The Four Common Types of Parenting Styles

There are four different types of parenting styles that are commonly identified by an expert by the name
of Diana Baumrind in the parenting field. These styles are known as authoritarian parenting, permissive
parenting, neglectful parenting, and authoritative parenting. There are important differences between each
of these styles, and there is one style that is significantly better than the other three. In order to understand
which type is the best parenting style; however, we need to review all of them first.

One of the types of parenting styles is the authoritarian style of parenting. This style is characterized by
high expectations of compliance and conformity to parental rules and directions. The problem with
authoritarian parenting is that the parental rules and directions often change when the parent feels like
changing them, so the child never truly knows what is expected. The situation could be described as
unfair and threatening. Many children raised by authoritarian parents live in a constant state of fear. They
tend to display less self-confidence and are withdrawn socially. Some children might also rebel by openly
defying the parents by leaving home at a younger age, partaking in drugs, alcohol, and sexual behavior at
a much younger age, dating or marrying a partner whom they know their parents would disapprove of,
and often might be estranged from their parents during adulthood.

The second of the four types of parenting styles is permissive parenting. This style is typically
characterized by a warm, loving relationship between parent and child, but is flawed by low expectations
of behavior. In other words, the permissive parent is usually afraid to make demands on the child much
less hold them to any standard. This type of parent simply wants the child to like them at the end of the
day and will do anything the child requests to do. Children raised by overly permissive parents tend to
suffer from a lack of focus, immaturity and problems with emotional regulation. The children can not
control their impulses and do not accept the responsibility for their own actions. When in trouble, the
child will simply blame someone else even if it was their own fault. They tend to live and remain close to
where they grew up, still dependent, in early adulthood.

Neglectful parenting is another one of the types of parenting styles. This style is best described as a step
beyond permissive parenting. The neglectful parent may provide food and shelter, but is generally
emotionally uninvolved in the child's life. A good example of this would be parents who never ask their
child questions about their day, their friends, or their education. A neglected child may have serious
issues going on outside the home, but the neglectful parent is never aware of them until something
potentially tragic occurs. Many times children will grow up feeling resentment against their parents for
being neglectful and often might be estranged from them into adulthood.

The last of the types of parenting styles, and definitely the one that is considered ideal, is authoritative
parenting. This type of parent holds high expectations of the child's behavior while allowing the child to
talk about those expectations. Parental rules and directions imposed on the child are fair and expressed
clearly. The authoritative parent teaches the child about cause and effect, decision-making and self-
sufficiency. Authoritative parents raise children who are successful, articulate, happy with themselves,
and generous with others. This results in them being liked and respected by their peers and allows them to
be generally well-rounded adults.

Parents should strive to raise their children with the authoritative style of parenting.
Parenting Style and Its Correlates
Developmental psychologists have been interested in how parents influence the development of children’s social and
instrumental competence since at least the 1920s. One of the most robust approaches to this area is the study of
what has been called "parenting style." This Digest defines parenting style, explores four types, and discusses the
consequences of the different styles for children.

Parenting Style Defined

Parenting is a complex activity that includes many specific behaviors that work individually and together to influence
child outcomes. Although specific parenting behaviors, such as spanking or reading aloud, may influence child
development, looking at any specific behavior in isolation may be misleading. Many writers have noted that specific
parenting practices are less important in predicting child well-being than is the broad pattern of parenting. Most
researchers who attempt to describe this broad parental milieu rely on Diana Baumrind’s concept of parenting style.
The construct of parenting style is used to capture normal variations in parents’ attempts to control and socialize their
children (Baumrind, 1991). Two points are critical in understanding this definition. First, parenting style is meant to
describe normal variations in parenting. In other words, the parenting style typology Baumrind developed should not
be understood to include deviant parenting, such as might be observed in abusive or neglectful homes. Second,
Baumrind assumes that normal parenting revolves around issues of control. Although parents may differ in how they
try to control or socialize their children and the extent to which they do so, it is assumed that the primary role of all
parents is to influence, teach, and control their children.

