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V
apor pressure, cavitation, their parent liquid and boil at a lower where PB = barometric pres-
and NPSH are subjects temperature. While vapor pressure sure in feet absolute, VP = vapor
widely discussed by engi- curves are readily available for liq- pressure of the liquid at maximum
neers, pumps users, and uids, they are not for solutions. pumping temperature in feet
pumping equipment suppliers, but Obtaining the correct vapor pressure absolute, Gr = gauge reading at
understood by too few. To grasp for a solution often requires actual the pump suction, in feet absolute
these subjects, a basic explanation laboratory testing. (plus if the reading is above baro-
is required. CAVITATION metric pressure, minus if the read-
ing is below the barometric
VAPOR PRESSURE Cavitation can create havoc with pressure), and hv = velocity head
Knowledge of vapor pressure pumps and pumping systems in the in the suction pipe in feet
is extremely important when form of vibration and noise. Bearing absolute.
selecting pumps and their failure, shaft breakage, pitting on the NPSH R can only be deter-
mechanical seals. Vapor pressure impeller, and mechanical seal leak- mined during pump testing. To
is the pressure absolute at which a age are some of the problems caused determine it, the test engineer
liquid, at a given temperature, by cavitation. must reduce the NPSHA to the
starts to boil or flash to a gas. When a liquid boils in the suc- pump at a given capacity until the
Absolute pressure (psia) equals the tion line or suction nozzle of a pump, pump cavitates. At this point the
gauge pressure (psig) plus atmos- it is said to be “flashing” or “cavitat- vibration levels on the pump and
pheric pressure. ing” (forming cavities of gas in the system rise, and it sounds like
Let’s compare boiling water at liquid). This occurs when the pres- gravel is being pumped. More
sea level in Rhode Island to boil- sure acting on the liquid is below the than one engineer has run for the
ing water at an elevation of 14,110 vapor pressure of the liquid. The emergency shut-down switch the
feet on top of Pikes Peak in damage occurs when these cavities first time he heard cavitation on
Colorado. Water boils at a lower or bubbles pass to a higher pressure the test floor. It’s during these
temperature at altitude because region of the pump, usually just past tests that one gains a real apprecia-
the atmospheric pressure is lower. the vane tips at the impeller “eye,” tion for the damage that will occur
Water and water containing and then collapse or “implode.” if a pump is allowed to cavitate for
dissolved air will boil at different NPSH a prolonged period.
temperatures. This is because one
is a liquid and the other is a solu- Net Positive Suction Head is the CENTRIFUGAL PUMPING
tion. A solution is a liquid with dis- difference between suction pressure Centrifugal pumping terminol-
solved air or other gases. Solutions and vapor pressure. In pump design ogy can be confusing. The follow-
have a higher vapor pressure than and application jargon, NPSHA is the ing section addresses these terms
net positive suction and how they are used:
head available to the Head is a term used to
FIGURE 1 pump, and NPSHR is express pressure in both pump
the net positive suc- design and system design when
tion head required analyzing static or dynamic condi-
by the pump. tions. This relationship is
The NPSH A expressed as:
must be equal to or
100 100 100 greater than the (pressure in psi x 2.31)
FEET FEET FEET NPSHR for a pump head in feet =
STATIC STATIC STATIC specific gravity
HEAD HEAD HEAD to run properly. One
way to determine the Pressure in static systems is
NPSH A is to mea- referred to as static head and in a
sure the suction pres- dynamic system as dynamic
sure at the suction head.
43 psi 32.5 psi 52 psi
nozzle, then apply To explain static head, let’s
the following formu- consider three columns of any
Water Gasoline SaltWater la: diameter, one filled with water,
Sp. Gr. = 1.0 Sp. Gr. = .75 Sp. Gr. = 1.2 one with gasoline, and one with
NPSHA = PB – VP ± Gr salt water (Figure 1). If the
Static head using various liquids.
+ hv columns are 100 ft tall and you
I
n the many differences that exist can develop is reduced as the capacity When the pump curve is super-
between centrifugal and positive increases. Conversely, as the capacity imposed on the system curve, the
displacement pumps, one which drops, the pressure it can achieve is point of intersection represents the
has caused some confusion is the gradually increased until it reaches a conditions (H,Q) at which the pump
manner in which they each operate maximum where no liquid can pass will operate.
within the system. through the pump. Since this is usually
Positive displacement pumps have a relatively low pressure, it is rarely Pump Curve
a series of working cycles, each of necessary to install a pressure relief or
which encloses a certain volume of safety valve. H
fluid and moves it mechanically When discussing the pressures
through the pump into the system, developed by a centrifugal pump, we
regardless of the back pressure on the use the equivalent linear measurement System Curve
pump. While the maximum pressure referred to as “head,” which allows the
developed is limited only by the pump curve to apply equally to liquids Q
O
mechanical strength of the pump and of different densities.
system and by the driving power [Head (in feet)=Pressure (in p.s.i.) x Pumping conditions change
available, the effect of that pressure 2.31+ Specific Gravity of the liquid] ONLY through an alteration in
can be controlled by a pressure relief either the pump curve or the sys-
or safety valve. SYSTEM CURVE tem curve.
A major advantage of the posi- The system curve represents the When considering possible
tive displacement pump is that it pressures needed at different flow rates movements in these curves, it
can deliver consistent capacities to move the product through the sys- should be noted that there are only
because the output is solely depen- tem. To simplify a comparison with a few conditions which will cause
dent on the basic design of the the centrifugal pump curve, we again the pump curve to change its posi-
pump and the speed of its driving use the ‘head’ measurement. The sys- tion and shape:
mechanism. This means that, if the tem head consists of three factors: • wear of the impeller
required flow rate is not moving • static head, or the vertical eleva- • change in rotational speed
through the system, the situation tion through which the liquid • change in impeller diameter
can always be corrected by chang- must be lifted • change in liquid viscosity
ing one or both of these factors. • friction head, or the head required Since these conditions don’t nor-
This is not the case with the cen- to overcome the friction losses in mally develop quickly, any sudden
trifugal pump, which can only the pipe, the valves and all the fit- change in pumping conditions is
react to the pressure demand of the tings and equipment likely to be a result of a movement
system. If the back pressure on a • velocity head, which is the head in the system curve, which means
centrifugal pump changes, so will required to accelerate the flow of something in the system has
its capacity. liquid through the pump (Velocity changed.
This can be disruptive for any head is generally quite small and Since there are only three ingre-
process dependent on a specific often ignored.) dients in a system curve, one of
flow rate, and it can diminish the As the static head does not vary which is minimal, it follows that
operational stability, hydraulic effi- simply because of a change in flow either the static head or the friction
ciency and mechanical reliability of rate, the graph would show a straight head must have changed for any
the pump. line. However, both the friction movement to take place in the sys-
head and the tem curve.
CENTRIFUGAL PUMP A change in the static
PERFORMANCE CURVE velocity head
will always head is normally a result of
The interdependency of the sys- a change in tank level. If
vary direct- Head
tem and the centrifugal pump can be the pump is emptying a
ly with the System
easily explained with the use of the Curve Friction & tank and discharging at a
capacity. The Velocity Head
pump performance curve and the fixed elevation, the static
combination
system curve. head against which the
of all three Static Head
A centrifugal pump performance pump must operate will be
creates the Capacity
curve is a well known shape which gradually increasing as the
system curve.
shows that the pressure the pump
C
avitation is the formation involves both the net positive suction friction in the suction pipe is a
and collapse of vapor bub- heads available in the system common negative component of
bles in a liquid. (NPSHA) and the net positive suction NPSHA, the value of NPSHA will
Bubble formation head required by the pump (NPSHR). always decrease with flow.
occurs at a point where the pres- NPSHA is the measurement or NPSHA must be calculated to
sure is less than the vapor pres- calculation of the absolute pressure a stated reference elevation, such
sure, and bubble collapse or above the vapor pressure at the as the foundation on which the
implosion occurs at a point where pump suction flange. Figure 2 illus- pump is to be mounted.
the pressure is increased to the trates methods of calculating NPSHA NPSHR is always referenced
vapor pressure. Figure 1 shows for various suction systems. Since to the pump impeller center line.
vapor pressure temperature char-
acteristics.
This phenomenon can also FIGURE 1
occur with ship propellers and in -60° to 240°F
other hydraulic systems such as 1000 985
RI
D SU
is displaced by vapor, and 40 O 40
HL
mechanical imbalance occurs as L
C
AT
E 30
HY
the impeller passages are partially 30 NE ET RM H ER 20
O PA M
FO ET 14
A L L )
filled with lighter vapors. This 20 PR
O
NI
TH
Y
TH
Y
AN
E
10
M E E H
DI
5
results in vibration and shaft M E M ET
A
T AN E O M 2
0
deflection, eventually resulting in BU R ID OR 5
E
10 O E HL
N
L D C 6 10"
TA
8 NE 1
L LO O
F=
HY ET RM
O
ET AC OF
O U
6 NE R E TH AT
multi-stage pumps this can cause 5 YL
E
HL
O
RO R.
E
G 20"
H LO P.
EN
C
loss of thrust balance and thrust 4 ET CH (S
YL
M I R 22.5"
H
TR TE
bearing failures.
ET
3
E
ID
A
O
W
R
)
R
TR CIS
VY
25"
LO
LO
A
BUBBLE COLLAPSE PHASE
H
(
H
2 HE
AC
E
26"
IC
N
D
LE
27"
VACUUM–INCHES OF MERCURY
ET
N
BO
1.0
AR
O
28"
C
L
.80
AT
DI
28.5"
2. Noise and vibration result from .60
W
.50
the implosion. Noise that .40
29"
29.1"
sounds like gravel being .30
29.2"
29.3"
pumped is often the user’s first 29.4"
29.6"
NET POSITIVE SUCTION HEAD 29.7"
.10 29.72"
When designing a pumping 60 30 0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240
system and selecting a pump, one TEMPERATURE–F
must thoroughly evaluate net posi-
tive suction head (NPSH) to pre- Vapor pressures of various liquids related to temperature.
vent cavitation. A proper analysis
resulting cavitation.
A B C
The NPSHA margin required
WHERE VAPORIZATION
LOWEST PRESSURE
STARTS
TOTAL HEAD
be considered. For a low-maintenance
pump system, designers 100% CAP Q3
SUCTION SPECIFIC SPEED and most user specifica- 3% Q4
NPSHR
The concept of suction specif- tions require, or prefer, Ss
ic speed (Ss) must be considered values below 10,000 to
by the pump designer, pump 12,000. However, as indi-
application engineer, and the sys- cated above, the pump Ss
tem designer to ensure a cavita- is dictated to a great
tion-free pump with high extent by the system con-
reliability and the ability to oper- ditions, design flow, head, NPSH
ate over a wide flow range. and the NPSHA.
N x Q0.5 Figures 5 and 6 are Typical results of a four-point net posi-
Ss = —————— plots of Ss versus flow in tive suction head required (NPSHR) test
(NPSHR)0.75 gpm for various NPSHA based on a 3% head drop.
or NPSH R at 3,500 and
where N = pump rpm 1,750 rpm. Similar plots
Q = flow rate in gpm at the can be made for other common gpm if the maximum Ss is to be
best efficiency point pump speeds. maintained at 12,000. Various
NPSHR = NPSHR at Q with Using curves from Figure 5 and options are available, such as
Figure 6 allows the system designer reducing the head to allow 1,750
the maximum impeller
to design the system Ss, i.e., for a sys- rpm (Figure 7). This would allow
diameter
tem requiring a 3,500 rpm pump flows to 4,000 gpm with 20 feet of
The system designer should with 20 feet of NPSHA, the maxi- NPSHA.
also calculate the system suction mum flow must be limited to 1,000
3
FIGURE 5
2
2
V=
HS
1
9 3
S, Suction specific speed
8
4
7
5
6
6
7
5
8 24
9 V= 28
10 HS
4
12 32 50 55
V= 45
HS V=
14 16 20 36 HS 60 65
18 40
3
Solution for
Q
2 S=N Hsv0.75
for N=3,500 rpm
1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1
Q, Capacity, gpm
A plot of suction specific speed (Ss) versus flow in gallons per minute (gpm) for various NPSHA or
NPSHR at 3,500 rpm. (Single suction pumps. For double suction use 1/2 capacity). Hsv=NPSHR at
BEP with maximum impeller diameter.
FIGURE
4 6
3
2
S, Suction specific speed
1
9
8
7
V=1
HS
6
2
5
3
4
4 5 50
2 V=4
5 V=1 HS
HS
6
3
14 4 28
16 18 V=2 32 36 40
7 20 HS
8
9 10
Solution for
2
Q
S=N Hsv0.75
for N=1,750 rpm
1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1
Q, Capacity, gpm
A plot of suction specific speed (Ss) versus flow in gallons per minute (gpm) for various NPSHA or
NPSHR at 1,750 rpm. (Single suction pumps. For double suction use 1/2 capacity.) HSV=NPSHR at
BEP with the maximum impeller diameter.
pump performance
3 2. Durco Pump Engineering
problems are caused
Manual.
by problems on the
suction side. 3. Hydraulic Institute Test
NPSH - FEET
f a wide receiver has the right Hf= the friction losses in the
I
a function of the system design on
speed and good hands, all that’s the suction side of the pump. suction piping.
needed from the quarterback is Consequently, it is in the control of The NPSH Available may also
to throw the ball accurately, the system designer. be determined with this equation:
and the team will probably gain To avoid cavitation, the NPSH
good yardage, maybe even a available from the system must be NPSHA= Ha + Hg + V2/2g - Hvp
touchdown. greater than the NPSH required by
Believe it or not, much the the pump, and the biggest mistake where
same is true of a pump and its suc- that can be made by a system design-
tion conditions. If it has the right er is to succumb to the temptation to Ha= atmospheric pressure in
speed and is the right size, all provide only the minimum required feet of head.
that’s required from the quarter- at the rated design point. This leaves Hg= the gauge pressure at the
back is to deliver the liquid at the no margin for error on the part of the suction flange in feet of
right pressure and with an even designer, or the pump, or the system. head.
laminar flow into the eye of the Giving in to this temptation has V2= The velocity head at the
impeller. proved to be a costly mistake on 2g point of measurement of
If the quarterback’s pass is off many occasions. Hg. (Gauge readings do not
target, badly timed, or the ball’s In the simple system as shown include velocity head.)
turning end over end in the air, in Figure 1, the NPSH Available can
the receiver may not be able to be calculated as follows: RULE #2.
hang on to it, and there’s no gain REDUCE THE FRICTION LOSSES
on the play. When that hap-
When a pump is taking its
pens, the quarterback FIGURE 1
knows he didn’t throw it suction from a tank, it should be
properly and doesn’t blame Ha located as close to the tank as pos-
the receiver. Unfortunately, sible in order to reduce the effect
that’s where the compari- of friction losses on the NPSH
son ends. The engineering Available. Yet the pump must be
”quarterbacks” tend to Hvp far enough away from the tank to
blame the pump even when Hs ensure that correct piping practice
its their delivery that’s bad! Hf can be followed. Pipe friction can
Just as there are tech- usually be reduced by using a larg-
niques a quarterback must er diameter line to limit the linear
learn in order to throw velocity to a level appropriate to
accurately, there are rules the particular liquid being
which ensure that a liquid pumped. Many industries work
arrives at the impeller eye with with a maximum velocity of about
the pressure and flow characteris- NPSHA = Ha + Hs - Hvp - Hf 5ft./sec., but this is not always
tics needed for reliable operation. acceptable.
where
RULE #1. Ha= the head on the surface of the RULE #3.
PROVIDE SUFFICIENT NPSH liquid in the tank. In an open NO ELBOWS ON THE
Without getting too complicat- system like this, it will be SUCTION FLANGE
ed on a subject about which com- atmospheric pressure.
Much discussion has taken
plete books have been written, Hs= the vertical distance of the
let’s just accept the premise that place over the acceptable configu-
free surface of the liquid ration of an elbow on the suction
every impeller requires a mini- above the center line of the
mum amount of pressure energy flange of a pump. Let’s simplify it.
pump impeller. If the liquid is There isn’t one!
in the liquid being supplied in below the pump, this
order to perform without cavita- There is always an uneven
becomes a negative value.
tion difficulties. This pressure flow in an elbow, and when one is
Hvp= the vapor pressure of the liq- installed on the suction of any
energy is referred to as Net
uid at the pumping tempera- pump, it introduces that uneven
Positive Suction Head Required.
ture, expressed in feet of
The NPSH Available is sup- flow into the eye of the impeller.
head.
plied from the system. It is solely This can create turbulence and air
M
inimum flow can be mechanical handbooks. temperature. The difference
determined by examin- What is the maximum allowable between the allowable temperature
ing each of the factors temperature rise? Pump manufactur- and the temperature at the pump
that affect it. There are ers usually limit it to 15°F. However, inlet is the maximum allowable
five elements that can be quanti- this can be disastrous in certain situa- temperature rise. Knowing ∆T and
fied and evaluated: tions. A comparison of the vapor pres- C p , the minimum flow can be
sure to the lowest expected suction determined by finding the corre-
1. Temperature rise (minimum
pressure plus NPSH required (NPSHR) sponding head and efficiency.
thermal flow)
by the pump must be made. The tem- When calculating the maxi-
2. Minimum stable flow perature where the vapor pressure mum allowable temperature rise,
equals the suction pressure plus the look at the pump geometry. For
3. Thrust capacity
NPSHR is the maximum allowable instance, examine the vertical can
4. NPSH requirements
5. Recirculation FIGURE 1
The highest flow calculated
using these parameters is consid-
ered the minimum flow.
TEMPERATURE RISE
Temperature rise comes from
energy imparted to the liquid
through hydraulic and mechanical
losses within the pump. These
losses are converted to heat,
which can be assumed to be
entirely absorbed by the liquid SUCTION DISCHARGE
pumped. Based on this assump-
tion, temperature rise ∆T in °F is Low Pressure High Pressure
expressed as: Lower Higher
Temperature Temperature
H 1
∆T = ————— x ——————
778 x Cp η–1
where
H = total head in feet
Cp = specific heat of the liquid,
Btu/lb x °F
η = pump efficiency in decimal
form
778 ft–lbs = energy to raise the
temperature of one pound of
water 1°F
To calculate this, the specific
heat and allowable temperature
rise must be known.
The specific heat for water is
1.0, and other specific heats can A high-pressure vertical pump. Asterisks (*) denote where low-
be as low as 0.5. The specific temperature fluid is exposed to higher temperatures. Flashing and
heats for a number of liquids can vaporization can occur here. Temperature increases as fluid trav-
be found in many chemical and els from A towards B.
Effects of Oversizing
BY: IGOR J. KARASSIK
O
FIGURE 1
of power waste is the prac- head-capacity curve
tice of oversizing a pump with the system-
by selecting design condi- head curve, as long H – Q Curve
tions with excessive margins in as the available System-
Head Curve
both capacity and total head. It is NPSH is equal to or
strange on occasion to encounter a exceeds the required
great deal of attention being paid NPSH (Figure 1).
to a one-point difference in effi- To change this op-
Head
ciency between two pumps while erating point in an
at the same time potential power existing installation
savings are ignored through an requires changing
overly conservative attitude in either the head-
selecting the required conditions capacity curve or
the system-head Capacity
of service.
curve, or both. The Pump H-Q curve superimposed on system-head
POWER CONSUMPTION first can be accom- curve
After all, we are not primarily plished by varying
interested in efficiency; we are the speed of the
more interested in power con- pump (Figure 2), or FIGURE 2
sumption. Pumps are designed to its impeller dia-
Head-Capacity
convert mechanical energy from a meter while the at Full Speed
(N1)
driver into energy within a liquid. second requires System-
Head Curve
This energy within the liquid is altering the friction Head-Capacity
at Full Speed H1
needed to overcome friction loss- losses by throttling (N2)
Head-Capac
es, static pressure differences and a valve in the pump ity at Full Sp
eed (N ) H2
3 H
discharge (Figure
Head
% Efficiency
us about 4% margin in capacity,
160 which is sufficient. To limit the
flow to 2700 gpm, we will still
140 have to throttle the pump slightly
90 and our system head curve will
become curve C. The power con-
Static Head
sumption at 2700 gpm will now be
200 80
only 145 bhp instead of the 165 bhp
required with our first overly con-
180 70 servative selection. This is a very
er
lle
r
mp
lle
pe
3 / 4"
Im no longer need a 200 hp motor. A
Q1
4
4 3/
14
150 hp motor will do quite well.
η−
Q
η−
Q1
140 er 50
ell
η−
B.H.P.
W
FIGURE 1
new application or eval-
uating the performance
of an existing pump, it is
often necessary to account for the
effect of the pumped fluid’s vis-
cosity. We are all aware that the
head-capacity curves presented in
pump vendor catalogs are pre-
pared using water as the pumped
fluid. These curves are adequate
for use when the actual fluid that
we are interested in pumping has
a viscosity that is less than or
equal to that of water. However,
in some cases—certain crude oils,
for example—this is not the case.
Heavy crude oils can have
viscosities high enough to increase
the friction drag on a pump’s
impellers significantly. The addi-
tional horsepower required to
overcome this drag reduces the
pump’s efficiency. There are sev-
eral analytical and empirical
approaches available to estimate
the magnitude of this effect. Some
of these are discussed below.
Before beginning the discus-
sion, however, it is vital to empha-
size the importance of having an
accurate viscosity number on
which to base our estimates. The
viscosity of most liquids is strong-
ly influenced by temperature. This
relationship is most often shown
by plotting two points on a semi-
logarithmic grid and connecting
them with a straight line. The rela-
tionship is of the form:
µ = AeB/T
where
µ = the absolute viscosity of the
fluid
A and B = constants
Reproduced from the Hydraulic Institute Standards (Figure 71)
T = the absolute temperature of the
fluid
the normal operating temperature The effect of pressure on the
Plotting this relationship as well as the minimum tempera- viscosity of most fluids is small.
requires knowledge of two data ture that might be expected during For mineral oils, for example, an
points, and using them effective- other off-design conditions such as increase of pressure of 33 bars
ly requires some judgement as to start-up. (≈480 psi ) is equivalent to a tem-
T
he subject of balancing Presented below is a description commonly referenced by flexible
rotors is one of the funda- of the problem, definitions of some of coupling vendors. It has the
mentals of rotating equip- the more important terms used, and advantage of being conceptually
ment engineering. A references that can be consulted for a simple. For the gear manufactur-
number of balancing standards more thorough review. A table also ers who developed this standard,
have been developed over the compares three of the most common it allowed the use of manufactur-
years to meet the requirements of balancing criteria used in the pump ing process tolerances as balanc-
pump manufacturers and users, industry. ing tolerances. In Paragraph 3.2.7,
and the idea of balancing is simple. Perhaps the least controversial API 610 7th Edition suggests that
Unfortunately, the definitions and comment that can be made to an couplings meeting AGMA 515.02
mathematics used in describing experienced equipment specialist is Class 8 should be used unless oth-
balancing problems can be confus- that “accurate rotor balancing is criti- erwise specified.
ing. This article compares these cal to reliable operation.” I could add The SCVM is based on con-
criteria so the end user can use some spice to the conversation by giv- siderations of mechanical similari-
consistent reasoning when making ing my opinion on how good is good ty. For geometrically similar rigid
balancing decisions. enough, but I would rather address rotors running at equal peripheral
the standards used in the pump speeds, the stresses in the rotor
industry and show how they take and bearings are the same. This
TABLE 1. BALANCING CRITERIA
different approaches to resolve the method is described in ISO
Unbalanced Specified Specified problem of balancing rotors. Standard 1940—Balance Quality of
Force Eccentricity Circular I use the term rotor repeated- Rigid Rotors. It also forms the
Method Method Velocity ly in this discussion. For the pur- basis of API Standard 610 7th
As per API 610 As per Method
6th Edition AGMA 510.02 As per API 610
pose of this article, I include Edition’s very stringent 4W/N bal-
7th Edition partially and fully assembled ancing requirement. Standards
Residual Unbalance pump shaft/sleeve/impeller as- based on this methodology are
(RUB), in.–oz 56347 Wj 16 ε Wj 4 Wj semblies as well as individual becoming more common.
where: N2 N
pump components installed on In Table 1 the three balancing
Wj = rotor weight per
balancing machine arbors in this criteria discussed above are com-
definition. pared with respect to their effect on
balance plane, Ibf
The three major criteria used the various parameters involved in
N = rpm
will be referred to as the balancing. The terms used in the
ε = eccentricity, in. Unbalanced Force Method (UFM), table are defined as follows:
Eccentricity (ε) or the Specified Eccentricity Method
Specific Unbalance (SEM), and the Specified Circular RESIDUAL UNBALANCE
in.–oz/lbm 56347 16 ε 4 Velocity Method (SCVM). This is the amount of unbal-
N2 N In the UFM the allowable ance present or allowed in the
unbalance permitted in a rotor is rotor. It has the units of mass and
in.–lbm/lbm 3522 ε 0.25 the amount that will result in a length. It is computed by taking
N2 N dynamic force on the rotor system the product of the rotor mass (per
where RUB = εWj see Table 2 equal to some percentage of the balance plane) times the distance
Unbalance Force (UBF), rotor’s static weight. This allow- from the rotor’s center of mass to
lbf where: able unbalance is therefore related its center of rotation. Note that 1
UBF = εMω2 to the operating speed of the rotor. in.–oz is equivalent to 72.1 cm–g.
0.10 Wj εWjN2 WjN
and M = Wj/386 lbf–s2/in. 35200 140800 An example of this method can be ECCENTRICITY
ω = 2 π N/60 rad/s found in API Standard 610 6th
This is the distance that the
Circular Velocity (CV),
Edition, where the unbalance
center of mass of the rotor is dis-
force contributed to a rotor system
in./s 368 εN 0.26 placed from the rotor’s center of
by a rotating unbalance is limited
N 9.54 rotation. It has the unit of length.
to 10% of the rotor’s static weight.
It can also be considered as a mea-
The SEM attempts to specify
mm/s 9347 2.66 εN 0.665 balance quality by limiting the
sure of specific residual unbal-
N ance, having the units of
distance by which the center of
where CV = εω mass of the rotor can be offset
length–mass/mass. This term is
ISO Standard 1940 G – 9347 G – 2.66 εN G – 0.665 the basic criterion of SEM balanc-
from the center of rotation of the
Balance Grade N ing rules (see Table 2). Note that 1
rotor. This method is used in
in. is equivalent to 25.4 mm.
AGMA Standard 515.02, which is
Bearing Basics
BY RAY RHOE
A
ntifriction bearings, which
can utilize either balls or
rollers, are used to transfer
radial and axial loads
between the rotating and station-
ary pump and motor assemblies
during operation. Even under the
best of installation, maintenance,
and operating conditions, bearing
failures can and will occur. The
purpose of this article is to provide
a working-level discussion of bear-
ings, the types of failures, and
how bearings should be installed
and maintained for optimum life
expectancy.
Due to space limitations, we
cannot address all the different
sizes and types of bearings avail-
able, or all the constraints cur- Photo 1. Typical radial bearings
rently utilized in design.
