught systems only, which is described in detail separately.

Air heaters are the another addition to the boilers, to improve the boiler efficiency. Like - economisers, the air heaters are used to preheat the air entering the boiler for combustion, by the heat available in the outgoing flue gases. By preheating the air the combustion efficiency is - greatly increased. The air heaters are located after the economiser.

4.4 FLUE GAS CLEANING:

The gases from the boiler contain finely dispersed ash particles as well toxic gases like sulphur oxides and nitrogen oxides. They cause enormous pollution to the atmosphere if allowed to mix with the atmospheric air. Depending on the quantity of these pollutants in the gas, the boiler will be provided with the following equipments.

i) Precipitators

ii) Flue gas Desulphurisers

iii) Nitrogen Oxide absorbers/reducers.

Of the above the precipitators are invariably used in all boilers. They separate the fly ash from the flue gas before sending the gas to chimney.

A modern power boiler with all features discussed above is shown in Fig.2.7.

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MAIISRAM

TYPICj&J_ POWER BOILER

Fig.2.7.

5.0 BOILER TYPES:

Boilers are classified into different types in many ways. Apart from the classification on tube content basis as Shell type, fire tube and water rube which have been discussed earlier, the boilers are classified according to application, operating pressure, fuel used, draught system adopted, boiler setting arrangement etc.

5.1 APPLICATION:

Under this category boilers are classified as

a) b) c)

Utility or Power boilers

Industrial or Process Steam boilers Others.

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..

-:: ,0

5.1.1 UTILITY BOILER:

Boilers meant for supplying steam to a steam turbine for electricity generation' are known as Utility Boilers or Power Boilers, Generally these boilers will be of high steaming capacity and high pressure and- temperature ratings. These boilers are required to run at their designed capacity for long periods. Generally the fuel used in these boilers is Coal.

5.1.2 INDUSTRIAL BOILERS: .

Boilers in industries like petroleum refineries, fertiliser plants, sugar plants, paper mills etc. to' provide steam for the various processes in that industry come under this category. They are also called as Process Steam Boilers. The capacity of such boilers is based on the steam requirement. Steam from these boilers will also be used for electricity generation in small quantity. Apart from the main fuel like coal or furnace oil these boilers also will be designed to burn any by product available in that industry. Example: Bagasse in sugar plants, Pith in Paper mills, etc. These boilers must be capable of meeting frequent fluctuating demands of the steam from the process.

5.1.3 OTHERS:

Boilers used for Locomotive steam engines, Marine Boilers etc. are comparatively smaller to Power and Industrial Boiler.

5.2 OPERA TING PRESSURE :

Based on the pressure, at which stearn is generated, the boilers are classified as

i) Sub Critical Boilers

ii) Super Critical Boilers

5.2.1 SUB CRITICAL BOILERS:

Boilers operating below the critical pressure are termed as Sub-critical boilers. These boilers can be either re circulation type or once through. In India almost all of the boilers are Sub Critical Boilers only.

5.2.2 SUPER CRITICAL BOILER:

Any boiler operating above critical pressure is called super critical boiler. These boilers are necessarily once through type.

5.3 FUEL USED:

According to the fuel used boilers are classified into Solid fuel fired, oil fired and gas fired boilers. Some boilers may be multi fuel fired also. The Solid fuel fired boilers are further

21

classified as

i) Stoker fired boilers

ii) Pulverised fuel fired boilers

iii) Fluidised bed combustion boilers

5.4 DRAUGHT SYSTEM

In this category the boilers are classified as

i) Natural Draught boilers

ii) Mechanised Draught boilers

5.4.1 NATURAL DRAUGHT:

The draught required for the flow of air and gas inside the boiler is created by chimney alone in this type of boilers.

5.4.2 MECHANISED DRAUGHT:

In these type of boilers fans are used to create the draught. These boilers are further divided into

i) Forced draught

ii) Induced draught

iii) Balanced draught

5.4.2.1 FORCED DRAUGHT:

Here fans are used to draw air from atmosphere and push into the furnace. The entire boiler will be kept above atmospheric pressure and so the furnaces of these boilers are called pressurised furnaces.

5.4.2.2 INDUCED DRAUGHT:

Fans installed at the outlet of boiler evacuate the gases from the furnace in this type of boilers. Thereby a negative pressure is developed in the furnace and the air from atmosphere enters the furnace.

5.4.2.3 BALANCED DRAUGHT:

In these types of boilers both forced draught and the induced draught fans are used to derive the benefits of both the systems. Most of the coal fired utility boilers are balanced draught boilers.

22

,

5.5 BOILER SETTING:

According to the number of paths through which the gases flow inside the boiler, the boilers are classified into

i) Single Pass Boilers

ii) Multi Pass Boilers

5.5.1 SINGLE PASS BOILER:

Here the boiler setting is in the form of a tower and all the pressure parts such as super heater, re heater and economiser are arranged as horizontal coils in a single pass of flue gas which is the vertical extension of the furnace. These boilers are also known as TOWER TYPE BOILERS.

S.S.2MUL TI PASS BOILERS:

In these boilers the flue gas pass through more than one pass and the pressure parts are distributed in all the passes to recover the heat from the gas. Many of the power boilers used in our country are two pass boilers.

Many of the Power Boilers in India are Sub Critical, natural circulation, pulverised coal fired, balanced draught, two pass, outdoor type as shown in Fig.2 .. 8.

23

••
- 1,1. IILU L - ~
IOlf I !Illl<t
--- 'i~ ~, J~~
r:: ~ !j , Tii"li-
eMIl """" - ~ ...
I~ If _" 1Oiif! I.: 1--
- l;omporlng A" O""I~

MULTI PASS BOILER

Fig.2.S.

24

\

CHAPTER 3

BOILER PRESSURE PARTS

1.0 INTRODUCTI9N

In a steam generator the parts through which the feed water and steam flows where the pressure of the system, is much higher than atmospheric pressure, are generally termed as BOILER PRESSURE PARTS Most of the heat released by the fuel in the Boiler is transferred to the working fluid (Feed Water/Steam) in these pressure parts. As such these parts form the heat absorbing /heat recovery surface of the Boiler.

The following parts of the Boiler are generally coming under the category of Boiler Pressure Parts.

l. Economiser
2. Boiler Drum
3. Water Wall System
4. Super heater
5. Re-heater Of the above except Boiler Drum, others form the heat absorbing/heat recovery surface of the Boiler. The Quantum of heat absorbed in each part generally varies with cycle pressure. The amount of heat absorbed as a percent of total heat absorbed by feed water and steam in Boiler at different pressures is illustrated in Table-I.

Table-I
Component
255 Kg/em
140 Kg/c 185 Kg/ern'
With double RH
Economiser 14 17 10
Water wall 44 32 37
Su er heater 28 3S 25
Re-heater 14 ]6 20 28 25

Provision of economiser in a Boiler brings in two major advantages.

2~O ECONOMISER .

2.1 REQUIREMENT:

Economisers are provided in the Boilers to improve the efficiency of the Boiler by extracting the heat from flue gases and add it as either sensible heat alone or sensible heat and latent heat to the feed water before the water enters the evaporating surface of the Boiler.

2.2 ADVANTAGES:

i) As the economiser recover the heat in flue gas that leaves the boiler and transfer to working fluid there will be savings in fuel consumption.

ii) As the feed water is preheated in the economiser and enters the Boiler tubes at an elevated temperature (Near to saturation temperature) the heat transfer area required for the evaporation surface required will be reduced considerably. As such the size of the Boiler also win be reduced.

2.3 DEVELOPMENT

The design and use of econornisers followed naturally the development of Boilers.

The features of early economiser designs are larger tube diameter and widely spaced tubes to meet the requirement of natural draught Boilers and surface cleaning requirements and cast iron tubes because of cast iron's inherent resistance for corrosion both internal and external.

These early designs were gradually improved keeping in phase with other developments in Boiler. Deaeration of feed water prior to economiser reduced internal corrosion in economiser. High feed water temperature at economiser inlet due to regenerative feed heating has reduced flue gas condensation over economiser tubes, consequently the corrosion and plugging on the outside of the tubes. Further higher draughts due to the use of improved fans and better soot blowers for surface cleaning are now available. These developments make it possible to use steel for economiser tubing, most desirable tube diameters and tube spacing for economical heat transfer and cleaning by steam or air.

In the modern Power Boilers the need of heat recovery by econorniser is reduced a lot and economisers are much smaller than an older plant due to

The economiser in the present day Power Boilers have tubes made of low carbon steel with tube outside diameters ranging from 38 mm to 52 mm with spacing about 90 to ]40 mm. both horizontally and vertically.

26

i) use of greater heat transfer within the super heaters and reheaters corresponding with advances in cycle conditions thus resulting in progressively lower gas temperature at economiserinlet,

ii) The increase in feed water temperature at economiser inlet by the regenerative feed heaters introduced to increase the efficiency of the cycle.

iii) The need for heat recovery from flue gas at air heater for air heating for coal drying and efficient combustion of coal which is essential for pulverised fuel fired Boilers and so necessitate to keep economiser gas outlet temperature high enough.

U sing of economiser or air heater or both is decided by the total economy that will result flexibility in operation, maintenance and selection of firing system and other related equipment. Modern medium and high capacity boilers use both economiser and air heater. In low capacity Boilers especially in industrial boilers either economiser alone or air heater alone

may be selected. -

2.4 ECONOMISER TYPES

The economisers, broadly based on whether both sensible and latent heat are added or only sensible heat is added to the feed water, can be classified as

i) Steaming Econorniser

ii) Non-steaming economiser

2.4.1 STEAMING ECONOMISER

When the heat available in the flue gas is sufficiently high after superheaters especially in small capacity non re-heat boilers, it would be advantageous in producing part of the steam in economiser itseJf. In such a case sensible heat and part of latent heat is added to the feed water at the economiser and the economiser is termed as steaming economiser, The evaporation to steam in the economiser is generally limited to 20% of the feed at full boiler out put and less as the load decreases.

Steaming economisers calls for treating a high percentage of the feed water to a condition which does not cause scaling inside the tubes and the gas temperature required at econorniser inlet must be sufficiently high which is not feasible in a high capacity re-heat Boilers. Also transferring the two-phase fluid from economiser to Drum poses difficulties. Due to these reasons steaming economisers are not preferred or provided in modern high capacity boilers.

27

2.4.2' NON STEAMING ECONOMISER

In this type of economiser only sensible heat is added to feed water thereby after heating . by flue gas, the feed water leaves the economiser at a temperature lower than the saturation

temperature corresponding to the operating pressure, -

The economisers by their tube construction can be further classified as plain tube and

finned tube economisers, . ,

2.4.2.1. PLAIN TUBE ECONOMISER

Here the econornisers are constructed with several banks of plain tubes. The height of each bank is not more than 2m for effective soot blowing. The tubes can either be in-line or staggered tube formation (Fig.3.1).Staggered formation induces more turbulence in the gases giving about 20% to 80% more heat transfer than in-line arrangement. Though this results in requirement of less surface for a given duly, it is at the expense of higher draught loss. Inline arrangement may need about 10% to 15% more surface but effectively cleanable with the help of on load soot blowers and also can be easily inspected.