Parenting style captures two important elements of parenting: parental responsiveness and parental demandingness
(Maccoby & Martin, 1983). Parental responsiveness (also referred to as parental warmth or supportiveness) refers to
"the extent to which parents intentionally foster individuality, self-regulation, and self-assertion by being attuned,
supportive, and acquiescent to children’s special needs and demands" (Baumrind, 1991, p. 62). Parental
demandingness (also referred to as behavioral control) refers to "the claims parents make on children to become
integrated into the family whole, by their maturity demands, supervision, disciplinary efforts and willingness to
confront the child who disobeys" (Baumrind, 1991, pp. 61-62).

Four Parenting Styles

Categorizing parents according to whether they are high or low on parental demandingness and responsiveness
creates a typology of four parenting styles: indulgent, authoritarian, authoritative, and uninvolved (Maccoby & Martin,
1983). Each of these parenting styles reflects different naturally occurring patterns of parental values, practices, and
behaviors (Baumrind, 1991) and a distinct balance of responsiveness and demandingness.

 Indulgent parents (also referred to as "permissive" or "nondirective") "are more responsive than they are
demanding. They are nontraditional and lenient, do not require mature behavior, allow considerable self-
regulation, and avoid confrontation" (Baumrind, 1991, p. 62). Indulgent parents may be further divided into
two types: democratic parents, who, though lenient, are more conscientious, engaged, and committed to the
child, and nondirective parents.

 Authoritarian parents are highly demanding and directive, but not responsive. "They are obedience- and
status-oriented, and expect their orders to be obeyed without explanation" (Baumrind, 1991, p. 62). These
parents provide well-ordered and structured environments with clearly stated rules. Authoritarian parents
can be divided into two types: nonauthoritarian-directive, who are directive, but not intrusive or autocratic in
their use of power, and authoritarian-directive, who are highly intrusive.

 Authoritative parents are both demanding and responsive. "They monitor and impart clear standards for
their children’s conduct. They are assertive, but not intrusive and restrictive. Their disciplinary methods are
supportive, rather than punitive. They want their children to be assertive as well as socially responsible, and
self-regulated as well as cooperative" (Baumrind, 1991, p. 62).

 Uninvolved parents are low in both responsiveness and demandingness. In extreme cases, this parenting
style might encompass both rejecting–neglecting and neglectful parents, although most parents of this type
fall within the normal range.
Because parenting style is a typology, rather than a linear combination of responsiveness and demandingness, each
parenting style is more than and different from the sum of its parts (Baumrind, 1991). In addition to differing on
responsiveness and demandingness, the parenting styles also differ in the extent to which they are characterized by
a third dimension: psychological control. Psychological control "refers to control attempts that intrude into the
psychological and emotional development of the child" (Barber, 1996, p. 3296) through use of parenting practices
such as guilt induction, withdrawal of love, or shaming. One key difference between authoritarian and authoritative
parenting is in the dimension of psychological control. Both authoritarian and authoritative parents place high
demands on their children and expect their children to behave appropriately and obey parental rules. Authoritarian
parents, however, also expect their children to accept their judgments, values, and goals without questioning. In
contrast, authoritative parents are more open to give and take with their children and make greater use of
explanations. Thus, although authoritative and authoritarian parents are equally high in behavioral control,
authoritative parents tend to be low in psychological control, while authoritarian parents tend to be high.

Consequences for Children

Parenting style has been found to predict child well-being in the domains of social competence, academic
performance, psychosocial development, and problem behavior. Research based on parent interviews, child reports,
and parent observations consistently finds:

 Children and adolescents whose parents are authoritative rate themselves and are rated by objective
measures as more socially and instrumentally competent than those whose parents are nonauthoritative
(Baumrind, 1991; Weiss & Schwarz, 1996; Miller et al., 1993).

 Children and adolescents whose parents are uninvolved perform most poorly in all domains.