However, because electric motors
are used more often to drive cen- must transfer radial loads at the outer race. The “back” of the bear-
trifugal pumps, our discussion other end of the motor, and they ing has the wider lip on the outer
will be based on bearings typical- must transfer all axial loads. Photo 1 race and usually has various sym-
ly used in quality motors. These shows several typical radial bearings, bols and designators on it. Photo 2
bearings usually include a single and Photo 2 shows DACBs. shows two pairs of DACBs. The
radial bearing and a matched set pair on the left is positioned face-
of duplex angular contact bear- DIFFERENT BEARING
to-face while the pair on the right
ings (DACBs). Together, these CONFIGURATIONS is back-to-back. Note that the lip
bearings must: Radial bearings may be provided on the outer races of the first pair
• allow the unit to operate satis- with either 0, 1, or 2 seals or shields is narrower than on the second
factorily over long periods of that are effectively used to prevent pair. This distinguishing character-
time with minimum friction entry of foreign material into the istic provides an easy identifica-
and maintenance bearings. If the bearing is equipped tion of which side is the face or
• maintain critical tolerances with one seal or shield, the installer back. In tandem, the narrow lip of
between rotating and stationary should determine which end of the one bearing is placed next to the
assemblies to prevent contact motor the seal or shield should face. wide lip on the other. In other
and wear Failure to install radial bearings prop- words, all bearing faces point
erly in the correct orientation may either toward the pump or away
• transmit all variable radial and
result in the blockage of grease or from it.
axial loads in all operating con-
lubricant to the bearings during rou- To facilitate the installation of
ditions, which include reverse
tine maintenance. DACBs, the bearing faces should
rotation, startup, shutdown,
The orientation of DACBs is be marked with a black indelible
maximum flow, and maximum
more complex, DACBs must be marker showing where the bur-
discharge pressure
installed in one of four configura- nished alignment marks (BAMs)
Each bearing has a specific tions, as determined by design: are on the back. This is because
purpose. The radial bearing, the four BAMs, two on each bear-
1. face-to-face
which is located at one end of the ing, must be aligned with their
motor, only transfers radial loads 2. back-to-back
3. tandem: faces toward the pump counterparts, and not all BAMs
such as minor unbalanced rotor are visible during installation. For
loads—and the weight of the rotor 4. tandem: faces away from the pump example, when the first bearing is
itself in the case of horizontally The “face” of the DACB is that installed in a face-to-face configura-
oriented components. The DACBs side that has the narrow lip on the tion, the BAMs are on the back
T
he efficiency of centrifugal where ehp = electrical power in and can have significant power
pumps of all sizes is becoming horsepower. requirements.
more important as the cost Internal leakage occurs as the
and demand for electricity EFFICIENCY LOSSES result of flow between the rotating
increases. Many utilities are empha- Pump efficiency is influenced by and stationary parts of the pump,
sizing conservation to reduce the hydraulic effects, mechanical losses, from the discharge of the impeller
number of new generating facilities and internal leakage. Each of these back to the suction. The rate of leak-
that need to be built. Utilities have factors can be controlled to improve age is a function of the clearances in
increased incentives to conserve pump efficiency. Any given design the pump. Reducing the clearances
power with programs that emphasize arrangement balances the cost of will decrease the leakage but can
demand side conservation. These pro- manufacturing, reliability, and power result in reliability problems if mating
grams often help fund capital equip- consumption to meet users needs. materials are not properly selected.
ment replacements that reduce Hydraulic losses may be caused Some designs bleed off flows from
electrical consumption. Demand side by boundary layer effects, disruptions the discharge to balance thrust, pro-
management programs make replac- of the velocity profile, and flow sepa- vide bearing lubrication, or to cool
ing old pumping equipment more ration. Boundary layer losses can be the seal.
feasible than ever before. minimized by making pumps with
clean, smooth, and uniform hydraulic EXPECTED EFFICIENCIES
DETERMINING PUMP EFFICIENCY passages. Mechanical grinding and The expected hydraulic efficien-
The efficiency of a pump ηp is polishing of hydraulic surfaces, or cy of a pump design is a function of
ratio of water horsepower (whp) to modern casting techniques, can be the pump size and type. Generally,
brake horsepower (bhp). The highest used to improve the surface finish, the larger the pump, the higher the
efficiency of a pump occurs at the decrease vane thickness, and efficiency. Pumps that are geometri-
flow where the incidence angle of the improve efficiency. Shell molds, cally similar should have similar effi-
fluid entering the hydraulic passages ceramic cores, and special sands pro- ciencies. Expected BEPs have been
best matches with the vane angle. duce castings with smoother and plotted as a function of specific speed
The operating condition where a more uniform hydraulic passages. and pump size. A set of curves that
pump design has its highest efficien- Separation of flow occurs when a may be used to estimate efficiency is
cy is referred to as the best efficiency pump is operated well away from the provided in Figure 1. The specific
point (BEP). best efficiency point (BEP). The flow speed (Ns) of a pump may be deter-
ηp = whp/bhp separation occurs because the inci- mined from the equation:
The water horsepower (whp) dence angle of the fluid entering the Ns = NQ0.5/H0.75
may be determined from the equa- hydraulic passage is significally dif- where N = speed in rpm, Q = capac-
tion: ferent from the angle of the blade. ity in gpm, and H = developed head
whp = QHs/3,960 Voided areas increase the amount of in feet.
where Q = capacity in gallons per energy required to force the fluid Using a pump performance
minute, H = developed head in feet, through the passage. curve, the highest efficiency can be
and s = specific gravity of pumped Mechanical losses in a pump are determined and the specific speed
fluid. caused by viscous disc friction, bear- calculated using the head and capaci-
Preferably, the brake horsepow- ing losses, seal or packing losses, and ty at that point. Using the specific
er supplied by a driver can be deter- recirculation devices. If the clearance speed and the pump capacity, the
mined using a transmission between the impeller and casing side- expected efficiency can be estimated.
dynameter or with a specially cali- wall is too large, disc friction can If the pump has bearings or seals that
brated motor. Brake horsepower increase, reducing efficiency. require more power, such as tilting
determined in the field by measuring Bearings, thrust balancing devices, pad thrust bearings or multiple seals,
kilowatt input and multiplying by the seals, and packing all contribute to this should be considered when cal-
motor catalogue efficiency can be frictional losses. Most modern bear- culating the expected efficiency.
inaccurate. If motor power is deter- ing and seal designs generate full
mined in the field, data should be fluid film lubrication to minimize fric- MOTOR EFFICIENCIES
taken at the motor junction box, not tional losses and wear. Frequently, Efficiencies for new “premium
at the motor control center. recirculation devices such as auxiliary efficiency motors” are provided in
Overall pump motor efficiency impellers or pumping rings are used Figure 2. Using these values, with
ηo may be determined from the equa- to provide cooling and lubrication to anticipated pump efficiencies in
tion: bearings and seals. Like the main Figure 1, the expected power con-
ηo = whp/ehp impeller, these devices pump fluid sumption for a well designed pump
Q: How do I select the practical for the designated equip- relatively new or infrequently test-
proper motor size for ment design, but does have a toler- ed pump designs.
my centrifugal pump ance range which may be ex- The user should be informed
applications? In some perienced for any specific pump for of this potential variation if the
applications we have experi- such characteristics as the Total impeller requires replacement
enced driver overload, while Dynamic Head (TDH) at a specific due to normal operating wear of
other applications appear satis- flow rate. the pump, especially if it is to be
factory using the same selec- Brake horsepower is related to purchased from a source other
tion method. the TDH by the following formula: than the original equipment man-
What seems to be a ufacturer, which may not have
A: straightforward re-
quirement of selecting
a pump motor too fre-
quently results in a
major problem when commission-
BHP =
(TDH) x Flow x Specific Gravity
3960 x Efficiency x Viscosity
Correction
Factors*
historical test records of the origi-
nal hydraulic design.
Industry practice is to guaran-
tee only the TDH (with a tolerance
range) at a specified flow rate and
ing the pumping system and the *See Hydraulic Institute Standards for Values the pump efficiency. The resulting
installed motor overloads and is brake horsepower is guaranteed
tripped off the line. Correcting the only by the same tolerance, and
Most pump users will not accept then only if the pump is tested.
problem can be as simple as
a lower than specified rating point
adjusting a manual valve. And it MECHANICAL SEAL
TDH, and the manufacturer is fre-
can be as complex and time con- HORSEPOWER LOSSES
quently required to test the equip-
suming as replacing the motor,
ment prior to shipment to confirm The performance curve pub-
motor starters, and service wire
that the pump meets the specified lished by the pump manufacturer
with a larger size, and altering the
requirements. If the installed and described above does not pro-
flow control system.
impeller should produce less TDH vide allowances for the power
A simple rule of thumb of
than specified, the manufacturer required to turn a mechanical seal
supplying a motor size that
must replace the impeller with a that is loaded to typical process
exceeds the pump manufacturers
larger diameter. If high alloy materi- conditions. For a high suction
rated point brake horsepower by
als are involved, there may be con- pressure, double mechanical shaft
some fixed margin, or of supply-
siderable expense and delay seal pump installation, this can be
ing a motor size equal to the brake
involved. Hence the practice in the a measurable amount and must be
horsepower at the end of the
pump industry is to publish a perfor- added to the horsepower required
selected impeller diameter curve,
mance curve (TDH vs. Capacity) for to move the liquid. An allowance
may not work in all cases. The
a given impeller diameter that is of one to two horsepower, for
person selecting the motor must
somewhat less than can actually be example, may be required for
have a thorough knowledge of the
achieved by the specified diameters. some ANSI style pump designs to
pumping system and its character-
Should a test then be specified and compensate for seal losses. Hence,
istics, pump industry practices,
the impeller TDH test higher than if the generalized performance
and limitations of the generalized
allowed tolerances at a given flow curve rating point results in a BHP
data provided by the pump manu-
rate, the impeller can be reduced to a of 7.5 Hp, a motor of 10 Hp may
facturer with the quotation.
smaller diameter to provide the be considered for the application if
GENERALIZED PERFORMANCE required values without replacing it. no allowance is given for factors
CURVE LIMITATIONS One of the current pump indus- like seal drag.
The brake horsepower values try acceptance test criteria, the As part of the equipment quo-
published by the pump manufac- Hydraulic Institute Standards, per- tation, an estimate for the seal
turer on the generalized hydraulic mits the TDH to exceed the design horsepower drag should be
performance curves (TDH, effi- point requirements by as much as requested for all pumps requiring
ciency, BHP vs. capacity) are the 8%. Sometimes pump impellers will mechanical seals. If a double
basis for the rated point BHP exceed the published data by as mechanical seal has been specified
returned to a potential customer much as 20% when first tested. This with a buffer fluid pressurized
when responding to a request for is not usually the case, but there is a flush, the buffer fluid pressure
quotation for a specific applica- range of performance, especially on must be specified by the seal and
tion. The data is as accurate as pump manufacturer and observed
Q:
FIGURE 1
volved in replacing a the liquid pumped
newly purchased pump.
• desire to avoid
It was accepted by the
overload of drivers QRSA
purchaser, but the
of high specific- QSRB
shop test was noisy. The manufac-
speed axial-flow
turer said this was due to the poor
pumps Unstable
suction piping. The field test was region Safe Zones
unacceptable and noisy, and there • for pumps hand- pump B
was disagreement about whether ling liquids with of Operation
the noise was due to improperly significant amounts
Min. Flow
Min. Flow
placed elbows in the suction piping of dissolved or
Pump B
Head, H
or if the pump was inappropriately entrain-ed air or
HRSA
selected. The pump, probably gas, the need to
designed for flows much greater maintain sufficient-
HRSB
Pump A
than system requirements, was ly high fluid veloci-
recirculating. The noise was a very ties to wash out this
low frequency, random banging. air or gas along
The single-stage, double-suction, with the liquid
twin-volute design had four times
Since then, a new 25% 100%
more NPSH than required. How
phenomenon has been
would your experts have diagnosed Capacity of Q in%
discovered that affects
this costly problem?
the setting of minimum
What witness shop test should Comparison of safe zones of operation for
flows. At certain
be conducted so that the pump normal and for high S value impellers
reduced flows, all cen-
purchaser can be assured of a safe
trifugal pumps are sub-
continuous flow as quoted in the
ject to internal
proposal? What measurements, strong controversy. Accept my com-
recirculation, both in the suction and
observations (both audible and ments as a personal opinion.
discharge areas of the impeller. This
visual), and instrumentation One theoretical method exists to
produces pulsations at both the suc-
should be used to detect the onset predict the onset of recirculation (Ref.
tion and discharge, and the vibration
of suction and/or discharge recircu- 1 and 2). The results of this method
can damage impeller material in a
lation? If the pump does not per- have been verified by many tests,
way similar to classic cavitation,
form as quoted, are minor shop with actual pumps and plastic trans-
although taking place in a different
alterations conceivable? parent models where the onset could
area of the impeller.
I would like to suggest to the be observed with a strobe light. The
Each of these effects may dictate
Hydraulic Institute that a minimum results corresponded within no more
a different minimum operating
nonrecirculating flow test be added than 5% deviation from the predic-
capacity. Clearly, the final decision
to the standards. Your thoughts? tions.
must be based on the greatest of the
J. P. Messina, Professional individual minimums. The internal Assuming that the pump is prop-
Engineer, Pump and Hydraulics recirculation usually sets the recom- erly furnished with the necessary
Consultant, Springfield, NJ. mended minimum, which appears to instrumentation, such as flowmeter,
be what happened in your case. pressure gauges with sufficient sensi-
You’ve actually raised two tivity to show pulsations, and vibra-
questions: tion and noise monitoring devices, an
Until about 25 years ago,
Q:
The maximum How can you estimate ditions (0 gpm), can be easily esti-
the maximum (shutoff) mated if the impeller diameter,
head or discharge head that a centrifugal number of impellers used, and
pressure pump can deliver? rpm of the driver (electric motor,
gas engine, turbine, etc.) are
of a centrifugal known.
The maximum pressure a
pump can be
easily estimated
if the impeller
A: centrifugal pump delivers
should be known in order
to ensure that a piping
system is adequately
designed. Any pump that operates
Let’s say we have a single-
stage pump with a 10-in. diameter
impeller and an 1,800 rpm driver.
To determine the head in feet,
simply take the impeller diameter
diameter, at a high flow rate could deliver in inches and square it. Our 10-in.
number of significantly more pressure at zero impeller at 1,800 rpm would yield
(0) gpm flow, such as when the dis- 102, or 100 ft of head. An 8-in.
impellers used, charge valve is closed, than it impeller would yield 82, or 64 ft of
and rpm delivers at operating flow. head, while a 12-in. impeller
The maximum head or discharge would yield 122, or 144 ft of head.
of the driver pressure of a centrifugal pump, Now let’s assume that our
are known. which usually occurs at shutoff con- 10-in. diameter impeller is driven
by a 3,600 rpm motor. We first
determine the head at 1,800 rpm,
FIGURE 1 but then multiply this value by a
factor of four. The basic rule is
that every time the rpm changes
17 by a factor of two, the head
changes by a factor of four. The
16
head at 3,600 rpm for our 10-in.
15 impeller is therefore 102 x 4, or
14 400 ft of head. Our 8-in. impeller
at 3600 rpm would give us 82 x 4,
13 or 256 ft of head, and our 12-in.
Head in Feet x 1000
A mechanical seal is
elastically under contact pressure.
This deformation creates larger
film areas and very thin films.
Such lubrication systems are nor-
mally used to control wear in
maximum head is classified, but
you have been requested to
resolve system problems that you
believe are pressure related. The
vendor tells you that the pump
A: designed to operate in
many types of fluids. The
product sealed becomes
the lubricant for the seal
faces. Many times the fluid being
rolling element bearings. In seals
where the viscosity of the fluid
sealed increases with increasing
pressure,elastohydrodynamic
lubrication occurs.
has four 8-in. diameter impellers sealed is a poor lubricant or contains Boundary lubrication is
and is driven by the turbine at abrasives that must be taken into important for seal faces that are
13,000 rpm. You would estimate account in the seal design. The moving very slowly under heavy
the maximum head as follows: design of the seal faces, materials of load. Here, hydrodynamic and
Step 1 Determine the head at construction, and seal lubrication elastohydrodynamic lubricant
1,800 rpm: play an important role in successful pressures are insufficient to sepa-
operation. Achieving a high level of rate the seal faces. The sliding
82 x 4 stages = 256 ft reliability and service life is a clas- surfaces are protected by the tri-
Step 2 Multiply the head at sic problem in the field of tribolo- bological properties of the materi-
1,800 rpm by four to get gy, the study of friction, wear, and als of construction. An example
the head at 3,600 rpm: lubrication. of a seal operating within this
The lubrication system for two lubrication system is a dry-running
256 x 4 = 1,024 ft
sliding seal faces can be classified as agitator seal.
Step 3 Multiply the head at follows: 1) hydrodynamic, 2) elasto- Mixed-film lubrication, a com-
3,600 rpm by 4 to get the hydrodynamic, 3) boundary, and 4) bination of all the previous sys-
head at 7,200 rpm: mixed film. tems discussed, occurs in all
Hydrodynamic conditions exist contact seals. Here the fluid film
1,024 x 4 = 4,096 ft
when the fluid film completely sepa- becomes very thin and is a combi-
Step 4 Multiply the head at rates the seal faces. Direct surface nation of both the liquid and the
7,200 rpm by 4 to get the contact between seal faces does not gas phases of the fluid sealed.
head at 14,400 rpm: take place, so there is no wear, and Asperities from one surface may
4,096 x 4 = 16,384 ft heat generation from friction is zero. penetrate the lubricating film and
The only heat generation occurs contact the opposite surface. The
Step 5 Plot the rpm-versus-head from shearing of the fluid film, seal face load is then supported
points to obtain the curve which is extremely small. A hydro- partially by the fluid film and par-
shown in Figure 1. dynamic seal may rely on design fea- tially by solid contact. If the gener-
tures such as balance factors, surface ated head at the seal faces is not
As you can see, the estimated waviness, or spiral grooves to sepa- removed, surface wear and dam-
head at 13,000 rpm is 12,500 ft. To rate the seal faces. The Society of age can occur. For applications
convert head in feet to psi, simply Tribologists and Lubrication where the seal face load is too
divide the head by 2.31 to get Engineers (STLE) guideline in high or the fluid viscosity is too
5,411 psi. “Meeting Emissions Regulations low, designs of seal faces can be
with Mechanical Seals” lists hydro- changed through balance and face
Ray W. Rhoe, PE, has a BSCE dynamic seals as a technology to geometry to improve seal perfor-
from The Citadel and 15 years’ expe- control emissions. mance. ■
rience with pumps, testing, and Elastohydrodynamic lubrication
hydraulic design. (EHD) is also found in sliding sur- James Netzel is Chief Engineer
faces, but more often this involves at John Crane Inc. He serves on the
rolling surfaces separated by an oil Editorial Advisory Board for Pumps
film. Here the moving surfaces form and Systems.
Q:
FIGURE 1. SHROUD & VANE REDUCTION impeller.
impeller to change the flow
and head, I sometimes get GAP “A”
too much of a reduction. GAP “B”
What is the problem?
A:
D
D’
speed, as is the case with
most pumps, the “Affinity Small reductions in
Laws” commonly used for
calculating the trim do not
accurately reflect the relationship
between the change in impeller diam-
eter and the hydraulic performance
(a)
cised in altering the diameter of a
mixed flow impeller.
A: impeller diameter will
increase the required
NPSH only slightly.
Diameter reductions great-
er than about five to 10 percent will
achieved by the pump. The calcula- increase NPSH required, which
Q:
tions generally dictate more of a cut occurs because specific vane loading
than required to affect the desired What is the effect of is raised by the reduced vane length,
head and flow reduction. The trimming an impeller on affecting velocity distribution at the
“Affinity Law” errors can be on the pump efficiency? impeller inlet. Not all pump compa-
order of 20 percent of the calculated nies consistently show their pump
It depends on the specific
A:
reduction. If the calculated reduction curves the increase NPSHR with
trimming calls for a 10 percent reduc- speed of the impeller. The reduced impeller diameters. Atten-
tion in diameter, only seven or eight specific speed index classi- tion must be paid to this factor when
percent reduction should be made. fies the hydraulic features the margin between NPSHR and
The lower the specific speed of the of pump impellers accord- NPSHA is very narrow or the NPSHR
impeller cut, the larger the discrepan- ing to their type and proportions. for a pump is extremely low.
cy. This subject is covered in only a Most refinery pumps fall between
few pump handbooks. The subject is about 900 and 2,500 on this index.
well covered on pages 18 and 19 of
Centrifugal Pumps - Design and
Application, First Edition, by Val
Lobanoff and Robert R. Ross. There
are several reasons for the actual
Some vertical multistage pumps are
in the 4,000 to 6,000 range.
For radial designs, impeller
diameter should not be reduced more
than 70 percent of the maximum
Q: What effect does trim-
ming an impeller have on
axial vibration?
Q:
FIGURE 4. IMPELLER VANE OVERFILING
ming an im-
peller from
its maximum
diameter to
adjust the head and
flow developed by a
centrifugal pump,
what is the best way
to cut the impeller? Is
it best to trim the
impeller vanes and Length of blend for over filing
impeller diameters are reduced, the the shrouds or just the Impeller diameter, in “A” distance of blend, in
flow distribution pattern across the vanes? 10 & below 1 1/2
exit width of the impeller becomes 10 1/16 through 15 2 1/2
more unstable. The tendency for the No hard and 15 1/16 through 20 3 1/2
high-pressure liquid to return to the
low pressure side and create tip recir-
culation is greatly increased. Again,
the higher energy level pumps are of
major concern (above 200 HP and
A: fast guidelines
for the mechan-
ical aspects of
impeller trim-
ming exist, but there are several
20 1/16 through 30
30 & larger
5
6
A:
Max. sharpening
of reducing vane-passing area of the liquid channel. This will
Leave at
least 1/8 ”
frequencies is to carefully generally result in about five percent
maintain proper Gap “A” more head near the best efficiency
and Gap “B” clearances to point, depending on the outlet vane
reduce impeller-casing interaction. angle. At least 1/8 inch of vane tip
Sometimes, impellers manufactured thickness must be left. Sharpening
oblique cut leaves the shrouds with blunt vane tips cause distur- the vanes also improves the efficien-
unchanged and solves the structural bances in the impeller exit area and cy slightly. Where there are high
strength problem as well as improv- in the volute area by generating stage pressures, you must sharpen
ing the exit flow pattern. hydraulic “hammer” even when the the vanes carefully because the vanes
impeller O.D. is the correct distance are under high static and dynamic
from the cut water (Gap “B”). stresses. ■
Corrections can be achieved by two
methods: Ed Nelson is a consultant to the
1. Overfiling: This disturbance turbomachinery and rotating equipment
may be partly or entirely eliminated industries. He serves on the Pumps and
by tapering the vanes by “overfiling” Systems Editorial Advisory Board.
or removal of metal on the leading
We have a 1,200 gpm tight. And the as-built drawings cooling water application. The
A: have a couple of caus- November 1993). ing the purchase of a new pump
es. One cause might A second possible source of your designed for the desired use.
be air that has entered difficulty is the intake at the public Unfortunately, such switches can
the system and accu- reservoir. From the information pre- be tricky business (as discussed in
mulated in the pump. While it is sented, the system probably has a this column in March, 1993). Yet
possible for the reservoir water to submerged offshore intake with some since almost everyone will be
be saturated with air that will form of screening to prevent the tempted to engineer such a switch
come out of solution in the pump, entrainment of unwanted materials. at least once during a career, it
most centrifugal pumps can han- Underwater plants, particularly fila- might be helpful to review key
dle a small amount of air (2–3% mentous grasses, can be drawn into calculations that are needed in an
by volume), which will pass and entangled in the intake screening, effort to determine what went
through as bubbles with the liq- blocking flow. When the pump is not wrong in this case.
uid. Instead, the introduction of operating, the natural underwater Summarizing the information
air is more likely equipment relat- currents can clear some or all of the you provided, we have one pump
ed. Depending on the pump and blockage so that full flow is temporar- intended to handle streams of
piping system, air can get into the ily restored at pump startup. comparable quality (basically cold
water in several ways. The intake can also contribute water) that has been operated
For the pump, check the shaft air to the system. If the level of the with two different motors.
sleeves to ensure that the seal public reservoir has dropped, the dis- Knowing the original design
between the sleeves and the tance between the surface of the capacity and total head, we can
impeller hub is adequate. Then water and the submerged intake quickly determine the same infor-
examine the stuffing boxes. For might not be adequate to prevent the mation for the new application by
pumps operating with a suction formation of vortices whenever the the following equations:
lift, lantern rings should be pump is operating. Such vortices can
installed and have seal water bring significant amounts of air into Q2 = Q1 x (N2/N1)
under positive pressure. the system.
Piping can be more difficult to We recently decided to and
examine because most of it will
likely be underground. However,
any surface piping should be
inspected to assure that it is air-
Q: move a relatively old but
infrequently used stand-
by service water system
pump to an auxiliary
H2 = H1 x (N2/N1)2
P
umps sometimes suffer
damage unnecessarily
because they are not 100%
full of liquid before they
are started. The systems in which
they function either are not or can-
panies, showed that the liquid in the
seal chamber circulates around the
chamber at a large fraction of shaft
rotation speed. A secondary flow was
observed heading away from the
Q: Why would gas end
up close to the shaft?
A:
not be completely vented. A com- impeller, along the outside diameter Imagine the seal cham-
mon misconception is that a pump of the seal chamber, and toward the ber is more than half
that produces discharge pressure impeller along the shaft. Together, full of liquid as the
immediately after start-up was suf- these two flow patterns explained pump is started. As the
ficiently full of liquid. For some how erosion damage was occurring pump shaft (and
users, this is the working definition in a few cases where abrasive solids mechanical seal) picks up speed,
of the word “primed.” were present (Figure 1). viscous drag causes the liquid to
Igor J. Karassik, an interna- An unexpected byproduct of this begin to circulate around the
tionally recognized authority on testing was the realization that gas or chamber. Soon, centrifugal force
pump systems, has written for vapor that is present in the seal overcomes gravity, and the liquid
years about the need to remove all chamber at the time the pump is is thrown to the outside of the seal
of the gas or vapor from pumps started can be trapped there for sev- chamber. Any gas is forced inward
before starting them. eral minutes by these same flow pat- by the denser liquid.
Widespread understanding of terns. Worse, trapped vapors or gases
the problems trapped gasses can
cause developed during 1991 from
an effort to understand erosion
problems with enlarged, tapered-
bore seal chambers used on ANSI
tend to accumulate close to the shaft,
near the rear of the seal chamber.
For most single mechanical seal
installations, that is where the seal
faces are located.
Q: What problems are
caused by the gas?
FIGURE 1
Here are some common ques-
tions on venting pump systems:
A: problem is mechanical
seal damage. If the gas
bubble is big enough to
surround the seal faces,
it can prevent the liquid in the seal
chamber from cooling and lubri-
cating the faces. Large pockets of
gas can damage wear rings and
bushings, but gas would tend to be
swept out of these areas quickly.
A:
Probably not! While it is
true most most modern
pumps are designed to
be completely self-vent-
ing, there is an assump-
tion that there is someplace for the
gas to go as the liquid enters.
Unless the discharge valve is
opened slightly and there is no dis-
charge pressure, the gas has
Primary and secondary flow patterns can result in nowhere to go. When a horizontal
erosion damage. end-suction pump is installed (or
re-installed after a repair), and the
A:
lems with the original installation or the effective for the most common
ets of gas have not been shifting of pipe supports at a later time. operating strategies.
a concern is that they The following is a simple
don’t always cause an CONCLUSION procedure that can be used to get
immediate failure. Seal Whoever has responsibility for more complete venting of these
face damage progresses each time the design of the “system” will need hard-to-vent systems. It assumes
the pump is started while it is not information on the pump, the piping, the pump is empty of liquid and
full. Venting is not an issue in and the operating conditions to assure both suction and discharge valves
many pump starts because the that it can be vented. ■ are closed.
pump was not drained since its • Open suction valve (pump
last use. If a pump seal fails about Michael D. Smith is a Senior fills part way).
once a year, we assume it has a Consulting Engineer at the DuPont • Close suction valve.
one-year wear life. We don’t even Company in Wilmington, DE.
consider that it might be failing • Open discharge valve part
every third time the pump is start- way (once pressure equal-
ed without being 100% full of liq- izes, air will rise into dis-
uid. charge piping).
• Open suction valve.
A:
sure using this procedure.
stand why it is important
Never start a pump with the
to fill the pump complete-
suction valve closed.
ly. The pump system must
A
lot of time and money are days to locate them, and they were Steam turbines often have carbon rings
spent manufacturing and test- delivered a week after that. and seals. Remove them to prevent
ing centrifugal pumps and Pumps are easily damaged dur- corrosion under the rings, or continu-
developing purchasing specifi- ing transportation, storage, or ously purge the case with dry nitrogen.
cations for bidding and selecting installation. Most baseplates are
INSTALLATION
them. However, events after leaving designed to be lifted with an over-
the manufacturer may result in a head device or moved by fork lift. As mentioned, prepare a docu-
pump that won’t perform reliably or Care must be taken to prevent dam- ment to ensure proper installation.
deliver the desired hydraulics. age to auxiliary piping from lifting Outline specific requirements, in
slings or hooks. Storage facilities sequence, for each pump. Define
SHIPPING AND HANDLING
often don’t have an overhead crane, tasks and inspections, who is respon-
Once the pump/driver/baseplate so a forklift moves the assembly off sible, and special procedures—grout-
assembly leaves the factory, anything the truck and around the storage ing plans, cold alignment targets,
can happen if specific instructions on area. Again care must be taken to pre-start-up checks, hot alignment
how it should be shipped, received, balance the load before lifting and checks, etc.
stored, and installed are not followed. to avoid bumping or dropping the Vendors often give details on
A document that records what was assembly (falling just an inch can installation, and writings on the sub-
and must be done, what must be crack the mechanical seal face ject are available. Here is a list to aid
approved and by whom, and when ring). Never lift the pump by its installation:
these events should happen is crucial. shaft or auxiliary piping.
GROUTING
Without this, work will be missed or
STORAGE
duplicated. • Prepare the foundation surface.