Direction of Gas Flow Direction of Gas F10w

1 - 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Inline Arrangement Staggered Arrangement TUBE FORMATIONS IN ECONOMISER BANK Fig.3.1.

2.4.2.2. FIN - TUBE ECONOMISER

Welding of fins 10 the economiser tubes greatly increases the heating surfaces per unit length of the tube (factor of 2 to 8 according to design) In comparison with plain tube economiser. steel finned econorniser occupy less space for the same thermal performance and draught loss. The reduction in tube length for similar tube diameters and pitches is usually around 4 to 1. This results in smaller casing, less structural steel work to support the reduced

28

----

.:weight, fewer bends and fewer welds, giving. a saving In overall cost. A typical fin-tube economiser is shown in Fig.3.2 ..

FINNED TUBE ECONOMISER

Fig.3.2

In line arrangement is favoured in this type for easy cleaning and inspection. The fins welded to the tubes may be either continuous fin type or spiral fin types ..

2.5 LOCA nON AND ARRANGEMENT

Location of economiser will vary with the overall design of the boiler. It is usual to locate the economiser ahead of air heaters and following the primary super heater or reheater in the convective pass of the gas stream. In some cases where very low exit gas temperature and high air temperatures are desired it may be necessary to divide the economiser and the air heater and place the cooler section of the economiser between the air heater sections.

Generally economisers are arranged for downward flow of gas and upward tlow of water.

This counter flow arrangement keeps the heating surface requirement and the draught loss minimum for the same temperature drop in the flue gas. The upward flow of water helps steam if any formed during the heal transfer to move along with water and prevent the lock up of steam, which will cause overheating, and failure of tubes. Econorniser coils are designed for horizontal placement, which facilitate the draining of coils. The location and arrangement of economisers in different boilers are shown in Fig.3.3

29

~

LOCATION OF ECDNDMISER IN TWO PASS BOILER

Fig.3.3.

Economiser tubes are supported in such a manner that sagging, undue deflection and expansion prevention will not occur at any condition of operation. A typical support system for

economiser coi1s with pantos is shown in Fig.3.4. .

I ....

I

:.:. I . - ..

...• 1 •

··'··1·_····

.. ·::1 ..

:::. I : .. :'_-:=:'. 1

•• ._. 1 .: ... =- ":

I

_.'. -1 ..... -·· , . - -_. f· .. -.-

::: 1

Fig. 3.4

An ash hopper is provided below the economiser if the flue gas duct is taking a turn from vertical to collect the fly ash separated from the gas stream.

30

TUBE SIZE AND SPACING

The overall heat transfer area required at economiser primarily depends on

i) feed water inlet temperature

ii) Saturation temperature corresponding to operating pressure

iii) Feed water flow rate

iv) Gas temperature requirement at Air heater inlet. .

On the basis of heat transfer area required the tube diameter, length, spacing etc. are

decided to ensure. .

i) Water flow is uniformly distributed between tubes and resistance to flow must be as low as possible; a low flow through given tube or element could cause local steam formation, which could result in tube failure.

ii) The economiser fit in with the design of the preceding section of the boiler, usually the re-heater or low temperature super heater.

iii) The gas side draught loss is kept minimum.

iv) Making provision for on load cleaning equipment.

The tubes can be continuous from inlet to outlet headers with terminals rolled or welded.

The tubes can be made any length and diameter with 38mm to 52mm OD. The side spacing and back spacing can be arranged for good external cleaning, absorption of heat and less draught loss. Clear lanes of 25mm and less should be used only for clean fuels. Lanes of 38rnm to 50mm will be required for fuels liable to cause gas side deposits.

2.7 ECONOMISER FAILURE

The economiser tubes get punctured due to number of reasons. An economiser tube puncture calls for a Boiler shut down and so reduces the plant availability. Hence greater care will be required in design, operation and maintenance stages to avoid the economiser failures. The major causes of economiser failures are

i) Over heating

ii) Corrosion

iii) Erosion

2.7.1 OVER HEATING

As the economiser tubes are generally made of carbon steel any sustained metal temperature above 400°C will be leading to the tube failure. Starvation, that is loss of water inside the tubes or scaling inside the tubes will be the root cause for overheating.

31

2.7.1.1. STARVATION

Though the possibility of starvation ofeconomiser tubes during normal operation of the boiler is remote, starvation may occur during the start-up of the boiler from cold condition. There will not be any flow through the economiser tubes till substantial amount of continuous steam generation starts in the boiler. This leads to the water in economiser tubes get evaporated and move out of tubes thereby resulting in starvation. To prevent this, the boilers will have a economiser re-circulation system. In this a tapping from the down comer with a NRV and isolating valve will be connected to economiser inlet. Keeping this line open during light up ensures circulation of water through. the economiser thereby avoiding starvation. This recirculation line must be closed once normal feeding to economiser is started otherwise the feed water will by pass the economiser and flow directly to down comer through re-circulation line resulting starvation of economiser.

2.7.1.2. SCALING

Deposit of salts from feed water on the inner surface of the tubes reduces the heat transfer across the tubes. The chances of scaling in economiser tubes are high witih a steaming econorniser using poor quality water. The possibility of economiser scaling is remote when Demineralised water is used in non-steaming economiser,

2 .. 7.2 CORROSION

The economiser tubes can be thinned out due to chemical reaction both from inside as well from outside'

2.7.2.1 EXTERNAL CORROSION

External corrosion of economiser may occur when the water vapour in the flue gas condenses on the surface of the tubes, and corrosion is accelerated when this happens in the presence of products of combustion of sulphur. The rate of corrosion is increased when the metal temperature is reduced. As the amount of sulphur in the fuel increases, the dew point increases and so does the potential rate of corrosion. In boilers having both air heater and economiser, and also having regenerative feed heaters normally the econorniser is not subjected to external corrosion.

2.7.2.2. INTERNAL CORROSION

Econornisers are subject to internal corrosion from dissolved oxygen and low hydroxyl ion concentration (a low pH). Oxygen corrosion can be eliminated by de-aeration to zero Oxygen. Steel in econorniser is attacked faster by pure water (pH-7) than by water, which has higher hydroxyl ion concentration. It is therefore necessary no maintain a pH value of between 8 and 9 for water passing through the economiser.

32

L

2 . .,.3. EROSION

In pulverised coal-fired. boilers, the economiser tubes are more pr.one to failure due to erosion than any other above cited reasons. Especially this problem is aggravated when high abrasive ash - coals are used. In a two pass boiler when the economiser is located at the bottom of the second pass the impact of the. ash over tubes is increasing. To minimise the adverse effects of erosion provision of shrouding and baffles at suitable locations of the economiser tube banks are practiced. In tower type (single pass) boilers the location of the econorniser itself protects the tubes from erosion.

3.0 DRUM AND DRUM INTERNALS

3.1 REQIDREMENT

In a sub-critical re-circulation boiler, the drum plays an important functional role. In the erection of a Power Boiler, the lifting of the Boiler drum is the firstmile stone activity. The functions of the drum are.

a) Separation of saturated steam from the steam-water mixture produced by the evaporating tubes

b) Mixing feed water from economiser and water separated from steam -:- water mixture, and re-circulate through the evaporating tubes.

c) Carrying out plow down for reduction of boiler water salt concen trati on.

d) Treatment of Boiler water by chemicals

As the quantity of water contained in the drum below the water level is relatively small compared to the total steam output, the function of water storage in drum is not significant.

3.1 . .1. STEAM SEPARATION

In a re-circulation type boiler the evaporating tubes supply only a steam-water mixture to the drum. From this, the steam of high purity acceptable to the superheaters and turbine is to be separated. This separation must be done within a limited .space in the drum, within a matter of seconds and under a variety of velocity, pressure and other operating condition.

A number of factors influence the separation of water from steam in drum; important among them are:

the density of water with respect to the steam

the amount of water in the mixture delivered to the drum (Circulation ratio) the quantity of water and steam to be separated

viscosity, surface tension and other such factors affected by pressure water level in the drum

the concentration of boiler water solids

the available pressure drop for drum internal design

There is a considerable difference between the density of water and steam at low pressures but this difference decreases as pressure increases towards critical point. This relationship is shown

33

in Fig.l.S. The density of water at 84 kg/crrr' is approximately 16 times that of steam whereas at about 196 kg/crrr' it is only 3 times that of steam. Thus as pressure increases, separating water from stearn will become more difficult.

Based on the above factors the steam separation in boiler drum can be' carried out adopting one of the following three methods.

a) Simple gravity separation

b) Gravity separation with baffles to supplement gravity separation

c) Centrifugal and gravity separation

3.1.1.1 SIMPLE GRAVITY' SEPARATION

_--STEAM OUrlET--..._

[a) LOW STfAMINGRATE

(b) HIGH STEA.MING RATE

GRAVITY SEPARATION Fig.3.5.

Fig.3.5. shows the steam separation by gravity only in the drum. For a low rate of steam generation (up to about J m/s velocity of steam leaving the water surface) there is sufficient time for the light dense steam bubbles to separate from mixture by gravity without being drawn into the down comers and without carrying entrained water droplets into the steam outlet (Fig.a.). However for this same arrangement at a higher rate of steam generation (Fig.b.) the time is insufficient to attain either of these desirable results leading to carryover of water with steam. Hence steam separation by gravity alone is possible if the velocity of either the mixture or the steam bubbles within the mixture is low and the steam generated per unit length of the drum must be kept low. This will be uneconomical except for small low-duty Boiler.

34

.1

3.1.1.2 GRAVITY SEPARATION USING BAFFLES

-_

BAFFLE PLATES IN A STEAM DRUM

Fig.3.6.

REVERSING HOOD PRIMARY SfPARATORS

Fig.3.7.

Baffle plates are generally used to change or reverse a flow pattern to assist gravity separation in the open drawn space. Fig.3.6. illustrates example of simple baffle arrangement. Baffle plates change flow direction of water and steam and act as impact plates. Water separating out on such plates normally will drain off through or adjacent to steam flow and a controlling factor in design and operation is the steam flow velocity through such drainage. Areas under and around baffles must be sufficient to prevent excessive-re-entrainment of spray. Limited in their impact separating capacity, the chief purpose of plate baffles is direct flow to make maximum use of the gravity separating capacity available from any low-velocity steam space in the drum.

Reversing hoods, shown in Fig.3.7. combine the desirable features of baffle and change of direction principles. Steam and water from the active generating tubes are directed behind a baffle into the slotted reversing hoods. These separators are simply an arrangement of baffle plates to guide water and steam in a manner to give maximum utilisation of gravity separation in open space. By accelerating the gravity flow of water and by reversing the flow of steam, normal gravity potential is increased and separation enhanced.

3.1.1.3 CENTRIFUGAL AND GRAVITY SEPARATION

At higher pressures water and steam are separated most efficiently in a drum internal utilising centrifugal force/radial acceleration to disengage the entrained particle. Vertical cyclones or turbo separators with corrugated plate assembly at the outlet are installed either in a single row or double rows internally along the length of the drum.

35

l

-- -- - ---- -------------

CYCLONE SEPARATORS fOR STEAM SEPARATION

Fig.3.8.

