Here's The News: A Radio News Manual

Here’s the News :
A Radio News Manual

CONTENTS AND INTRODUCTION
Compiled and Edited by

Paul De Maeseneer
Unesco
Associate — Expert
With the compliments of
United States Information Service (USIS)
Embassy of the United States
P. 0. Box N-8197.
Nassau, Bahamas
Telephone: (809) 322-4268/9
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Here’s the News :
A Radio News Manual
Original Pagination New Pagination

Introduction 5 0.0 4
Unit 1: News Directives
1.1 Organization of the Newsroom 10 1.1 1
1.2 What is news 20 1.2 1
1.3 Who is the audience 25 1.3 1
1.4 News Sources 27 1.4 1
1.5 News Formats 28 1.6 1
1.6 National constraints and legal aspects 30 1.7 1
1.7 The A. B.C.: Accuracy — Balance — Clarity 34 1.7 1
Unit 2: Writing for Radio News Original Pagination New Pagination
2.1 Writing for the ear: five principles 38 2.1 1
2.2 How to make your copy sound lively 44 2.2 1
2.3 How to shape a sentence 47 2,3 1
2.4 How to structure a newsitem 49 2.4 1
2.5 How to grab the attention of the listener 52 2.5 1
2.6 How to retain the interest of the listener 56 2.6 1
2.7 Help the newsreader 59 2.7 1
Unit 3: Reporting Original Pagination New Pagination
3.1 The Basics of Reporting 68 3.1 1
3.2 Quoting the Source 71 3.2 1
3.3 Tools for Newsgathering 74 3.3 1
3.4 Handouts, News Releases 77 3.4 1
3.5 Covering Speeches 81 3.5 1
3.6 Covering Seminars, Conferences 83 3.6 1
3.7 Covering Disasters, Obituaries 84 3.7 1
3.8 Crime and Court reporting 86 3.8 1
Unit 4: Interviewing for Radio News Original Pagination New Pagination
4.1 Types of Interviews 94 4.1 1
4.2 Planning and Preparation of the Interview 97 4.2 1
4.3 The Question Line during the
Broadcast Interview 100 4.3 1
4.4 Recording the Interview 103 4.4 1
4.5 Editing the Recorded Interview 105 4.5 1
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Here’s the News :
A Radio News Manual
Unit 5: Bulletin Editing Original Pagination New Pagination