Manufacturers prepare products Sometimes the pump goes direct- Chip latence off, exposing aggre-
for shipping differently. Some mount ly from truck to foundation, but the gate. Remove loose material,
pumps in custom-made crates, while assembly is often stored for a time. grease, and water.
others hang the shipping tag on auxil- Storage may be a graveled yard or a
• Level the baseplate using jack-
iary piping and bolt two-by-fours to warehouse with overhead lifting
bolts bearing on jackplates
the base. The purchaser should define equipment and a controlled environ-
(Photos 1 and 2). Jackplates
special requirements. Will the pump ment. In any case, following three
should have rounded corners.
be shipped overseas? Is long-term stor- rules will help avoid problems:
It’s easier to slice sections from
age required? Is there lifting equip-
1. Keep oil/grease in the bearings. round stock than to cut plate.
ment at the site? These questions must
be answered ahead of time. 2. Keep water/moisture out of the • Remove pump and motor before
In all cases, Material Safety Data case (seal, windings, etc.). installation; it’s easier to level the
Sheets should be included during baseplate and pour grout.
3. Protect the pump from abuse.
shipping and installation. Everyone
• Check the baseplate bottom for
who comes in contact with the pump Check the pump over. To pre-
cleanliness. Verify that each
needs to know what’s in it. vent baseplate distortion, place it level
compartment has grout and
There are other questions, too. and out of traffic. See that all cover
vent holes. Drill holes before
What form of transportation will be plates are bolted on. Be sure no auxil-
lifting the baseplate onto the
used? A dedicated truck or a com- iary piping or components were lost
foundation.
mon carrier? Who will receive the or damaged in transit; replacing a part
equipment? When? A dedicated may delay start-up. Bearing housings • Don’t grout around anchor bolts.
truck usually has two drivers dri- should be filled with oil to the bottom Baseplates are grouted to provide
ving around the clock, directly from of the shaft and rotated periodically to uniform load distribution. Anchor
manufacturer to delivery site. This keep bearings coated. Document who bolts hold the pump down. To
is costly but quick. A common car- turns it and when. Pumps stored long- keep anchor bolts free to stretch,
rier is less expensive but can take term with oil mist lubrication should install sleeves around bolts.
longer. For example, pumps from be hooked to a portable mist genera-
• Install the baseplate, establishing
an East Coast manufacturer, des- tor. Verify that the mechanical seal
correct elevation (within 1/8 in.)
tined for Texas, were loaded on a sleeve locking collar is tight and that
and pedestal level (within 0.002
truck Friday afternoon. The pumps the shaft turns freely.
in./ft). Some contractors like to
arrived 15 days later. With no one Stored drivers may require extra
put pumps back on the baseplate
to receive them, the driver left care. Heaters on electric motors should
to shoot the nozzle elevation.
them at a warehouse. It took two be energized to keep windings dry.
BHP
also serves on the Pumps and Systems
50 20 Editorial Advisory Board.
10
0 0 Lynn Fulton is a professional
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 engineer registered in Indiana and
Flow (gpm)
Illinois. He has been with Whiting
Engineering more than ten years, in
Head and BHP vs. Flow. Operating point 1: using the BHP vs. flow mechanical services and maintenance.
curve with horsepower calculation derived from measurement of He has a bachelor’s degree in
current with voltage assumed to be 460 V, flow is found to be 405 mechanical engineering from the
gpm. The calculated 188 ft based on pressure differential confirms University of Illinois at Chicago and
flow to be 405 gpm. Operating point 2: similar calculations for is chairman of the Chicago chapter of
horsepower and head at operating point 2 also confirm the calcula- the Vibration Institute.
tion method. See text under “Initial Operation” for calculations.
P2 – P1
• Check motor and pump vibra-
TDH = 2.31 —————— = 214.5 ft
tion. Vibration levels should be
S.G.
below 0.15 in./sec. Most new
equipment vibrates less than 0.1
where
in./sec. true peak.
P1 = 3 psig
• Compile documents for each
P2 = 68 psig
pump and file them for refer-
I = 20.8 amps ence. ■
√3xIxVxη
M.H.O. = ——————— = 20 Hp
746
where
M.H.O. = motor horsepower out-
put
BY KURT SCHUMANN
U
pgrade (up + grade, v.): to FIGURE 1
raise the grade of; to raise the
quality of a manufactured prod-
uct (Webster’s Third New
International Dictionary).
A pump upgrade (also called a
revamp or retrofit) involves changing
mechanical or hydraulic design or
materials to solve a problem or increase
reliable run time. An upgrade is differ-
ent than a repair, which attempts to
duplicate original construction and
design, whereas an upgrade improves
the design beyond the original.
Rerates are a type of hydraulic
upgrade, usually involving a change
in pump head capacity. Repowering
may involve repairs and/or upgrades.
Philosophically, repowering is differ-
ent from normal pump maintenance
because the plant being repowered
Original residual heat removal pumps in safety service at
has decided to spend capital monies
nuclear power plants. The design has high maintenance
to extend the plant’s useful life. Plants
hours and exposure dosage due to short mechanical seal life
being repowered are candidates for
and an overhung shaft design that makes seal maintenance
pump upgrades because they are
difficult.
expected to run reliably with high
capacity factors and can justify the
additional cost (above and beyond
normal repairs) to upgrade pumps. Air Act Amendments of 1990) THE UPGRADE PROCESS
Pump upgrade goals include: • minimizing the risk of fire or other
• decreasing plant operations and To identify upgrade candidates,
safety hazards pump users should review mainte-
maintenance expenses • eliminating hazardous materials nance records to see which pumps
• increasing mean time between
Pump upgrades can be divided were responsible for a disproportion-
failures (MTBF)
into major categories: ate share of expenses or caused safe-
• increasing pump and plant avail- ty or reliability concerns. Once these
ability • mechanical design
pumps are identified, work with the
• increasing pump efficiency • hydraulic design upgrade supplier to identify and eval-
• complying with the latest legisla- • material uate upgrades available for your par-
tive mandates (such as the Clean • ancillary/system ticular pump. Provide the supplier
BY STEPHEN MURPHY
M
ost users operate their cen- represented by a fixed curve. With For a variable speed pump, flow
trifugal pumps at a fixed the discharge throttling valve fully is changed by varying speed. The
speed and accomplish any opened, the pump seeks equilibrium variable speed pump retains its
required changes of flow with the system (point 1 in Figure 1: characteristic performance curve
by using a throttling valve. This prac- flow = Q1 and head = H1). shape, changing flow and head in
tice is much like driving an automo- To change the flow to Q 2, the accordance with the well-known
bile with the accelerator fully throttling valve is partially closed, affinity laws (Figure 2). With vary-
depressed and changing speed by changing the steepness of the system ing speeds, pumps have wide
stepping on the brake! curve as seen at a point between the rangeability and thus any head-
There is a better way to drive an pump and the valve (at B-B in flow combination within the enve-
automobile and there is a better way Figure 1). Closing the valve causes lope can be achieved. And with
to accomplish variable flow for a cen- the pump to “run back” on its curve appropriate precautions, pumps
trifugal pump. Variable speed motors to point 2, producing flow Q 2 as can be operated at even higher or
and associated electronic drives can desired. The pump, which can only lower speeds than those shown on
be used to adjust pump speed to pro- operate on its fixed curve, produces the curve.
duce exactly the desired flow and head H3 at point B-B. The pump thus The shape of the system curve
head. By varying the speed of the produces H3 at Q2 but only H2 at Q2 influences the amount that flow
pump, users can enhance perfor- will change with a
mance, save energy, eliminate the FIGURE 1 change in speed. Flow
need for throttling valves and reduce is proportional to speed
inputs of heat to the pumped liquid. if no static lift exists
But to achieve these advantages, but not proportional to
you must properly select the compo- speed if static lift exists
nents of a variable speed system. And (Figure 3). In systems
proper selection requires a thorough with static lift, a mini-
understanding of pump, motor and mum speed exists
driver designs for variable speed below which the pump
operation. will produce no flow.
BEHAVIOR OF VARIABLE Such behavior does
SPEED PUMPS not violate the affinity
laws. It simply reflects
A good place to begin a discussion the interaction of the
of variable speed pumping is the shape of the system
interaction between variable speed curve with those laws.
pumps and the fluid handling system. In fact, it’s this interac-
These interactions are different from tion that makes variable
those of a fixed speed pump. speed pumping advanta-
Fixed speed centrifugal pump operation
For a fixed speed pump with flow geous (which also illus-
controlled by a throttling valve, trates that users must
process demand depends on system is delivered to the system. The addi- understand these interactions).
back pressure and piping resistance, tional head (H3 - H2) is wasted across
as shown by a fixed system curve the valve in the form of heat and
(Figure 1). Pump performance is also noise.
HEAD%
of the speed (Figure 7). Since NPSHR 90 hz in this configuration. CAN'T
DO
60
increases with speed, in-ducers may But mechanical constraints "B"
be required to reduce NPSHR to avail- may limit the safe running
40
able levels. Bearing loads and other speed to well below 90 hz.
pump characteristics must also be VFDs can be used to pro-
carefully examined. vide extra motor horsepower 20
MP
2 operate on 480 V speed. Torsional critical speeds are
60
"B"
input and produce a resonant frequencies at which
68% SP
EED
PUM maximum of 480 V motor and driven equipment shafts
P2
40 LIMITS OF output. If a higher can begin to oscillate with angular
CAPABILITY
PUMP2 voltage motor is displacement as a result of torsion-
20
desired, you can al excitation. VFDs can cause tor-
install a step-up trans- sional excitation problems known
former between the as torque ripple. For example,
0 VFD and the motor rather than delivering a continuous
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
12 S
%
@ %
0
EN
EN @ 1
Y
E FF E N C
torque VFDs can produce 150 per- tor, a pump may 150 NPS
H@1
cent of full load current for one not be operated 20 % S P E E D
minute and even more for shorter between 85 percent NPS
100 H @ 10 0 % SPEEED
periods. Variable torque VFDs are and 105 percent of
generally used for centrifugal its critical speed. NPSH @ 80% SPEED
Self-Priming
Centrifugal Pumps
The ability to self-prime can be a cost effective solution for many applications.
BY TERRY W. BECHTLER
ith greater global competi- tively easy to maintain. To better liquid towards the outside diameter
FIGURE 1
A B
LOW
PRESSURE
Discharge
Outlet
Flap Valve
Volute
Suction
Inlet
Ball Bearings
Replaceable
Wearplate
Removable
Coverplate
Pressure
Relief Valve
Cartridge
Mechanical
Seal
Balanced
Impeller
A cut-away view of a self-priming centrifugal pump designed to handle solids-laden liquids and
slurries
bility, with sizes from 1 1/32 in. are sometime referred to as gen- rations, with capacities upwards
through 5/8 in. in diameter, eral-purpose self-priming pumps. of 3,400 gpm. Normal pump
depending on the size of the They are excellent for handling sizes range from 1-1/2 in.
pump. This configuration is dirty, contaminated liquids. through 10 in. suction and dis-
excellent for handling clear liq- Applications include extensive charge. The impeller design
uids, including processed hydro- use in industrial filtration opera- allows for excellent solids han-
carbons, along with general tions and a wide range of engine- dling capability, ranging from l
wash-down pressure applications. driven models that serve the in. to 3 in. spherical solids diam-
• Semi-open multi-vane impellers construction market. eter, depending on the pump
are usually designed for slightly size.
Trash handling self-priming
lower head conditions than fully Trash handling self-priming
pumps generally use a trash-type,
enclosed impellers, but they pumps are often referred to as the
semi-open, two-vane impeller that
have greater solids handling workhorse of centrifugal pumps due
allows the pump to pass larger spher-
capabilities. Pump sizes usually to their rugged design and large
ical solids.
range from 3/4 in. through 12 in. solids handling capabilities. These
suction and discharge, with • Trash handling self-priming pumps can be found on some of the
capacities to more than 5,500 pumps generate medium dis- most severe pumping applications
gpm. Spherical solid sizes range charge pressures in the area of within plants or on construction
from 3/4 in. through 3 in. in 62 psi or 145 ft TDH on electric sites.
diameter, depending on the size motor drives and discharge pres- A desirable design feature of a
of the pump. Basic self-priming sures upwards of 75 psi or 173 ft trash handling self-priming pump is a
pumps with semi-open impellers TDH on engine-driven configu- removable cover plate, located
BY LEO RICHARD
A
s industry becomes increas- A reasonable split between the
ingly competitive, pumps are two approaches should be employed,
provides being sized to precisely meet depending on the nature of the evalu-
their duty requirements with- ation and the user’s ability to conduct
a tightly out oversizing. This allows users to on-site testing. Also, the user and
maximize efficiency and minimize manufacturer must agree to a set of
controlled first capital costs. There is also a guidelines such as those published by
small but growing trend to question the Hydraulic Institute (HI). Among
environment the economics of in-line spares and other things, HI standards generally
large spare parts inventories. These define the methods and acceptable
and thereby developments make it more critical tolerances to be used. However,
than ever that rotating equipment regardless of the standard employed,
generates precisely meets all hydraulic, materi- good laboratory practice requires that
al, and safety requirements. This is all instrumentation be calibrated
the most assured by thorough testing of perti- prior to the test. For maximum accu-
nent parameters by manufacturers racy the instruments should be locat-
accurate data. prior to shipment and by customers ed after straight runs of pipe where
at their job sites. steady flow conditions exist. In addi-
The level of justifiable testing tion, the local barometric pressure
will depend on the nature of the ser- must be considered, especially in
vice and significance of the parame- applications requiring suction lift.
ter to be measured. For instance, a The data obtained should be recorded
water transfer application can be in a test log, and each round of evalu-
served with a stock pump that has ations must be identified in this docu-
undergone the manufacturer’s stan- ment by the manufacturer’s and
dard quality and performance checks. user’s serial/ equipment numbers.
However, a corrosive, high pressure, Also, the question of user repre-
or environmentally hazardous appli- sentation during testing should be
cation may justify additional testing clearly defined. This includes issues
for material conformity and quality of such as site location, the amount of
construction. advance notice prior to testing, and
In addition to the extent of test- cost. Usually, the added cost and logis-
ing, several other factors must also be tics problems make such witness test-
considered. The first is location. A ing inadvisable—unless the user has
shop or laboratory test is typically very limited experience with the man-
conducted at the manufacturer’s facil- ufacturer. This, as well as any other
ity. The test lab provides a tightly requirements, must be written into the
controlled environment and thereby specification prior to purchase.
generates the most accurate data. In A brief description of the most
contrast, field tests sacrifice some common performance and quality
accuracy, but they provide useful evaluations is given below. For sim-
data under the actual conditions of plicity, these tests have been charac-
service. terized in terms of certifying
SUMMARY
There are many options for test-
ing the performance and integrity of
An A range pump hooked up for testing. centrifugal pumps. The use of such
procedures depends on the signifi-
cance of the service and the nature
SITE TESTING impeller. Such loading can dramat- of the pumpage. Users will find that
One of the most important and ically decrease the mean time in most cases the standard compli-
often overlooked opportunities for between failures for the equip- ment of manufacturing testing will
evaluating and documenting pump ment. be sufficient. However, critical ser-
performance is the initial commis- vices involving serious environmen-
• Evaluation of the operating point
sioning. Information gathered at this tal or health risks may warrant the
should be conducted for all condi-
time is critical in verifying initial per- added assurance of supplemental
tions the pump will experience.
formance and providing a bench- testing. In either case, the user and
For example, many pumps in
mark for future diagnostic and manufacturer must work as partners
transfer applications deliver liquid
troubleshooting efforts. to achieve the best engineering solu-
to various locations and are peri-
It is suggested that, as a mini- tion for the particular application. ■
odically operated in a recirculation
mum, the following areas be evalu- mode. Each of these duty points
ated: Leo Richard is a Technical Service
must be determined and possible
Manager with the Kontro Company,
• The total differential head generat- problems identified. If necessary,
Inc. Mr. Richard has experience in
ed by the pump. It is strongly rec- modifications in the pump and/or
process and project engineering with
ommended that both suction and process should be made. Common
General Electric and W.R. Grace.
discharge gauges be installed to corrective actions include resizing
facilitate measurement of this orifices, changing valve settings,
parameter. Once determined, it and adjusting the impeller trim.
should be noted whether the actu-
al operating point differs from the • The amp draw of the motor
duty listed in the specification. If should be measured. This is then
so, the user must first confirm compared with the manufacturer’s
proper operation of the pump and stated requirements to evaluate
process. If these check out, an proper operation. Gross differ-
evaluation of potential problems ences between these figures may
associated with the new duty indicate various conditions such as
point must be evaluated. This cavitation, operating to run out or
includes a possible increase in the shut in, or mechanical problems.
NPSH requirement and power • The vibration level should be mea-
consumption. Also note that con- sured. This will confirm proper
tinuous operation at extremely operation and serve as a bench-
high or low flows will significantly mark for future testing.
increase dynamic loading on the
erhaps you’ve decided to pur- Manufacturers of canned motor counter that internal clearances are
Mag drive pump cooling circuit flow temperature measurement is made after the fluid has
picked up eddy current heat and partial bearing heat.
required by the code to have “T rat- requires that you take precautions to regarded as heat produced by an elec-
ings.” If users follow this section of prevent the ignition of flammable trical device and, therefore, not clear-
the code, these electrical devices will vapors from nonelectrical sources. ly addressed in the NEC.
not constitute a potential source of Preventive measures are to be deter-
CANNED MOTOR PUMPS IN
ignition, vastly reducing the chance mined by an engineer and/or “the
HAZARDOUS AREAS (DIVISION 2)
of an explosion should an explosive authority having jurisdiction.” Since
cloud ever develop. “hot surfaces” are normally present The “skin” or outside tempera-
AITs are a concern for light in chemical processing environ- ture of the canned motor pump is an
hydrocarbons including n-butane and ments, one precaution typically issue in hazardous areas. These
acetylene, which have AITs below taken is to handle materials in closed pumps contain a thermal cut-out
600°F; pentane and hexane, which systems. switch, which is located in the stator
have AITs below 500°F; and diethyl winding hotspot and shuts down the
EDDY CURRENT HEAT GENERATION
ether and heptane, which have AITs motor if its setpoint is exceeded. The
below 400°F. Canned motor and magnetic user is required to wire this switch
drive pumps with metallic liner/con- into the motor control circuit. If the
NONELECTRICAL SOURCES
tainment shells generate heat due to motor cooling is lost due to some
OF IGNITION
eddy current loss. Eddy currents are upset or misoperation, the pump will
Ignition by nonelectrical sources— created by changes in magnetic field heat up and eventually open the
for example, steam, heat transfer strength during pump operation in a switch and shut off the power, pre-
lines and reactor vessel walls—are given area of a stator liner or contain- venting an excessive “skin” tempera-
also possible in process areas. The ment shell. In most applications, ture on the can. If the pump is in a
NEC does not address these sources. pumps will operate at temperatures volatile liquid service, it’s usually
Another NFPA code covers nonelec- well below 400°F (which is below destroyed. In most cases, the switch
trical sources of ignition in section most AITs) because of the cooling will not protect the pump from dry
30, the Flammable and Combustible effects of the pumpage. In general, running—it is there only to meet NEC
Liquids Code. Specifically, Chapter 5 the eddy current heat source is not requirements.
setpoints for each application, since control circuit. Then the software is TDI
1942
SHUTDOWN
H
ydrofluoric acid has touched
all of our lives because so centration. Table 1 and Figure 1 may be inevitable if water or oxygen
many industries use it in their define the most suitable metallurgies are present, and in that case, corro-
manufacturing processes. For for given applications. When chemi- sion and cracking would be wide-
example, a beryllium-shafted golf cal process industries use hydrofluo- spread and not localized.) Both of
club and a coffee mug with an etched ric acid, its nature is generally these metallurgies are excellent
design have been manufactured using aggressive. Consequently, worst case choices for handling hydrofluoric
hydrofluoric acid. It has also been scenarios have more significance in acid.
used as a catalyst in the manufacture decision-making choices.
BEARINGS
of ozone-friendly refrigerants. Yet Temperature and concentration
hydrofluoric acid is a potentially dan- are not the only variables that impact Bearing material is every bit as
gerous chemical. Acid leaks can yield corrosion rates. Factors such as crucial to a pump’s mechanical stabil-
devastating effects, ranging from velocity, aeration and other contami- ity as its overall metallurgical compo-
toxic fume inhalation to severe chem- nates play equally important roles in sition because the bearings are
ical burns, injuring people and dam- metallurgical corrosion. exposed to the acid. This is particu-
aging equipment. Five metallurgies (Table 1 and larly important in canned motor tech-
Many plants pump hydrofluoric Figure 1) are suitable for any given nology because the pumping process
acid using traditional seal technology. condition. Silver, gold is responsible for the
Of course, mechanical seals can leak. and platinum are among cooling and lubrication
Because of the potential danger the metals most resis- of the bearings.
involved, hydrofluoric acid leaks are tant to hydrofluoric acid Temperature What is the proper
not tolerated. One way to reduce the corrosion. Two other and percent bearing material? What
threat of leakage is to use a sealless metallurgies are more will hold up under the
technology. Consider several key fac- affordable and provide concentration unforgiving corrosive-
tors when selecting a sealless pump excellent results, main- ness of hydrofluoric
for hydrofluoric acid applications, taining corrosion at less dictate what acid? The answer is
including proper metallurgies, com- than 20 mils per year
patible bearing materials, and (mpy) during adverse
metallurgies are 100% alpha grade sil-
icon carbide, which is a
hydraulic and pump configurations. conditions. One is 66Ni necessary under pressureless sintered sil-
32Cu (Monel 400), and icon carbide. Bearings
METALLURGIES operating
the other is 54Ni 15Cr made of this material
Proper pump metallurgy is criti- 16Mo (Hastelloy C-276®). can withstand high tem-
cal for pumping hydrofluoric acid. There are some pitfalls conditions. peratures and maintain
Two primary variables dictate what in the composition of dominating resistance to
metallurgies are necessary under 54Ni 15Cr 16Mo. This strong acids. Alpha
pump operating conditions. The first alloy is less resistant to corrosion grade has better resistance to wear
is temperature. Hydrofluoric acid is than 66Ni 32Cu, especially if oxygen and abrasion than the beta version of
similar to many other acids in that as is present; whereas 66Ni 32Cu is silicon carbide. However, both are
temperature increases, so does the generally corrosive resistant, even to pressureless sintered, or self-sin-
aggressive nature of the fluid. The temperatures up to 300°F. (With tered, silicon carbide products.
4
175 requirements, use a partial demonstrates the relationship of tem-
emission pump with an
6 open or closed radial vane TABLE 1. CODE FOR HYDROFLUORIC
150 66 impeller. A standard guide- ACID GRAPH
3 5
line for pumping a fluid as
Materials in shaded zone have repeated
125
volatile as hydrofluoric acid
is to keep the specific speed corrosion rate of <20 mpy
above 200. This ensures the Zone 1 Zone 4
100 38 pump will maintain a rea-
sonable hydraulic efficien- 20Cr 30Ni 70Cu 30Ni
75
cy (25% to 30%). 25Cr 20Ni Steel 66Ni 32Cu1
1 2 7 Specific speed can be 70Cu 30Ni1 54Ni 15Cr 16Mo
easily manipulated by 66Ni 32Cu1 Copper1
increasing, gallon by gallon, 54Ni 15Cr 16Mo Gold
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
CONCENTRATION HF,%
the flow of a pump until Copper1 Lead1
the desired N s value is
Zone definition for common metallurgies Gold Platinum
achieved. Another way to
Lead1 Silver
impact specific speed
Do not use reaction-bound sili- includes increasing the rotative Nickel1
con carbides for hydrofluoric acid speed. This technique is sometimes Nickel Cast Iron Zone 5
processes. These forms of silicon car- difficult because many motors have Platinum 70Cu 30Ni1
bide contain free silicon or graphite fixed rotating speeds. To manipulate Silver 66Ni 32Cu1
because reaction-bound silicon car- speed, a variable frequency drive 54Ni 15Cr 16Mo
bides require silicon as a sintering must be used. A variable frequency Zone 2 Gold
aid. Free silicon is subject to the drive can increase the speed at which 20Cr 30Ni Lead1
attack of corrosive acids, resulting in a motor runs while maintaining a 70Cu 30Ni1 Platinum
bearing breakdown. In alpha and constant voltage. However, these 54Ni 15Cr 16Mo Silver
beta grades of silicon carbide, no sin- devices can be expensive. Regardless, 66Ni 32Cu1
tering aids are used, giving both the results are the same—increased Copper1 Zone 6
grades almost complete chemical hydraulic efficiency. Gold 66Ni 32Cu1
inertness. The bottom line is that Hydraulic efficiency is important Lead1 54Ni 15Cr 16Mo
there is little difference between the when pumping hydrofluoric acid
Nickel1 Gold
alpha and beta grades of silicon car- because it has a steep vapor pressure
Platinum Platinum
bide. Most of the difference lies with- curve. Unproductive energy, which is
a direct byproduct of inefficiency, is Silver Silver
in the processing of the final
products. Nonetheless, alpha grade lost in the form of heat. This added
heat must not be allowed to localize Zone 3 Zone 7
silicon carbide is the preferred mater- 20Cr 30Ni 66Ni 32Cu1
in the suction zone of the pump case.
ial for chemical processes that use 70Cu 30Ni 54Ni 15Cr 16Mo
If it does, and suction pressure is not
hydrofluoric acid. Both alpha or beta
great enough to suppress vaporiza- 54Ni 15Cr 16Mo Carbon Steel
grades of silicon carbide should
tion, the pump may fail. The ability 66Ni 32Cu1 Gold
exceed bearing expectations.
to carry the heat away is directly Copper1 Platinum
HYDRAULIC CONFIGURATIONS related to the specific heat of the Gold Silver
fluid. Specific heat is the ratio of a Lead1
For hydrofluoric acid applica- fluid’s thermal capacity to that of Platinum
tions, the same challenges arise again water at 15°C; in other words, a Silver
and again: low NPSHA, low flow and fluid’s ability to carry away energy in 1 = No air
high head. In centrifugal pumps, low the form of heat. Unfortunately, this
flow and high head yield low specific thermodynamic property of hydroflu-
76 The Pump Handbook Series
17 PSIA – 36 PSIA =
19 PSIA In this example adequate
FIGURE 2 NPSHA is not being supplied. If this
75°F – 115°F 40°F
Example A = 0.475 PSIA/°F data is plotted on a vapor pressure
1 1 versus temperature curve, the end
Ns = NQ ⁄2
( Ns = 3550 (15 ⁄2)
)
2. Solve for the maximum allow-
H 3⁄4 900 3⁄4 able temperature rise that can result is obvious—the HF is vapor
Ns = 83.7 occur before the HF flashes. (Figure 5).
To calculate how much NPSHA
(NPSHA – NPSHR) sp gr = PSI
Ns = Specific speed is necessary to keep the HF from
2.31 0.475 PSI per °F vaporizing:
N = Revolutions per minute
= maximum allowable temperature rise °F 1. Total hydraulic temperature rise
Q = Capacity, at best efficiency, in gpm
(Actual) = 7.37°F
H = Total head developed by maximum
(7 – 6) 0.92 = 0.39 PSI
diameter impeller at best efficiency, in feet 2. Convert 7.37°F to PSIA using
2.31 0.475 PSI per °F calculated vapor pressure curve
Equation to calculate specific speed
slope and consider allowable
= 0.83°F allowable
temperature rise (0.83°F)
temperature rise °F
perature to pressure. As the tempera- 7.37°F – 0.83°F (Allowable
ture rises, the required pressure to 3. Calculate hydraulic temperature Temperature Rise) = 6.54°F
maintain the acid in a liquid phase rise due to inefficiencies. 6.54°F x 0.475 = 3.1 PSI
increases, and the vapor pressure Convert 3.1 PSIA to feet
curve becomes dramatically steeper H (1 – n) = Temperature Rise
2.31 x 3.1 PSIA
at higher temperatures. Any point left 778 x n x Cp = 7.78 feet
sp gr (0.92)
of the curve means the process is liq-
uid; conversely, any point right of the Where
3. Thus, 7.78 feet in addition to cur-
curve means the process is vapor. If n = hydraulic efficiency
rent NPSHA must be provided.
hydrofluoric acid is being pumped at Cp = Specific heat
100°F, the NPSH must be equal to or Current = 7 feet+7.78 feet Newly Calculated
greater than 27 psi. If not, the process (Actual) = 14.78 feet Total NPSHR
will flash, resulting in a heavily cavi- 790 (1 – 0.15) = 7.37°F These calculations are conserva-
tated or dry running pump. 778 x 0.15 x 0.78 tive because they assume that the
To ensure adequate NPSHA, the total temperature rise will take place
heat input from the pump must be Conclusion: at the suction of the pump. This
considered. Hydraulic temperature rise Slope of curve = 0.475 PSIA/°F tends to be valid at minimum flows,
can be calculated. The equation Max allowable temperature rise but is conservative at design flow.