In general, parental responsiveness predicts social competence and psychosocial functioning, while parental
demandingness is associated with instrumental competence and behavioral control (i.e., academic performance and
deviance). These findings indicate:

 Children and adolescents from authoritarian families (high in demandingness, but low in responsiveness)
tend to perform moderately well in school and be uninvolved in problem behavior, but they have poorer
social skills, lower self-esteem, and higher levels of depression.

 Children and adolescents from indulgent homes (high in responsiveness, low in demandingness) are more
likely to be involved in problem behavior and perform less well in school, but they have higher self-esteem,
better social skills, and lower levels of depression.

In reviewing the literature on parenting style, one is struck by the consistency with which authoritative upbringing is
associated with both instrumental and social competence and lower levels of problem behavior in both boys and girls
at all developmental stages. The benefits of authoritative parenting and the detrimental effects of uninvolved
parenting are evident as early as the preschool years and continue throughout adolescence and into early adulthood.
Although specific differences can be found in the competence evidenced by each group, the largest differences are
found between children whose parents are unengaged and their peers with more involved parents. Differences
between children from authoritative homes and their peers are equally consistent, but somewhat smaller (Weiss &
Schwarz, 1996). Just as authoritative parents appear to be able to balance their conformity demands with their
respect for their children’s individuality, so children from authoritative homes appear to be able to balance the claims
of external conformity and achievement demands with their need for individuation and autonomy.

Influence of Sex, Ethnicity, or Family Type

It is important to distinguish between differences in the distribution and the correlates of parenting style in different
subpopulations. Although in the United States authoritative parenting is most common among intact, middle-class
families of European descent, the relationship between authoritativeness and child outcomes is quite similar across
groups. There are some exceptions to this general statement, however: (1) demandingness appears to be less critical
to girls’ than to boys’ well-being (Weiss & Schwarz, 1996), and (2) authoritative parenting predicts good psychosocial
outcomes and problem behaviors for adolescents in all ethnic groups studied (African-, Asian-, European-, and
Hispanic Americans), but it is associated with academic performance only among European Americans and, to a
lesser extent, Hispanic Americans (Steinberg, Dornbusch, & Brown, 1992; Steinberg, Darling, & Fletcher, 1995).
Chao (1994) and others (Darling & Steinberg, 1993) have argued that observed ethnic differences in the association
of parenting style with child outcomes may be due to differences in social context, parenting practices, or the cultural
meaning of specific dimensions of parenting style.

Conclusion

Parenting style provides a robust indicator of parenting functioning that predicts child well-being across a wide
spectrum of environments and across diverse communities of children. Both parental responsiveness and parental
demandingness are important components of good parenting. Authoritative parenting, which balances clear, high
parental demands with emotional responsiveness and recognition of child autonomy, is one of the most consistent
family predictors of competence from early childhood through adolescence. However, despite the long and robust
tradition of research into parenting style, a number of issues remain outstanding. Foremost among these are issues
of definition, developmental change in the manifestation and correlates of parenting styles, and the processes
underlying the benefits of authoritative parenting (see Schwarz et al., 1985; Darling & Steinberg, 1993; Baumrind,
1991; and Barber, 1996).

Parenting styles
A parenting style is a psychological construct representing standard strategies that parents use in their
child rearing. There are many differing theories and opinions on the best ways to rear children, as well as
differing levels of time and effort that parents are willing to invest.

Many parents create their own style from a combination of factors, and these may evolve over time as the
children develop their own personalities and move through life's stages. Parenting style is affected by
both the parents' and children's temperaments, and is largely based on the influence of one’s own parents
and culture. "Most parents learn parenting practices from their own parents — some they accept, some
they discard."[1] The degree to which a child's education is part of parenting is a further matter of debate.
Contents
[hide]

 1 Theories of child rearing

 2 Baumrind's four general parenting styles
o 2.1 Authoritative parenting
o 2.2 Authoritarian parenting
o 2.3 Indulgent parenting
o 2.4 Neglectful parenting
 3 Other parenting styles
 4 Dysfunctional parenting styles
 5 Outcomes
 6 See also
 7 References
 8 Further reading

Theories of child rearing

One of the best known theories of parenting style was developed by Diana Baumrind.[1] She proposed that
parents fall into one of three categories: authoritarian (telling their children exactly what to do),
indulgent (allowing their children to do whatever they wish), or authoritative (providing rules and
guidance without being overbearing). The theory was later extended to include negligent parents
(disregarding the children, and focusing on other interests).