With cyclone separators provided in the drum the steam water mixture from riser tubes is admitted tangentially to the cylindrical section of the cyclones. The resulting centrifugal force due to such admission causes the higher density water form a layer against the cylinder walls and the steam moves to the core of the cylinder and then upward. (Fig.3. 8). The water flows downward in the cylinder and discharged through an annulus at the bottom below the drum water level. The steam moving upward from the cylinder passes through a small corrugated scrubber at the top of the cyclone for additional separation.

36

TURBO SEPARATORS

Fig.3.9.

In the turbo separator arrangement CFig.3.9) the steam water mixture coming through the riser tubes is first admitted into a chamber-formed between the drum-wall and a baffle. The mixture sweeps the drum shell on its path to the bottom and enters the turbo separators arranged along the length of the drum .. Spinner blades or vanes inside the separator spins the mixture as it travels upward through the separator and thus create separating force. The concentrated layer of water flowing upward along the surface of the primary tube is skimmed off and directed downward through an outer concentric tube for discharge below the water line with minimum disturbance to water level. The steam and the remaining entrained water continue upward through a steam collector nozzle and turn horizontally into the separator section formed by corrugated plates. The velocity at this point is low and the water cannot be re-entrained from wetted surfaces and runs off the plates. Leaving the separator the steam flows upward.

3.1.1.4 J)Ft1{I~(;

Though the separators discussed above effectively separate the steam, still the steam may contain some residual moisture or the steam may pick up moisture from the drum due to the condition of water and boiler operating factors. To arrest this residual moisture before the steam is allowed to leave the drum, the dryers will be provided at the top of the drum. The dryers are designed to have a large surface area on which moisture can deposit and from which it can run back into the drum by gravity. Closely spaced corrugated or bent plates, screens or mats of woven wire mesh can be used as dryer surface materials. The screen type dryers are commonly used. (Fig.3.l0.)

37

SCREEN DRIER Fig.3.10.

The pressure drop across a dryer is normally low because of low flow velocities and relatively small amounts of water involved. Dryers operate on a low-velocity deposition principle and not on a velocity separation principle. Formation of insoluble residues on the dryer from the boiler water entrained with steam or filming action by foaming boiler water decreases the free area, increases the local velocity and promotes carryover.

3.1.2. BLOWDOWNS

The removal of a portion of water from the boiler drum is termed as blow down. Two types of blow downs are adopted from the boiler drum.

a.

b.

Continuous blow down Emergency blow down

3.1.2.1 .CONTINUOUS BLOW DOWN

Staged evaporation of water in the boiler tubes of re circulation type boiler results, in the increase in concentration of impurities in the boiler water over a period of time. To keep this concentration within limits so that no scaling occurs in the boiler tubes, it is necessary to drain a portion of this water from drum continuously and compensate the same with fresh make up water which is having low amount of impurities. This process is called continuous blow down. The amount of water drained through C.B.D. depends on the total dissolved solids permitted in the

38

boiler water, total dissolved solids in makeup water and the percentage of make tip. .A typical equation to determine the CBD amount is

CBO % of feed

TDS in make up water in PPM

_- -------------------------------------------- * %make up

TDS allowed in boiler water in PPM

flow

Normally in high-pressure utility boilers, the % of CBD will be a maximum of 1 % of

the steam generation.

3.1.2.2 EMERGENCY BLOW DOWN

Operating conditions may cause the water level in the drum to raise. A high level of water above the normal level may lead to the carry over of water by steam and at times the separators may be submerged in water. In such a situation to bring the water level to normal, this blow down provision is made in the drum. Once the water level reaches a preset high level in the drum through the emergency blow down line, the boiler water will be drained till the level comes back to normal.

3.1.3 CHEMICAL TREATMENT OF BOILER WATER

Though the boiler is fed with high quality treated water, still it is essential to have a fine conditioning of boiler water by dozing certain chemicals to the water in the boiler drum. This is to ensure

i)

Any scale forming salt in the boiler water is converted into sludge facilitating its removal through Jaw point drains.

ii)

The pH value of the boiler water is maintained at the desired level to prevent corrosion as well to avoid silica carry over by steam.

Though various solid alkalis can be used, the common practice in our country is dozing of trisodium phosphate in drum water.

Trisod:ium phosphate does two functions. It reacts with scale forming salts like calcium chloride, calcium sulphate etc. if any present in boiler water and convert them into sludge.

The resultant products are in the form of sludge, which are collected in the bottom header from where they can be removed through low point drains periodically. This process is called periodical blow down. In modern boiler with the use of highly conditioned water there is no need of carrying out the periodical blow down. Any sludge collected in the bottom headers will be very negligible and it is sufficient that they can be removed during the boiler shutdowns/ overhaul. Further in high-pressure boilers there is a danger of loss of water in the drum during periodical blow down causing starvation of tubes.

39

Trisodium phosphate dozing improves the pH value of boiler water as Trisodium phosphate reacts with water and produce sodium hydroxide

__ ... NaOH + Na2 HP04

By judicial dozing of N a3 P04 the boiler water can be maintained at- the desired pH level.

As operating pressure increases the steam phase exhibits greater solvent capabilities for - the salts that may be present in the water phase. This phenomenon is known as vaporous carry over and silica exhibit significant vaporous carryover. When more than 0.02 PPM of silica is carried over by steam, it results in silica deposits in turbine blades that are difficult to be removed and it has to be avoided.

The vaporous carry over of silica depends

i)

silica in boiler water

increase in silicalevel increase the opportunity of carry over -

ii)

operating pressure

higher operating pressure will increase the vaporisation of silica

iii) pH value of boiler water : higher the pH value lower the silica carryover

'.'-

E \:'-'_ _pH 0.5

8: '\ I:-- pH 0.0

<t 3.01--+-t-",,\~-+'-;-;-1=-+--t

~ I---~-b-~~~"~- I--PH-+9 __ 5-+~

Cii 2.0 \ \-\

e:::: 'i',_

I:: \~, \

~1'0~~,. §§

P::

~ "~' l

~ 0,5 \, "

O.4I---b-I---+--I--+-"~,-'-c,, ,+~

0,3f---+-+--+-t---t-'~t---1

-',

',' ...

O,lL---+_+--+_+--+_+--I

o 3D 60 90 120 150 180 210

OP!RA TING PRESSURE

R£COl\lMENDEO MAXIMUM SILICA aJNCENJRJlHDN IN BOILER WATE'R AT VAlUOUS pH TO UMn SILICA IN Sl£A"110 O.()'2 ppm

Fig.3.11.

40

d

Fig. 3.11. indicates the relation between operating pressure and silica In boiler water at different pH values to keep the silica carryover within O.02ppm.

The phosphate dozing maintain the pH value which controls the silica carry over.

It may be noted that any excess pH value more than recommended results in free caustic deposits in boiler tubes causing gauging type of attack called caustic embrittlement in boiler tubes.

3.2 CONSTRUCTION AND LOCATION

The boiler drum is a.heavy wall pressure' vessel having hemispherical ends. (Fig.3~12.) The drum will have a hollow cylindrical centre section, which is welded at each end with hemispherical heads. The cylindrical section is made up of two tube plates which are rolled or pressed and welded together longitudinally to from the cylindrical section. In some cases where the length of the drum is to be very large the cylindrical portion will be made of more than one section called courses and all the courses welded together. (Fig.3.B.)

Fig.3.12

HEMISPHERICAL HEAD

0)

DRUM WITH THREE COURSES

Fig.3.13.

41

_L__

Once the cylindrical shell is fabricated, a number of holes will be drilled or oxy-gas cut. Nozzlesand nipples/stubs are welded to these holes. Once the drum is erected at the site various

DRUM WITH STUBS AND NOZ21.ES FOR VARIOUS CONl'tECTlDf'IS

Fig.3.14.

pipe/tube connections to the drum are welded to these nozzles and stubs. Fig.3.14. shows the drum welded with stubs. Also at the hemispherical ends, holes will be cut for facilitating entry into drum for inspection. These holes will be covered with elliptical inspection doors.

For very large capacity boilers where more holes need to be drilled to connect more number of pipes to the drum, the cylindrical section is made of a thick plate (called tube sheet) and a comparatively thin plate (called wrapper sheet). The tube sheet is designed to with stand the specified pressure and temperature as well as the necessary additional reinforcement to compensate for the weakening effect of the multiple holes drilled for the stub attachments. The wrapper sheet is designed to with stand the same pressure and temperature parameters but where openings are required for nozzles, the extra strength or reinforcement is provided by extra thickness in the nozzle forging. This type of drum design provides the most economical use of material. Fig.3.15. shows a bi-thickness drum wall.

42

The boiler drum is generally made of carbon steel confirming to ASME specifications SA 299 orSA 515-70. Typical Physical dimensions of a boiler drum used in a 210MW Boiler (700 TIHR steam flow) are Length

Internal Diameter Wall thickness

Weight

81 THIClCNE5S DRUM

Fig.3.15.

15700 mm 1676 mm

131 mm

123 Tonnes

DRUM HANGING FROM U RODS Fig.3.16.

43

As shown in Fig. 3.16. the. boiler drum is located at the top of the boiler. The higher elevation at which the drum is located provides the necessary head for circulation and facilitates the natural circulation in the evaporating tubes of the boiler. The boiler drum is hanging just below the main girder steel by means of huge If-bolts or Ll-Rods and bolts and nuts that encircles the drum.

3.3 CONNECTIONS TO BOILER DRUM

The boiler drum is connected with number of pipelines. The connections to the boiler drum are grouped under

i) Main connections

ii) Auxiliary connections

3.3.1 MAIN CONNECTIONS

The main connections to the boiler drum are indicated in the Fig. 3.17.

Fig.3.17.

They are

i) Feed lines

ii) Down comers

iii) Up risers

IV) Super heater supply tubes

· '3.3.1.1. FEED LINES

The feed water from the economiser outlet_ headers is brought through the feed lines, _ which are. connected to the feed nozzles mounted on one sideof the drum. The feed nozzles in tum are connected to the feed header provided inside the drum. As such the feed lines connected

to the drum supply feed water into the drum. .

-. -:"

3.3.1~2 DOWN COMER

The Down comer pipes are connected to the bottom of the drum. The water from the drum is circulated to the evaporating tubes through the down comers, which are kept external to the heating zone of the boiler. The number of down comers varies with 'the size, design, type etc of the boiler.

3.3.1.3 UPRISERS

The water steam mixture formed inside the evaporating tubes is collected in the top headers. From the top headers the water-steam mixture is brought to the boiler drum through up risers. Up risers are connected to one side of the boiler drum opposite to the side where feed lines are.connected,

3.3.1.4 SUPER HEATER SUPPLY TUBES

These are the tubes connected at the top of the boiler drum. The dry saturated steam separated inside the boiler drum is taken to the super heater section of the boiler through these

tubes. '

3.3.2 AUXILIARY CONNECTIONS

In addition to the above four main connections, a number of other lines are also connected to the drum to derive all its functions and also to ensure the safety of the drum. The important auxiliary connections to the Drum are

i) Blow Down lines

ii) Chemical dozing Jines

iii) Instrumentation tapings

i v) Air vents

v) Safety valves

vi) Nitrogen filling line

vii) High & low level trips

Fig. 3.] 8. shows the auxiliary connection to Boiler drum

45

AUXILIARY CONNECTIONS TO BOILER DRUM

Fig.3.1S.