(Figure 4) considers three variables: allowed = 0.83°F These examples do not encompass
hydraulic efficiency, head, and the spe- Total hydraulic temperature every possible scenario that could be
cific heat value of a process. By using rise = 7.37°F experienced, but they are effective
this equation and considering the
vapor pressure versus temperature rise FIGURE 3
curve, you can predict if adequate
PSI
NPSHA is provided. The following is 140
an example.
120
PUMPING SPECIFICS 100 STARTING POINT
LESS HEAT INPUT FROM PUMP
Fluid Pumped = HF acid 80
LIQUID STATE VAPOR
Head (H) = 790 feet 60
Flow (Q) = 20 gpm AFTER
NPSHA = 7 feet, Mechanical NPSHR 40 HYDRAULIC
TEMPERATURE
= 6 feet 20 RISE
Temperature (P) = 95°F 0
Vapor Pressure (P.T. PSIA) = 25 -50 0 50 100 150 200 250
Specific Heat (BTU/lb°F) = 0.78 DEGREES F
Pump Hydraulic Efficiency (n) = 15%
Specific Gravity (sp gr) = 0.92 PSI
1. Solve for the slope of the vapor Series 1
pressure curve. Pick one temper-
ature/PSIA point below the
design temperature and another Graph demonstrating the relationship of temperature to pressure
20°F above the operating point. for hydrofluoric acid
Convert data into PSIA per °F.
M
agnetic drive centrifugal ment or secondary control is speci- DON’T INSTALL MAG DRIVES TO
pumps offer an advantage fied for your application. OVERCOME SYSTEM PROBLEMS
over normal single mechani- Magnetic drive pumps should
CONSIDER LIFE CYCLE COSTS
cal seal centrifugal pumps not be installed to solve a mainte-
by preventing fugitive emissions from Magnetic drive pumps are often
the only alternative to meet govern- nance problem, such as a trouble-
leaking to the atmosphere. Given some mechanical seal, without first
proper application and operating pro- ment hazardous materials and safety
regulations, such as OSHA 1910, determining the real reason for the
cedures, these pumps can perform for problem. Once the problem has been
years without failure. Rather than requiring stringent levels of contain-
ment or control. In addition, many identified, insure that installation of
discuss the design of these pumps - a mag drive pumps will not create a
subject that has already been thor- companies now have policies, odor-
free imperatives for example, requir- ripple effect. Typical pump and sys-
oughly addressed in articles, papers tem problems to watch for are:
and presentations - let’s review the ing strict control of emissions.
However, for some zero emissions • cavitation
justification for installing mag drives
and provide installation keys to insure applications tandem seal pumps offer • operating too far from best effi-
reliability of the investment. a viable alternative to mag drives and ciency point (BEP)
life cycle cost must be considered in
KNOW SECONDARY CONTAINMENT OR the selection criteria. Table 1 shows • Net positive suction head avail-
CONTROL REQUIREMENTS calculations of life cycle costs of tan- able (NPSHA) too low
Secondary containment and sec- dem seal versus mag drive pumps for • slurries
ondary control are important terms to two specified applications. In the first
understand when selecting your mag example, the mag drive pump has a • pump operating without liquid
drive pump. Secondary contain- significantly lower initial cost and in the unit
ment insures the fluid will be con- operating costs only slightly higher
tained if the primary can fails. Some than the tandem seal. In this applica- COMMUNICATE WITH YOUR VENDOR
mag drive suppliers accomplish con- tion, because mag drives offer more A user of magnetic drive pumps
tainment by installing a secondary reliable containment most users should also be aware of potential
can around the primary unit. If the would select the mag drive. In the problems and communicate with
primary can develops a leak sec- second example, however, the mag the vendor to insure they are avoid-
ondary control insures the leakage drive proves to be more costly in ed. For example, the drive motor
will be controlled to a defined terms of both investment and operat- should always be sized smaller than
amount, but not contained. In select- ing cost, and use of the mag drive the magnets to prevent decoupling if
ing a mag drive pump be sure to can not be justified in terms of cost the impeller is overpowered.
know whether secondary contain- alone. Decoupling of the magnets will cre-
type of monitoring instrumen- 5 Maintenance costs assumed a failure once every three years. The failure modes are
tation. assumed to be seal failure for the tandem seal and bearing failure for the mag drive.
6 Figures do not include initial cost.
• Can thermocouple – mounted
on the can, it senses dry run-
ning and bearing problems. Life cycle cost calculations for Tandem Seal Vs. Magnetic Drive Pumps
• Bearing wear detector – is
used to sense the position of
the shaft or rotor. It can provide CONCLUSION Maurice G. Jackson is a
an indication of the condition of Engineering Associate in the Engineering
Recent developments in magnet-
the pump’s bearings. Construction Division of Tennessee
ic drive pumps, harboring many
• Level detector – is placed in the functional and maintenance advan- Eastman Division of Eastman Chemical
suction or discharge piping to tages for pump users, are testimony Company, Kingsport, Tennessee. He has
insure liquid flow to the pump. to an exciting future for magnetic 25 years of experience in pump opera-
drive centrifugal pumps. ■ tion, maintenance and engineering.
Rotor Assembly
Stator Liner
Process Lubricated
Sleeve Bearing Forward Thrust
Surface
BY RONALD P. SMITH
BACKGROUND along with any potential leakage. way. The maximum attractive force
Electric-motor-driven pumps This can be done by totally enclosing between the poles occurs when the
have been around for about 75 years, the impeller/pump assembly and iso- poles are aligned in opposite polari-
and so has the nagging problem of lating it from the prime mover. ty. Maximum repulsive force occurs
the shaft packing or seal. Because The question is, how do you when the same polarity is aligned.
water was the common fluid drive the pump with no direct con- In both instances, the transverse
pumped, it rarely became a danger- nection to a prime mover (motor)? force (torque) is at a null (zero). The
ous problem. However, as the chemi- latter position is the least stable. The
A SOLUTION maximum transverse force (torque)
cal industry developed, leakage
became a major concern, and better Fortunately, we have a natural occurs between the two positions
seals were needed and developed. force, magnetism, that can be used to where the normal force is zero.
Industries are now under scruti- our benefit. As children, we experi- Stable positions occur only once per
ny for hazardous emissions of all enced the magnetic force of two mag- pole pair, so in the case of a 10-pole
types, and must comply with clean nets operating through a table top or coupling, there would be five stable
air and water regulations dictated by pane of glass. One magnet would fol- positions.
Congress and implemented by the low the other until the gap between The proper application of a per-
EPA, OSHA, and other government them became too large and reduced manent magnet coupling requires
agencies. the force. That basic idea is used in knowledge of the maximum torque
Currently, any leakage of liquid synchronous magnetic couplings. produced by the motor. This is typi-
or gas is a problem and must be min- There are two basic styles of cally twice the amount produced at
imized or eliminated. The state of the magnetic couplings in use. Figure 1 the rated horsepower.
art for mechanical seals is in the shows a face-face coupling and
Figure 2 illustrates a co-axial design. Running torque =
range of 500 ppm leakage, with some (Rated Horsepower x 5,250) /rpm (ft-lbs)
releasing as little as 100 ppm. By Magnetic couplings can be made
using secondary seals with drainage to develop almost unlimited forces, In the case of a 5 Hp motor at
and control instrumentation, levels based on choice of material and scale. 1,800 rpm with no load, the running
closer to zero can be accomplished at Coupling designs for hundreds of foot- speed with about 3% slip is 1,750
increased cost to the user. pounds of torque are available. rpm and running torque is:
One of the most fascinating
THE BASIC PROBLEM aspects of permanent magnet cou- (5 Hp x 5,250) /1,750 = 15 ft-lbs.
If we can accept that contacting plings is that although they exhibit However, the motor will develop
surfaces with relative motion powerful forces of attraction and about 30 ft-lbs peak torque during
between them will eventually wear, repulsion, they require no outside line start, and a magnetic coupling
then we can conclude that in the case sources of power. If properly used, must have a peak torque rating at
of mechanical pump seals, leakage they last indefinitely. least that high to prevent loss of cou-
will ultimately occur. So it is desir- pling. Figure 3 displays the relation-
COUPLING CHARACTERISTICS
able to do away with any shaft seal. ship of peak to running torque. The
By not penetrating the pump housing In any synchronous coupling,
torque is developed in the same amount of safety factor for the appli-
with a shaft, the seal is eliminated,
ultiple symptoms associated GAS BOUND IMPELLERS A pump in this gas bound state,
6%
70 0% go into solution, into the
2% pumpage.
150 60 4%
6% 4. Vacuum systems, valves, seals,
250 50 0% flanges, or other equipment in a
Bhp@ sp gr=1.0
200 6% suction lift application allowing
150
air to leak into the pumpage
stream.
5. Gas evolution from an incom-
plete or gas producing chemical
reaction.
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 If a particular application pro-
Gallons per Minute duces entrained gas or has the poten-
Size: 6x8-18 Speed: 1780 rpm Impeller Diameter: 17 1/4” tial to do so, the best solution is to
eliminate as much entrainment as
impeller position, type and valving head loss at 5% gas volume, the possible by applying corrective pump
arrangement, among other variables. Gould’s open impeller experiences a system design and/or a gas handling
Degassing is easier to accomplish 12% head loss at this volume. Some pump. If liquid gas mixing is desired,
with a variable speed driver, such as open impeller paper stock designs employ a static mixer on the dis-
a steam turbine, than with a constant can actually handle
speed electric motor drive. In addi- up to 10% entrained
tion, a recycle line to the suction ves- gas because clear- FIGURE 3. DEVELOPMENT OF A VORTEX
sel vapor space is often an effective ance between the
method for degassing an impeller, case and impeller
since with this arrangement the vanes allows more
pump is not required to work against turbulence in the
a discharge head. (Ref. 1 describes process fluid, which (a)
methods for venting gas on modified tends to break up
pumps that are gas bound.) gas accumulation
As a rule, if the probability of more efficiently
entrained gas exists from a chemical than an enclosed
reaction, the inlet piping design impeller with wear
should incorporate a means to vent rings. In addition,
the vapor back to the suction vessel’s other designs, such (d)
vapor space or to some other source. as a recessed im-
peller pump, may (b)
EFFECTS OF ENTRAINED GAS ON
handle up to 18% A. Incoherent surface swirl
PUMP PERFORMANCE
entrained gas. In
Figures 1 and 2 illustrate the fact, most standard B. Surface dimple with coherent
effect of entrained gas on a LaBour centrifugal pumps surface swirl
enclosed impeller and a Gould’s handle up to 3%
paper stock open impeller. As illus- C. Vortex pulling air bubbles to
entrained gas vol- intake
trated by the figures, 2% entrained ume at suction con-
gas does not produce a significant ditions without AIR D. Fully developed vortex with air
head curve drop. Note that while the difficulty. (Ref. 2 core to nozzle outlet
LaBour impeller experiences a 22% (c)
charge of the pump. In addition, an eliminate entrained gas in pump draw-off nozzle of the pump as illus-
anticipated drop in pump head due to suction piping is to prevent vortex trated by Figure 6a.
an entrained gas situation may be off- formation either by avoiding vortex It may be difficult to understand
set by oversizing the impeller. introducing mechanisms or by em- how a pump with 60 ft of vertical
Of the five aforementioned ploying an appropriate vortex break- suction could be affected by en-
mechanisms, vortexing is the most er at the vessel outlet. A ”hat” type trained gas, but in this real case
common source of entrained gas. vortex breaker, illustrated in Figure example Murphy’s law applied twice.
Therefore, a user should be especially 4, covers the vessel outlet nozzle to First, since the pump system in ques-
cautious employing mechanical reduce the effective outlet velocity. tion has a NPSHA greater than 50 ft,
equipment, such as tangential flash This design doesn’t allow a vortex to the piping designer employed a small-
gas separators and column bottoms stabilize because the fluid surface er suction pipe with a liquid velocity
re-boilers, likely to produce a strong senses only the annular velocity at of 10 ft/sec. Second, the column
vortex. the hat outside diameter (OD). In draw-off nozzle was sized according
addition, the vanes supporting the to normal fluid velocity practice. As a
VORTEX BREAKER DESIGN hat introduce a shear in the vicinity result, the tray liquid had an exit
The extent of gas entrainment in of the outlet to further inhibit vortex velocity of 5 ft/sec with a liquid level
the pumped fluid as the result of formation. An annular velocity of 6-in. above the top of the draw-off
vortex formation depends on the 1/2 ft/sec at the hat OD produces a nozzle and a vortex formed, feeding
strength of the vortex, the submer- viable solution. Variations in hat gas into the draw-off nozzle.
gence to pump suction outlet, and diameters from 4d to 5d and hat As in the above example, due to a
the liquid velocity in the pump suc- annular openings of d/2 to d/3 are lack of proper submergence, gas is car-
tion nozzle outlet. Vortices form not acceptable when annular velocity cri- ried into the pump suction piping as a
only through gravity draining vessel teria are met. Annular design veloci- high liquid downward velocity exceeds
applications, but also in steady state ties of more than 1 ft/sec are not the upward velocity of a gas bubble.
draining vessels, and in vessels recommended. Many draw-off vortexing prob-
under pressure or with submerged ”Cross” type breakers, installed lems may be eliminated by proper
pump suction inlets. Vortex forma- above or inserted in vessel nozzle out- pump system design or by one of two
tion follows conservation of angular lets as shown in Figure 5, work for vortex breaker designs illustrated by
momentum. As fluid moves toward some applications by providing addi- Figures 6b and c. The selection of the
the vessel outlet, the tangential tional shear to inhibit a mild vortex breaker design may depend on the
velocity component in the fluid from feeding gas into a nozzle outlet downcomer arrangement and space
increases as the radius from the out- (providing enough submergence is limitations. The most effective vortex
let decreases. Figure 3 shows various available). However, this design will breaker is the slotted pipe design
stages of vortex development. The not stop a strong vortex and will shown in Figure 6c.
first phase is a surface dimple. This decrease NPSHA. A user should be Application of these corrective
dimple must sense a high enough aware of these limitations. pump systems designs or installa-
exit velocity to extend from the sur- COLUMN VORTEXING tion of an appropriate gas handling
face and form a vortex. (For experi- pump can solve suction side gas
mental observations regarding If a column draw-off pump is entrainment problems, resulting in a
vortex formation see Refs. 3, 4.) erratic and/or nearly uncontrollable, a smoother process operation. ■
The most effective method to vortex may be feeding gas into the
Figure 6b. Plate extension over outlet nozzle lowers high outlet
velocity.
AREA OF SLOTS—3X
PIPE CROSS SECTION
AREA. CHECK
VELOCITY INTO SLOT
AREA ≤ 1’/sec.
Nozzle Loading –
Who Sets the Standards?
Or, to what extent should the pump be used as a piping anchor?
T
his past year’s Texas A&M TABLE 1. API ALLOWABLE NOZZLE LOADS
International Pump Users
Symposium at the George R. Note: Each value shown below indicates a range from minus that value to plus that value;
for example, 160 indicates a range from -160 to +160.
Brown convention center in
Houston, TX included a discussion
group entitled Nozzle Loading and Nominal Size of Nozzle Flange (inches)
Pump Operability co-coordinated by Force/Moment* 2 3 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
John Joseph of Amoco Oil and Willie
Each top nozzle
Eickmann of Houston Lighting and FX 160 240 320 560 850 1200 1500 1600 1900
Power. According to Gary Glidden, FY 200 300 400 700 1100 1500 1800 2000 2300
also a discussion leader for this FZ 130 200 260 460 700 1000 1200 1300 1500
group, the two day discussion was a FR 290 430 570 1010 1560 2200 2600 2900 3300
”standing room only” affair. Clearly,
nozzle loading is a subject of concern Each side nozzle
to pump users. FX 160 240 320 560 850 1200 1500 1600 1900
FY 130 200 260 460 700 1000 1200 1300 1500
ESTABLISHED LOADING
FZ 200 300 400 700 1100 1500 1800 2000 2300
STANDARDS QUESTIONED
FR 290 430 570 1010 1560 2200 2600 2900 3300
Much of the discussion focused
on the difficulty of establishing stan- Each end nozzle
dards for allowable nozzle loads. FX 200 300 400 700 1100 1500 1800 2000 2300
Although the current API 610 7th edi- FY 130 200 260 460 700 1000 1200 1300 1500
tion standard for centrifugal pumps FZ 160 240 320 560 850 1200 1500 1600 1900
in general refinery service provides FR 290 430 570 1010 1560 2200 2600 2900 3300
values for maximum loads (Table 1,
Each nozzle
Figure 1), many pump users believe MX 340 700 980 1700 2600 3700 4500 4700 5400
the API allowable loads are too MY 260 530 740 1300 1900 2800 3400 3500 4000
high—especially for use as specifica- MZ 170 350 500 870 1300 1800 2200 2300 2700
tions for installation designs which MR 460 950 1330 2310 3500 5000 6100 6300 7200
fail to recognize the possibility of
”unplanned” stresses on the piping, *F = force, in pounds; M = moment, in foot-pounds; R = resultant
such as those produced by founda-
tion settling. However, as noted by try accepted standards for allowable
James E. Steiger in his paper, API 610 manufacturers and piping engineers,
piping loads acting on centrifugal these groups tend to set independent,
Baseplate and Nozzle Loading Criteria, pumps.” Moreover, when these pip-
”Before the 6th Edition of API 610 often contrary standards, further
ing load standards are absent or not complicating the design process.
was published, there were no indus- universally accepted by pump users, In an attempt to overcome these
P
rocess requirements often
FIGURE 1
demand capacities below
those achievable with a con-
ventional centrifugal pump.
Figure 1 illustrates the range of ser-
vice conditions considered to be low
flow. The minimum continuous sta-
ble flow of a typical 1”x2”x7” over-
hung pump at 1800 rpm is approx-
imately 7 gpm, while at 3550 rpm
the minimum continuous stable
flow is about 13 gpm. A pump of
this size will produce about 240 ft.
of head. As the head requirement
increases to 5000 ft., the minimum
continuous stable flow will increase
to about 190 gpm.
Conventional centrifugal pumps
will not handle these low capacities
very well for two main reasons:
Suction recirculation
The minimum continuous sta-
ble flow is usually set by the pump
thermal flow. Temperature rise requirements is a single port dif-
manufacturer to avoid suction
through a pump determines the min- fuser pump with a ”Barske” straight
recirculation. Suction recirculation
imum flow rate. The maximum safe vane impeller close coupled to an
results in increased vibration and
temperature rise through a pump electric motor, also known as a par-
imparts continuous axial move-
should be limited to 10°F. The for- tial emission pump (Figure 2).
ment to the shaft, decreasing the
mula for determining thermal rise Theoretically, in this kind of pump,
life of bearings and mechanical
through a pump is: the only liquid discharged as each
seals. The point at which suction
chamber passes the diffuser port is
recirculation begins may be calcu- δT = H x 1
the liquid between the impeller
lated as described by Dr. S. 778Cp (Eff - 1)
vanes. In reality, however, due to
Gopalakrishnan in his presentation
H = total head in feet the clearance between the case and
at the 5th International Pump
impeller, some additional liquid also
Users Symposium in 1988. The Cp = specific heat of the liquid in Btu x °F
gets swept out the diffuser port.
pump manufacturer should per- lb
Unfortunately, this pump has a head
form these calculations and set the
788 ft-lbs = the energy to raise the capacity that droops at shutoff which
pump minimum continuous stable
temperature of one pound of water inhibits the ability to control the
flow at a capacity greater than the
by 1°F pump capacity by increasing pres-
calculated capacity.
sure with decreasing flow (Figure 3).
Temperature rise PARTIAL EMISSION PUMPS As a result, installation of a flowme-
The ultimate limitation on low The type of pump most fre- ter is necessary to effectively control
capacity is minimum continuous quently applied to fulfill low flow this type of pump.
REFERENCES
F. H. Fraser, Recirculation in
Centrifugal Pumps, presented at the
ASME Winter Annual Meeting
(1981).
S. Gopalakrishnan, A New
Method for Computing Minimum Flow,
presented at 5th International Pump
Users Symposium (1988).
U. M. Barske, Design of Open
Impeller Centrifugal Pumps, Royal
Aircraft Establishment, Farnborough,
Technical Note No. RPD 77 (January,
1953).
Trygve Dahl, Centrifugal Pump
Hydraulics for Low Specific Speed
Applications, presented at 6th
International Pump Users Sym-
posium (1989).
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Pumps and Systems would like to
thank the members of its User
Advisory Team for their assistance in
preparing this article.
BY LEV NELIK
P
roper lubrication is a key to seal chamber are signifi- FIGURE 1
long, trouble-free life of cen- cant. The new design
trifugal pump bearings. In has a larger chamber to
recent years the issue of lubri- ensure better heat trans-
cation has received renewed atten- fer and cooler operation
tion from pump users in chemical of the mechanical seals.
plants, pulp and paper mills, refiner- The previous design
ies, and other industries. incorporated a tight
Budgetary pressures have forced stuffing box.
many plants to reduce maintenance The new power end
capital. Many knowledgeable mainte- design in Figure 1 fea-
nance workers have been laid off. tures approximately
Not surprisingly, the ability to main- three times the volume
tain pumping equipment properly is of the oil sump (I), an oil
reduced, resulting in increased out- level sight glass (II) to
ages, lost production, and rising assure the proper oil
maintenance costs. level versus the constant
Users have started to look to level oiler (III), improved
pump manufacturers to pick up the cooling via a finned cool-
slack and help solve pump reliability er insert (IV) versus bot-
problems, extend component life, and tom cooling pockets (V),
increase mean time between between labyrinth oilframe seals
failure (MTBF) and mean time (VI) versus lip seals (VII),
between scheduled maintenance and stiffer footing (VIII)
(MTBSM). for reduced vibrations.
Statistics show (Ref. 1) that most A testing program
pump failures are related to bearings has been conducted to
and seals. In this article we will look compare the two de-
at bearings, analyzing how design signs under extremely
changes affect bearing life in a quan- adverse operating condi-
tifiable way. tions, such as running
The need for improved pump endurance testing at
Cross sectional views of old and new power
reliability and increased MTBF led to overspeed and below
end designs.
a new design, introduced by Goulds minimum flow. This
in 1990/1991. Figure 1 shows cross program was conducted
sections of two single-stage, end-suc- at the R&D lab of the
tion ANSI pumps. Both have identical Technology Center at Goulds, result- Feedback from users comparing two
wet ends (impeller and casing), but ing in quantifiable correlations designs was also obtained , specifical-
the power end and the seal chambers between changes in pump design ly in relation to the operating temper-
are different. Improvements in the and their effect on life extension. ature of the bearing frame surfaces.
CPI Pumping
Increase reliability and reduce emissions through pump selection.
T
oday chemical manufacturers
and users are faced with global below 500 ppm. With this in mind, titude of services and making them
competition and pending envi- consider the following: last.
ronmental restrictions that 1. Enclosed impellers are prone to These efforts have produced the
threaten to reduce profitability. The plugging and premature wear in features listed below that many
need to reduce overall operating costs the above services due to small major ANSI pump manufacturers
has driven pump users at chemical wear surface area. (Performance have incorporated (Figure 1). At a
plants to focus on improving reliabili- and efficiency cannot be minimum, users should purchase
ty and eliminating or reducing fugi- renewed without replacing wear ANSI pumps with features that best
tive emissions. rings.) meet their application needs.
However, most new designs incorpo-
SEALED PUMPS 2. Open or semi-open impellers are
rate features systematically to
reliable in these services and are
The mechanically sealed chemi- provide reliable products. Com-
standard for ANSI pumps. (Simple
cal process pump, which meets promising designs to save money or
external impeller adjustments
ASME/ANSI B73.1M standards, is the add standard plant features—substi-
allow easy maintenance of perfor-
workhorse of chemical processing tuting a vendor’s standard labyrinth
mance and efficiency, and there
industries. It will continue to be used seal with the plant’s standard oil seal,
are no wear rings to replace,
on a wide range of process applica- for example—may not be advisable.
yielding long-term energy sav-
tions—such as liquids containing sig- New ANSI pump features include
ings.)
nificant amounts of solids (sodium the following:
chlorate, alum, sodium carbonate, 3. The small internal passageways 1. Labyrinth oil seals are designed
chemical wastewater), light slurries in sealless pumps are subject to to prevent premature bearing
(silver nitrate and acetone slurries), plugging while handling liquids failure from lubricant contami-
viscous liquids (above 150 cP, includ- with only small amounts (5%) of nation or oil loss. These non-con-
ing black liquor and titanium diox- solids. Viscosity handling is also tacting seals have replaced
ide), and stringy materials where limited. Buna-rubber lip seals, whose
sealless pumps may not be economi- useful life was three to six
4. Design solutions separate the
cal to use. In addition to its ability to months under normal condi-
pump end from the drive end to
handle tough services, the flexibility tions. Materials of construction
allow sealless pumps to handle
of the design—along with improved include carbon-filled Teflon,
these services, but these modifi-
low-emission mechanical seals—con- bronze, or stainless steel.
cations can be expensive and
tinues to make ANSI pumps the stan-
may not be cost effective. 2. Increased oil sump capacity pro-
dard in this field.
To elaborate on why sealless Considering all the facts, it’s vides better heat transfer for
pumps are not economical to handle understandable that mechanically more effective oil cooling.
the above materials, we must note sealed ANSI pumps are the more Bearings operating at lower tem-
that they use enclosed impellers to economical choice to handle these peratures contribute to longer
reduce the axial thrust and increase types of liquids. life.
reliability. (Although several manu- 3. A rigid frame foot reduces the
ANSI RELIABILITY IMPROVEMENTS
facturers have tried using open or effect of pipe loads on shaft
semi-open impellers in sealless To meet emissions regulations alignment. Misalignment won’t
designs, many of these have not been and improve reliability, process exceed 0.002 in. under load, and
reliable at two-pole speeds.) Also, industries have pushed ANSI pump pump and driver alignment is
standard sealless pumps have small manufacturers to improve perfor- better maintained.
internal passageways to circulate mance. Some manufacturers have
liquid for bearing lubrication and formed alliances with users to share 4. Bull’s eye sight glasses insure
drive-end cooling, and mechanical technology and improve standard proper oil level, which is critical
seal manufacturers are rapidly designs. By working together, the the- to bearing life. Level oilers have
improving the reliability of their prod- oretical has been combined with the often been misused, leading to
A
t first glance, pump require- Thus it’s no wonder that severe con-
ments don’t really seem that sequences await those who overlook
To get the right pump, all complicated. After all, a that simple fact!
pump only needs to: Another, perhaps not so obvious,
you have to do is decide • move a specified volume of fact is that the energy available at the
what you want, state those liquid through a given system suction side must provide a certain
• be energy efficient net margin over the liquid’s vapor
requirements clearly and • comply with any applicable laws pressure at the pump suction. This
regarding leakage net margin, called Net Positive
place your order with a • achieve certain mean time be- Suction Head Available (NPSHA), is
tween overhauls and replace- necessary to prevent cavitation — the
capable manufacturer. ment boiling of liquid in the system.
• be delivered on time with Cavitation impairs pump perfor-
Sounds easy, doesn’t it? complete documentation mance and shortens the service life of
• and all at minimal cost the pump. An excessive amount of
boiled-off vapor impairs the
It may sound simple at first, but machine’s hydraulic performance. In
it’s not. For example, some pump addition, the subsequent collapse of
purchasers may not know the vol- the vapor bubbles as they move to
ume of liquid their system handles. regions of higher pressure can cause
Reliability data is hard to come by, cavitation erosion.
too. With so many factors affecting To prevent these problems, you
pump life, mean time between over- must specify total system head accu-
hauls and replacement may not be rately. In most applications, you can
known. And the goals are conflicting. determine the normal pump flow and
Increased service life may also the static components of the total
increase energy consumption and head associated with ideal operation
FIGURE 1 purchase price. How do you sort of the plant or process at its design
through these factors? How do you output. Add estimated piping friction
P2
determine what you need from a losses and control valve pressure
P1
SYSTEM pump, develop a meaningful specifi- drop (if applicable) to find the total
4
cation for those requirements and system head for that capacity.