A number of ethical parenting styles have been proposed, some based on the authoritarian model of strict
obedience to scriptural law (for example in the Bible), others based on empathy with the emotional state
of a child.

The intensity of parental involvement remains a matter of debate. At opposite extremes are Slow
parenting in which parents stand back, merely supporting their children in doing what they want to do as
independent individuals (but guiding them when the children are not developing healthy attitudes), versus
Concerted cultivation in which children are driven to attend a maximum number of lessons and organised
activities, each designed to teach them a valuable skill which the parent has decided for them.

Beginning in the 17th century, two philosophers independently wrote works that have been widely
influential in child rearing. John Locke's 1693 book Some Thoughts Concerning Education is a well
known foundation for educational pedagogy from a Puritan standpoint. Locke highlights the importance
of experiences to a child's development, and recommends developing their physical habits first. In 1762,
the French philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau published a volume on education, Emile: or, On
Education.[2] He proposed that early education should be derived less from books and more from a child's
interactions with the world. Of these, Rousseau is more consistent with slow parenting, and Locke is more
for concerted cultivation.

Other theorists, mainly from the twentieth century, have focused on how children develop and have had a
significant impact on childhood education and how parents rear their children.

Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development describes how children represent and reason about the
world.[3] This is a developmental stage theory that consists of a Sensorimotor stage, Preoperational stage,
Concrete operational stage, and Formal operational stage. Piaget was a pioneer in the field of child
development and continues to influence parents, educators and other theorists.

Erik Erikson, a developmental psychologist, proposed eight life stages through which each person must
develop. In each stage, they must understand and balance two conflicting forces, and so parents might
choose a series of parenting styles that helps each child as appropriate at each stage. The first five of his
eight stages occur in childhood: The virtue of hope requires balancing trust with mistrust, and typically
occurs from birth to one year old. Will balances autonomy with shame and doubt around the ages of two
to three. Purpose balances initiative with guilt around the ages of four to six years. Competence balances
industry against inferiority around ages seven to 12. Fidelity contrasts identity with role confusion, in
ages 13 to 19. The remaining adult virtues are love, care and wisdom.

Rudolf Dreikurs believed that pre-adolescent children's misbehaviour was caused by their unfulfilled wish
to be a member of a social group. He argued that they then act out a sequence of four mistaken goals: first
they seek attention. If they do not get it, they aim for power, then revenge and finally feel inadequate.
This theory is used in education as well as parenting, forming a valuable theory upon which to manage
misbehaviour. Other parenting techniques should also be used to encourage learning and happiness.

Frank Furedi is a sociologist with a particular interest in parenting and families. He believes that the
actions of parents are less decisive than others claim. He describes the term infant determinism,[4] as the
determination of a person's life prospects by what happens to them during infancy, arguing that there is
little or no evidence for its truth. While other commercial, governmental and other interests constantly try
to guide parents to do more and worry more for their children, he believes that children are capable of
developing well in almost any circumstances. Furedi quotes Steve Petersen of Washington University:
"development really wants to happen. It takes very impoverished environments to interfere with
development ... [just] don't raise your child in a closet, starve them, or hit them on the head with a frying
pan."[5] Similarly, the journalist Tim Gill has expressed concern about excessive risk aversion by parents
and those responsible for children in his book No Fear.[6] This aversion limits the opportunities for
children to develop sufficient adult skills, particularly in dealing with risk, but also in performing
adventurous and imaginative activities.