3.3.2.1 BLOW DOWN LINES

Separate CBD & EBD lines are connected to the respective nozzles mounted on the drum to drain the water from the drum for the reasons already explained under 3.1.2.These Jines are provided with suitable control valves to regulate the flow. Since the pressure and temperature of the water drained is at drum conditions: to recover part of the heal and water from the CBD and also to discharge the drain safely. the Blow down expanders (Flash tanks) are used.

As seen in Fig.3.19. the CBD line from the drum is connected to the ·CBD expander where the water flashes into steam at a lower pressure. The vent of this expander is connected to the de-aerator so the steam from the expander enters back to the cycle. The water collected in this expander is drained to another expander called 1.B.D. expander which also receives drains from other boiler parts such as bottom header drains: super-beater drains: re-heater drains etc. The flash steam at the IBD expander is vented to atmosphere at a sufficient height and the drain is let into the station drainage. Both C.B.D and J.B.D expanders will have make up lines to maintain water level and so the pressure

There will also be a provision to let the eBO directly to I.B.D. expander. This provision will be used only when silica in boiler water goes very high to prevent the re-entry of silica into the feed water.

L

VENT TO

ATMOSPHERE /">

\DRUM I

DRAIN TO ATMOSPHERE

VENr 10 DEIlERA-OR

CBD EXPANDER

IBD EXPANDER

CBD CONNECTION

Fig.3.19.

3.3.2.2. CHEMICAL DOZING LINE

This connection is made to the chemical dozing nozzle on the drum to doze trisodium phosphate or any other chemical solution to the drum. The chemical is supplied to this line by a high-pressure chemical dozing pump, which will normally be a reciprocating type.

3.3.2.3 INSTRUMENTATION TAPPINGS

DUling the operation of boiler it is essential to monitor a number of parameters at the boiler drum. To facilitate this, tapings from the drum are taken for the following instruments.

i) Pressure Gauges

ii) Drum mounted Gauge Glass to read water level

iii) Remote water level indicator

47

IV) Conductivity. measurement

v) Drum metal temperature

3.3.2.4 AIR VENTS

Vent pipes fitted with valves and open to atmosphere are mounted on the top of the drum.

The vents are required to evacuate the air while filling water in the drum and to kill the vacuum developing in drum during the boiler shutdown due to the condensing of steam in drum.

3.3.2.5 SAFETY VALVES

The drum is designed to withstand the operating pressure plus usual safety margin but during operation due to many factors there is a possibility of the drum pressure exceeding this limit. To prevent drum explosion by such excessive pressures, the drum must be provided with spring loaded safety valves. These valves open automatically when the drum pressure increases more than the set pressure of the valve by the action of steam itself without any operator interference and relieve the excess pressure. Normally the drum safelyvalves are set to open when the drum pressure exceeds 10% of operating pressure.

3.3.2.6 NITROGEN FILLING LINE

This line is connected to the drum to charge nitrogen into the drum when the boiler is under shutdown for preservation purposes.

3.3.2.7 HIGH & LOW LEVEL TRIPS

Operating boiler with extreme levels of water in the drum either above or below the norma] water level is highly dangerous. The very high level leads to carryover of water by steam and its subsequent damages in super-heater and turbine. The very low level results starvation of evaporator tubes and their ultimate failure. Hence when the water level touches these extreme limits, all boiler fires are to be extinguished to avoid any damage to the equipment. These high and low-level trip tapings from drum provides the necessary impulses to the control system to stop all boiler fires.

3.4 DRUM INTERNALS

lnside the boiler drum a number of fittings are installed to carryout various functions.

These components as listed below are termed as drum internals

i) Feed header

ii) Anti Vortex spider or Vortex inhibitors

iii) Steam separators

48

IV) Steam Dryers or Scrubbers

V) C.B.D. Line

vi) E.B.D. Line

vii) Chemical dozing line

Fig. 3.20 and 3.21. show the arrangement of drum internals in a drum with centrifugal 'steam separation and gravity steam separation respectively.

DRUM INTERNAls fOR CEt:ITRIFUGAL SEPARA TlOl'I

Fig.3 . .20.

49

Fig3.21.

3.4.1. FEED HEADER

This is a pipe located near to the _ bottom of the drum running along the length of the drum. This header is internally connected to the feed nozzles receiving feed water from the economiser. This pipe is having series of holes along its length through which the water enters the drum. Fig_3_22_ shows the arrangement of feed header inside the

FEE:D· DIS.TRi'BUTl·

FEED HEADER ARRANGEMENT INSIDE THE DRUM

Fig.3.22

50

L

~- -

I drum, The feed header is arranged in such a manner that it will be submerged in the drum water

but the cold water discharged by it will not directlyhit against the bare drum shell as temperature variations can cause severe thermal stress in the thick drum shell, This arrangement also facilitates effective mixing of feed water from economiser with the water separated from steam water mixture at the separators of the drum.

3.4.2. ANTI VORTEX SPIDER

The water entry from cylindrical boiler drum to the down comers connected at the bottom leads to the formation of the bath tub vortex at the inlet. This vortex may cause drawl of steam into down comer and ultimate water hammering. To prevent this vortex formation anti vortex' spiders or vortex inhibitors; usually in the form of a cruciform are located at the down comer inlet.

3.4.3. STEAM SEPARA TORS

In drums where only gravitational forces do steam separation, the baffles as shown In Fig.3.21. deflect or change direction of flow of steam water mixture thereby separates the steam, as earlier explained. Even in drums where separation is done by centrifugal force a baffle calf~d girth baffle is installed inside the drum as shown in Fig.3.23.The girth baffle forms a chamber inside the drum which receives the steam water mixture from the riser tubes and "distribute to the ,I

steam separators.

GIRTH BAFfLE INSIDE THE DRUM

Fig.3.23.

For centrifugal separation the drum is provided with Turbo separators or cyclone separators. Fig.3.24. shows a typical Turbo separator. This separator is in two parts.

a. Primary separator

b. Secondary separator

51

Fig~3.24.

Two concentric cylinders form the Primary separator with a annular gap between them.

A spinner blade section is installed at the centre of the inner cylinder. The water-steam mixture from the separating chamber is guided into the inner cylinder of the primary separator. As the mixture passes through the spinner blades the mixture is imparted with centrifugal forces. This results in the higher density water flowing upward along the inner surface of the cylinder with steam at the core. At the top of the primary separator the mixture is deflected side wards by the secondary separator leading to the water skimmed off and directed downward through the annular gap below the water level of the drum.

The secondary separator consists of closely packed corrugated sheets. When the steam from the primary separator passes through these corrugated sheets any left out water particle in the steam is held on the sheets due to the density and surface tension. The water particles collected on the plates of secondary separator sheets then flow down.

3.4.4. DRYERS OR SCRUBBERS.

Dryers are located inside the drum just at the steam outlet of the drum 10 arrest any residual moisture present in the steam. Either a series of corrugated plates or crimped wire mesh generally forms them.

3.4.5. CB.D LINE

This is a pipeline with perforations running along the length of the drum and will be submerged in water level of the drum. A centre pipe connects this CBD line to CBD nozzle. It is so located to minimise the occlusion of feed water and chemical feed

52

__ L

E.B.D. LINE -

This is a pipe line inside the drum with the inlet to this pipe is at the Normal water level of the drum. This line is connected to the EBD nozzle of the drum which in tum is connected to the I.B~D. Expander.

3.4.7. CHEMICAL DOZING LINE

This is another pipe like CBn line, with perforations running along the length of the drum and will be submerged in water level of the drum. Another pipe will connect the chemical dozing nozzle to the centre of the chemical dozing pipe so that the chemical can be dozed into the water along the full length of the drum for uniform mixing. This chemical dozing line will be so located that it will.not be closer to the CBD line to avoid the chemical dozed into the drum directly draining through the C.B.D.

4.0. WATER WALL SYSTEM

Any boiler needs primarily an evaporating surface for the conversion of water into stearn.

In the early periods of boiler development the evaporating surfaces are formed by placing many coils of tubes or tube banks across the flow path of the hot gases from the furnace and circulating water through these tubes. With the need for increase in steaming capacity of boilers and to minimise the furnace heat losses by radiation, in modern boilers the evaporating surface is made of water walls, which form the major part, if not all, of the furnace enclosure. The water walls are tube panels through which the water for steam generation will be circulated. In the water wall only heat is added to evaporate the feed water to steam. Boiler with water walled furnace is shown in Fig.3.25.

53

SUPER HEATER

REHEATER

BOILER WITH WATERWALLED FURNACE

Fig.3.25.

4.1 ADVANTAGES OF WATER WALLED FURNACE

A boiler with water walled furnace has many advantages compared to furnace of any other type.

The major advantages of water walled furnaces are:

i) In furnace not only combustion but also heat transfer is taking place simultaneously.

ii) The maintenance work involved in repairing the firebricks (which is otherwise necessary) is completely eliminated ..

iii) Due to heat transfer in the furnace, temperature of the flue gas leaving the furnace is reduced to the acceptable level of the superheating surfaces.

iv) Higher heat loading in the furnace is possible, as heat is being simultaneously removed by heat transfer, and hence economy in surfacing.

v) Providing a Gas tight seal to the combustion chamber to prevent air infiltration.

S4

TUllE PANELS

The water wall system ofa boiler is erected by assembling number of tube panels. The . panels are arranged vertically and the tubes are. welded to the stub ends of headers at the top and ., bottom. - The stubs are welded to the headers at works. Headers are used for convenience in construction and . also serve to reduce the number of tube openings into the drum. In low capacity, low-pressure boilers; the tubes areexpanded into the headers.

The tube panel construction can be either tangent tube wall construction or membrane wall construction.

4.2.1. TANGENT TUBE WALL

Closely pitched tubes form the panel and some times a tube of smaller diameter is placed in between two larger diameter tubes, which touch each other. The adjacent tubes are welded together to form the panel as shown in Fig.3.26..The wall will be backed by firebricks or moldable refractory. The construction of furnace wall with tangent tubes is shown in Fig.3.27.

60 mm AND 70 mm TUBES ON 75 mm CENTRES

fURNACE TUBE EXPANSION

WELDED TO ALTERNATE TUBES

TANGENT TUBE PANEL

Fig.3.26.

"5

FURMCE WITH TANGENT~n. PANEL

Fig.3.27.

4.2.2 MEMBRANE WALL

In this type therubes are welded together by means of flats (metal strips) approximately 12 mm wide as shown in Fig.3.28 .. This type of construction enables furnace walJ .tube panels to be prefabricated in a factory and facilitate the erection of the wall at site as shown in Fig.3.29 .. With membrane wall construction the furnace walls are airtight. The membrane walls will be insulated at the non firing side by mineraJ wool blankets and covered by metal lagging called skin casing.

56

--------------------- --

~
~
r- ..
r- ::: ~ :---
~ ... r- l"- I-- :"";:: ~-
r- roo ... :""
-. :- :"" I--r
.. 1""1"- ,..
r
......
a

- PRE FABRICATED WAll PANEl

Fig.3.28.

Fig3.29.

4.3. WATER WALL FURNACE CONSTRUCTION

Assembling prefabricated tube panels, either tangent, membrane or combination forms the furnace enclosure of any desired shape. In oil or gas fired boilers of lower capacity, the water wall panels cover all tbe four sides as wen as the roof and floor with a opening on only one side for the gases to go out of the furnace as shown in Fig.3.30.