1
finally buy the right pump? The (Remember friction head varies as
3 answer is to take it one step at a time the square of the flow ratio.)
and follow a disciplined approach to Normal pump flow and static
2
HYDRAULIC GRADIENT
pump specification and purchasing. components aren’t the whole story of
3
operating conditions. You must also
4
DETERMINING PUMP REQUIREMENTS factor in the range of operating condi-
PUMPING
ENERGY To write requirements for a tions your pump will be called on to
1
12
pump, you should review the basics perform under. Changes in operating
VAPOR
NPSH of pumps. Pumps are designed to conditions can be caused by:
PRESSURE
move liquid against a hydraulic gradi- • process unit downturn
ENERGY LEVELS
ent; in other words, to move liquid • flow swing to cover upset or
from the suction reservoir to the dis- transient
1 - EXIT FROM SUCTION SOURCE
2 - PUMP SUCTION
charge reservoir, which differ in ele- • change in static head as vessel
3 - PUMP DISCHARGE vation and/or pressure (Fig. 1). levels or pressures in both
4 - DISCHARGE POINT You can see immediately from change with time
the figure that the pump must supply • change in friction head as system
adequate energy to overcome the dif- fouls or scales or as discharge
ference in elevation and pressure vessel fills
along with the friction losses in the • pump wear
conduits on both sides of the pump. You use these data to compute
It’s obvious that the pump, as the the rated flow — the flow under
sole source of energy in the system, which your pump will need to oper-
must supply all the needed energy. ate. You then match the performance
TABLE 1. ELEMENTS OF A PUMP SPECIFICATION TECHNICAL Once you’ve clearly specified the
pump, it’s time to place the order.
Item Function Design Manufacture This process can go smoothly, if you:
• double check that the pump
1. Location and environment X you’re ordering is really the
2. Liquid pumped and properties X pump you want
3. Hydraulic duty X • order the pump in time to allow
4. Redundancy in pump arrangement X for orderly manufacture
5. Future performance margin X • have a post-award meeting, with-
6. Application margins X in one month of ordering, to
7. Type and number of pumps X ensure the order is clear and
8. Driver and arrangement X started
9. Minimum tolerable piping loads X • don’t change the order unless
safety or a major performance
10. Allowable seal leakage X
problem is involved
11. Allowable noise X The final three steps are self-ex-
12. Minimum pump life X planatory, but the first two deserve
13. Mean seal life X some explanation.
14. Bearing life and basis X Double checking your order is
15. Mean period between overhauls X especially important for complex
16. Materials of construction X units with an extensive specification.
17. Rotor design requirements X As a check, hold a pre-award meeting
18. Hydraulic design requirements X with the manufacturer to clarify the
19. Allowable stress X bid. If your unit includes major auxil-
20. Type of shaft seal X iary equipment or systems, review
21. Type of bearings and lubrication X and settle the basic unit plot plan at
this meeting.
22. Type of coupling X
Selecting a manufacturer can be
23. Type of base X done in one of two ways: specify-and-
24. Piping: systems required and construction X evaluate or partnership-purchasing.
25. Auxiliary systems: specification X Under the specify-and-evaluate
26. Instrumentation X method, you prepare a very detailed
27. Material tests X specification and issue inquiries with
28. Welding procedures approval X extensive data requirements, then
29. Inspection during manufacture X thoroughly evaluate the data in the
30. Component and equipment tests X resulting bids and purchase based on
31. Painting and inhibiting X the numerical results of the evalua-
32. Documentation X tion. The evaluation generally takes
A
single look at Photo 1, above, cult selections involve services pump- caused by the velocity of a liquid or
should be enough to convince ing corrosives and/or abrasives, and gas is commonly called erosion.
anyone of the destructive these are the major factors governing Corrosion-abrasion is a combina-
nature of corrosion and abra- which pump is chosen. tion of both corrosion and abrasion
sion on pumps, and lead to the ques- You don’t need to be a rocket that results in an accelerated attack
tion of how to prevent this from scientist to select a pump, and you on material. It is generally more
happening. don’t need a PhD in metallurgy to severe than either corrosion or abra-
This article should serve as either make some basic materials selections sion alone, due to the severe wear
a primer or a reminder of factors and understand the reasoning behind caused by the continuous abrasive
involved in properly selecting or trou- them. We all know that water will destruction of the passive protective
bleshooting a pump in corrosive and/or “rust” iron, acids “corrode” certain film built up by corrosion.
abrasive service. Historically, pump materials that come into contact with Table 1 shows the basic types of
selection has consisted of finding a them, and solids “wear” when corrosion. Corrosion and abrasion
pump that will, “pump stuff from here rubbed together; conversely, we take many forms, and numerous com-
to there,” or that will “deliver so many know that “stainless” steel is corro- binations of these forms exist.
gpm at such-and-such a head.” A sion resistant and that either a hard Detailed analysis of these combina-
greater degree of sophistication leads to or soft “rubber” material will resist tions can be quite complex and goes
“and that will hold up in acid,” or “and abrasion or wear. These simple facts beyond the scope of this discussion.
that will pump solids.” Obviously, the lead us to a closer examination of the
MATERIALS
more that is known about the solution mechanisms of corrosive and abra-
being pumped, the more appropriate sive attack. There is no material that will
the pump selection will be. An interre- Corrosion is the wearing away withstand attack from all combina-
lationship exists where the chemical or deterioration of a material by tions of liquids and solids found in
and physical properties of the chemical or electrolytic action or pumped solutions. However, a basic
pumpage determines the materials of attack. knowledge of material categories will
construction, which dictates pump Abrasion is the wearing away of give us a general idea of what materi-
design, which affects pump perfor- a material caused by a solid rubbing als will and will not work in certain
mance, which in turn determines the or impinging on another. Abrasion environments, and then we can zero
proper pump selection. The more diffi- in on the right pump for a given job.
• Maintainability
• Reliability John W. Rinard holds a bachelor’s
degree in industrial engineering from
• Service life
Texas A&M University. His experience
• Standardization
includes positions in Sales Engineering
• Cost
and Management with the Buffalo
Flow There are always trade offs. The Forge Company and the Duriron
Optimum pump selection user ultimately makes a selection
Company. He is presently with A.R.
results in a pump based on the priorities that best meet
the process needs. This paper has Wilfley and Sons.
operating just to the left of its
best efficiency point. presented an overview of corrosion
and abrasion factors that should be a
part of that selection process.
tance to flow across various in-line
hardware) dictates where the pump
will operate on its curve, the pump
point of rating. Less sophisticated
considerations include rules of thumb
such as:
• Keep the suc-
tion piping as TABLE 2. MATERIALS COMPARISON
short and
straight as Typical Mechanical Properties
possible. Category Subcategory Material Typical Tensile Elongation
Hardness* Strength (Min % in 2")
• Slope the suc- (Min, psi)
tion piping Metallics Ferrous Steel 150 Brinell 70,000 22
toward the Ductile Cast Iron 160 Brinell 60,000 18
pump suction 27% Chrome 600 Brinell 80,000 Nil
when han- Stainless 304 SS 150 Brinell 70,000 35
dling slurries. 316 SS 150 Brinell 70,000 30
Centrifugal CD4MCu 225 Brinell 100,000 16
pumps tend to A20 125 Brinell 60,000 35
become unstable Hastelloy B/C 225 Brinell 75,000 20-25
the closer they Copper base Brass 60 Brinell 37,000 30
approach either Bronze 65 Brinell 35,000 18
shut off (zero flow) Miscellaneous Aluminum 130 Brinell 65,000 8
or maximum flow. Titanium (pure) 200 Brinell 80,000 18
This instability Zirconium (pure) 210 Brinell 55,000 12
may be manifest- Non-Metallics Elastomers Rubber (gum) 35 Durometer A 3,500 500
ed in cavitation, Neoprene 55 Durometer A 3,000 650-850
recirculation, and Urethane 75-95 Durometer A 4,500-7,500 250-900
turbulence. Recir- Plastics Teflon (PTFE) 50-65 Shore D 3,000-4,000 200-400
culation and tur- Epoxy (cast) M75-110 Rockwell 2,000-12,000 Nil
bulence can result Polypropylene R85-95 Rockwell 5,000 500-700
in a liquid temper- Ceramics Silicon Carbide 2,500 Knoop 44,500 Nil
ature rise in the Aluminum Oxide 1,000-1,500 Knoop 22,000-45,000 Nil
pump that can
cause accelerated There are numerous alloys, formulations, and compounds of metallics and non-metallics; those shown are typical and
corrosion as well are not to be considered all-inclusive.
as erosion-corro- *Conversion relationships of hardness scales/numbers are discussed in ASTM E140 and Metalcaster's Reference and
sion. Guide, 2nd Edition, 1989, The American Foundrymen's Society, Inc., (for metals), and ASTM D2000 (for rubber).
LOCATION FIGURE 1
A vertical turbine, mixed flow
or axial flow pump’s location in a
sump is critical to good perfor-
mance. Figures 1 and 2 provide
good design criteria for sump lay-
out. These criteria are based on a
maximum bell entrance velocity
of 6 ft/s. However, because bell 1D 2D 2D 1D
diameters vary from manufacturer
to manufacturer, these ratios must
be adjusted to accommodate the
differences.
According to the U.S. Army
Corps of Engineer’s design guide,
”For satisfactory pump perfor-
mance based on research and pro-
totype experience, recommended
submergence, S, should be 1.25 D .8 D
or greater, and the dimensionless Velocity preferred to be
flow ratio through the individual 1 ft/sec
pump should not exceed a value
of 0.40 for:
Q/ √gD5
where
Q= discharge, cfs D .5 D
D= pump bell diameter, ft
g= acceleration due to gravity,
32.2 ft/s2
an average entrance velocity of 3.3 positive suction head (NPSH), the
Submergences that are less ft/sec. This velocity may be a bit noise created by a vortex comes
than, and flow rates that exceed conservative, but the cost of enlarg- and goes as the vortex comes and
the above limits were investigated, ing the diameter is low and the bene- goes. To mitigate submerged vor-
and more complex designs were fits are tangible. tex formation, apply the following
required for satisfactory hydraulic strategies:
performance.” VORTICES • Place a cone under the bell.
The recommendation of 1.25 If a vortex still occurs after you
have followed the above guidelines, it • Employ splitters.
D minimum submergence is suit-
able for storm water and flood is not generally difficult to alleviate. It • Fill-in intake corners.
control pumps (provided a vortex takes very little energy to form a vor-
tex; therefore, it takes very little ener- • Use diffuser screens.
supressor beam is used as illus-
trated by Figure 2); however, for gy to get rid of it!
Submerged vortices, however, HIGH VELOCITY
continuous service pumps a sub-
mergence of 1.75 D is recom- can be troublesome. These vortices As a rule, high velocity to a
mended. If the submergence is will touch the floor and/or wall of an pump in the intake and/or at the
less than these values, the bell intake. They are the result of swirling bell leads to reduced life of the
diameter must be enlarged. For masses of water next to or under the pump. For a given head and capac-
instance, to meet a 1.25 D sub- pump and are not continuous. ity, today’s pumps operate at
mergence value, the bell diame- Although submerged vortices sound approximately double the speed of
ter should be enlarged to produce like cavitation due to the lack of net the pumps in use before the
6D
front of the conduit outlet. Figure 3
Suppressor
Pump Bay
Beam
FIGURE 4
Trashrack Suction
Bells
Flow
Baffles Forebay Pump Bay
Suction
Bells
Plan
D = Suction bell diameter, ft.
Hydraulic
Instabilities and
Cavitation
Causes, Effects and Solutions
ydraulic excitation forces and lar to the direction of main according to design rules differing
}
power • reduce d1a
H • increase hub dia. reduce
• inlet ring d1 eff
Q
Hc β • Excessive recirculation • increase a3 or s8
Rise of Hc δTE
0.5 at impeller outlet • reduce b3 / b2
towards Q=0 • reduce b2
Q • increase δTE
Typical for nq > 35
Q
Sudden decrease of β due
Q
to outlet recirculation
H = total dynamic head ψp = static head rise of F = axial thrust towards
Q = net flow through 2 ax
impeller / (u2 /2g) β suction
pump Hc = head rise in casing ω = ratio fluid/shroud rotation
Fax • Flow separation in diffu- • Axial thrust fluctuations and sen-
3. HCC with saddle H ser (volute) but not yet sitivity to rotor position / axial
or flat position fully developed recircul- stage stacking tolerances can be
ation eliminated by reducing gap A
S • Shifting of flow patterns and introducing proper overlap
Q
30< nq < 60 Axial thrust excursions (zones of recirculation / • To remove saddle type instability
H flow separation) detailed flow analysis and / or
• Very sensitive to manu- testing often required
0.5 facturing tolerances of • Differences in stage geometry to
Hc diffuser and impeller get onset of flow separation in
Q
• Very sensitive to impeller different stages at different flow
H inlet flow conditions and rates
B S
nq < 60 impeller inlet geometric
Q S = outlet recirculation on parameters
shroud • Sensitive to axial rotor
B = outlet recirculation on position: HCC and Fax
Q hub
4. HCC too steep at NPSH3% • Excessive flow accelera- • Increase diffuser or volute throat
H high flow rates area
H tion in diffuser or volute
throat
• Cavitation in diffuser or
Q volute
Hp
η Q
Q
Steep rise of NPSH little
or not at all affected by
Hc impeller inlet
Q
P
Q
Q
1. Fracture of impeller blades at • High dynamic stresses induced • Increase gap B by cutting back • There are a number of other
outlet, diffuser vanes at inlet, tie by pressure pulsations (im- (1) diffuser vanes if diffuser throat failure mechanisms related to
bolts, instrument piping, or pingement of wake flow from does not increase by more than design, material selection and
other components impeller blade trailing edge on 3% quality
diffuser vanes or volute cut- (2) impeller blade trailing edge (head
Remark
of pump will be reduced unless
water) Pressure pulsations and dynamic
speed cannot be adapted)
stresses are expected to decrease
• Reduce excitation at part load by with a power of -0.77 of gap B.
modifying hydraulic components For example to achieve half of the
(careful analysis and redesign) original level gap B must be increased
by a factor of about 2.5
2. Side plate breakage • High dynamic stresses induced • Increase gap B (see previous • Insufficient quality of impeller
by pressure pulsations item) casting and / or finish (notch
• Impeller side plate resonance if • Change z3 / z2 combination effect)
z3 - z2 = 2 and z3 n/60 close • Modify natural frequency • Insufficient thickness of impeller
to impeller side plate natural • Reduce exciation at part load by side plates
frequency modifying hydraulic components
3. Mechanical seals • High pressure pulsations caused • (see above) • There are a number of other
by wake flow or recirculation / • Reduce cavity volume by rede- failure mechanisms related to
separation sign of impeller and / or inlet design, material selection and
• High frequency pressure pulsa- • see table 3 quality
tion due to cavitation
• Shaft vibrations
4. Excessive labyrinth wear • Excessive radial thrust • Reduce flow asymmetries • Thermal deformations of casing
around impeller by and rotor
- double volute in case of single
volutes
- analyzing / eliminating cause
of asymmetry (casting
tolerances, differences in
resistance in channels of
double volutes, discharge and
• Excessive vibration suction nozzle,...)
• see table 3
5. Failure of radial bearings • Excessive radial thrust • see above item • Mechanical / design
• Excessive vibration • see table 3
6. Failure of axial bearings • Axial thrust excursions • see table 1, item 3 • Mechanical / design
• Excessive labyrinth wear (high • Replace wear rings • Transients
leakage increases rotation on
shroud; reduces rotation on hub
with multistage-pumps)
by the following case study, geomet- at partial load on the pressure side of decreased the noise at 60% flow to
ric modification of the impeller is fre- the blades, flow recirculation was the unmodified 100% flow noise
quently the only feasible solution. identified as the most probable cause. level, and the erosion problems were
To improve the partial load range solved. ■
CASE HISTORY and thereby increase the impeller
After a boiler feed pump had life, an inlet ring was designed and
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
operated for more than 50,000 hours installed in the pump. Figures 2 and 3
with no trace of cavitation on the suc- show the fluid-borne and solid-borne This article summarizes the
tion impellers, the load demand of noise prior to and after this modifica- results of investigations on hydraulic
the process changed, requiring pro- tion. Prior to modification the noise instabilities and cavitation erosion
longed partial load operation. The recorded at 100% and 80% flow is sponsored by the Electric Power
pump operated about 1000 hours at virtually equal. Since no erosion Research Institute (EPRI), Palo Alto,
60% load and 1100 hours at 80% load occurred during more than 50,000 CA and conducted under EPRI
before cavitation damage was discov- hours of operation at full load, this RP 1884-10. The authors are grateful
ered on the pressure side of the evidence suggests that the operation to R. Egger, W. Handloser and A.
impeller blades. The attack varied at 60% load was entirely responsible Roesch, who carried out the exten-
between 2-4mm from blade to blade. for the damage. As illustrated by the sive test program.
Since the cavitation damage occurred figures, the modification of the pump
120
Subscripts:
100 original available
av
40
X
XX X X X X
20 modified X X
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 % Flow
1. Subsynchronous peak < 1.0 • Increased labyrinth preswirl ⇒ • Increase rotor stiffness and • Labyrinth design
close to fn reduced rotor damping damping by introduction of • Thrust balancing device does
fn > 1.0 plain labyrinths or shallow
A
Instability • Unloading of bearings due to not provide sufficient rotor
change in radial thrust with serrations only damping
flow • Reduce preswirl to labyrinths • Bearing design / bearing
• Rotating stall by swirl brake unloaded
• Labyrinth wear • Impeller or diffuser redesign Remark:
f ⇒increased leakage Instability may be recognized by
Subsynchronous vibrations all ⇒increased preswirl very steep increase in amplitude
increase with time ⇒reduced rotor damping with increasing speed
2. Synchronous vibration all • Hydraulic unbalance due to • Reduce casting / manufacturing
various impeller tolerances tolerances of impeller (precision
fn
casting, ceramic core proce-
A dures, manufacturing) and
implement more stringent
question/answer procedures
3. Supersynchronous peaks all • Pressure pulsations caused by • Peaks nearly always present.
A wakes from the impeller blade If excessive:
fn
Z2fn trailing edge - Increase gap B (see table 2,
2Z2fn item 1)
• Harmonics other than blade
• Harmonics other than blade
passing frequency are due to passing frequency: reduce
f impeller casting tolerances impeller casting tolerances
A = amplitude (pitch of the blades) • Change number of impeller or
f = frequency • z3 - z2 = +/- 1 resulting in diffuser vanes
fn = rotational frequency non-zero radial blade force • Reduce excitation force by proper
z2 = number of impeller component at z2 fn staggering of impellers on shaft
blades
4. Broad band shaft typically • Flow recirculation at impeller • If excessive: reduce diffuser or
vibrations below inlet and outlet volute throat area; reduce
fn
A 50% of • Some broad band vibrations impeller eye (careful review of
BEP flow are unavoidable. If excitation is hydraulic design required)
excessive this can be due to • As a cure of the symptoms the
oversized throat areas of rotor damping might be
f
diffuser or volute, oversized increased (swirl brakes,
impeller eye or excessive labyrinth redesign, see above)
5. Structural resonances incidence • Reduce cavitation extension Remark:
below frequency of shaft • Fluctuating cavities (higher NPSHav, redesign of It is typical that structural reson-
rotation excited by broad impeller or inlet) ances excited by broad band
band hydraulic forces forces do not depend on the speed
(e.g. bearing housing, of the shaft
bed plates, piping, ...)
A fn
f
6. Rotating stall typically • Stall cells in diffuser or impeller • Analysis and redesign of Remark:
below rotating with a frequency below hydraulic components The peaks are expected to be
90% of the frequency of rotation • Increase rotor damping (swirl proportional to the rotor speed
BEP flow brakes, labyrinth redesign)
7. Surge-like strong low • Vapour core forming in the • Structures upstream of im-
pulsations suction pipe at low NPSHav due peller to avoid formation of core
to strong part load recirculation (flow straightener, cross, inlet
ring, hub diameter, “back-flow
catcher”)
• Impeller / inducer redesign
• Air admission (if possible)
2. Suction side of blade, • High incidence at low σ (typically • Reduce impeller eye diameter if
within channel σu1 av = 0.15 to 0.3) above optimum
• Insufficient NPSHav • Reduce blade inlet angle
• Insufficient cavitation resistance • Increase NPSH available
of material • Increase cavitation resistance of
material
3. Pressure side of blade, any • Negative incidence due to • Reduce flow rate
location, starting close to excessive flow • Increase blade inlet angle
leading edge of blade • Unfavorable leading edge profile (but beware of partload
• Excessive (run-out) flow cavitation)
• Improve leading edge profile if
damage close to leading edge
Sheet cavitation on pressure side at
Q > Q SL
4. Pressure side of blade, • Excessive flow deceleration • Increase flow rate
damage at outer half of (excessive impeller eye diameter, • Impeller redesign (decrease eye
impeller width starting excessive impeller throat area, diameter / throat area / blade
close to leading edge excessive blade angles) angles)
Bubbles in free stream generated by • Inlet ring at the impeller entrance
shear flow due to partload recircula- (reduce deceleration, reduce
tion. Bubbles impinge on pressure shear flow effects)
side of vane.
Lcav
5. Pressure side of blade, • Negative incidence near hub due • Increase blade angle at hub
damage near hub. Difficult to to partload recirculation • Reduce recirculation
distinguish from item ③ un- • Improve leading edge profile to
less it can be determined ac
tua
l
BEP reduce flow separation near hub
min
ω0 Q COM
whether pump has operated 0Q under recirculation
ω oretical
ω 0 Qmin the
at partload or above BEP • Reduce preswirl (vanes, ribs,
U1 backflow catching elements) of
Excessive partload recirculation crea- recirculating flow
tes a negative incidence near hub
6. Damage on hub or shroud • Blade angles not properly • Impeller redesign (adaption of
or in fillet radii matched to the flow blade angles)
• Fillet radii too large • Required fillet radii
potential for some material damage, control schemes. This fact must be Displacement
despite close proximity to the 3% head recognized when retrofitting from
Backward Lean
suppression value. This may be attrib- one configuration to another.
Centrifugal
uted to the high surface tension charac- Figure 5 shows the theoretical
teristic of water. The same trait makes characteristics of PDs and centrifu-
it aggressive toward cavitation damage gals with regard to flow and head
but the pump generally works! capabilities. It is evident that the posi-
Difficulty occurs at the other end tive displacement design is limited by Flow Coefficient
of the spectrum where high speed head (pressure) and the centrifugal by
pumps are used with low specific flow. Consequently, the PD uses a
gravity services. Using the 3% sup- pressure relief valve to prevent over FIGURE 6. CENTRIFUGAL PUMP
pression value for light fluids, plus pressurization and to bleed off excess RADIAL LOAD CHARACTERISTICS
the industry rule of thumb for an capacity. In practice, centrifugal
additional 2 to 3 feet safety factor, the pumps exhibit only a moderate head
NPSH margin may not be adequate rise across their operating region. The Single Volute
with low specific gravity fluids. One radial vaned centrifugal, in particular,
example of this situation is realized demonstrates a 5-10% head rise from
Diffuser
when a slight heating of the fluid the best efficiency point (B.E.P.) to
Design
Load
occurs on the suction side of the the peak of the head versus capacity
pump, particularly with above- curve. This margin does not facilitate
ground supply pipes from storage the use of a pressure relief system for
vessels to transfer pumps. This can control purposes. Further, the relief
result in off-gassing and failure of the valve scheme can result in wasted
pump to hold prime. Ironically, this power when the pump is allowed to 0 25 50 75 100 125 150
situation contradicts the API hydro- run out to the extreme right of the Percent of Design Flow
carbon offset factors that are typically B.E.P., under ”low load” conditions.
S common to low specific speed pumps, trolling centrifugal pumps and yields
has elicited much discussion regard- new system curves as indicated by
ing their inherent ability to be con- (SD) and (SA). It is seen that the
S' F
trolled. Such pumps, however, have pump’s head capability is equal at the
been successfully applied in tens of XA and XB flow points yet successful
thousands of applications in spite of pump operation is accomplished as a
Flow these concerns. Unfortunately, how- result of the modified system curve.
ever, many times this has been We would be remiss in not point-
B = System Curve accomplished at the expense of ener- ing out that this type of curve does
V = "Variable" Component gy by oversizing the pump’s rated have its shortcomings. First, pressure
F = "Fixed" Component head and then employing a discharge control normally is not practical due
orifice to artificially steepen the curve to the relatively small head rise that
design flow rate (Figure 6). It is gener- as it runs back toward its minimum occurs between the rated and maxi-
ally understood that sufficient bear- flow point. mum head points, typically on the
ing over capacity, and/or control The application key is to under- order of 5-10%. This fact favors the
limits, must be applied to the pump stand the pump and the system use of flow control methods. Second,
to account for these events. High- curves. It is a common belief that systems that are comprised predomi-
speed centrifugal pumps share these drooping curves are difficult to con- nantly of the ”fixed” component, i.e.,
same basic design needs, but also trol because the pump has two flow those that exhibit little influence as a
must address a phenomenon often points associated with a single head result of the system’s demand flow,
referred to as discharge cavitation. (pressure) point. The result is a ten-
Discharge cavitation occurs with- dency for the pump to ”hunt” FIGURE 9
in single divergent conical (point between the two flows. What is often
emission) diffusers when the pump is overlooked, however, is that the
operated at rates to the right of knee pump merely reacts to what the sys- D
A B
of the performance curve (Figure 7). tem presents it with (i.e., it operates
Under such conditions, a low pres- at the exact point where the system
sure zone forms on the trailing edge and pump curves intersect).
of the impeller’s blades. Vapor bub- A process system’s characteristic
bles are formed and subsequently resistance curve typically is made up S
collapse in a manner consistent with of two components. The first is
the standard definition of cavitation. referred to as the ”fixed” element and
The result is impeller blade pitting, is associated with the system’s static C
increased pump vibration and the component, e.g., the operating pres- XA XD XB
classic ”rock pumping” noise associat- sure of a process tower. This element
ll pumps are pressure rated. axis (radially split) or parallel to it casings being used successfully in
By J. T. (“Terry”) McGuire
Total Head
System pressures, a convenient low pressure
head for the regions subjected to suction
H @ minimum speed
pressure, maximum discharge pres-
Bypass sure for the remainder of the casing
(Figure 5). This practice is normal in
Pumping Temperature the utility industry and is recognized
Flow by API-610, the standard for the
Variation of MAWP with process industry. API-610 also recog-
Variable speed boiler feed pump
pumping temperature nizes this is a controversial topic
within the process industry, so it
FIGURE 2 FIGURE 4 includes the option of specifying that
the entire casing be designed for max-
Allowable test curve with maximum
positive tolerances imum discharge pressure.
Designing the normal low pres-
Slip
Relief valve sure regions of a barrel pump casing
accumulation for discharge pressure has two nega-
tive effects that need to be taken into
Pressure
any industry pump to other sectors. Pump suppliers ben- the pump data sheet. Typically, the
M
problems are not efit by getting valuable feedback on flow rate is established by the
caused by im- their designs so they can improve process for which the pump is being
proper operation their products and broaden their selected. A calculation then deter-
or faulty mainte- applications. And as this article mines the discharge pressure
nance, although explains, communication is the key required to move this amount of flow
these are the pri- to making it happen. through the piping system. This
mary focus of most There are two primary areas of process is fairly straightforward, but
reliability improvement efforts. In pump user/supplier interaction. The pitfalls exist even at this elementary
reality, most problems are traceable to first is when the user initially pur- stage. Many process design engineers
improper initial application or changed chases a new pump. The second is do not understand that a typical cen-
operating conditions. The pump is just when a user attempts to improve the trifugal pump has an operating range
not right for the job. Or it once was, performance of an existing pump. of only 40–120% of Best Efficiency
but is no more. Misapplication can be These two activities are different yet Point (BEP) flow rate. This may lead
avoided, however, by observing three have much in common. The most them to set the rated flow rate of the
important principles: communication, important of these is the need for pump higher than required, possibly
communication and communication. clear, open and honest communica- to allow for future expansion of the
In the past, and sometimes even tion between users and suppliers. unit. Unfortunately, this future
today, pump users assume an adver- expansion either is many years away
sarial relationship with their suppli- NEW PUMP PURCHASES or never happens. As a consequence,
ers. Mutual suspicion is the order of Purchasing a new pump the process unit is left with a pump
the day, with each side trying to requires a team effort between cus- that is operating at, or at much less
“win” or gain an advantage over the tomer and supplier. Much effort has than, the lower limit of its operating
other. On the other hand, wise pump been expended over the years to range. This low flow operation is the
users are treating suppliers as valu- develop specifications and industry root cause of many pump reliability
able resources. They seek win-win standards such as API and ANSI. problems.
outcomes where everyone benefits. These standards form the founda- Good communication during the
Pump manufacturers, too, have tion of a new pump purchase. Fol- sizing process can help avoid this
found that making today’s sale is not lowing are some additional ideas and other sizing errors. The plant’s
as important as building a long term that will help you select and pur- rotating machinery group should be
relationship with customers. Out of chase the best pump for a given brought in early to work with the
this industry-wide shift in attitude has application. process designers. Working together,
come a new opportunity for suppliers they can explore options other than
and users to work together to put the PROCESS DATA pump oversizing. The rotating equip-
best pump in a given application. Accurate process data is needed ment group also can bring pump
With all of today’s corporate to achieve a successful pump applica- manufacturer expertise to the sizing
downsizing and re-engineering, tion. Without good information, the exercise. Pump manufacturers fre-
pump users cannot afford to ignore pump supplier is already fighting with quently offer other choices such as
the wealth of help available from one hand tied behind his back, and an upgradable pump, variable speed
pump suppliers. After all, suppliers the battle hasn’t even started. A whole drive or other means to improve
can draw from a broad spectrum of book could be written on the subject operational flexibility.
industry experience to help a user of properly sizing pumps, but the cal-
solve a particular problem. This culation and engineering aspects are SITE/INSTALLATION DATA
information exchange benefits users beyond the scope of this article. It is important to communicate
by taking solutions developed in one Good communication is the key the location and type of installation
industry segment and introducing it to getting accurate process data onto both internally and to the pump sup-
ll centrifugal pumps the volute throat. in slurry and sewage pumps to mini-
A
have two major com- mize plugging at the throat, and on
ponents: the rotating TYPES OF VOLUTES low head pumps where radial loads
element and the pump Single volute pumps have only are nominal. They are also used on
case. Together they one volute throat and one diffusion low specific speed pumps where the
establish how much chamber, and because of their sim- throat area and hydraulic passages
head will be generat- ple casting geometry, they can be are too small to cast as a double
ed, best efficiency produced at lower cost than the volute.
point (BEP) capacity, the slope of the more complex double volute designs. Double volute casings were
head capacity curve and net positive Figure 2 shows a single stage version introduced to minimize the radial
suction head required (NPSHR), Fig- with the diffusion leading directly to thrust problems of single volute
ure 1. The rotating element consists pump discharge. Figure 3 is a multi- pumps. They are actually two single
of a shaft and one or more impellers stage version in which the liquid, volute designs 180° apart with a total
whose function is to convert mechan- following diffusion, is directed throat area equivalent to a compara-
ical energy into high velocity kinetic through the crossover to the next ble single volute design. The non-
energy. The pump case directs liquid stage impeller. Pressure distribution uniform pressure distributions are
to the impeller from the suction noz- around the impeller is non-uniform opposed, thereby greatly reducing
zle, collects the liquid discharging and produces a radial load on the radial loads (Figure 4). Double volute
from the impeller, and then converts impeller which, depending on the pumps are the preferred choice on
the kinetic energy into pressure by developed head, may deflect the higher head pumps.
controlled deceleration in the diffu- pump shaft and cause wear at
sion chamber immediately following impeller wear rings and seal faces. TYPES OF IMPELLERS
Single volutes are used routinely Pumps can be built with a single
FIGURE 1 impeller or, in the case of high pres-
sure applications, with two or more
impellers. They will be either single
60
NPSHR FT
400
B.E.P.