5.1 The Basics of Bulletin Editing 110 5.1 1
5.2 Lifetime of a News Item Follow up of News 112 5.2 1
5.3 Length of a story 113 5.3 1
5.4 Bulletin Structure and Content 114 5.4 1
5.5 Main points and Recapitulation 117 5.5 1
Unit 6: Presentation Original Pagination New Pagination
6.1 Towards more lively news 120 6.1 1
6.2 Types of news programmes 122 6.2 1
6.3 Actuality — inserts 126 6.3 1
6.4 Voice Reports 130 6.4 1
6.5 Running Order 135 6.5 1
6.6 The approach of the newscaster 137 6.6 1
Unit 7: Additional Style Notes Original Pagination New Pagination
7.1 Figures 140 7.1 1
7.2 Consumer Price Index 143 7.2 1
7.3 Journalese — cliches 146 7.3 1
7.4 Names and Titles 149 7.4 1
7.5 Abbreviations 155 7.5 1
Unit 8: Translation Issues Original Pagination New Pagination
8.1 The many problems of Translation 158 8.1 1
8.2 What is good Translation? 161 8.2 1
8.3 Translate meaning rather than form 164 8.3 1
Unit 9: Equipment for Radio News Production Original Pagination New Pagination
9.1 Microphones 168 9.1 1
9.2 Sound Recording Machines 169
9.3 Portable Sound Mixers 172
9.4 Sound transmission over lines 172
9.5 Telephone Recordings 174
9.6 Wireless Microphones and
Microphone Transmitters 175
9.7 Radio Newsgathering Vehicles 175
9.8 Wireless News Links 176
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Here’s the News :
A Radio News Manual
INTRODUCTION
In most Asia-Pacific nations, radio is and will be for a long time, the most important means of mass com-
munication. For many people, radio is the only source of news. Compared with television and newspapers,
radio has many advantages:
* Radio is the fastest means of disseminating news.
* Radio can be received in areas without electricity.
* Production of radio programmes is cheap. Countries can afford to establish regional and even local sta-
tions to make the medium more effective for community service and development.
* Radio has the potential for being the most immediate, intimate and accessible medium.
* Live broadcasting at the location of a news event is easy.
* Illiteracy is not a barrier to radio usage.
Radio also has weaknesses:
* It relies on sound only. Television is more complete.
* Radio is subject to atmospheric and other interferences over long distances.
* Like Television, radio cannot deliver too much information too quickly. It cannot compete with newspa-
pers in the amount of material it conveys.
News is broadcasting’s most important product. So it follows that the radio journalist must be professional,
and a committed practitioner. The purpose of this manual is to help you in your specialized work of
producing news for radio.
The manual gives practical advice and instruction on modern techniques of radio journalism. It is organized
in nine units. After dealing with a number of news directives, such as the organization of the newsroom
and a discussion of the question 'what is news?', the manual moves on to the basic principles of writing
for radio news, reporting, interviewing, bulletin editing and presentation of news. Unit 7 focuses on
specific style problems, such as how (not) to use figures, names and titles and cliches.
Unit 8 is a discussion of the problems involved with translation, which are particularly relevant to the multi-
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Here’s the News :
A Radio News Manual
lingual societies of Asia -and the Pacific.
Finally, Unit 9 provides the basic information on equipment used in modern radio news production. This
unit has been written by Kris Heyrman, a broadcast engineer formerly with Belgian Radio and Television
(B.R.T.) and now an associate-expert of UNESCO, based at the Asia-Pacific Institute Institute for
Broadcasting Development.
We would hope that this manual will be used as a set of guidelines, not rules. If there
has to be one rule, then let it be this one: you should use your own imagination and creativity in adapting
some of the guidelines to your own situation. Radio should be a creative medium!
At a regional seminar on Radio News, organized by the A.I.B.D. in June 1982, the Heads of Radio News
departments of several Asian countries discussed the relation between the strengths of radio, professional-
ism and training. Their observations are extremely important:
"Radio can serve society only to the extent that it retains the trust and confidence of its listeners, its credi-
bility as a channel of information and its persuasiveness as an agent of social change and development.
For this reason it is necessary that it should observe high standards of accuracy and truthfulness in the
presentation of facts, and fairness, impartiality and balance in the presentation of opinions and views so
that it may serve as a true forum of public interest.
The effectiveness of radio and its capacity to serve the long term public interest require that temporary
political considerations and the restraints of bureaucratic management should not impair its reputation for
credibility or blunt the trust its audience reposes in it.
All countries have invested large sums of money in setting up news, current affairs, and other radio servic-
es. Their aim has been defined in many countries as ensuring the maximum participation of the people in
the tasks of national development.
Fulfillment of this aim is hindered, the benefits of the investment are lost, and public funds are wasted if the
services fail to win and retain the confidence of the public.
Loss of this confidence has already occurred in some countries because the desired professional stan-
dards of radio journalism have been subordinated to short sighted political and administrative considera-
tion. As a consequence the morale, effectiveness and professional judgement of the staff have deteriorat-
ed. The resulting loss of audience and credibility would be confirmed if proper listener research, which has
been neglected in many countries, were conducted systematically.
Broadcasting services should maintain high standards of professionalism. It is the feeling of the seminar
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Here’s the News :
A Radio News Manual