57

Fig.3.30.

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01' n"'OCACZ' IIIIJQr TIlI&l I'Nll1.3

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:..:. F" .... l..L ~~ I:)J.tltt~ flo..'i:1" 1!~~'C~~QlIoI

In case of pulverised coal fired boilers there is a need to keep the bottom of the furnace open for the disposal of ash. A typical water wall furnace of a 210 MW coal fired two pass, natural circulation boiler is shown in Fig.3.3J. Here the right and left side

panels extend vertically from the bottom header to the top headers without any bends. The front and rear wall panels are sloped towards {he inside of the furnace at the bottom and then bent outwards for connection to bottom headers. This arrangement reduces the opening area at the furnace bottom to minimise the heat radiation losses through the bottom of the furnace. The sloping angle is maintained to facilitate the smooth sliding of the ash over the panels without any build-up. The front wall panel tubes extend up to the top header. which is perpendicular to the right and left top headers. The rear Willi panel tubes are bent at the top In such a manner to form an arch at the furnace top and extend

58

l

WATER WALLED fURNACE II PASS BOllER Fig.3.31.

outwards to provide a flow path for the gases from the furnace. These panels are then bent vertically before the tubes are connected to a top header. In this vertical section the tubes run independently with a gap between adjacent tubes for the flow of gases. Few end tubes on the rear wall panel both at right and left side are terminated at headers located at the furnace arch location. These headers are located at right angle to the rear wall. Tube panels are connected to both of these headers which terminate at corresponding top headers. These connections provide side walls for the extended section of the rear wall panel, All the top headers in tum are connected to boiler drum through IllP riser tubes. In this type of water walled furnace construction the roof of the furnace is formed by tube panels, which are part of super heater sections.

In single pass (Tower type) boiler the entire pass, i.e. enclosure for furnace as well as other convective surfaces (super heaters, re-heaters and economiser) is formed by water wall panels.(Fig3 . .32). Through the tube pitching in the furnace zone will be almost same as that of two pass boilers, in the convective zone the pitching of tubes will be increased to have less water wall heat transfer area. This 1S achieved by either

59

WAIER WAll. ... AlIIEL mR lUY<i'lR IYP( lJOlUR

Fig.3.32

60

L.

terminating alternate tubes of the panel at intermediate headers located at the top of furnace zone which in turn are connected to drum or making inverted 'Y' joints at appropriate height. -

The water wall panels will be provided with openings for mounting burners, soot blowers, instrument tapings, peephole doors, manhole doors etc. The openings are formed by cutting sections from the panel and then welding a prefabricated bent-tube assembly back into the opening to permit steam or water flow to continue through the panel but in a path that provides the required opening as shown in Fig.3.33. Openings equal in width to one or two tube diameters are made by cold distortion of tubes.

Fig.3.33.

Either with tangent tube or membrane wall design, the entire boiler casing and insulation is suspended from the boiler house building structure or boiler columns. The structural strength of all pressure parts IS fully used. (he larger pressure pans support smaller ones. The lubes are welded to headers and the headers are supported by the structural members through constant load hangers and tie rods (Fig 3.34.) This type of supporting arrangement. known as top support. JS invariably deployed in all coal-fired boilers to facilitate locating the bottom ash hoppers below the furnace.

(11

SUPPORTS FOR HEADERS Fig.3.34.

In small capacity oil or gas fired boilers where there is no ash collection, bottom support of the furnace is also adopted.

The water wall tubes are necessarily to be placed vertical in case of natural and assisted circulation boilers to provide an easy upward path for the water and steam mixture to flow through. As such need is not there in case of once through or forced circulation boiler. the tubes may be arranged in almost any pattern provided that each water circuit absorbs its correct proportion of the heat available and that differentia] expansion between adjacent tubes are kept to an absolute minimum. In such boilers the tubes may be horizontal with inclined connections at the edges. A typical such arrangement is shown in Fig.3.35.

62

TUBE ARRANGEMENT IN ONCE THROUGH/SUPER CRITICAL BOILER

Fig.3.35.

4.4. TUBE MATERIAL

It is the general practice of the boiler manufactures to use carbon steel especially low carbon steel for the water wall tubes as the tube metal temperature normally will be within 400°C. However some prefer to use Y2 % molybdenum steel also for water wall tubes to have better stress value.

4.5 EXPANSION AND SEALING

The provision f0i' free expansion for all parts of the boiler is important but in the case of furnace water wall tubes it is vital. Since the boiler is suspended from the boiler house steelwork the expansion is wholly in downward direction. On a typical 210MW & 500 MW boilers the total expansion from cold to full load can be as great as 220 and 340 mm respectively. As any restriction to free expansion of the water wall tubes will induce stresses in the tubes and their ultimate failure sufficient spacing will be provided in the bottom of the furnace to allow free expansion of the water wall system.

63

L

Since a significant suction (upto - 20mm we) is present at the bottom of the furnace during normal operation it is obviously imperative that a sealing arrangement is provided to prevent the ingress of unmetered excess air into the furnace.

, ','

SEAlING BOX

FURfljACf WATfR SEAL

Fig.3..36.

These seals normally consist of water filled trough attached to the ash hopper, which itself is rigidly mounted on the boiler house basement tloor. A dipper plate is secured to the bottom of the furnace water walls and when the boiler is cold, part of this plate is immersed in the water, As the boiler warms up, downward expansion of the water walls cause the plates further submerged until. at full load their bottom edges are well below the surface of water. As the water in this seal trough is exposed to furnace radiation, it will evaporate and the sealing will be lost. To prevent this there wil1 be a continuous flow of water to the seal trough and the water from the seal trough will be drained to the bottom ash hopper. Screen plates also will be welded to the water wall section parallel to seal plate but outside the seal trough to prevent the slag/ash particles falling into the seal trough. A typical furnace water wall seal arrangement is shown in Fig.3.36.

64

4.6 BUCKSTAYS AND FURNACE GUIDES.

As the water wall tubes are welded to only bottom and top headers which are kept far apart (about 50 m) to provide rigidity to the water wall system, on all four sides at different elevations beams called buck stays are attached on the non firing side of the water wall panels. These buck stays keep the walls from bowing inward or outward (Fig.3.37.)

BUO::STAY BEAM

BUCJ:STAY 5UPPOR T fOR WA TfRWALL TUllES

Fig.3.37.

Since the buck stays are outside the insulation special corner connections are required that will allow the walls 10 expand and at the same time tie together the corners where the force of an explosion is concentrated. These corner connections must be tight during starting up periods when the walls have not fully expanded as well at the normal operating fully expanded position.

The tube span between the buck stays acts as a beam to resist the internal furnace pressure. The larger the tube diameter and heavier the tube wall the farther apart the buck stays may be spaced. The location of buck stay beams in a 2] OMW boiler is shown in Fig.3.38.

65

-------------------

LOCATION OF BUCKSl"AY BEAMS rN A 210 MW BOllER

Fig.3.38.

The water wall system is subject to many forces such as furnace operating pressure, wind, furnace puffing, seismic disturbances etc. All these forces must be suitably absorbed and transferred to the boiler structure and foundation.

Pair of I section beams called furnace guides are welded perpendicular to buck stay beams in such a manner that there will be a structural member in between two furnace guides. There will be a small gap between the guide and structural member when the downward expansion of water wan system takes place. Any force acting 011 the water wall system is transmitted to the structural member through the furnace guides. The arrangement of furnace guides is shown in Fig.3.39.

FURNACE GUIDES

Fig.3.39.

66

SUPERHEATERS

REQUIREMENT

Super heaters are provided in the boiler to raise the steam temperature above the saturation temperature by absorbing heat from flue gas. Use of superheated steam by a steam turbine brings in number of advantages.

~

+:L~~--'----r-"""-r-'-...,.........,---,-__' - ."'1'~.'"i

,

~fC.lfo'.r:: ('~1~1,)i-'1 'I ~ 1'..~:1'4~'

RANKINI (VClE WITH SUPER HEAT

'l' ~ ~ "

~'r.;ji'1': ~.i1'lr.J!V"]~~ ~

E~311'I(REA5EIN HEAT RECOVERV DUE 110 stlJ'fR .HfAT AI'IO RE HEAT

RANKINE CYCLE WITH SUPER HEAT AI'IO Rf HEAT

Fig.3.40.

i) By increasing the temperature of the steam, the useful energy that can be recovered economically increases thus the efficiency of the cycle also as can be seen in Fig.3.40.

ii) Superheating of steam eliminates the condensation of steam during transporting of steam in pipelines and inside the early stages of turbines which is harmful to the turbine blades and pipe lines.

iii) Limits the work done by turbine stages to avoid excessive erosion of blades

For every 3SoC of superheat above saturation temperature, the heat gain in station heat rate is approximately 3%

5.2 SUPERHEAT TEMPERA TURE LIMIT A TIONS

Though thermodynamically there is no limit on superheating steam, the maximum temperature to which steam can be healed in a boiler is dictated by the metallurgy of the super heater tubes, which have to withstand the high temperature. Considering availability, economy in initial cost and maintenance cost generally ferrite, pearlite and very limited amount of austenite steels only can be chosen for super heater and reheater tubes. Because of this reason the present trend is to limit the steam temperature value at 540°C both in super heater as well in

L

67

reheater. However in some designs the super heated steam temperature is maintained upto 570°C.

5.3 TYPES OF SUPERHEATERS

The superheaters are classified according to the mode by which they receive heat, according to the position of their headers and shape of the tube banks etc.

5.3.1 CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO MODE OF HEAT TRANSFER

The super heaters are classified into

i) Radiant superheaters

ii) Convective super heater

Radiant superheaters are placed above the furnace in the boilers and they view the flame directly. Radiant superheaters receive bulk of their heat through radiation. As the heat transfer by radiation is proportional to fourth power of temperature of source and the furnace temperature does not increase in direct proportion to boiler output but at a considerably lesser rate, the temperature of steam from radiant super heater drops downward with increase in boiler output as shown in Fig.3.41. As the radiant superheaters are located at high temperature region they are widely pitched to reduce the velocity of gas and the bridging of the surface by ash.

FINAL STEAM lEMP

>-
c..:
-c
t:t::
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40

60

STEAM OUTPUT, ,,/.,

100

80

SUPIR HEAT STEAM T'EMPER"luRE ttiARAClf:R1Sl1CS

Fig.3.41.

68

L

The sections of superheaters located in other zones of the boiler receive heat by convection and so called convective superheaters. Since convection heat transfer rates are almost a direct function of boiler output, the steam temperature from convective super heater increases with increase in boiler output as shown in Fig.3Al.

The radiant and convective superheaters have opposite temperature Characteristics against the boiler output but the turbine demands a constant temperature of steam. Hence boilers will be provided with both radiant and convective superheaters. Combination of these two will give a flat superheat temperature curve over wide ranges in load as indicated in Fig.3.41.

5.3.2. CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO POSITION AND SHAPE

Any super heater consists of inlet and outlet headers between which are connected small diameter tubes.

With regard to the tube bank shape the superheaters may be of the platen or pendant type as in Fig.3.42. hanging from and supported by these headers. These are also called as Vertical super heaters.