EFFICIENCY %
60
F.
E.
FIGURE 6
Radial Semi-Radial Mixed Axial
Flow Flow Flow Flow
FIGURE 5
SPECIFIC SPEED Ns
Centrifugal impellers
W
LO
K
T AN
N
T IO N
UC O
S TI
E RA
O P FL
AT
Head
AL
RM LL
Capacity NO
FU ST
K EE
T AN P
N
IO
CT
SU
FIGURE 8
T
Cracking Unit (FCCU)
is one of several
processes critical to a
refinery’s productivity.
Its long term, safe oper-
ation translates into
increased production
and profitability. Yet prior to intro-
ducing fully lined pump technology
for use in FCC (Fluid Catalytic
Cracking) main column bottoms
applications, refineries replaced or
repaired conventional double volute
API process pumps several times a
year. This caused serious safety risks
and a process shutdown frequency
unacceptable in today’s production
environment.
The fully lined slurry pump has
thus emerged as the pump technolo-
gy of choice for providing 3 – 5 years
of maintenance-free operation for
FCCU refinery bottoms applications.
This particular application involves
pumping a highly erosive high tem-
perature (350 – 800°F) slurry at
flows to 12,000 gpm, pressures to
600 psig and heads from 90 – 900
feet. Catalysts used in FCC processes Fully lined slurry pump design
are also extremely erosive, and they
are applied in varying concentrations Conventional Fluid Catalytic inactive. This inactive catalyst is recir-
depending on the process unit con- Cracking. A typical fluid catalytic culated from the cyclones at the top of
figuration and/or upset operating cracking unit (Figure 2) consists of a the reactor back to the regenerator
conditions. reactor, catalyst regenerator and where the coke is combusted, rejuve-
The fully lined slurry pump fractionator column. This process nating the catalyst. Vaporized cracked
design (Figure 1) is an engineered converts straight run heavy gas oil products flow through the cyclones at
approach to providing long term, reli- from the crude distilling unit, and the top of the reactor into the vapor
able pump performance in this severe- flasher tops from the vacuum flasher line that feeds the bottom of the main
duty application. To understand how unit, into high octane gasoline, light fractionator column. The cyclones
this new pump technology meets such fuel oils and olefin-rich light gases. operate at less than 100% efficiency so
demanding requirements, we will take In the vertical reactor vessel, that some coke and catalyst particles
a closer look at FCC processes and the vaporized oil contacts fluidized cata- continuously reach the fractionator.
design of fully lined slurry pumps. lyst particles, causing a reaction that In this type of FCC process, the
yields lighter hydrocarbon and coke. main column bottoms pumps must
FCCU PROCESSES During the reaction, carbon (coke) is pump the bottom oil at a high rate
deposited on the catalyst, rendering it through the heat exchanger and over
142 The Pump Handbook Series
a vapor contact section within the
fractionator tower. This desuperheats PHOTO 1
and scrubs the fine particles of cata-
lyst from the reactor vapors entering
the fractionator without causing oil
coking. A small concentration of alu-
mina-based catalyst particles that
have been scrubbed out of the vapors
is continuously circulated with the
main bottoms product, causing ero-
sion of the pump internals.
New FCC Processes. Unlike con-
ventional FCC processes that recycle
part of the main column bottoms
directly back to the reactor vessel,
TECHNOLOGY FRACTIONATOR
design, than in MDP’s. This enables configured for operation at high tem-
the CMP to detect extreme bearing peratures. However, permanent
wear prior to containment shell con- magnets can tolerate heat better than
tact or violation. motor windings can, so MDP’s are
able to pump hot liquids—up to
2. SOLIDS/SLURRY HANDLING 750°F—with just air cooling. Canned
Both the canned motor and motor pumps require water cooling
magnetic drive designs will handle jackets for high temperature service.
moderate amounts of solids, and For example, some CMP designs can
optional designs for both will handle operate up to 1,000°F with water
higher concentrations of slurries. cooling. Various designs require tem- Cutaway of a Kontro A-range ANSI seal-
For CMP’s, if low concentrations of perature limitations by component less magnet drive pump used in chemical
processing services.
hydraulic efficiency times motor effi- you’re considering options for your
ciency times coupling efficiency. sealless centrifugal pumps is to make
Again, the magnetic coupling is sure your supplier(s) know everything
80–85% efficient. However, contain- about your application, particularly
ment shell metallurgy (or lack there- temperatures and vapor pressure at
of) and magnetic coupling type play a startup and shutdown, not just normal
big role in coupling efficiency. operating conditions. ■
Further complicating the effi-
ciency discussion is wet end hard- This article was developed with the
ware. Impeller and casing geometry assistance of Steven A. Jaskiewicz, of
play a vital role in hydraulic effi- Cutaway view of a canned motor pump. Crane Chempump (Warrington, PA)
ciency. These pumps are used on a wide variety of and David Carr, of Sundstrand Fluid
For example, a Barske design fluids at temperatures from cryogenic ser- Handling (Arvada, CO).
(open radial blade impeller and dif- vice to 1000° F and at system pressures
fuser discharge) is usually more effi- up to 5,000 PSI.
revolution swept through the • ANSI/ASME B73.1M - 1991, entrained gases. Open impellers –
A
chemical process pump Specification for Horizontal End Suc- particularly those running at 3600
industry more than 30 years tion Chemical Pumps for Chemical rpm – must be carefully engineered
ago. It was the beginning of Process (Photo 1) to control axial thrust, seal chamber
chemical pump design and • ANSI/ASME B73.2M - 1991, pressure and mechanical integrity.
dimension standardization. Specification for Vertical In-Line Cen- Closed impellers are typically
Before the 1960s, chemical process trifugal Pumps for Chemical Process employed in less corrosive environ-
pump manufacturers offered a prolifer- (Photo 2)
ation of designs. Each manufacturer had • ANSI/ASME B73.3M - (in
its own design and dimensional enve- process), Specification for Sealless
lope. Industrial users faced significant Horizontal End Suction Centrifugal
piping, baseplate design and potential Pumps for Chemical Process
addresses many mechanical design designs are of two basic types, the
features such as pressure limits, tem- open style and the closed style, as
perature limits, drain and gauge shown in Figure 2. Most ANSI pumps
connections and seal chamber dimen- employ some type of open impeller
sions. This enables today’s pump user and axial adjustment feature. This
to replace a pump with one from a allows critical operating clearances
different manufacturer easily. within the pump to be maintained,
Chemical process pump specifi- which is important for maximizing
cations developed through the B73 hydraulic performance. The open Photo 2. Example of vertical in-line ANSI
committee include: impeller is also better at handling centrifugal pump for chemical process
solids and pumping liquids with service
Figure 1. Basic components of an ANSI B73 pump Figure 2. Centrifugal impeller designs
Vertical
Sump
FRP Vert.
Sump
Inline
Process
Horizontal
Process
Teflon
Lined
FRP
Process
Self-
Priming
Low
Flow
Non-
Clog
Horizontal
Sealless
Process
Non-
Metallic
Sealless
Process
TOMORROW'S CHEMICAL Industry Practices (PIP) has devel- addressing nonmetallic pump designs.
PROCESS PUMP oped two new specifications that In addition, a Canned Motor/Magnetic
Having evolved for more than supplement ANSI B73 specifications Drive Specification B73.3M is expect-
30 years, the ANSI/ASME chemical with additional requirements com- ed to be approved in 1996.
process pump now offers users monly specified in the industry (both
horizontal and vertical types). 2. NEW PIP STANDARD
improved reliability, easier installa-
tion and broader application flexibil- The new specifications covering
1. POTENTIAL REVISIONS TO typical B73 pumps are the PIP
ity. Its development over the next 30 ANSI/ASME B73 SPECIFICATIONS
years will surely produce further (Process Industry Practices) RESP73H
improvements in these areas. But Changes are under way in the and RESP73V. Engineering contrac-
instead of 3 years meantime between ANSI/ASME B73 Pump Committee. tors and pump users have formed a
planned maintenance, the industry The basic B73.1M Horizontal Machinery Function Team whose
will be driving towards 5+ years. Process Pump Specification will be sole task is to develop a set of stan-
Pump emissions will not be accept- revised and probably issued in 1997. dards that will eliminate variations in
able at 1000 ppm. Zero (0) ppm will Areas being addressed to improve chemical process pumps manufac-
be the goal. It will not take 2 hours to pump reliability are: tured to multiple user and contractor
align a pump and motor to 0.002 a. Nozzle loading pump specifications. This team and
TIR. It will take only 15 minutes to b. Seal cavity dimensions its work will greatly minimize the
align to 0.0005 TIR. And these and c. Auxiliary connections to glands problems associated with multiple
other changes will surely take place and seal cavities specifications. Lower engineering
in less than 30 years. d. Baseplates costs and enhanced pump reliability
In fact, manufacturers and users e. Additional pump sizes will be the benefits.
both are demanding change now. f. Hydraulic Institute Class A The PIP RESP73H (Horizontal
The result is that current versions of performance criteria Chemical Process Pumps ANSI
the ANSI/ASME B73.1M and g. Allowable operating range B73.1M Type) and RESP73V (Verti-
B73.2M are up for revision this year. cal Chemical Process Pump ANSI
The ANSI Pump Committee has also New Specifications. The ANSI/ B73.2M Type) cover the same pump
developed two new specifications. In ASME Pump Committee recently design areas as the original ANSI
addition, a new group called Process issued a new B73.5M Specification specification, but they also address:
erely upgrading
M
to obtain maximum benefit. The cated that pump failures were
technology is not steps discussed below can be fol- increasing at an unacceptable rate.
enough to increase lowed to complete any project suc- Production levels also were increas-
pump reliability. cessfully. They go by many names ing, so there was an urgent need to
A technological but most often are referred to as improve pump reliability. The his-
upgrade is just one good engineering practices. torical data were only a portion of
of many factors the information that needed to be
that must be add- GOOD ENGINEERING PRACTICES analyzed to implement a good
ressed to achieve maximum relia- Following are some of the quality upgrade program. Visual inspections
bility. Reilly Industries has been steps or good engineering practices of the pumps installed at that time
increasing the reliability of its large followed in Reilly's pump reliability revealed other factors that needed to
ANSI pump population since 1990. upgrade project. be addressed. The most obvious was
At year end 1995 the company's a lack of proper grout. Repair
total pump repairs were at their low- 1. Know the current situation inspections also showed that many
est levels since 1988. Meanwhile, 2. Analyze the current situa- pump sites had excessive pipe
plant production has tripled due to tion strain. Indicator reverse, or laser
expansions and improvements in effi- 3. Formulate a plan alignment, was almost never done
ciency. 4. Initiate a trial on the ANSI pumps. These deficien-
We shall examine the proce- 5. Set up standard and use cies could be handled in-house
dures Reilly Industries instituted to 6. Train and communicate to through better maintenance prac-
bring its pumps into compliance work force and others tices and training. Other difficulties
with the new ANSI standards. Spe- 7. Maintain data could not. The most important fac-
cific areas covered include new 8. Continue making refine- tor that could not be controlled in-
pump installations and orders, ments house was that mechanical seals
inventory, converting old pumps to 9. Analyze pump technology were operating in stuffing boxes
new standards and future plans. 10. Phase in and phase out designed for packing. But a newly
Sealless ANSI pumps are not cov- 11. Stick to the plan approved standard known as ASME
ered because there are none on site. 12. Redo poor installations B73.1M-1991 changed ANSI pump
Testing is currently under way to Steps 1 - 8 are good engineering history.
determine if certain sealless brands practices overall. Steps 9 - 12 refer
will be accepted into the plant. more specifically to the pump up- ASME B73.1M-1991
A specialty chemical manufac- grading project. ASME B73.1M-1991 is the
turer located in Indianapolis, Reilly For positive results in upgrading "Specification for Horizontal End
Industries is about to celebrate its pumps for improved reliability, the Suction Centrifugal Pumps for
centennial under the leadership of pump, mechanical seal, gland, Chemical Process." One important
Tom Reilly, Jr., the founder's grand- pump base, pump pad and immedi- item addressed in this revision was
son. The company has grown over ate pump piping all must be an increase in pump base sizes to
the last century to where it currently addressed. The pumpage and flow add rigidity. Another was additional
manufactures more than 100 inter- rate conditions also must be compat- motor protection. Perhaps even
mediate and specialty chemicals for ible with the type of pump used. more important, however, was the
a worldwide market. When this project was started in new designation of a seal chamber
Just over six years ago a pump 1990, Reilly Industries had been versus the old stuffing box. The
improvement program was initiated using a computerized maintenance introduction of the seal chamber
to increase the reliability of the com- system for about 5 years. This allowed the mechanical seal manu-
pany's more than 800 pumps. In helped greatly because the mainte- facturers freedom to create new
implementing pump upgrade pro- nance repair and cost history technology and mechanical seal
jects, certain steps must be followed already was on file. The data indi- designs. The gas barrier seals that
The Pump Handbook Series 153
formulated to address pump reliabil- Shortly after the pumps were rein-
ity. Effort would be directed mainly stalled, however, the standard was
at ANSI pumps because of their accepted as a site engineering stan-
greater population and the fact that dard for ANSI pump installation.
many improvements made on them At the same time, new standards
would apply to other types of pumps were written for future ANSI pump
also. The upgrade plan involved a orders. These standards incorporat-
two-step approach. The first step ed into all new pump orders many of
was to ensure that no more pumps the improvements specified in ASME
were misinstalled or improperly B73.1M-1991. Included were require-
ordered. This would help reduce ments that all new pumps have 4º
maintenance problems from the taper seal chambers, drain and dis-
start. Reilly engineers began by writ- charge taps on the pump casing,
ing standards for proper pump labyrinth bearing isolators, bull's-eye
installation procedures. Covered in oil level indicators and bearing housing
the standards were such details as expansion chambers. On pump-base
pump base dimensions, heights, assemblies the base would conform
depths, hold-down bolt designs, to ASME B73.1-1991 di-mensions,
pump spacing from one another, have a grout hole centered on the
pipe strain, grout and alignment. base (4" preferred), and have motor
Before the standards were jacking bolts for alignment purposes.
approved, they were tested on four Some of these upgrades are shown in
pumps that showed normal repair Photo 1. This would give us a head
Photo 1. Recently received group two size
rates for the plant at that time. After start as we would soon begin an
pump incorporates motor jacking bolts,
these pumps were reinstalled alignment and pump installation pro-
grout hole, bearing isolators, bull's eye
according to the proposed standard, gram. The jacking bolts and grout
oil indicator and bearing housing expan-
they ran much quieter and holes saved maintenance time when
sion chamber as standard features.
smoother. these programs were under way.
are now on the market are a result Looking at the repair frequency The accomplishments up to this
of this. Specifics not addressed in and costs for the three years before time took more than a year to
this revision were the standardiza- the reinstallation and after, total achieve. They helped prevent misin-
tion of the gland bolt circle, shaft repair costs dropped 94%, from stallation of ANSI pumps and elimi-
size at the mechanical seal, and seal- $46,470 to $2,908, and total repairs nate the process of ordering pumps
ing surface diameter at the dropped 69%, from 49 repairs to 15 with old technology. This marked
gland/seal chamber interface and in the same time period. These the beginning of the next phase of
gland piloting area. Standardizing pumps were still fitted with the stan- the reliability program, but in actu-
these areas would allow the end dard stuffing box because the seal ality it would have little noticeable
user even greater freedom to reduce chamber was not yet on the market. effect for some time as the new
me-chanical seal and gland invento-
ry while maintaining competitive
bidding from various mechanical
seal vendors.
With this revision, three basic
seal chambers could be used. They
included the 4º taper bore, the large
bore with a throat restriction and
the large bore with no throat restric-
tion. All three designs are beneficial
to mechanical seals and can be
swapped for the old stuffing box. In
each the gland has to be replaced
because of the larger static sealing
surface and bolt circle diameters.
PUMP RELIABILITY UPGRADE PLAN
With the pump repair history,
installation analysis, repair analysis
and the new ASME B73.1M-1991 Photo 2. An upgraded second generation pump receives backup as part of the reliability
standard in place, a plan could be improvement program.
I
toxic, hazardous or environ-
ment-threatening chemicals
often employ the magnetic dri-
ve pump (MDP) as a safe, seal-
less solution. But even though
MDPs offer a simple answer
to a common need, certain
characteristics must be considered to
select and apply them cost-effective-
ly.
Kaz Ooka, president and found-
er of Ansimag, Inc., points out that
magnetic drive pumps historically
developed along two lines: metallic
and non-metallic. The metallic de-
signs traditionally were used in
ROTAN MD SERIES PUMP
process or heavy-duty applications.
But non-metallic pumps, once con-
sidered only for light duty applica-
tions, have moved up in power and
size due to development of Figure 1. Rotan MD series magnetic drive pump
improved rare earth materials such
as samarium-cobalt and neodymi- related problems. Two issues that sex, England, which is affiliated
um-iron-boron. MDPs still must address are mini- with Sundstrand Kontro, identify
Synchronous MDPs use rare mum flow conditions and dry-run- five critical design elements:
earth magnets. Because they are ning. Minimum flow rate is greatly 1. the liquid end, comprising
affected by high temperatures, they affected by radial or thrust load on pump casing and impeller
often require special cooling provi- the bearings or pump shaft and the 2. a magnetic drive including
sions for applications in excess of temperature rise. Dry-running is the an inner and outer magnet assembly
400ºF. Eddy current MDPs employ most common cause of failure in and the containment shroud
a torque ring that is normally unaf- MDPs and results in thermal dam- 3. internal support bearings
fected by temperatures found in hot age to the metallic containment shell 4. an internal feed system that
oil heat transfer systems. They use a and/or in mechanical or thermal circulates among 1, 2 and 3 above
rotating assembly sealed by a con- shock to the bearings and shaft. We and is needed to cool the magnetic
tainment shell. Power is transmitted shall discuss these in more detail. drive, lubricate the bearings and
by permanent magnets mechanical- transport any solids in suspension
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 5. a power frame that compris-
ly coupled to the driver rather than
through motor windings. The inside of a sealless magnet- es the external bearings supporting
Sealless MDPs prevent liquid ic drive pump reveals a complex the outer magnet and the interface
leakage and eliminate common envi- internal flow system that is difficult to the prime mover
ronmental concerns. They are also to model. However, the internal
design holds the key to cooling the INTERNAL FEED SYSTEM
used to move liquids that crystallize
upon contact with air, and the seal magnet drive and lubricating the Of these, HMD considers the
flush liquids or gases they employ bearings effectively and to the safe internal support bearings and inter-
help avoid contamination of process transport of solids. Engineers at nal feed system the most critical,
fluids. Yet they don't solve all seal- HMD Seal/Less Pumps in East Sus- and yet perhaps least discussed. The
the shell. Either way, it monitors the bearings typically run so smoothly
heat produced by the eddy current (less than 0.1 in/sec overall) that peri-
losses in the magnetic coupling as odic vibration monitoring has not
well as the bearing friction.The tem- proven useful in predicting failure. It
perature can be used as an absolute has been successful, however, in pre-
or a differential measurement. Used dicting the failure of the drive mag-
as a differential temperature indica- net support bearings – normally
Photo 2. A mag drive pump transferring tor, it is referenced to the pump suc- roller or ball bearings. This could
50% sodium hydroxide at a specialty tion fluid temperature and directly help ensure that the drive magnet
chemical manufacturer in the southeast- measures heat input to the fluid by does not contact the containment
ern U.S. the pump. shell in case of a support bearing fail-
ure.
more heat than high performance
plastics. The temperature of the con- Flow protection. Minimum THE DECISION PROCESS
tainment shell directly between the flow protection is normally provided
by installing a flowmeter in the dis- The Clean Air Act targets 179
two rotating magnets can easily rise liquids in setting limits for allowable
above 750ºF within 30 seconds of charge line of each pump. Stevens
points out that the minimum flow to chemical leakage into the air. The
the onset of dry-running, and it can primary concern is for safety of
eventually reach nearly 1000ºF. So protect against is either the thermal or
the stable minimum flow, whichever humans and the environment. And
internal fluid flow between the dri- magnetic drive pumps eliminate the
ven magnet rotor and the contain- is greater. It is only reliable, however,
if no more than one pump is operat- dangers normally associated with
ment shell is needed to remove the seal leakage in mechanical pumps.
heat. ing in a two-pump system. Other-
wise, each pump must be But even though MDPs are pur-
Dry-running heats the shaft. If chased initially for safety reasons,
cool liquid is introduced at this time, individually instrumented and pro-
tected. many users are now specifying them
however, the shaft and bearings for reasons of improved reliability,
may fail due to thermal shock. extended service life and longer
Ceramic materials can minimize Low suction. Low suction ves-
sel protection ensures that a pump mean time between maintenance
these effects but offer widely vary- and repair. In the long run they may
ing thermal shock limits. Ooka says will not run dry. According to
Stevens, it is used in tank loading prove more economical even though
alumina ceramic can withstand only the initial cost is higher. Once the
a 200ºF thermal shock while sin- and offloading applications to
ensure that the pump will not run decision is made to purchase a mag-
tered carbide offers resistance up to netic drive pump, however, many
600ºF. Silicon carbide offers such dry or suffer from inadequate
NPSHR. If a tank must be emptied questions must still be answered as
high thermal shock resistance part of the selection process. The fol-
because it has a very low coefficient following unloading, then a mag dri-
ve pump should not be used. Other- lowing selection guide developed by
of thermal expansion combined Ansimag can help users tailor solu-
with a very high thermal conductiv- wise cavitation and subsequent
failure of the thrust bearings and tions to meet their specific needs.
ity. This allows the material to
equalize in temperature very quick- possibly the sleeve bearings could
result. Dimensions and design. Does
ly while exhibiting minimal thermal the manufacturer make a pump in
strain.
M
problems. Sealless pumps are ideal which will not be discussed in this
pumps are products of for preventing liquid leakage and article.
an evolving technology mitigating the associated environ-
utilizing new materials, mental concerns. They also work Radial Load on the Bearings
stronger magnets and well in the pumping of liquids that and Shaft
new concepts. Begin- crystallize upon contact with air, When a standard centrifugal
ning shortly after World War II, the and they avoid contamination of pump operates off its best efficiency
mag-drive concept developed along process fluids by seal flush liquids point, the impeller experiences high-
two paths – namely, metallic and or gases. And they are excellent for er radial loads due to hydraulic
non-metallic pumps. Metallic pumping corrosive liquids. Howev- unbalance in the casing. The radial
designs have been utilized primarily er, several issues need to be load becomes severe when the
as process or heavy duty pumps, addressed, the most important of pump is operated near shut-off. In a
notably in Europe. In earlier years, which are minimum flow conditions standard sealed pump the loads on
non-metallic mag drives were usual- and dry-running. While these issues the bearings are much higher than
ly considered applicable in light are relevant to traditional sealed the load on the impeller. Typically,
duty situations only – fish tank pumps as well, this article will con- they are two times higher. This is a
pumps drawing 100 watts or less, centrate on their effects on mag-dri- consequence of the long overhang
for example. With the development ve pumps. distance between the impeller and
of rare earth magnet materials such the first bearing, which is necessary
as samarium-cobalt and neodymi- MINIMUM FLOW to provide adequate space for the
um-iron-boron, however, the size Two factors determine mini- seal.
and power of non-metallic designs mum flow rate: radial or thrust load In contrast, the first bearing of a
have been greatly improved over the on the bearings or shaft of a pump sealless pump is located very close
last ten years. and temperature rise. This discus- to the impeller. This results in bear-
This rapid increase in magnet sion applies specifically to single ing loads only slightly greater than
strength has allowed for a corre- stage, low specific speed (400-800 the impeller loads. Figure 1 shows
sponding reduction in the size and rpm*√gpm/H3/4) mag-drive pumps typical mag-drive pump bearing
weight of the magnetic coupling. in the 1-30 hp range. Low flow oper- arrangements. The dimension L
Photo 1 shows an industrial non- ations of higher specific speed denotes the span between the
metallic mag-drive pump. This pumps can lead to additional prob- impeller and the first bearing. Each
machine is clearly a great improve- lems such as suction recirculation, layout has its own strengths and
ment over the original fish tank weaknesses, but all provide for a
pump. bearing close to the impeller. In
As more magnetic drive pumps Type 3 the bearing rotates with the
have been applied in the process impeller and consequently is very
industries to solve increasingly com- close to the load. With this design
plex problems, some confusion has the overhang distance, L, can
PHOTO COURTESY OF ANSIMAG, INC.
Efficiency (% x 10)
the pump with a
1.1 kW heater. Additionally, the
Power (hp)
TDH (Feet)
120 6
heat generated in the containment
shell remains essentially constant 100 5
regardless of pump flow rate. This 80 4
1.1kW can increase the temperature
of water flowing at 1 gpm by 60 3
approximately 7.5ºF. Cooling of the 40 2
containment shell and prevention of
flashing are the primary constrain- 20 1
ing factors for metallic mag-drive
0 0
pumps at low flow rates. 0 50 100 150
Performance curves for a non- Capacity (U.S. Gallons)
metallic mag-drive pump are shown
i n F i g u r e 2 . The efficiency curve Figure 2. Performance curves for ANSI 1 1/2 x 1 x 6 size non-metallic magnetic drive pump
includes all losses. As with all pump
performance curves, the efficiency is
25 Temperature Rise in a K1516 Pump @ 3500 rpm
zero at zero flow. If we take values
from the efficiency and TDH curves 20 Water
Temperature Rise, °F
Sealless Options
Optimize Solutions
If zero leakage is the goal, sealless pump options can help tailor-make the solution.
By Robert C. Waterbury, Senior Editor
L
The synchronous type typically uses
Hermetic sealing? When rare earth magnets. Because these
environmental protec- can be adversely affected by tem-
tion needs and hazardous peratures in excess of 400ºF, special
substances raise ques- auxiliary cooling provisions are
tions, sealless centrifugal often required for such applications.
pumps often provide the The eddy current designs, ac-
answers. The term "seal- cording to the Kontro Co. of Sund-
less" generally describes a class of strand Fluid Handling, employ a
pumps that do not allow fluid leak- torque ring that is normally unaffect-
age into the environment. And ed by temperatures experienced in
although this de-scription covers a hot oil heat transfer systems. Eddy
number of pump types, the two most current sealless pumps feature a
prominent examples are the canned rotating assembly that is sealed by a
motor pump (CMP) and the magnetic containment shell. Power is transmit-
drive pump (MDP). ted through permanent magnets
According to David Carr, mar- mechanically coupled to the driver,
keting specialist at Sundstrand Fluid rather than through motor windings.