that many of the problems faced by news departments arise from the lack of a professional approach. This
has led to stagnation in the presentation of radio news for instance, and the blunting of skills. For this rea-
son it is important that news departments should be staffed by persons of the requisite professional stan-
dard, who should be appointed primarily on grounds of competence and then allowed to function according
to their professional judgement, subject only to a broad overall policy mandate."
This manual deals with the professional techniques of radio journalism in the context of the societies of the
Asia-Pacific region. In this sense, it hopes to contribute to raising the professional competence in this
region.
But before we go into detail, let's consider a few basic and universal qualities of a professional radio jour-
nalist.
One quality demanded before all others is an enthusiasm to communicate. You must want to tell your lis-
teners what's happening.
Then you must develop a disciplined mind. Clear and logical thinking is the basis of clear and logical writ-
ing and speaking.
Another quality is a wide general knowledge, and an eagerness to acquire knowledge. A journalist must be
curious about everything in life. You must keep yourself informed about what's happening in your country
and elsewhere in the world. Listen as much as possible to national and foreign news bulletins, and current
affairs programmes. Read as many newspapers and magazines as possible. A journalist must develop a
genuine interest in the lives of people, their problems, wages, the value of what they produce, their rights,
and their quality of life.
And last but not least, it is also a good quality to be unfailingly skeptical of all information given to you, no
matter the source.
The guiding principle in writing news for radio is to tell your story clearly and accurately — as effectively as
possible, in the least number of words. But there's more: A professional radio journalist must have a multi-
tude of skills. He must be good at reporting, interviewing, writing, editing, using equipment, broadcasting
live, and thus he should have a basic knowledge of news presentation.
We'll deal with all these techniques of radio journalism in the notes that follow.
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UNIT Unit
1 NEWS DIRECTIVES
1 News Directives 1.1
1.1 ORGANIZATION
ORGANIZATION OFOF THETHE NEWSROOM
NEWSROOM
Radio organizations in the Asia-Pacific region vary in extreme form from news departments with only a few
full time staff members to sophisticated operations with hundreds of staff and a much larger budget.
Radio Republik Indonesia, established in 1945, has more than 100 reporters and editors in its 49 stations
all over Indonesia. In Jakarta alone R.R.I. has around 35 to 40 reporters and editors. All are civil servants.
R.R.I. is managed by the Directorate Radio, under the Directorate General of Radio Television and Film,
who is one of the three D. G. 's within the Ministry of Information. Almost all local news sources are in
Indonesian. The regional stations have their own news programmes but they hook up with the Jakarta sta-
tion for national news, commentary, press opinion and special reports.
The news department of Radio Kiribati in the South Pacific is under the umbrella of the Kiribati
Broadcasting and Publications Authority. News is first collected and written in the local language and later
translated for a broadcast in English. All five reporters and the editor are involved in producing the news.
The newsroom of Radio Nepal has four full time staff members and 12 people on short-term contracts. For
the Nepali bulletins 8 people are involved, on a shift basis, whereas 6 people contribute to the 2 bulletins in
English. The sources of news are the national news agency and monitoring. Radio Nepal has no reporters
of its own. Source material is only sketchily edited and then presented by contract announcers.
All India Radio functions under the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India. A.I.R.
broadcasts 246 news bulletins daily covering a total duration of almost 34 hours. Of these 67 bulletins go in
the home service from New Delhi in 19 languages (total duration: 10 hours), 63 in the external service in
24 languages and 116 bulletins are broadcast from the 40 Regional News Unit in 23 languages and 33
dialects.
A.I.R. news policy follows a well laid down fourteen point news code evolved over the years, in addition to
broad general guidelines issued by the government from time to time. The General Newsroom (G.N.R.) at
the headquarters is the focal point which receives news from the network of A.I.R. correspondents at home
and abroad, A.I.R's own monitoring unit, two local English and two Hindi news agencies. The G.N.R. func-
tions in four shifts, each shift under a Senior News Editor. He selects the news items and the so called
Pool Editors treat them for inclusion in the pool copies, which are stencilled for distribution to no less than
40 compilation desks. Home stories are included in Pool I, foreign stories in Pool II, sports items in the
Sports Pool and Parliament proceedings in the Parliament Pool. The language bulletins are compiled by
Assistant News Editors and various language desks prepare the respective language versions on the basis
of the master scripts prepared in English.
The News Service Division of All India Radio also broadcasts along list of current affairs programmes.
The News and Current Affairs wing of Radio Pakistan is part of a statutory corporation, the Pakistan
Broadcasting Corporation. The development of the news operation in Pakistan is synonymous with the
development of Pakistan itself. It started from scratch on a network of three low power stations in 1947 with
no hook-up facilities. Now, the main news bulletins are broadcast in a national hook-up linking 15 stations
across the country. Radio Pakistan broadcasts 79 news bulletins daily with a total duration of almost 11
hours. Of these, 50 are broadcast in the home service in 21 languages and dialects. News and current
affairs constitute 14 percent of the programmes.
HERE’S THE NEWS - A RADIO NEWS MANUAL page 1.1 1