Hillary Clinton, former First Lady of the United States, later U.S. Senator, and current Secretary of State
said that "Children are not rugged individualists"[7], continuing with "everywhere we look, children are
under assault: from violence and neglect, from the break-up of families, from the temptation of alcohol,
tobacco, sex and drug abuse, from greed, materialism and spritual emptiness". She endorsed infant
determinism (the idea that a person's life is determined by events during the first three years of their life,
and therefore that parents must tread very carefully) at the White House Conference on Early Childhood
Devleopment in April 1997, but without scientific evidence.

Baumrind's four general parenting styles

In her research, Diana Baumrind found what she considered to be the four basic elements that could help
shape successful parenting: responsiveness vs. unresponsiveness and demanding vs. undemanding. From
these, she identified three general parenting styles: authoritative, authoritarian, and permissive. [8][9][10][11]
Maccoby and Martin expanded the styles to four: authoritative, authoritarian, indulgent and neglectful. [12]
[13]
These four styles of parenting involve combinations of acceptance and responsiveness on the one hand
and demand and control on the other.[1]

Demanding Undemanding
 Responsive Authoritative Indulgent

Unresponsive Authoritarian Neglectful

Baumrind believed that parents should be neither punitive nor aloof. [1] Rather, they should develop rules
for their children and be affectionate with them. These parenting styles are meant to describe normal
variations in parenting, not deviant parenting, such as might be observed in abusive homes.[14] Most
parents do not fall neatly in one category, but fall somewhere in the middle, showing characteristics of
more than one style.

Authoritative parenting

The parent is demanding and responsive.

Authoritative parenting, also called balanced parenting, [15] is characterized by a child-centered approach
that holds high expectations of maturity. Authoritative parents can understand their children’s feelings
and teach them how to regulate them. They often help them to find appropriate outlets to solve problems.
"Authoritative parenting encourages children to be independent but still places limits and controls on their
actions." [1] "Extensive verbal give-and-take is allowed, and parents are warm and nurturant toward the
child."[1] Authoritative parents are not usually as controlling, allowing the child to explore more freely,
thus having them make their own decisions based upon their own reasoning. [16]

Authoritative parents set limits and demand maturity, but when punishing a child, the parent will explain
his or her motive for their punishment. "Their punishments are measured and consistent in discipline, not
harsh or arbitrary. Parents will set clear standards for their children, monitor limits that they set, and also
allow children to develop autonomy. They also expect mature, independent, and age-appropriate behavior
of children."[1] They are attentive to their children’s needs and concerns, and will typically forgive and
teach instead of punishing if a child falls short. [17] This is supposed to result in children having a higher
self esteem and independence because of the democratic give-take nature of the authoritative parenting
style. This is the most recommended style of parenting by child-rearing experts.

Authoritarian parenting

The parent is demanding but not responsive.

Authoritarian parenting, also called strict,[15] is characterized by high expectations of conformity and
compliance to parental rules and directions, while allowing little open dialogue between parent and child.
"Authoritarian parenting is a restrictive, punitive style in which parents exhort the child to follow their
directions and to respect their work and effort."[1] Authoritarian parents expect much of their child but
generally do not explain the reasoning for the rules or boundaries. [18] Authoritarian parents are less
responsive to their children’s needs, and are more likely to spank a child rather than discuss the problem.
[19]

Children with this type of parenting may have less social competence as the parent generally tells the
child what to do instead of allowing the child to choose by him or herself. [20] Nonetheless, researchers
have found that in some cultures and ethnic groups, aspects of authoritarian style may be associated with
more positive child outcomes than Baumrind predicts. "Aspects of traditional Asian child-rearing
practices are often continued by Asian American families. In some cases, these practices have been
described as authoritarian."[1] Often if the demands pushed too forcefully upon the child, the child will
break down, rebel, or run away.

Indulgent parenting

The parent is responsive but not demanding.

Indulgent parenting, also called permissive, nondirective or lenient, [15] is characterized as having few
behavioral expectations for the child. "Indulgent parenting is a style of parenting in which parents are
very involved with their children but place few demands or controls on them." [1] Parents are nurturing and
accepting, and are very responsive to the child's needs and wishes. Indulgent parents do not require
children to regulate themselves or behave appropriately. This may result in creating spoiled brats or
"spoiled sweet" children depending on the behavior of the children.