/ / /

/ / liASfLOW

/

:/

VERTCAl5UPER HEATER

Fig.3.42.

69

Super heaters may be horizontal type with tubes arranged across the boiler as shown in Fig.3.43.

HORIZONT AL SUPER HEATER

Fig.3.43.

Super heaters also can be arranged in 'L' shape across the flue gas path as shown in Fig.3.44_

Si(,.:,; .... , :~~- :..!\C c~r,"E'1' t--E:.;..e,c~'=,

'L- SHAFED SU!'EFr-'EATE:;'

Fig.3.44.

70

l

DRAINABLE AND NON-DRAINABLE SUPERHEATERS

During shut down of the boiler, the entrapped steam in super heater tubes condenses during cooling. If this condensate is removed prior to the starting of the boiler, in the subsequent start-up the steam temperature can be raised at a faster rate. Otherwise this condensate has to be heated, evaporated and driven out through the vents only, which will delay the temperature rise of steam. The horizontal and 'L' shaped superheaters are known as Drainable super heater as the condensate collected :in the tubes can be drained through headers by gravity. The vertical superheaters are Non Drainable type.

5.3.4 CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO TYPE OF HEAT TRANSFER

The heating surfaces of super heater tubes can be placed in such a way that the flow direction of flue gas and steam can be either parallel or opposite to each other. These arrangements are respectively termed as

i)

Parallel flow super heaters

Ii)

Counter flow super heaters

STEAMFLOW

PRALLEL FLOW S.H.

Fig.3.45.a.

71

GAS FLOW

STEAMFLOW COUNTER FLOW S.H.

Fig.3.45.b.

Fig.3.45. a. and b.shows the above arrangements. Counter flow arrangement has the advantage of minimum surface for a given steam flow and temperature rise compared to parallel flow arrangement. Though the counter flow heat transfer is efficient the metal temperature at the steam leaving section is quite high compared to parallel now. Hence in boilers the counter flow is used in most of the super heater sections (Initial & Intermediate) but the final sections of super heaters where the metal temperature limitation calls for parallel flow.

5.4 RELATIONSHIPS IN SUPERHEATER DESIGN

A number of related factors are to be considered ill design of superheaters for a boiler.

The essential factors are

i) the steam temperature desired

ii) the super heater surface area required

iii) the rate of steam flow through the tubes (mass flow)

iv) the material best suited for the super heater tubes

v) the gas temperature zones where the surfaces are to be located

vi) the arrangement of surfaces to meet the characteristics of the fuel to be used with specific reference to the spacing of tubes

72

STEAM TEMPERATURE

The superheat steam temperature is based on the necessities of a particular application and economics on initial cost and upkeep cost for a trouble free operation. However the maximum superheat temperature is limited by metallurgical reasons as explained earlier.

5.4.2. SURFACE AREA

The surface area required for super heaters depends on the temperature required and also on the other four factors. Since there is no single correlation the amount of surface will be detennined by trial locating it in a zone of gas temperature that is more likely satisfactory and decide other factors such as mass flow, material, spacing etc. If this trial results do not show the best arrangement of all the parts, then additional trial arrangements will be made to obtain an optimum combination, which will

i) Require an alloy of lesser cost.

ii) Give a minimum pressure drop without increasing tube metal temperature

iii) Give a high mass flow to keep metal temperature low

IV) Give a different spacing of tubes, which will provide more protection against the ash accumulation with uncertain types of fuel.

v) Permit closer spacing of tubes thereby making a more economical arrangement for a fuel supply that is known to be favorable.

vi) Give an arrangement of tubes, which will reduce the draught loss.

vii) Permit the super heater surface be located in a zone of higher temperature, with a consequent saving in surface that will compensate for a deviation from standard arrangement.

5.4.3 MASS FLOW

If the steam mass flow through the super heater tube is higher than necessary for adequate safety, the steam pressure loss across the tubes will be more, which will bring down the efficiency. On the other hand lesser mass flow will cause high tube metal temperature. Hence the tube diameters will be decided to maintain an optimum condition wherein the pressure drop through the Super heater will not be more than ] 0% of the boiler operating pressure and the steam film temperature drop, between the inside of the tube and the steam flowing within it is not more than 38°C.

5.4.4 MA TERJAL

Oxidation resistance, maximum allowable stress and economics determine the choice of materials for superheaters and re-heater tubes. The use of carbon steel is extended as far as these considerations permit and beyond this point carefully selected alloy steels are used. For economic consideration in a boiler, the entire super heater section will not be formed by a same material but of different material based on the metal temperature reached in a zone. The common alloy steels for super heater and reheater application are shown in the following Table.

73

MATERIALS USED FOR SUPER HEATER TUBES

ASMECODE NOMINAL COMPOSIT TEMP.LIMIT Uc
SA 213 CARBON STEEL 450
SA 213 TI C-1/2 Mo. 470
SA 213 TIl 1114 Cr. -112 Mo. 550
SA 213 Tn 2114 Cr.-l Mo. 580
SA 213 T9 9 Cr.-1 Mo. 635
SA 213 TP 304 H 18 Cr.-8 Ni. 705
SA 213 TP 347 H 18 Cr.-IO Ni. 705
SA 213 TP 316 H 16 Cr.-12 Ni.-2 Mo. 705 S.4.5 SPACING

Spacing of the individual tubes is determined by first cost, permissible draft loss and cost of cleaning to give maximum economy. The rate of ash deposit and subsequent bridging of the tubes by soot is another main consideration. Generally a spacing of 24mm between tubes traverse to gas flow, as with 48mm diameter tubes on 72mm centres is adequate for most fuels when the gas temperature is less than 81SoC. Above this temperature more spacing will be required to avoid the bridging of slag or fused ash residues.

5.5 ARRANGEMENT OF SUPERHEA TERS

The number of stages of super heaters and their disposition inside the boiler setting differs from design to design and also on the capacity of the boiler. The general trend is to limit the stages to three to keep the cost on headers, connecting piping and de-super-heaters minimum. Generally in medium to large capacity power boilers the saturated steam from the drum will be taken first to a low temperature super heater also called primary super healer. This will be located in a comparatively low gas temperature zone just before the econorniser in the boiler setting. After the LTSH the steam will be passed through a platen super heater (which will be radiant type) and a final super heater (may be convective or radiant). In some designs the second pass of the boiler setting as well the ceiling of the boiler are constructed by tube panels which also form part of super heater. The steam from drum will be passed through these ceiling and second pass wall sections before admission to LTSH.

The connection between the outlet header of one super heater section and the inlet header of the subsequent section is done cross wise as shown in Fig.).46.so that steam flowing in the left side in the gas path in one super heater will flow in the fight side in the gas path in the other super heater. This arrangement facilitates equalising of steam temperature even with certain amount of non-uniform gas flow between left and right side.

74

." """"""'I"""1l

SUPER HEATER TRANSPOSITION

Fig,3.46

Fig.3,47.shows the arrangement of super heaters and re heaters and flow path of superheat and reheat steam in different types of boilers commonly found in Indian Power stations.

5.6 SAFETY VALVES & AIR VENTS

Like boiler drum the super heater sections also will be provided with spring loaded safety valves and air vents. Though air vents will be located at number of super heater headers for venting out air and wei steam at the boiler start and to allow air to prevent vacuum build-up during boiler shut down. the safety valves will be located only at the final super heater out let. The opening set pressme of the super heater safety valves will be maintained lower than the drum safety valve opening set pressure. This will ensure adequate steam flow through super heater tubes in case of opening of safety valve clue to pressure exertion and avoid starvation of super heater tubes.

---

75

LOCATION OF S.H AND R.H. IN TWO PASS BOILER

Fig.3.47.

S.H AND R.H.JN TOWER TYPE BOILER

76

RE-HEATERS

6.1 REQUIREMENT

Development of large capacity steam turbines with more number of stages posed a problem of retaining the steam within vapour phase till the last stage. It is because even with a larger steam turbine the inlet steam temperature is kept at 540°C only due to the super heater limitations. To overcome this problem it becomes necessary to raise the temperature of steam after part of the energy is extracted from it in the steam turbine. This is called as re heating of steam which increases the cycle efficiency. This re heating of the steam is done in the boiler, which supplies super heated steam to the turbine, itself at the heating surfaces called Re-heaters.

Though the cycle efficiency increases with number of stages of re-heating, it requires additional equipment and so additional investment, complexity in operation and reduced availability of such system. This offsets the efficiency gain of the system and hence normally a single reheat can be economically applied only for capacity above 100 MW and two re-heat for capacity above 500 MW. The reheat steam flow path in a typical 2l0MW unit is shown in

Fig.3.48. .

Fjg.3.48.

6.2 ARRANGEMENT

All the considerations governing super heaters are also applicable to re heaters to the same degree as principally re-heaters also increase the temperature of steam.

However the pressure drop in re heaters is critical because the gain in heat rate with the reheat cycle can be completely nullified by too great a decrease in pressure. For this reason most

77

of the re-heater surfaces are placed in hotter zone so that the surface requirement is kept minimum to reduce the pressure drop in steam.

Fig.3.49. indicates the location of re heaters with reference to superheaters in a typical boiler.

RE HEATER

HEATER

LOCATION Of RE HEATER

Fig.3.49.

As in the re-heaters the steam pressure will be lower and so the specific volume is more, the reheater tubes have higher diameter and lesser wall thickness compared to super heater tubes.

7.0 STEAM TEMPERA TURE CONTROL

The use of super heat and re-heat with ever higher steam temperature is the constant effort to increase efficiency in power generation, makes accurate regulation of steam temperature vital to successful operation. Various operating factors of boiler either increase or decrease the steam temperature. A drop in about 7°e. can mean a change of 0.25 to 0.75% in heat rate and any increase in temperature will lead to failure of over heated parts of the super heater. re heater or turbine. These calls for a accurate regulation of steam temperature both super heat and re heal.

78

EFFECT OF OPERATING VARIABLES ON STEAM TEMPERATURE

Many operating variables of the boiler affect steam temperature. The most important of which are

i) Load

ii) Excess air

iii) Feed water temperature

iv) Use of saturated steam

v) Blow down

vi) Burner Operation

vii) Heating Surface Cleanliness

viii) Fuel

To maintain constant steam temperature, means must be provided to compensate for the effect of such variables.

7.1.1. LOAD

As the load increases, both the gas temperature and the weight of gas increase. As discussed earlier in 5.3.1. in convective super heaters, the steam temperature increases with increasing load and in radiant superheaters, the steam temperature decreases with increasing load. Though in a boiler convection and radiation super heaters are provided in series to maintain constant temperature over a considerable range of load, unless they are very precisely proportioned (which is difficult to achieve considering other factors) the steam temperature from the combined super heater wi1l vary with change in load.

7.1.2 EXCESS AIR

For a change in the amount of excess air entering at the burner there is a corresponding change in the quantity of gas flowing over a convective super heater and therefore an increase in excess air tends to raise the temperature.

7.1.3 FEED WATER TEMPERATURE

Increase in feed water temperature causes a reduction in superheat, since for a given steam flow, less fuel is fired and less gas passes over the super heater and vice versa.

7.1.4 USE OF SATURATED STEAM

If saturated steam from the boiler is used for soot blowers or for auxiliaries such as pumps and fans, an increased firing rate is required to maintain constant main steam output and this raises the steam temperature.