Handling, neither the CMP nor MDP Cooling water is not required
requires a dynamic shaft seal to con- because the outer magnets and Photo 1. Chempump NC Series canned
tain the pumped fluid. Instead, a sta- antifriction bearings are remotely motor pumps feature an electronic
tionary containment shroud isolates located. diagnostic system.
the pumpage from the ambient envi- A torque ring integrally con- two-bearing single shaft arrange-
ronment. In the case of the magnetic nected to the impeller shaft forms ment, dry stator and sealed junction
drive pump, power is transmitted the inner rotating element. This box, both primary fluid containment
across the stationary shroud through assembly is supported by journal and secondary leak containment
magnetic lines of flux. These induce bearings that are lubricated using shell, a controlled bearing operating
rotation in the impeller shaft and recirculating hot oil. No precooling is environment with monitor and a
thus avoid the leakage that is a nor- required. The recirculated flow also minimum of required components.
mal byproduct of mechanical face removes the heat generated from the The benefits or advantages of
seals. magnetic coupling losses. using CMPs include: no shaft seals
MAGNETIC DRIVE PUMPS CANNED MOTOR PUMPS and no external leak paths, no buffer
pots, no buffer or process fluid leak-
Magnetic drive pumps are sim- The canned motor pump con- age disposal, no coupling or align-
ply centrifugal pumps with an inte- sists of an induction motor whose ment problems, low noise levels and
gral magnetic coupling between the rotor is integral with the impeller low maintenance costs.
driver and the liquid end. The mag- shaft. A thin metallic can mechani- Because high temperatures rou-
netic coupling replaces the seal cally separates the rotor from the tinely encountered in hot oil sys-
chamber or stuffing box so that the windings and seals the pumpage tems normally exceed the limits of
liquid end is hermetically sealed. from the stator. The rotor is support- the motor, CMPs are designed with
The mechanical seal or packing is ed by journal bearings that are lubri- an integral cooling water heat
eliminated, and the only seal is a sta- cated by recirculated hot oil. exchanger. This exchanger sur-
tionary gasket or O-ring. Recirculation is provided by an rounds the outside wall of the stator
The two main subgroups of external tube that feeds hot oil into and removes the heat associated
magnetic drive pumps are the syn- the back end of the pump. with motor losses. The recirculation
chronous and eddy current designs. CMP features may include a
etrochemical plants
P
Deepwell pumps (Figure 1) lakes, rivers or oceans, are generally
need water, whether are commonly used to raise water larger than deep well pumps. Pumps
from local water sys- from underground aquifers. Line- intended for fresh water intake have
tems, deepwell pumps, shaft pumps are either oil lubricated steel columns and heads, cast iron
rivers, lakes or oceans. or water lubricated, and they are bowls and bronze impellers. For
The vertical diffuser built mainly to AWWA standards. pumping brackish or sea water,
pump normally plays a Submersible motor driven pumps coated standard materials are nor-
major role in providing are also used. Materials of construc- mally used. Experience dictates
service water, cooling water and tion are mainly steel or cast iron for whether coated standard materials
occasionally fire pump service. This heads and bowls and bronze for will offer acceptable life. Otherwise,
type of pump is also used in oil field impellers. stainless steels (316, 316L, duplex
production as well as oil field pres- Service water pumps (Figures stainless) or nickel aluminum
surization. Process fluids ranging 2 and 3), used to pump from ponds, bronze may be specified.
from crude oil to liquified petroleum
gas and other liquids (sulphur, for
example) are moved by vertical
pumps in one or more stages of
extraction or production.
Frequently, liquified petroleum
gas, propane, butane and anhydrous
ammonia are supplied from under-
ground caverns.
In-plant pumps with very low
NPSHA are also apt to be the verti-
cal turbine type. To economize on
length of barrel or can and reduce
installation and pump costs, many
vertical pumps are supplied with a
first stage low NPSHR impeller.
Some users require that the suction
specific speed be limited to perhaps
11,000. This limitation may be high-
ly important for certain types of
pumps, but if a properly designed
impeller is used in a vertical turbine
pump application, experience shows
PHOTO COURTESY OF JOHNSTON PUMPS, INC.
Motor Stand
and Tube Discharge
Tension Nut Head
Head Assy.
Assy. Assy.
Column
Assembly
With Below
Ground
Discharge
Column
Assy.
Column Water
Assy. Level
Bowl
Assy.
Bowl
Assy.
Bowl
Assy.
I
material won't fit through, the
characteristics are right, chop- impeller blades and one of the two pump keeps chopping it until it
per pumps can be used in any stationary shear surfaces that are does. This is an example of positive
industrial or municipal appli- cast into the cutter bar. These sur- chopping.
cation that involve pumping faces extend all the way across the
solids-laden slurries. They are intake opening in the cutter bar and BENEFITS
a cost-effective means of elimi- divide it into two segments. Positive Following are some of the bene-
nating pump plugging prob- chopping is required of all solids fits of positive chopping.
lems and optimizing system
perform- ance. Before discussing 1. Positive chopping allows
specific applications for chopper large, troublesome materials to
pumps, however, let's look first at pass through the pump, elimi-
the design details that make chop- nating downstream plugging of
per pumps unique. valves, heat exchangers, nozzles
or other pumps.
DESIGN DETAILS 2. A chopper pump often
A chopper pump is a cen- can replace two pieces of equip-
trifugal pump that uses sharp- ment, a comminuter (or pre-
ened semi-open centrifugal grinder) and a "non-clog" pump.
impeller blades to cut against a This approach is extremely cost-
stationary bar across the full effective because the mainte-
diameter of the inlet. This bar is nance costs on comminuters
known as the "cutter bar," and alone can be very high.
this style of chopping and pump- 3. Chopping material in the
ing is known as "positive chop- pump produces a more homoge-
ping." All incoming solids too neous slurry and reduces
large to pass through the impeller pipeline friction.
are chopped prior to entry into 4. Chopper pumps can han-
the pump, thus eliminating any dle materials in sumps that no
possibilities of pump clogging. other pump can handle.
Other items critical to the success 5. A severe duty seal-and-
of a chopper pump are a severe bearing system that incorporates
duty seal-and-bearing system, double row thrust bearings and a
hardened wear parts and a histo- mechanical seal reduces down
ry of successful pump installations time by handling the heavy work-
by the manufacturer. Solids cutting entering the pump prior to pumping. load of chopping and pumping solids
by the impeller and cutter bar 3. The leading edge of each reliably.
occurs when: impeller blade is sharpened and 6. Hard, wear-resistant pump
1. The suction created by the machined flat on the blade face parts hold up to the rigors of chop-
rotating impeller pulls material into where it runs next to the cutter bar. per pump service. Standard pump
the center areas of the pump This forms a cutting edge. The mate- impellers and cutter bars made of
impeller. To reach the impeller cen- rial caught between the impeller cast alloy steel heat treated to 550
ter areas, liquid and the material blade and cutter bar is severed. Brinell provide extended service life
entrained in the flowstream must The advantage of the chopper is in most applications.
pass through the cutter bar openings that pumping and chopping are inte- 7. Selection of a manufacturer
in the lower suction plate located grated into one efficient system. The with extensive experience in severe
just below (or ahead of) the impeller. chopping is done right where the duty applications helps assure the
2. As material passes through pumping is done. The material natu- user of dependable service. Chop-
the cutter bar openings into the low rally fits through the flow passages per pumps are not a commodity
pressure areas of the impeller, it gets of the impeller and casing. If the
uccessfully specifying
S
D
and selecting pumps for S
V V
a unit revamp requires Z
many of the same disci- 3
plines as for a new unit, S
but with a difference.
The difference is that a 2
full-scale working mod- SYSTEM HEAD
el is available for examination and HEAD w/ THROTTLING
analysis. Taking advantage of this
opportunity can lead to employing SYSTEM HEAD
pumps that consume less energy and w/out THROTTLING
have a longer mean time between
repair (MTBR). This, in turn, lowers
plant operating costs and can raise POWER
plant output, hence revenue, through
higher plant availability.
➚
In a process unit, pumps move POWER
liquid and raise its pressure to allow
the process to run, but their role is ➚ POWER ABSORBED
BY THROTTLING
fundamental and their interaction
with the system a critical factor in NORMAL FLOW
their performance. This last point,
interaction with the system, leads to Figure 1. Centrifugal pump vs. system with control valve
the first step in specifying and
selecting pumps for a revamp. bility of the pump. In other words, losses due to conservative assump-
displacement pumps must always be tions and margins. In most cases
PUMP SYSTEM INTERACTION installed with a full capacity relief these losses are far greater than
A centrifugal pump operates at valve upstream of the first valve in those resulting from differences in
the capacity determined by the the discharge system. And the relief efficiency among various selections
intersection of its head capacity valve must have an accumulation for the same duty.
curve and the system's head capaci- pressure (rise above cracking pres- Determining the actual system
ty curve (Figure 1). At this point the sure to achieve full flow) that keeps head requires accurate measure-
energy added by the pump equals the pump's discharge pressure and ment of:
the energy required by the system. corresponding power below the max- • pump flow rate at one condition
Note in Figure 1 that the energy imum allowable. • pressure at the pump's suction
required by the system is often LEARNING FROM THE EXISTING
increased by throttling across a con- INSTALLATION ➞
KINETIC
➞ DISPLACEMENT
trol valve to regulate the pump's
capacity. Also note that this means The system energy require-
of flow control is feasible only with ments for new units are estimated
kinetic pumps – those that add ener- using various assumptions and mar- ENERGY @ CONSTANT
SPEED
ADDED
gy by raising the liquid's velocity. gins. When centrifugal pumps are
Displacement pumps (Figure 2), used, the system designer usually
deliver essentially a fixed capacity at relies on a control valve to balance
a given speed and thus add only the system and pump energy at the
energy needed to move that capacity desired flow rate. In engineering a FLOW
➞
SYSTEM ers to eliminate low points in the pip-
HEAD VALVE ing, which can accumulate dirt.
➞ ➞ ➞
HEAD At normal suction piping veloci-
➞ ➞ ➞
PIPING FRICTION ties of 7-8 fps, two elbows in series
TOTAL STATIC HEAD with their planes 90º apart should
ELEVATION be separated by 10 diameters and
should have the reducer downstream
PRESSURE
of the second elbow (Figure 7). Sepa-
➞ rating the elbows in this manner
largely dissipates the flow distortion
produced by the first elbow before it
FLOW reaches the second. This avoids
TEST development of a swirl at the outlet
of the second elbow. A reducer
Figure 4. System head from measurements placed downstream of the second
elbow helps dissipate the flow dis-
tortion and any swirl that may have
developed.
TOTAL SUCTION HEAD
The last elbow in the piping to a
double suction pump must be in a
➞
er.
➚ The second factor to be
addressed while at the site is the
pump's service history. This can be
obtained from the plants' mainte-
a) Eccentric Reducer
Flat Side Up b) Eccentric, Flat Side Down nance department. What needs to be
looked for is evidence of problems
in the pump's application, materials
Figure 6a & b. Correct installation of reducers of construction or mechanical
orientation of reducers, the proximi- the pump, reducers in horizontal design.
ty of elbows to each other when in runs must be eccentric and installed Evidence of poor application
different planes, the orientation of flat side up (Figure 6a). In suction might be indicated by frequent shaft
the elbow immediately upstream of piping from above the pump, hori- seal and bearing failures, rapid wear
double suction pumps, suction pip- zontal reducers can be concentric or at the running clearances, frequent
ing slope and submergence over the eccentric, installed either flat side shaft failure, noise and vibration or
vessel outlet. up or flat side down (Figure 6b). A
When the suction piping rises to
S
reverse of common practice, but is
S the sequence to be followed in trou-
>4D1 bleshooting pumps.) Strain caused
➞ by piping loads is a major cause of
mechanical problems. If the pump
>4D1 has had a high incidence of seal,
➞
bearing, coupling or shaft failures,
ECCENTRIC ➞
➞
➞
question then is whether the piping
>10D2
S loads are too high or the pump not
➞
b) END SUCTION
Ns –> 3,200 (2,750) or resolving this question. If the piping
a) END SUCTION S > 11,600 (10,000) loads are reasonable or high but
SOURCE BELOW SOURCE ABOVE can't be changed, a switch to a pump
with higher piping load capacity
Figure 7. Suction piping layouts with two elbows in series
may be necessary.
long radius elbow
Short MTBR caused solely by
pump mechanical design is rare in
modern designs, but not uncommon
in designs dating back 30 years or
path of water more. The usual difficulties are rotor
stiffness, rotor construction, bearing
suction capacity, bearing cooling, bearing
housing stiffness and casing and
path of water
baseplate stiffness. These problems
a) Desirable suction typically manifest themselves as fre-
b) Undesirable quent seal, bearing and shaft failures
Figure 8 a & b. Elbows at the suction of double suction pumps
and rapid running clearance wear.
Most of these are also symptoms of
premature impeller erosion. These poor application, so care is needed in
are all symptoms of prolonged oper- sorting out the true cause of the
ation at low flows. Whether this is problem.
the case can be determined by com-
paring known flow rates with the PUMP OPTIONS FOR UNIT REVAMP
pump's performance curve to see Armed with accurate data on the
➞
where it has been operating relative V S system head and NPSH available,
to the pump's best efficiency point V and knowing whether the suction
➞
➞
➞
(BEP). piping or pump need correction as
Improved construction materi- part of the revamp, it's time to look
als are warranted if the pump has a at what has to be done and how best
history of component failure due to to do it.
general corrosion, corrosion-erosion, First, data developed by the
erosion, fatigue or erosion-fatigue. It process designer must be checked
is often difficult to differentiate against the actual system head and
among these causes of component 14- NPSH available characteristics and
failure, so it may be necessary to 12- corrected if necessary. As indicated,
consult a metallurgist. In some cases 10- the questions to be answered at this
S (feet)
any words can mean dif- thermal growth of the pump in high
M
time. On the other hand, steel is the
ferent things to different temperature services without “lowest grade” casing material
people – and equipment impacting the alignment with the dri- offered by API pump manufactur-
manufacturers. This truth ver. A foot mounted pump has only ers, and 300 lb raised-faced flanges
is important to appreciate when one way to grow – up from the base. are also typical. In any application
selecting pumps for your applica- The result will often be misalignment where the risk of fire is significant,
tion. Probably because manufactur- to the degree that bearing life will be such as a refinery service, the effect
ers are often “industry oriented,” compromised. Differences in materi- of thermal shocking of the casing
this situation seems to occur regular- al and flange standards between the material during fire fighting efforts
ly in the case of high temperature product types are also evident. ANSI must be taken into account. The last
services. For example, some pump pumps are commonly available with thing petroleum processors would
suppliers serve the chemical process ductile iron, stainless or other alloy want is to provide additional fuel to
industry (CPI) primarily while oth- casings and 150lb flat-faced flanges. a fire as a result of a cracked iron
ers sell mainly to petroleum refin- Steel is sometimes an alternative, but casing. API pumps also have more
ers. In the former case, ANSI it is rarely available with a short lead- extensive cooling options – even the
standard pumps (Photo 1) are the mounting pedestals are sometimes
norm while API (American Petrole- cooled.
um Institute, Photo 2) standards are Another major consideration
the design of choice in the latter. Per when selecting pumps for high tem-
(PHOTO COURTESY OF GOULDS PUMPS)
ASME B73, the specification applic- perature services is the sealing sys-
able to ANSI models, pumps should tem. Packing may be used for some
be designed to handle temperatures applications, like boiler feed – in
up to 500º F. (Some manufacturers which case a smothering gland
have provisions for higher limits, would be employed. In the case of
though non-metallic materials may mechanical seals, a film of liquid is
be limited to relatively low tempera- needed to cool and lubricate the seal
tures in the 200º F range.) API faces. While the high temperature
pumps are available for much high- liquid being pumped may be appro-
er temperatures. A number of ven- Photo 1. Example of a horizontal priate for this purpose, often it is not
dors make hybrid or specialty metal ANSI process pump suitable due to lack of lubricity. This
equipment that does not fit either necessitates an external seal flushing
standard but is appropriate for high arrangement. Consideration must be
(PHOTO COURTESY OF INGERSOLL DRESSER PUMPS)
necessitate provisions for monitor- two rare earth materials for both its
ing and reporting, as well as specific external and internal magnet assem-
containment and processing proce- blies. Neodymium is significantly
dures for pumpage that leaks. affected by heat, especially in the
Alternatively, and likely be- range of heat transfer fluid services,
cause of these regulatory controls making this material unsuitable in
and corporate mandates, many buy- high temperature applications. More
ers are opting for one of the two gen- appropriate in this temperature
eral categories of sealless pumps. range is Samarium Cobalt, which,
Though canned motor and magneti- while the more expensive of the two
Photo 3. The Dean R400A mechani- cally driven designs typically have a materials, is impacted by high tem-
cally sealed pump is used for HTF somewhat higher first cost, they perature operation to a significantly
service offer operational and, in some cases,
The Power of
Speed and Staging
The energy consumption of most centrifugal pump applications can be reduced by
optimizing the specific speed. This can be done with either staging or shaft speed.
100
200
500
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1500
intent on survival. Energy costs
associated with pump drivers are a
routine target in the continuous FLOW GPM
effort necessary to maintain market
Figure 1. Efficiency as a function of capacity and specific speed
viability. Clear recognition of the
most efficient pump options to meet is a constant. The pump’s efficiency pump’s normal operating point and
process “flow versus head” will arm is usually represented by the Greek the BEP, the less energy it will con-
pump users with essential tools to symbol eta (η ) and is expressed as a sume.
attain reduced operating and main- decimal (i.e., 75% is written as 0.75). The second premise is that,
tenance costs. Gains in centrifugal To lower consumed power effective- inherent to the definition:
pumping efficiency can be readily ly, the efficiency component is the
realized through the optimization of only variable factor in this equation NS = N x Q0.5/H0.75 (1)
speed and staging. We will present a for a given set of process conditions.
practical approach to understanding Options do exist when selecting or specific speed is directly propor-
these issues using a simple format beginning the design, however, since tional to rotating speed (N) in revo-
tabulated over a broad range of efficiency is a function of the pump’s lutions per minute and the square
flows and heads. specific speed. root of flow (Q) in gallons per
minute while inversely proportional
Energy and Efficiency Specific Speed to the three quarter power of head
As with all laws of nature, the and Efficiency (H) in feet. Finally, there are physi-
key factor in minimizing the energy Much has been written about cal constraints to the best efficiency
per unit time required to perform “specific speed” (NS), a term that that trend flow – that is, there is
work on an on-going basis is the effi- relates the pump performance to increasing efficiency with increasing
ciency of the process. The same is shape or type of impeller. It is not flow. This relationship is depicted in
true with centrifugal pumps. In U.S. our intent to review the background Figure 1 showing an expected band
units, the power equation is {HP = of the term, but a few basic premises of achievable efficiency within a
H x Q x S.G./ 3960 / η} where HP is must be explained. The first is that a flow range representative of the vast
horsepower, H is the total dynamic pump’s best efficiency point (BEP) majority of pump installations. It
head of the pump in feet, Q is flow corresponds to the head, flow, and will be shown later that the effect of
rate in gallons per minute, S.G. is speed combination matching the flow is more accurately related to
the specific gravity of the pumped impeller’s design specific speed. the size of the pump. This is an
liquid (compared to water) and 3960 Thus, the closer a match between a important concept when consider-
EFFICIENCY
Staging is one way to increase 0.6
0.5
1
the efficiency for a given set of
hydraulics. 0.4
By dividing up the head by the 0.3
number of stages (Z), the effective 0.2
specific speed is increased by Z3/4. 0.1
As a result, the overall efficiency 0
approximately increases according
500
600
700
800
900
1000
1100
1200
1300
1400
1500
1600
1700
1800
1900
2000
to the relationship shown in Figure
1. When referring to this figure, use
stage head to calculate the specific SPECIFIC SPEED
speed.
Figure 2. The effect of size on efficiency
Speed Reduces Energy
ing the data for size effects. commercially available speed
Specific speed is directly pro- The effect of impeller size on increasing gearboxes. The calcula-
portional to the shaft rotating speed hydraulic efficiency at a fixed spe- tions include size effects.
according to Equation 1. As the cific speed is due to surface finishes, Note that increasing flowrates
design speed is increased beyond friction factors, vane blockages, and and shaft speeds both tend to pro-
typical electric motor speeds, the internal leakage clearances that can duce higher pump efficiencies for a
specific speed also increases for a not be practically scaled down from given head rise. At a given flowrate,
given head and flow. As discussed a large size. As a result, the percent- the efficiency generally increases
earlier, efficiency generally increas- age of hydraulic losses for small with increasing shaft speed. It
es with an increase in specific speed pumps is significantly larger than should also be obvious from the tab-
and flowrate. One could conclude that for larger pumps. For impeller ulated values that reducing the head
that it is always better to increase diameters greater than 10 inches, per stage increases the efficiency.
the speed of a pump to maximize the size effect is small and generally Efficiencies tend to maximize at the
the specific speed and the efficien- insignificant. For diameters less higher flowrates with speed and
cy. As we shall see later, however, than four inches, the efficiency multiple stages having minimal
higher speeds may not always be penalty is particularly severe. The effects. The shaded portions of the
the best solution. Futhermore, most optimum speed for a given head and table are usually impractical selec-
published data, such as that shown flow is sometimes a tradeoff tions that one should avoid. For
in Figure 1 taken from Karrasik between the efficiency gain from these applications, choose either
(1985), can be seriously misleading increased specific speed and the effi- multistage pumps, higher speed
for high speed pumps. ciency reduction due to smaller pumps, or mixed/axial flow impeller
High speed pumps are general- impellers. For most commercial designs.
ly smaller than low speed single pump applications, the gain from
stage or multistage pumps. Euler’s increased specific speed generally Overall Power
equation shows us that head rise is offsets the loss in efficiency due to The most prevalent pump dri-
proportional to impeller tip speed size effects at higher design speeds. vers in use today are two or four
for a given exit blade angle. Tip pole AC electric motors. Speed in
speed is the product of the impeller Speed or Staging? excess of those capabilities, howev-
tip diameter and the shaft rotating Tables of average hydraulic effi- er, requires the use of alternative
speed. Once the designer fixes the ciencies (Table 1 and Table 2) have equipment. Turbines are routinely
exit blade angle, the impeller diam- been calculated over a range of typi- used in process plants that have low
eter for a fixed design head decreas- cal heads and flows for commercial to medium pressure steam to attain
es with increasing speed. Figure 2, applications using data adapted speeds as high as 10,000 rpm.
established from experience with a from Anderson (1980). The tables Mechanical gearboxes, both integral
large number of high speed rocket can be used to compare efficiency at and free standing designs, are the
engine turbopumps, shows that the different speeds and numbers of norm with electric motors, but belt
efficiency of a small pump is consis- stages. These efficiencies are for and sheave arrangements can also
tently lower than the efficiency of a common motor speeds of 1800 and be used. Speed ratios as high as 10:1
larger pump. Consequently, it is not 3600 rpm. The tables also include are possible with some gearboxes
accurate to use Figure 1 directly for data for shaft speeds of 7200 and giving the pump designer more than
high speed pumps without correct- 14,400 rpm routinely obtained with enough flexibility to optimize specif-
TABLE 1
FLOW, GPM
50 0.43 0.55 0.62 0.63 0.27 0.44 0.55 0.60 0.17 0.36 0.49 0.57
75 0.49 0.61 0.66 0.66 0.35 0.51 0.60 0.64 0.26 0.43 0.55 0.61
100 0.54 0.64 0.69 0.68 0.41 0.55 0.64 0.67 0.31 0.48 0.59 0.64
125 0.57 0.67 0.71 0.69 0.44 0.58 0.66 0.68 0.36 0.52 0.62 0.67
150 0.60 0.69 0.72 0.70 0.47 0.61 0.68 0.70 0.39 0.54 0.64 0.68
175 0.62 0.70 0.73 0.71 0.50 0.62 0.69 0.71 0.42 0.57 0.66 0.69
200 0.63 0.72 0.74 0.71 0.52 0.64 0.71 0.72 0.44 0.58 0.67 0.70
225 0.65 0.73 0.75 0.71 0.54 0.66 0.72 0.72 0.46 0.60 0.69 0.71
250 0.66 0.73 0.75 0.72 0.55 0.67 0.73 0.73 0.48 0.61 0.70 0.72
275 0.67 0.74 0.76 0.72 0.57 0.68 0.73 0.73 0.49 0.63 0.70 0.73
300 0.68 0.75 0.76 0.72 0.58 0.69 0.74 0.74 0.51 0.64 0.71 0.73
325 0.69 0.76 0.77 0.72 0.59 0.70 0.75 0.74 0.52 0.65 0.72 0.74
The Pump Handbook Series
350 0.70 0.76 0.77 0.72 0.60 0.70 0.75 0.74 0.53 0.66 0.73 0.74
375 0.71 0.77 0.77 0.72 0.61 0.71 0.76 0.74 0.54 0.66 0.73 0.74
400 0.71 0.77 0.77 0.72 0.62 0.72 0.76 0.75 0.55 0.67 0.74 0.75
425 0.72 0.77 0.78 0.72 0.63 0.72 0.76 0.75 0.56 0.68 0.74 0.75
450 0.72 0.78 0.78 0.72 0.63 0.73 0.77 0.75 0.57 0.68 0.75 0.75
TABLE 2
FLOW, GPM 1800 3600 7200 14,400 1800 3600 7200 14,400 1800 3600 7200 14,400
50 0.09 0.30 0.45 0.54 0.03 0.24 0.41 0.51 0.00 0.20 0.37 0.48
75 0.18 0.37 0.51 0.59 0.12 0.33 0.47 0.57 0.07 0.28 0.44 0.54
100 0.24 0.43 0.55 0.62 0.18 0.38 0.52 0.60 0.13 0.34 0.49 0.58
125 0.29 0.46 0.58 0.65 0.23 0.42 0.55 0.63 0.18 0.38 0.53 0.61
150 0.32 0.49 0.61 0.66 0.27 0.45 0.58 0.65 0.22 0.41 0.55 0.63
175 0.35 0.52 0.63 0.68 0.30 0.48 0.60 0.66 0.25 0.44 0.57 0.65
200 0.38 0.54 0.64 0.69 0.32 0.50 0.62 0.68 0.28 0.46 0.59 0.66
225 0.40 0.56 0.66 0.70 0.35 0.52 0.63 0.69 0.30 0.48 0.61 0.67
250 0.42 0.57 0.67 0.71 0.37 0.53 0.64 0.70 0.32 0.50 0.62 0.68
275 0.43 0.58 0.68 0.72 0.38 0.55 0.65 0.70 0.34 0.51 0.63 0.69
300 0.45 0.60 0.69 0.72 0.40 0.56 0.66 0.71 0.36 0.53 0.64 0.70
The Pump Handbook Series
325 0.46 0.61 0.70 0.73 0.41 0.57 0.67 0.72 0.37 0.54 0.65 0.71
350 0.47 0.62 0.70 0.73 0.43 0.58 0.68 0.72 0.39 0.55 0.66 0.71
375 0.48 0.62 0.71 0.74 0.44 0.59 0.69 0.73 0.40 0.56 0.67 0.72
400 0.50 0.63 0.72 0.74 0.45 0.60 0.69 0.73 0.41 0.57 0.68 0.72
425 0.50 0.64 0.72 0.74 0.46 0.61 0.70 0.74 0.42 0.58 0.68 0.73
450 0.51 0.65 0.73 0.75 0.47 0.62 0.71 0.74 0.43 0.59 0.69 0.73
A Guide to ANSI
Centrifugal Pump Design
and Material Choices
Here’s a pragmatic look at the commercially available design variations and material
choices now being offered on pumps for corrosive/erosive and ultrapure service.