From a recent study,

 The teens least prone to heavy drinking had parents who scored high on both accountability and warmth.
 So-called 'indulgent' parents, those low on accountability and high on warmth, nearly tripled the risk of
their teen participating in heavy drinking.
 'Strict parents' – high on accountability and low on warmth – more than doubled their teen’s risk of heavy
drinking.[21]

Children of permissive parents may tend to be more impulsive, and as adolescents, may engage more in
misconduct, and in drug use. "Children never learn to control their own behavior and always expect to get
their way."[1] But in the better cases they are emotionally secure, independent and are willing to learn and
accept defeat. They mature quickly and are able to live life without the help of someone else. [22]

Neglectful parenting

The parent is neither demanding nor responsive.

Neglectful parenting is also called uninvolved, detached, dismissive or hands-off. [15] The parents are low
in warmth and control, are generally not involved in their child's life, are disengaged, undemanding, low
in responsiveness, and do not set limits. Neglectful parenting can also mean dismissing the children's
emotions and opinions. Parents are emotionally unsupportive of their children, but will still provide their
basic needs. Provide basic needs meaning: food, housing, and toiletries or money for the prementioned. [23]

Children whose parents are neglectful develop the sense that other aspects of the parents’ lives are more
important than they are. Many children of this parenting style often attempt to provide for themselves or
halt depending on the parent to get a feeling of being independent and mature beyond their years. [1]
Children often display contradictory behavior, and are emotionally withdrawn from social situations. This
disturbed attachment also impacts relationships later on in life. In adolescence, they may show patterns of
truancy and delinquency.[1]

Other parenting styles

There is no single or definitive model of parenting. What may be right for one family or one child may
not be suitable for another. With authoritarian and permissive (indulgent) parenting on opposite sides of
the spectrum, most conventional and modern models of parenting fall somewhere in between. The model
or style that parents employ depends partly on how they themselves were reared, what they consider good
parenting, the child's temperament, their current environmental situation, and whether they place more
importance on their own needs or whether they are striving to further their child's future success. Parents
who place greater importance on the child's physical security may be more authoritarian, while parents
who are more concerned with intellectual development may push their children into a number of
organized extra-curricular activities such as music and language lessons.

One of the biggest effects on parenting is socio-economic status, in reference with ethnicity and culture as
well. For example, living in a dangerous neighborhood could make a parent more authoritarian due to fear
of their environment. Parents who are more highly educated tend to have better jobs and better financial
security, and this reduction of potential stressors has a significant effect on parenting.

 Attachment parenting – Seeks to create strong emotional bonds, avoiding physical punishment and
accomplishing discipline through interactions recognizing a child's emotional needs all while focusing on
holistic understanding of the child.

 Christian parenting – The application of biblical principles on parenting, mainly in the United States. While
some Christian parents follow a stricter and more authoritarian interpretation of the Bible, others are
"grace-based" and share methods advocated in the attachment parenting and positive parenting theories.
Particularly influential on opposite sides have been James Dobson and his book Dare to Discipline,[24] and
William Sears who has written several parenting books including The Complete Book of Christian
Parenting & Child Care and The Discipline Book.

 Concerted cultivation – A style of parenting that is marked by the parents' attempts to foster their child's
talents through organized leisure activities. This parenting style is commonly exhibited in middle and
upper class American families.

 Overparenting – Parents who try to involve themselves in every aspect of their child's life, often
attempting to solve all their problems. A helicopter parent is a colloquial, early 21st-century term for a
parent who pays extremely close attention to his or her children's experiences and problems, and
attempts to sweep all obstacles out of their paths, particularly at educational institutions. Helicopter
parents are so named because, like helicopters, they hover closely overhead. It is a form of overparenting.

 Nurturant parenting – A family model where children are expected to explore their surroundings with
protection from their parents.