79

- ----------~---------------------------------------------------

7.1.5 BLOW DOWNS

The effect of blow down is similar to the use of saturated steam but in lesser degree because of the low enthalpy of water as compared with steam.

7.1.6 BURNER OPERATION

The distribution of heat input among burners at different positions/elevations or a change in the adjustment of burners will usually have an effect on steam temperature through changes in furnace heat absorption rate.

7.1.7 HEATING SURFACE CLEANLINESS

Removal of ash or slag deposits from heat absorbing surfaces ahead of the super heater will reduce gas temperature and steam temperature. Removal of deposits from super heater surface will increase super heater absorption and raise steam temperature out of the super heater. Also the build up of soot deposits on super heater tubes will lower the temperature of steam from that super heater.

7.1.8 FUEL

Variations in steam temperature may result from changing the type of fuel burned or from changes in the characteristics of a given fuel from time to time.

7.2 MEANS OF CONTROL OF STEAM TEMPERATURE

As many operating variables change the steam temperature both superheat and reheat to get the best performance from the turbine as well to prevent any overheating suitable means of steam temperature control are required. The various means available are

i) Separately fired super heater

ii) Excess Air

iii) Gas Recirculation

iv) Burner Selection

v) Tilting burners

vi) Atternperation

7.2.1. SEPARA TEL Y FIRED SUPERHEATER

A super heater completely separate from the steam generating unit and independently fired is not affected by the operation variables of the boi1er and regulating the firing in the furnace of the super heater controls the steam temperature. This arrangement is not economical for power generation, where a large quantity of high temperature steam is needed and its use is largely confined to process boilers. However in the recent days this concept is adopted in circulating fluidised bed combustion boilers where part of the super heater will be housed in independent fluidised Bed Heat Exchangers.

80

EXCESS AIR

Variation in the amount of excess air varies the furnace heat absorption and thereby changes the heat absorption in convective super heaters. But change in excess air quantity from optimum levels _ either result in partial combustion with less excess air or increased stack loss (Heat lost through chimney) with increased excess air. Hence this method of. control of steam temperature can at the: most be used either in emergent situations to bring down the steam temperature or during pan load operations to maintain the high steam temperature demanded by the turbine. Temperature control of steam under normal operation by changing excess airflow is not recommended. The effect of excess air on steam temperature is shown in Fig.3.50.

Fig.3.50.

81

7.2.3 GAS RECIRCULATION

One of the most attractive methods' of controlling super heat or .re heat, both from' economic and operational view points is gas re-circulation, In this method gas from the boiler economiser outlet is reintroduced either at the furnace bottom (Gas Re-circulation) or hear the furnace outlet (Gas Tempering) by means of a suitable fan and ducts, The re-circulated gas should be introduced into the furnace in such a manner as to avoid interference with the combustion of the fuel. The amount ofre-circulated gas is generally expressed as a percentage of the gas that remains after the point of take off of the re-circulated gas.

~W~~T-'--r~~----r-~~-r~

~

~ 11001--+-+-+--+--+--+-+-1

~ ~ HOI--lf--i

~

~ +io

~

l;

i

II. Hao~-t--;--i"~----f--I

~

~ zoo/) I--t---+ r-r:-:~r- ....

+40 -~- 1<
_J>
."
- 1'10

'" ..
0
~
0(
....
~ a
iii:
i -7tt
is
-40
I~ 20 l~ ~a rliJ a 10 30 (;AS TEMI'HING. ~!.

STEAM TEMPERATURE CONTROL BY GA.S TEMPERING

STEAM TEMPERATURE CONTROL BY GAS REClR(UlATJ(

Fig3.51.

Fig.3.52

Fig.3.S Land Fig.3.52. indicate the alteration in the heat absorption pattern in the various heat transfer surfaces of the boiler with the percentage of Gas re-circulated, Hence by suitably controlling the flow in Gas Re-circulation fan, the steam temperature can be precisely controlled.

The major disadvantage in this method is, the gas re-circulation fan has to handle high temperature dust laden gas. Any failure of the fan will result in outage of the boiler. As Indian coals have a high percentage of abrasive ash, this method of control is not generally preferred in Indian Power Stations.

81

BURNER SELECTION

It is often possible to regulate steam temperature by selective burner operation. Higher temperature may be obtained at less than full load by operating only the burners giving the highest furnace outlet temperature (ex .. top elevation burners). When lower steam temperatures are required firing may be shifted to other burners. However the application of this method is limited by the non-availability of all the burners all the time due to the maintenance schedules.

,7.2.5 BURNER TILTING

Regulation of steam temperature by changing the furnace absorption pattern can also be effected by the use of tiltable burners operated to shift the main combustion zone in the furnace (Fig.3.53). These tiltable burners generally tilt upto 30° upward and downward to the horizontal. In some boilers this method is used to primarily control re-heat steam temperature.

STEAM TEMPERATURE (QI'<nOl BY BURNER TIL lING Fig.3.53.

7.2.6 ATTEMPERATION

All the previous methods of steam temperature control are based upon variation on the amount of heat absorbed by the steam heating elements. In the two types of Attemperation, steam temperature is controlled either by removing heat from steam or by diluting high temperature steam with low temperature water. Of these the later type known as direct contact type is only mostly used in the modern boilers. Other type known as surface type is obsolete to day.

83

8 ",J

:>fC.lro~ A.A

'~A StCflO~ ~s:

ATTEMPERATOR

Fig.3.54.

The direct contact type also known as de-super heater is a spray attemperator as illustrated in Fig.3.S4. This attemperator is located between two super heater headers and so the steam flows through it. Water of high purity is introduced into the super heated steam through a spray nozzle at the throat of a venturi section within the line. Because of the spray action at the nozzle and the high velocity of steam through the venturi throat, the water vapourises, mixes with and cools the superheated steam. An important feature of construction is the continuation of the venturi section into a ceramic thermal sleeve down stream from the spray nozzle to protect the high temperature piping from thermal shock that could result from any incompletely evaporated water droplets striking the hot surface.

Regulation of water spray will provide the desired steam temperature control. The spray water will normally be obtained from feed water line after the H.P. heaters and before the feed regulating station. The spray water line will be provided with suitable regulating valves.

The attemperator will be normally located between two stages of super heater. The advantages of this arrangement are

i) The average steam temperature never exceeds the final steam temperature desired and so no excessive tube metal temperature

ri) The steam from the various circuits of the first stage super heater is so thoroughly mixed that it enters the second stage super heater at a uniform temperature.

iii) No possibility of any C3iTY over of spray water to the turbine as there will be further sections super heater after the attemperator.

84

CHAPTER 4

DRAUGHT SYSTEM

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In a boiler of any type it is essential to supply a controlled amount of air to the furnace for effective combustion of the fuel and to evacuate the hot gases formed in the furnace through the various heat 'transfer areas of the boiler. In other words a flow of air and hot gases must be established through the boiler setting. This can be done by using a stack (Chimney) or mechanical devices such as fans, which act as pumps. Either the stack or fans or a combination of stack and fans produces a difference in pressure causing air and gas flow through the boiler unit. The system provided in the boiler for this purpose is known as draught system.

1.1 DRAUGHT

Draught is defined as the force required to draw. In a boiler this term is commonly used to designate a static pressure in a furnace, gas passage, flue or stack. As the absolute pressure corresponding to zero is quite variable it is customary and more convenient to express draught values in terms of gauge pressure rather than absolute pressure. That is the values of draught pressures are referred to atmospheric pressure at the same elevation and the plus or minus sign is used to designate whether the value is above or below the atmospheric pressure. The draught values are normally expressed in terms of mm of we or mbar as the difference between the atmospheric pressure and air/gas pressure inside the boiler is very meager.

1.2 DRAUGHT LOSS

As the air/gas flow through the ducts, heat transfer areas, flues etc the fluid is subjected to flow resistance which depends on flow path geometry, surface smoothness, area available for flow etc. This causes a pressure drop of the fluid between two points. In a boiler the difference in draught readings between two points at the same elevation is referred as draught loss. It can also be defined as the pressure drop between two points in the boiler setting due to frictional resistance.

1.3 STA CK EFFECT.

Hot air or gas having lower density than the cold air exhibits the natural tendency of moving upwards. Due to this tendency when the hot gas or hot air flow in a vertical duct the pressure drop for a downward flow increases and it decreases for upward flow, compared to what the pressure drop would normally be under the same conditions in a horizontal duct as shown in Fig.4.1. This effect is known as stack effect.

85

PI.

-Po

OA9 ROW

i PI

i Po

APi

-PI

-Po

=

PI: _ Po

STACK EFFECT

Fig.4.1

Stack effect is also defined as the pressure difference between two points in a boiler due to elevation difference. The stack effect as such either aids the flow of the hot fluid or resists the flow depending upon the direction of flow in the boiler setting and will be prefixed with a negative or positive sign respectively.

1.4 DRAUGHT DIFFERENCE

This is the pressure difference between two points in the boiler setting resulting from the combination of draught loss and stack effect or the sum of draught loss and stack effect. For the flow of air and gas through the boiler the draught differential between air inlet point to the boiler and the chimney outlet is to be duly compensated by imparting energy suitably to air, gas or to both.

2.0 DRAUGHT TYPES

The flow of gases through a boiler can be achieved by creating draught in the following two methods.

a) Natural Draught

b) Mechanized Draught

2.1 NATURAL DRAUGHT

When the required flow of air and flue gas through a boiler can be obtained by the stack (Chimney) alone the system is called Natural Draught System. When the gas within the stack is hot, its specific weight will be less than that of the cool air outside the stack. Therefore the unit pressure at the base of the stack resulting from the weight of the column of hot gas within the stack will be less than that of the column of external cool air. This difference in pressure will

86

.__,..- - .".

a flow of gas through an opening in the base of the stack. In boiler applications the cool 'air on its' way to the stack must pass through the furnace .of the boiler connected to the stack. In the process of combustion the air is converted into heated flue gas. This heated gas will be displaced by more incoming cool air. The action becomes continuous and flow is established. The natural draught system is shown in Fig.4.2 Thus in natural draught, the draught loss is cDmpensated by the stack effect produced by the stack alone. _

NATURAL DRAUGHT SYSTEM

Fig.4.2

Though even to-day smaller boilers may use natural draught, for larger boilers equipped with superheaters, economisers and air heaters where the total draught loss is necessarily large, it is not practical or economical to obtain the draught by a stack alone as the height of the stack required in such cases will he impractical to construct.

2.2 MECHANISED DRAUGHT

In boilers where the draught loss is high and so natural draught is not possible mechanically driven fans are used to produce the necessary draught. Three types of mechanised draught systems can be adopted in boilers.

a) Forced draught system

b) Induced draught system

87

c) Balanced draught system

In the boilers where mechanised draught system is- adopted, the stack serves only an aid to the fans and to disburse the hot particulate matter laden gases into the atmosphere at sufficiently high level to cause least amount of pollution.