By Dan Besic
ver the past decade a num- All of these purchasing influ- industries, pumps manufactured of
Table 1. Temperature
PTFE 500-1000
vents and equally suited for handling parameters are not critical in deter- Table 3. Abrasion resistance (Tabor
wet or dry chlorine, bromine and mining the choices among the vari- Abrasion Tester)
other halogens. ous metals. Metallurgically, the
Ethylene Chlorotrifluoroethyl- differences may be great, but all of weigh twice as much as one molded
ene (ECTFE): Resists an extremely the metals considered for handling in polypropylene. Of course, when
broad range of acids, alkalies, organ- corrosive fluids are stable at most comparing metal-armored plastic
ic solvents and combinations of operating temperatures. When it pumps or plastic-lined pumps with
them, as well as other corrosive and comes to the plastics, however, all metal ones, the apparent differ-
abrasive liquids. Also resistant to oxi- anticipated temperature fluctuations ences are minimized. Table 2 shows
dizing acids and hydroxides. Ideal for are very critical. Table 1 provides the comparative weight of the mate-
ultrapure water applications. upper temperature limits for the non- rials of construction. If the weight
Polytetrafluoroethylene metallic pump materials currently factor is significant, ask the manufac-
(PTFE): This crystalline polymer is available. turer for total pump weights. You
the most inert compound known. It Weight: The specific gravity of may need these to assist in installa-
has useful mechanical properties at the material can be a significant vari- tion and piping.
elevated temperatures. Impact resis- able when comparing metal to plastic Abrasion Resistance: Strange as
tance is high, but tensile strength, pumps because of weight-related it may seem, stainless steel pumps
wear resistance, and creep resistance costs such as shipping, installation, are relatively poor compared to plas-
are low in comparison with other support structures and in-plant repo- tics when it comes to resisting wear
engineered plastics. Its coefficient of sitioning. It is also vital in the com- from abrasive fluid streams. A major
friction is lower than almost any oth- parison of various plastics with each reason for this is that the oxidized
er material. other. As anyone who has lifted a flu- surface which protects passivated
oroethylene polymer casing can tell chromium-nickel stainless steel from
Selection Criteria you, not all plastics tip the scale in corrosion is continuously removed
Temperature: Temperature the same way. A PVDF casing may by abrasive particles. The smooth,
Self-Priming Pumps:
It’s in the System!
Coordinate pump with piping system for optimum performance.
By Ray Petersen
ith the advent of in- is subsequently converted to pres- impeller designs such as vertical and
Vd
PRESSURE
AT
PUMP Vs
DISCHARGE
PUMPING TIME
PRIMING PUMPING Figure 3. Typical pressures observed
at pump discharge during priming Figure 5. Example of discharge piping
Figure 2. The self-priming cycle cycle system containing liquid loop or trap
∆T
TA
liquid. Today, the most common required between the
bearing material is pure silicon car- slide faces. The stabili- 15
bide. Silicon carbide bearings work ty of this film depends
without problems in low viscosity on temperature and TE = TE’=NPSH - stable
liquids such as chemicals, hydrocar- pressure. If tempera- 10
bons, solvents, acids, all kind of ture rises inside the 10 20 30 40 50
Abb. 1 Minimum flow Qmin Q [m3/h]
hydroxides and also in abrasive pump above vapor tem-
pumpage. With an additional dia- perature of the pumped Figure 1. Internal circulation, temperature behavior
mond-layer, the material provides liquid, vaporization
dry running capabilities. will break down this film. Under internal circulation will lead to
The widely used term “process these conditions, the bearings will demagnetization of the coupling.
lubricated bearings” is not quite cor- run dry and fail sooner or later. A
Temperature Rise in Single
rect since there are no lubrication reliable temperature monitoring sys-
tem is required to avoid
Stage Volute Casing Pumps
this situation. with Magnetic Couplings
Besides vaporization
of fluid inside the pump, Internal Circulation
dry running of an empty Sealless pumps with magnetic
pump is the worst operat- couplings and metallic containment
ing condition. Because of shells generate eddy currents that
the starved suction, there lead to heat and cause temperature
is no flow to any part of rise of the pumped liquid in the con-
the pump. Although the tainment shell. In order to prevent
diamond-layer of the SiC- this, heat must be dissipated through
bearings will tolerate this an internal cooling flow. This cooling
situation because no hy- flow – branched off as a partial flow
draulic loads are acting, from the main flow and led through
the built up heat which the gap between internal rotor and
cannot be dissipated containment shell – is shown in
Magnetic drive centrifugal pumps with metallic because of the starved Figure 1.
containment shells
∆Pcs
charge side. This arrangement pres- 52 11 ∆TS
surizes the slide bearings and the 10
8.3kW
50
∆PD
containment shell with nearly the 9
Vapor
full discharge pressure, and helps to 48
PS
8
avoid flashing of the liquid in this 46 4.3kW TE Tcs Tzul. TD T[°C]
7
area caused by heating up the prod- 44 5.6kW
∆TProduct
uct. Where the temperature increase 42
6
Thermal stable
(▲T const.)
is critical, the maximum pressure P4 5 Figure 3. Containment shell, vapor
2.7kW
prevails. It should be noted that there 40
4
pressure curve
is no heated liquid flowing back to 38
3
the suction side or impeller. There- 36
2.0kW Maximum Allowable
2
fore, no negative influence on the Containment Shell
34 1
NPSH required will occur. For this 1 1.5 2.5 4 6 8 10 15 20 30 50 70 m3/h Temperature
type of pump, handling of volatile 5 10 15 20 30 40 50 70 90 120 150 200 300 U.S.G.P.M.
When handling volatile liquids
liquids is not a problem. Figure 2. Temperature increase or products with a vapor pressure
In pumps without rotor back that complies with the pump suction
vanes or rear impellers, the internal if the minimum flow drops below, pressure Ps, the relation between
cooling flow is driven by the pressure temperatures will rise remarkably. containment shell temperature, con-
gradient within the pump from dis- This is the reason why these pumps tainment shell pressure and boiling
charge side to suction side, i.e. back cannot be operated against closed point of the liquid must be taken into
to the impeller eye. In this case, prob- discharge valve. Experience has consideration. Only when the operat-
lems may arise in pumps handling shown that most of the slide bearing ing conditions are not beyond the
volatile liquids. Sufficient NPSH damages are a result of neglecting boiling point – that is, liquid is not
reserves must be available to accom- this fact. If process conditions dictate flashing inside the containment shell
modate the heat-conditioned rise of this operation, a bypass line must be – can safe operation be guaranteed
the pump’s NPSH value. Exact tem- installed from discharge to suction (Figure 3). The condition point must
perature measurements of the cool- vessel. always be in the liquid state.
ing flow after passing the magnet Numerous temperature mea- Basically, the pressure rise ∆Pcs
area are also impossible. surements on magnetic drive pumps inside the containment shell during
with different sizes, rotor diameters, operation must always be higher
Temperature Rise, Minimum containment shell materials and than the heat-conditioned rise of
Flow Conditions speed have proved a direct relation vapor pressure ∆PD of the product.
Figure 1 further displays the between the capacity Q, the magnet- To determine the maximum allow-
temperature behavior in a volute cas- ic losses Pv and the temperature ∆Tcs able containment shell temperature
ing pump with a magnetic coupling. inside the containment shell. These Tzul, the vapor pressure curve of the
The pump size is 50/200, 2900 rpm; relationships are displayed in Figure product must be available (Figure 3).
magnetic losses are 3,0 kW and the 2, based on water at 20ºC. Determi- The boiling temperature TD can be
pumped liquid is water. When nation of the actual temperature taken from the intersection point
reviewing the temperature curve it increase inside the containment shell between containment shell pressure
must be considered that the flow for other liquids depends on the at duty point of the pump and the
leading through the magnet chamber product. vapor pressure curve. By adding a
is dependent only on the geometry of ∆Tcs,product = ∆TH20 . certain safety margin ∆Ts, the maxi-
the rotor back vanes and on the spec.heatH20 . densityH20 [ºC] mum allowable containment shell
speed. This means that, independent temperature Tzul can be determined.
spec.heat product density product
from capacity and differential head, However, it must always be higher
a stable circulation flow exists that than the calculated containment
Knowing the inlet temperature
adopts the dissipated heat and leads shell temperature Tcs in order to
TE, the containment shell tempera-
it into the main flow. Since the mag- avoid vaporization. This means a
ture Tcs, product is determined as fol-
netic losses of a given magnet cou- high pressure rise ∆Pcs in the con-
lows:
pling will not change during tainment shell area provides a higher
operation at constant speed, an Tcs, product = TE + ∆Tcs,product [ºC] safety factor.
almost stable temperature increase Pumps with internal circulation
∆T is produced in the range to the from discharge to discharge side,
right of the minimum flow. However, through back vanes or rear impellers
pumps against dry running through able to read the temperature directly
temperature probes have already on the heat source. It records the
been pointed out. Given an empty actual temperatures occurring • Excessive temperatures at con-
pump, i.e., under dry running condi- between the magnets inside the con- tainment shell surface within the Ex-
tions, it has been proven that the con- tainment shell and converts them area can be prevented.
tainment shell surface temperature into a linear output of 4 to 20 mA. • The direction of the internal
T1 in the center of the magnet cou- Therefore, it is possible to preadjust circulation flow has no influence on
pling (Figure 6) deviates remarkably through a trip amplifier any shut-off the temperature indication.
from the surface temperature on the temperature within the range of -5 to • Worn out ball bearings cause
measuring point T2. The reason for 250ºC. eccentric run of outer magnets and
this are the eddy currents occurring Compared with common tem- will lead, if not detected, to erosion
in the center of the at the protection device and contain-
magnets that rapidly ment shell rupture. With the MAG-
10
increase the contain- 8 SAFE system, drive magnets cut the
ment shell tempera- connection wire 3 if such a condition
ture. The temperature 9 is not recorded in time, and the
probe at measuring 7 3 2 12 pump is switched off before serious
5 6 11 4 1 damage can occur.■
point T2 cannot detect
this temperature rise
in time because of the Harry J. Schommer is Chief Engi-
bad thermal conduc- neer of Dickow Pumpen KG in Wald-
tivity of the shell kraiburg, Germany, with responsibility
material (18.10.CrNi for the design and development of the
or Hastelloy). Conse- company’s sealless magnetic drive
quently, these type of pumps. He has authored several papers
probes are not able to on pumps and shaft-sealing systems,
protect magnets and conducted seminars for pump users
against overheating of in Germany, Europe and the Far East.
an empty pump.
To obtain reliable 1. Containment shell 7. Connection piece
measurements with 2. Outer magnets 8. Transmitter
this type of monitor- 3. Thermocouple wire 9. Connection clamps
ing, the pump must be 4. Thermocouple 10. Cable inlet
vented and the probe 5. Connecting block 11. Protection device
located at the reverse 6. Thread connection 12. Bearing bracket
internal cooling flow
(after passing the mag- Figure 7. MAG-SAFE temperature monitoring
212 The Pump Handbook Series
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
HANDBOOK
Pump Rebuilding
at Avon
This refinery’s successful program meets strict emission
standards and enhances pump reliability at the same time.
By Stephen C. Rossi and John B. Cary
ost states have adopted the average age of a centrifugal pump standards have been much more
upgrade emerged. The plan was com- cations would be the minimum qual- DIS-ASSEMBLY
municated to all affected refinery ity level expected.
personnel and was used as the basis
document for all project work. Repair and Installation Specification ZERO POSITION
LASER
The quality of pump installa-
Preparation of Specifications tions – including foundation prepara-
Specifications for Pump and Seal Purchase tion, grout (or lack of it), piping
strain, alignment and other key fac-
The project team immediately tors – varied considerably through- HOT ALIGNMENT COLD ALIGNMENT
set out to establish minimum re- out the plant. No company repair ANGULAR PARALLEL ANGULAR PARALLEL
quirements for pump and seal speci- and installation standard existed oth- 0° 0°
fications. A series of meetings was er than the original equipment man- 90° 90°
held with both the seal and pump 180° 180°
ufacturer (OEM) guidelines and a 270° 270°
alliance partners, as well as with few rules of thumb. Consequently, 360° 360°
company machinery specialists, to the project team created a repair and
create project specific specifications. installation specification. This docu- PIPE ALIGNMENT TORSIONAL DISPLACEMENT
ANGULAR PARALLEL NO DSPLACEMENT
The basis for the specifications was ment covered setting of new pumps L-R 1/4 HOLE
API 610 with clarifications in the and drivers, rebuilding of pumps, F-B 1/2 HOLE
areas of fits and tolerances. A draft installation of retrofit kits, and seal 3/4 HOLE
version of API 682, (Centrifugal flush, vent and drain connections. Figure 3. “As found” pipe strain
Pump Shaft Sealing Systems for The following are important record form
Refinery Services; first draft 9/92)was focus areas addressed in the specifi-
also used for guidance. The intention cation:
was to create an environment for the • “As found” pipe strain effects
seal that would allow it to function as were checked and recorded (Figure
intended. These specifications were 3) prior to pump removal, using a
later adopted company-wide. laser alignment tool attached to the
Examples of Critical Fits coupling. These were checked again
when final piping connections were
Areas of concern and additional
made.
requirements to API 610 are tabled
• Existing pump base was
below:
checked for voids and flatness
Additional requirements: (Figure 4). Pressure injection
• seal chamber register (radial) grouting and field machining
to shaft within 0.001 T.I.R. of mounting pads were carried
• component match impeller to out when tolerances were MOTOR PUMP
shaft fit to achieve a goal of exceeded.
0.000 inches tight to 0.001 • On non-retrofit pumps, new
inches loose 17-4PH pump shafts were fab-
ricated and all fits reclaimed to USE THE ABOVE TO MARK ANY AREAS
• component match of rolling OF CORROSION, VOIDS, OR PITS ON THE
element thrust bearings to tolerances in the new pump BASE PLATE INCLUDING GROUT.
achieve 0.004 inches maxi- specification. USE THE FOLLOWING
V = VOID
mum axial float • All pumps, including retrofits, C = CORROSION
• shaft sleeve bores equal to the were fitted with close clear- P = PITS
maximum diameter of the ance carbon throat bushings to
Figure 4. “As found” baseplate condi-
shaft with a tolerance of maintain seal chamber pres-
tion
+0.0010 inches to -0.0000 sure.
inches • New dynamically balanced, • Completed pump and seal
multiple disk spacer couplings assemblies were leak tested
Modifications: with register fits for the hubs before field installation. This
• Squareness of seal chamber and center section were pro- minimized the need for
face register to shaft axis was vided on all upgrades. rework after the pump system
reduced from 0.002 to 0.001 was filled with process liquid.
T.I.R. Support Systems Specification and
• Sleeves will have a relief cen- Selection
tered axially and the minimum
sleeve thickness can be 0.090 Existing piping and seal systems
Evaluating Sealless
Centrifugal Pump
Design & Performance
Caught in the sealed versus sealless crossfire? This article sheds light on the appraisal
process so you can determine the best fit for your service.
By Dave Carr
ealless pumps have been avail- sealless centrifugal process pumps concluded that their pump repairs
Vertical Motor-Under
Pumps Expand Their Range
By Pumps and Systems Staff with Gaylan Dow of Hayward Tyler, Inc.,
and Joe Campanelli of Air Products & Chemicals, Inc.
f you asked two individuals, one of units installed worldwide, the ver-
P
as operator intervention to vent the pumps are cost effective to install.
pump during operation. Even on The same design constraints of trying culating pumps have tradi-
canned or other sealless pump appli- to bolt a massive hot piping system to tionally been horizontal
cations not requiring heat exchang- grade through the pump are present pumps of either end-suc-
ers, the gas can centrifuge out around in process plants as well. The piping tion, overhung impeller design (for
the rotor and cause possible dry run- wants to move, and it is better to let very low flowrates) or double-suc-
ning of the bearings. the pump move with it. tion, impeller-between-bearing,
In addition, because the pump Vertical motor-under canned single-stage units for higher flow
remains full of liquid until intention- motor pumps can also be attached applications. Boiler water circula-
ally drained, it is protected against directly to a chemical reactor. This tion is a very demanding service,
dry running, and the motor is imper- setup further reduces piping (and with the pump taking its suction
vious to large quantities of entrained thus lowers costs) as well as mini- directly off the boiler steam drum.
gas in the pump end. Typical applica- mizes the heat tracing requirements. Due to the elevated suction pres-
tions which this benefits include tank sure and temperature duty, me-
car unloaders and batch processes in Conclusion chanical seal problems are
which tanks are completely evacuat- A vertical motor-under canned frequent, as are other maladies
ed on purpose. pump can be useful in applications commonly associated with high
The sealless integral motor requiring zero leakage, including sit- pressure/temperature pumps, in-
pump utilizes a hydrodynamic thrust uations in which large quantities of
The Pump Handbook Series 229
cluding: pumps to process waste heat boiler this type of application on future
circulation service has solved the projects. ■
• Pump casing deflection. This
problems associated with conven-
is caused by thermally induced
tional horizontal pumps and has Joe Campanelli is a Lead
pipe strain resulting in rotor rubs,
provided significant benefits in Mechanical Engineer in the Produc-
seal leakage/failures, bearing fail-
pump reliability, maintenance and tion and Delivery Organization of Air
ures, casing cracks, casing splitline
spare parts cost reductions. Products and Chemicals Inc. He has
leakage and piping cracks.
Two recent waste heat boiler 19 years of experience on a wide vari-
• Thermal stratification in hot applications that have utilized the ety of rotating equipment in the
standby units. This results in rotor HTI pumps with good results are process industry and is currently
bows, seal leakage, internal rubs detailed in the chart. responsible for the safe, reliable and
on startup and rotor lockup. The pumps in both applica- efficient operation of the machinery
tions have performed extremely in 28 process plants.
• Seal leakage and seal mainte- well to date and will be chosen for
nance problems. These are con-
stant issues on boiler circulating
pumps – often requiring replace- Facility LaPorte, TX Pasadena, TX
ments and additional spares. And
catastrophic seal failures, while Pump manufacturer HTI HTI
rare, do occur and can expose Pump type Dry stator Wet stator
operating and maintenance per-
sonnel to significant releases of Pump model 3 x 4-8/DSU 12 x 14-14/200 WSU
hot, high pressure water, which Capacity - gpm 656 8052
immediately flashes into a plume
of steam. TDH - ft. 170 76
The recent introduction of ver- Inlet Pressure - psig 745 620
tical canned motor pumps into this
application has enabled our pro- Discharge Pressure - psig 802 646
cess pump users to capitalize on
the extensive experience gained by
Inlet Temperature - °F 510 489
Hayward-Tyler (HTI) in the utility Speed - rpm 3490 1780
industry. The HTI vertical canned
motor pump offers a proven,
Power - hp 72 200
robust mechanical design with Pumps installed (4) 2 trains, 2x 100% (2) 2 x 100%
optimum materials of construc-
tion. The application of these On stream date Jan ‘96 Oct ‘96
ump not working properly? • Plugged line (including pump potential problem areas can best be
here is a trend toward low special type of impellers for low flow
Anti-Friction Bearings
in Centrifugal Pumps
A detailed overview of bearing design, along with application and maintenance tips.
By William E. (Ed) Nelson, Turbomachinery Consultant
Before Mounting
STAMPED FACES
OF OUTER RINGS
Mounted
TOGETHER
Figure 9. Face-to-face (DF) mounting moment arm
Impeller
Suction Suction
PURE MIST
CONSTANT LEVEL OILER
1/4 IN.
VENT
VENT
Figure 24. Vented oil sight glass bottle
Centrifugal Pumps
Operating in Parallel
When it comes to pumps and flow, one plus one doesn’t necessarily equal two.
by Uno Wahren, Consultant
O
ing point of the pump. There are is fairly straightforward. The first
buys a pump for a given sys- many reasons to have pumps operat- step is to determine the desired flow,
tem. Later its capacity ing in parallel. The most common is the required head, the desired pipe
proves to be inadequate, and flexibility. If only one pump is used diameter and length, and the valves
operations people request that for a service and that pump breaks and fittings included in the system.
capacity be doubled. A common mis- down, the pumping system or Next, plot a system curve. The y-axis
take in this situation is to purchase process shuts down. A spare pump is shows head losses, the x-axis flow.
another pump of equal capacity to therefore often mandatory in critical Let’s say a particular application
add to the system while using the systems. The spare pump can be requires 900 gpm at a constant head
same discharge piping configuration. identical to the main pump. Project of 82 feet. Suction is flooded. This
After the new pump has been specifications often demand 50% constant head may be the pressure
installed, it becomes apparent to sparing; one or two pumps in paral- of a pipeline from which the liquid is
everyone’s chagrin that the flow has lel supply the total flow, with an to be pumped, or the elevation of a
not doubled. additional pump as a spare. This reservoir, tank or pressure vessel.
The problem is that the operat- gives extra flexibility for mainte- The optimum discharge pipe diame-
ing point has shifted because of nance and in case the process flow ter is determined to be 8”. The last
increased friction losses in the dis- varies. step is to plot the friction losses
charge piping system due to higher Buying pumps for a new system against flow.
fluid velocity.
The tools available to analyze a NPSH 14
pump system are the head-capacity HEAD IN 12
or pump performance curves and FT 8
the system curve. Pump suppliers 100 6
provide head-capacity curves with 170 4
their pumps as shown in Figure 1. 160 2
170 170
150 150
CURVE 1 + CURVE 2
TWO PUMPS
CURVE 1
90 90 CURVE 1
50 50 ONE PUMP
30 PUMP 1 ONLY 30
10 10
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Figure 3. Two pumps in parallel Figure 5. Larger diameter impeller pumps operating in parallel
HEAD IN HEAD IN
FT FT
170 170
PUMP 2
130 130
CURVE 1 + CURVE 2 SYSTEM CURVE SYSTEM CURVE
PUMP 1 A
110 110
90 D
CURVE 1 90
B
STATIC HEAD STATIC HEAD
A
70 70 C
50 50
ONE PUMP B
30 30
10 10
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Figure 4. Addition of identical pump Figure 6. Two dissimilar pumps operating in parallel
similar pumps can operate correctly minimum flow requirements for low Uno Wahren is a Registered Pro-
only if the head-capacity curve inter- head, low capacity pumps range fessional Engineer in the State of Texas
sects the system curve on the AD from 20 to 25% of flow at Best Effi- with over 30 years of experience as a
portion of the head-capacity curve. ciency Point (BEP). It is not uncom- project and rotating equipment engi-
The pumps may be throttled, but not mon for large multi-staged pumps to neer in the oil and gas industry. He has
further back on their curve than 525 have minimum flow requirements as a B.S. degree in Industrial Engineering
gpm (Point A), for then pump 1 will high as 65% of BEP capacity. from the University of Houston, and a
back off, letting pump 2 deliver only Always pick a pump where the B.A. in Foreign Trade from the Thun-
its full capacity. For the system to required flow is less than the flow at derbird Graduate School of Interna-
operate, pump 2 has to start first. BEP. It is good practice to specify tional Management, Glendale, AZ.
After pump 2 has reached full flow, that a pump will operate satisfactori-
pump 1 can be started. (Figure 6). ly at 120% of the rated flow, since
When selecting an additional flow requirement may increase. The
pump, bear in mind that no pump higher the flow, the higher the NPSH
will operate satisfactorily from zero requirement. At some point beyond
flow to the end of curve flow. Pump the BEP, the pump curve will col-
manufacturers show minimum lapse. Operations beyond that point
allowable constant flow on their will cause cavitation and severe
pump curves. This means that below pump damage.■
that flow, the pump is unstable. The
P
oint of view is everything Laboratory) or FM (Factory Mutual)
when discussing fire pump listed pump, driver and controller.
systems. For the engineering- Pumps are rated in discrete incre-
contractor, they are relatively ments starting at 25 gpm and extend-
uncommon systems referencing ing through 5000 gpm. Each capacity
specifications unheard of in conven- designation is tested for compliance
tional process units. To the purchas- with NFPA 20 (National Fire
er, they are mandated systems that Protection Association) requirements
take time, space and capital away for performance and by independent
from money-making units. For testing institutions such as UL or FM
users, fire pump systems are (or for design, reliability and safety. A
should be) a once a week test single pump can be certified for Photo 1. Fire water pump with diesel
engine and air start with a nitrogen
requirement. more than one operating point, but it
back-up system
But in spite of the time, space and must meet all performance and
money constraints, fire pump sys- design criteria at both points. the performance prerequisites
tems must work as required. Period. In the area of basic hydraulic per- remain un-changed. It is important
Hundreds of lives and millions of formance, a pump must deliver at to note that listed pumps are not
dollars in hardware and production least 65% of rated discharge pres- designed or manufactured to API
costs rely on the performance of sure at 150% of rated flow to 610 standards.
these systems. Fortunately, they achieve NFPA 20 acceptance. So a Materials of construction vary
almost always work. 1500 gpm pump rated at 150 psig with the type of system and the fire
Because of the critical nature of must deliver 2250 gpm at a dis- fighting fluid. The standard cast iron
this service, one might think that charge pressure of not less than 97.5 case with bronze impellers and wear
industry standards could simply be psig. This operating range then surfaces is the most common in land-
invoked to insure reliable design establishes the design parameters based applications. This material is
and specification. Of course they for the piping system and fire fight- generally suitable for fresh water and
can. They just never are. At least not ing equipment. Another require- sometimes brackish or even salt
without the addition of supplemen- ment establishes that the maximum water services, depending on the
tal proprietary specifications that shut-off head must not exceed 140% length of service and anticipated life
can conflict with industry standards, of design head. of the unit. Even in fresh water ser-
government regulations and some- Both horizontal and vertical cen- vices, it is critical to consider casing
times with the basic system design. trifugal pumps are available as list- corrosion rates when choosing mate-
Seemingly minor requirements can ed pumps. (For brevity, we will use rials. For more aggressive fluids,
result in the loss of a listing agency the term "listed" to refer to any many manufacturers offer various
label and render a perfectly func- equipment certified by UL, FM, the grades of bronze, including zinc-free
tional system unacceptable to insur- Canadian Standards Association and nickel-aluminum bronze. Higher
ers or governmental agencies. (CSA) or other agency as suitable for alloys of 300 series stainless steel and
fire pump system application.) Alloy 20 may also be available for
Pumps While there are some obvious very corrosive services or situations
The basic fire pump system design differences between the in which the expected project life is
includes a UL (Underwriters requirements for these two styles, extremely long.
O
tric powered machinery is used. In
eral deposit have been the worst case, a submerged work-
determined as favorable and ing level becomes inaccessible and
a decision made to proceed production is halted.
with mine development, significant The stability of open pit walls
financial commitment is placed at and underground openings is of
risk in expectation of a calculated vital concern for safety and eco-
return on investment. Many aspects nomic reasons. Adequate drainage
of mining carry relatively high lev- must occur in order to keep pore
els of uncertainty that contribute to pressure at acceptable levels based
the overall degree of risk. One on geotechnical stability analysis.
important consideration is ground-
water control, should it be a factor, General Types of Mines and
during mining operations. Where Groundwater Control Methods
mining must take place below the Mines are either open pit excava-
water table in highly permeable tions or underground excavations,
geologic material, operations would or both. In some cases large scale
not be possible without effective open pit mines have succeeded
control of groundwater. Several prior episodes of underground min-
mines in the western United States ing in the same area. In other situa-
have developed large well fields, up tions, underground mines are devel-
to 70,000 gpm capacity, to intercept oped adjacent to or from within
inflow and divert groundwater from existing open pit mines. Driven by
metal prices and advancing technol- Photo 1. In-pit well in service with
the workings. loading operation on left, blasted
ogy, companies have continued to
Mine Dewatering Objectives explore deeper and/or more chal- material on right, and high wall in
There are two general objectives lenging geologic territory for mine- background
to most mine dewatering programs: able orebodies. Mine dewatering
Keeping the working conditions rel- methods have evolved out of neces- managed in this manner. Booster
atively dry and maintaining the sta- sity in response to the increasing stations might be required employ-
bility of the excavation or opening. groundwater control requirements ing positive displacement pumps or
Operating costs and production of contemporary mining. horizontal centrifugal pumps
rates are directly influenced by Where conditions permit, open designed for high head dirty water,
working conditions. Wet floors and pumping from collection sumps is a abrasive solids or slurry service.
working faces create poor ground standard practice. This method is Depending on the hydrogeologic set-
conditions for heavy loading and commonly used in open pit mines ting, however, some mines cannot
hauling equipment. They also to control surface water drainage be effectively or safely dewatered
increase tire wear, reduce cycle and in both open pit and under- using this method alone.
times and impact tonnage factors. ground mines where groundwater Well Field Systems for Dewatering
Safety becomes a direct issue if elec- inflow rates are small enough to be Several mines in northern
System Considerations
System conditions vary in ment materials and coatings.
response to production well field Unfortunately, geologic formation
changes and discharge method mod- water conditions can and do change
ifications. A well head pressure con- during dewatering. Partial aeration
dition can usually be determined for can occur with the rapid displace-
use in staging the well pump, but a ment of groundwater, and this can
conservative approach is often lead to unanticipated corrosive dam-
taken to ensure that the desired age. Bronze and bronze alloys
pumping capacity can be main- should be considered if conser-
tained. If required, throttling is used vatism is justifiable. If standard
to impose pressure temporarily materials are selected, the first
pump tear-down will reveal what Photo 4. Pump rig installing deep set
until system conditions are within line shaft pump
pump operating conditions. doesn’t work.