 Slow parenting – Encourages parents to plan and organise less for their children, instead allowing them to
enjoy their childhood and explore the world at their own pace.

 Strict parenting – An authoritarian approach, places a strong value on discipline and following inflexible
rules as a means to survive and thrive in a harsh world.

 Parenting For Everyone – A parenting book and one individual's philosophy that discusses parenting from
an ethical point of view.

 Taking Children Seriously – The central idea of this movement is that is possible and desirable to raise and
educate children without doing anything to them against their will, or making them do anything against
their will.
  Extreme Parenting – A fast and loose parenting syle in which parents encourage a love of extreme sports
in their childeren by involving them in what traditional parents would consider "dangerous" activities
from a young age (but they are usually at least 4 days old). These activities include the baby toss, stroller
derbies, skate park strolling, and other aggressive activities.

Dysfunctional parenting styles

 Using (destructively narcissistic parents with rule by fear and conditional love)
 Abusing (parents who use physical violence, emotional or sexual abuse to dominate or take advantage of
their children)
 Deprivation (control or neglect by withholding love, support, sympathy, praise, attention, encouragement,
supervision, or otherwise putting their children's well-being at risk)
 Asymmetrical parenting (going to extremes for one child while continually ignoring the needs of another)
 Perfectionist (fixating on order, prestige, power, and/or perfect appearances)
 Dogmatic or cult-like (harsh and inflexible discipline with children not allowed, within reason, to dissent,
question authority, or develop their own value system)
 Appeasement (parents who reward bad behavior—even by their own standards, and inevitably punish
another child's good behavior in order to maintain the peace and avoid temper tantrums "Peace at any
price")
 Micromanagement (parents who micro-manage their children's lives and/or relationships among siblings
—especially minor conflicts)
 "The deceivers" (well-regarded parents in the community, likely to be involved in some charitable/non-
profit works, who abuse or mistreat one or more of their children)
 "Public image manager" (sometimes related to above, children warned to not disclose what fights, abuse,
or damage happens at home, or face severe punishment "Don't tell anyone what goes on in this family")
 Role reversal (parents who expect their minor children to take care of them instead)
 "Not your business" (children continuously told that a particular brother or sister who is often causing
problems is none of their concern)
 "The guard dog" (a parent who blindly attacks family members perceived as causing the slightest upset to
their esteemed spouse, partner, or child)
 "My baby forever" (a mother who will not allow one or more of her young children to grow up and begin
taking care of themselves)
 "Along for the ride" (a reluctant de facto, step, foster, or adoptive parent who does not truly care about
their non-biological child, but must co-exist in the same home for the sake of their spouse or partner)
 "The politician" (a parent who repeatedly makes or agrees to children's promises while having little or no
intention of keeping them)
 "It's taboo" (parents rebuff any questions children may have about sexuality, romance, puberty, certain
areas of human anatomy, nudity, etc.)
 "The identified patient" (one child, usually selected by the mother, who is forced into going to therapy
while the family's overall dysfunction is kept hidden)
 Münchausen syndrome by proxy (a much more extreme situation than above, where the child is
intentionally made ill by a parent seeking attention from physicians and other professionals). [25]

Outcomes

Research into the child behavior outcomes associated with each type of parenting has traditionally shown
a strong benefit to authoritative parenting. These children have been shown to have more self-discipline,
emotional self-control, more friends and better school performance. However, recent research has
identified a number of caveats. First, authoritarian parenting may be more effective in certain contexts
and in social groups other than those studied in early research. Secondly, little research has examined the
genetic influences that may underlie the findings. For instance, harsh parents may produce harsher
children through the mechanism of genetic transmission of these traits. Behavior genetics research is
currently examining the influence of genes as they pertain to parenting styles.

An additional criticism of the parenting styles research is that parenting has been shown to be part of a bi-
directional relationship between parent and child. Thus, characterizing a parenting style as arising from
the parent leaves out the essential influence of the child on the parent-child dyad.