2.2.1 FORCED DRAUGHT SYSTEM

In this system a fan called forced draught fan is installed at the inlet of the boiler. This fan forces the atmospheric air through the boiler furnace and pushes out the hot gases from the furnace through super heaters. re heaters, economisers, air heaters etc. to the stack. In this system the boiler is under a positive pressure. Utmost case is necessary to seal all the openings of the boiler (like peephole doors, soot blower openings etc. tightly so that the hot gases inside the boiler do not leak out. This system is shown in FigA.3. The oil/gas fired boilers are some times provided with the forced draught system to minimise the possibilities of implosion in case of flame collapse.

=t>

FORCED DRAUGHT SYSTEM Fig.4.3.

2.2.2 INDUCED DRAUGHT SYSTEM

Here a fan called induced draught fan is provided at the outlet of the boiler that is just before the Chimney. This fan sucks the hot gases from the furnace through the superheaters. re heaters, econorniser, air heaters etc. and discharges the gases into the Chimney. This results in a furnace pressure lower than atmosphere and effects the flow of air from outside to the furnace. In induced draught system the entire boiler is at a pressure below atmosphere. Due to this air can be drawn into the boiler setting through any opening in the boiler setting. This leakage of air into the boiler is known as air ingress. The induced draught system is shown in Pig.4.4.

88

I flUE GAS

FURNACE

INDUCED DRAUGHT FAN

CHIMNEY

_,.

1- -l <J=A TMOSPHERIC AIR

~J

INDUCED DRAUGHT SYSTEM Fig.4.4

2.2.3 BALANCED DRAUGHT SYSTEM

Both forced draught and induced draught when exclusively adopted in boilers have their own demerits. With the forced draught the possibility of flame/hot gases coming out of the boiler persists and due to heavy air ingress in induced draught system, it is difficult to maintain the optimum airflow for combustion. The balanced draught system overcomes these difficulties. In this system both forced draught fan and induced draught fan are used. The forced draught fan is utilised to draw the controlled quantity of air from atmosphere and force the same into the furnace. The induced draught fan sucks the products of combustion from the furnace and discharges into the Chimney. The point where the draught is zero, is known as the balancing point. This balancing point is normally maintained at the tip of the burners/nozzles where the air enters the furnace. Thereby a very small negative pressure is maintained at the furnace and other down stream paths of the boiler to prevent the hot flame/gas coming out of the boiler. A typical balanced draught system is shown in FigA.S.

89

~

FURNACE

FLUE GAS

~

INDUCED DRAUGHT FAN

~ ATMOSPHERIC

~~- AIR

BALANCED DRAUGHT SYSTEM Fig.4.5.

Most of the power boilers especially coal fired boilers adopt Balanced draught system.

2.3 COMPONENTS OF BOILER DRAUGHT SYSTEM

The draught system in a boiler essenrially consists of the following components.

i) Fans
ii) Air heaters
jii) Ducts & Flues
iv) S tacklCh i mney 90

--- ,..., ... ;;~

The schematic flow diagram of the draught system in a typical 210MW boiler is shown in Fig.4:6

>r=T=E=1M~P:ER:I::JNG~-f-M-IL-lS--"" TEMPERING

...... -~~~

AIR oucr

AIR DUCT

FURNACE

v

6

FO'

_jPA

Cr

OR

ESP

10

CHIMNEY

SCHEMA TIC flOW DIAGRAM OF DRAUGHT SYSTEM Fig.4.6.

3.0 FANS

Fans are among the most important auxiliaries in a boiler system .. Regardless of fuel and method of firing. all boilers for power generation LIse mechanical draught fans. They supply the primary air for the pulverization and transport of coal to the furnace. They also supply the tertiary air and the secondary air to the windboxes for complete combustion. Fans also remove the products of combustion from the furnace and move the gases through heat transfer equipment. Sometimes gas recirculation fans control steam temperature. Numerous small fans are used for sealing of mills and cooling of ignitors. scanners and other equipments.

91

3.1 HOW FANS WORK

A fan is a volumetric machine, which moves quantities of air or gas from one place to another. The fan imparts to the medium enough energy to set it into motion and to overcome all resistance to flow in .its path.

A fan essentially consists of a bladed rotor or impeller, which does the work, and a housing, which collects and directs the medium discharged by the impeller. The energy requirement of the fan depends on the volume of gas moved, resistance against which the fan works and the machine efficiency.

3.2 SPECIFYING FAN OPERATING CONDITIONS

For the fan' to deliver the desired flow and pressure the fan and the system should correctly match. Once the fan is installed, it is difficult to increase its capacity significantly because of physical limitations such as motor and impeller size. To select an appropriate fan for a given application, the density, flow and pressure requirements of the system at various points of operation and whether there are any fan speed limitations must be known. If any of these variables change it can affect the fan selection.

3.2.1 FLOW

The flow of medium through fan is usually expressed as a volumetric flow rate.It is necessary to determine the flow rate in m3/min at the inlet to fan from the mass flow rate(Kg'/Hr.). Proper corrections for plant elevation and actual conditions of local pressure at fan inlets must be made to the calculated volume.

3.2.2 PRESSURE

The pressure or the head developed by the fan is usualJy expressed in mmwc. (Millimeters of water column). The required static head for the fan will depend upon the system, where the fan is used.

3.2.3 DENSITY

Since the pressure and temperature of the air or gas affect gas densi ty, they also influence power output and efficiency. A change in density changes total and static pressure and their subsequent compression into mm of wc.

The head and power varies directly as fluid density and inversely as absolute fluid temperature.

Adjustments must be made for pressure and temperature variations while selecting a fan for a particular application.

3.2.4 SPECIFIED CONDITIONS

The volume, flow and static pressure calculated give the actual required fan capacity under ideal operating conditions. Besides the requirement at full load. the performance requirements at several other partial load points are to be calculated to evaluate power consumption, select the control equipment and assure a fan that will operate at maximum efficiency, at the desired output of the steam generating unit. It must also be ensured that the fan will operate over the entire range of system resistance from the point of view of stability, sound and efficiency.

92

FAN APPLICATIONS

In the boilers, number of fans are required for different functions. FigA.6 indicates '. " iocation of various fans in a typical coal fired boiler.

3.3.1 FORCED DRAUGHT FAN

Forced draught fans supply air necessary for fuel combustion and must be sized to handle the stoichiometric air plus the excess air needed for proper burning of the specific fuel. In addition, they provide air to make up for air heater leakage and for some sealing air requirements. FD fans supply the tot a) airflow except when an atmospheric suction primary air fan is used.

In the balanced draught units, the required static head for the FD is the sum of all the series resistance in the secondary air system including cold air duct, steam coil air pre heater, air metering device, hot air duct, wind box and dampers. For pressurized units additional loss from, the furnace to the stack outlet must also be included.

FD fans operate in the cleanest environment associated with a boiler and are generally the quietist and most efficient fans in the power plant. They are particularly well suited for highspeed operation. Radial aerofoil or variable pitch axial fans are preferred for PD service.

3.3.2 PRIMARY AIR FAN

These are the large high-pressure fans which supply the air needed to dry and transport coal either directly from the coal mills to the furnace or to the intermediate bunker. These fans may be located before or after the milling equipment. The most common applications are cold primary air fans, bot primary air fans and pulverizer exhauster fans.

The cold primary air fan is located before the air heater and draws air from the atmosphere and supplies the energy required to force aiir through air heater, ducts, mills and fuel piping. With a cold air system like this, the FD fan may be made smaller as P.A fans supply part of the combustion air. These fans are usually of the radial aerofoil type.

Hot primary air fans bOOSl the air pressure from air-heaters for drying and transporting coal from pulverisers. In these systems the total air has to be handled by the FO fans and each mill will be provided with a primary air fan at the mill inlet side. The primary fan in this case has to handle hot air probably with some amount of fly ash carried from the air pre-heater.

The mill exhauster fan draws hot air from hot secondary air duct and through the pulveriser, The coal lair mixture from the pulveriser then passes through the fan and discharges into the fuel pipes which carry the mixture to the furnace for ignition. Here also the total air for the boiler has to be handled by the FD fan and each mill will be provided with one exhauster fan. In this case the exhauster fan must develop sufficient pressure at maximum airflow to overcome the resistance of the air dUClS, dampers. the pulveriser and the fuel pipe to the furnace.

3.3.3 INDUCED DRAUGHT FANS

Induced draught fans evacuate combustion products from the boiler furnace by creating sufficient negative pressure to establish a slight suction in the furnace (usually 5 to 10mm of \VeLA:; such these fans must have enough capacity no accommodate any infiltration caused by

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the negative pressure in the equipment down stream of the furnace and by any seal leakage in air heaters.

As ID fans are now typically located downstream of any particulate removal system they are a relatively clean service fan. Since ID fans have to compensate for the heavy pressure drop of the flue gas across the boiler contour, the power requirement is very high and it is the boiler auxiliary, which consumes maximum power. As such high efficiency fans are demanded for this application. The airfoil radial fans, which have efficiencies of more then 88% and can, have capacities greater than 1.6 lakh m3/ minute. The airfoil blade shape minimizes turbulence and noise. The blades and center plates may also be fitted with wear plates and replaceable nose section for greater wear life.

Since great wear resistance is required because of dust burden, a modified forward curved, backward inclined designs are also used. Without unduly sacrificing efficiency these blade shapes minimize dust build up and reduce downtime for cleaning.

3.3.4 GAS RECIRCULATION FANS

G.R.fans draw gas from a point between economiser outlet and air heater and discharge it into the bottom of the furnace. The recirculation will be required either for controlling steam temperature on coal fired units or in a coal fired unit for emergency oil firing. In the first case generally a mechanical dust collector will be provided ahead of the fan.

Gas recirculation duty provides the most severe test of a power plant fan. The combination of heavy dust load and rapid temperature changes demands the utmost in rugged, reliable fan design. Particularly important is how the fan hub is mated with the shaft. Conventional shrunk fit may not be adequate. To cope up with the temperature excursions fans with an integral hub are preferable. Straight or forward curved radial fans meet these needs the best.

Normally turning gears are provided for these fans to prevent thermal distortion of the rotor under cool down conditions.

3.3.5 OTHERS

The other applications of fans in a boiler are cooling air fans for flame scanners, ignitors and seal air fans for the pressurized mills. These fans are generally booster fans. Generally, the scanner air fans take suction from FD discharge and the seal air fan from primary air fan discharge. Compared to FD, PA,ID and G.RJans, these fans handle very less quantity of air. Seal air fans taking suction from atmosphere develop the highest differential head.

3.4 TYPES OF FANS

From the point of view of fluid mechanics, fans represent a class of turbo machines designed to move fluids such as air, gases and vapour against low pressure. From the point of mechanical design fans have a very light casing because generally inlet pressures are atmospheric or lower. Simplified hydraulic forms and welded steel plates are generally encountered in fans.

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· 'f p .. ,

Fans are broadly classified as either radial or axial according to the flow direction. The radial fan moves air perpendicular to the rotational axis of the impel1er (Fig.4.7.) the axial flow , fan moves air parallel to the rotational axis of the impeller (Fig.4.S.)

DIRECTION OF ROW IN FAN.S

IN

OUT

OUI

RADIAL

AXIAL

-

3.5

Fig.4.7.

RADIAL FANS (Fig.4.9.)

Fig.4.8.

Radial fans use blades mounted on an impeller sandwiched between two circular plates.

The rotor (impeller mounted on shaft) rotates within a spiral or volute casing.

IMPELLER BLADES

RADIAL FAN

Fig.4.9.

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