UNIT 1 NEWS DIRECTIVES
1.1 ORGANIZATION OF THE NEWSROOM
The General News Room in Islamabad operates in four shifts. The head of each shift oversees the drafting
of a master copy of the bulletin in English. Each bulletin is passed on page by page to the Urdu unit for
translation in the national language. There are 14 reporting units across the country.
Radio The Voice of Vietnam began broadcasting in 1945, but went underground during the nine years of
resistance to French colonialism until 1954. Radio the Voice of Vietnam is part of the Vietnam Radio and
Television Commission, which is administratively directed by the Council of Ministers. The home service
has six news broadcasts daily of 30 minutes each, while the overseas service broadcasts in 11 languages.
There are 5 regional stations with their own news production, apart from 39 provincial stations. News and
current affairs are under the same direction. The central newsroom in Hanoi has a staff of about 30 people.
After independence in 1971, Radio Bangladesh was established in Dacca, the capital of Bangladesh.
Radio Bangladesh is an attached department of the Ministry of Information, Government of Bangladesh.
The master copy is done in English in the General News Room in Dacca. Copies are sent to the language
units for translation into Bengali. There are two major bulletins in Bengali and English (10 minutes each)
and several five minute bulletins. There are five regional stations with their own news production. Radio
journalists are supposed to be familiar with editing, reporting, and production of news.
The Singapore Broadcasting Corporation is a statutory body and as such has to conform with the guide-
lines of the government, which retains control over the general policy of S.B.C. through the Ministry
Culture. S.B.C. gets its income mainly from advertising and license fees.
Radio and television are under the same direction and news editors and reporters are working for both
media.
The radio news service produces bulletins in four official languages: Chinese, Malay, Tamil and English.
There are six major news bulletins in English and Malay and five major ones in Tamil and Chinese. Apart
from this, there are several minor news bulletins.
The Radio Network News of the Maharlika Broadcasting System in the Philippines is part of the Office of
Media Affairs, a government ministry. The Radio Network News supports the news requirements of five
Metro Manila radio stations and 17 provincial and regional stations of the government. There are many pri-
vately owned radio stations in the Philippines as well. The central newsroom of the Radio Network News
produces the hourly news bulletins and roundups and these are aired on a simultaneous basis over Metro
Manila stations and regional stations. The latter do not have their own news outfits. Two versions of the
news are prepared. One is in Pilipino (the national language) and the other is in English. The Radio
Network News has 65 editors, reporters, presenters and typists. This team produces 21 five-minuters and
three major news roundups in Pilipino every day. In English, there are also three major news programmes
and 15 five-minute newscasts daily. Extensive use is being made of voice reports and actuality inserts in all
major newscasts.
Radio Malaysia is a government department under the Ministry of Information. Before independence in
1957 Radio Malaya had its headquarters in Singapore and maintained a newsroom in Kuala Lumpur.
News bulletins are produced in Bahasa Malaysia, English, Tamil and four Chinese dialects. There are also

two minor bulletins in local dialects. News bulletins cover a duration of almost. 11 hours in the home serv-
ice.
The master copy is produced in two languages: Bahasa Malaysia and English (for the English bulletins and
for translation into Tamil and Chinese).
The eight regional stations each produce a five minute bulletin every day. Regional newsrooms also con-
tribute word news and voice inserts to the national newsroom in Kuala Lumpur.
The Sri Lanka Broadcasting Corporation is a self-financed public corporation. It comes under the
Minister of State who is in charge of information and broadcasting. The Ceylon Broadcasting Corporation
Act of 1966 states that "it shall be the duty of the Corporation to satisfy itself that as far as practicable, any
news given in the programmes (in whatever form) is presented with due accuracy and impartiality and with
due regard to the public interest. "
There are news bulletins in the three main languages: Sinhalese, English and Tamil.
There are two regional stations with a third to be opened soon. They have their own regional news bul-
letins, while the main national news bulletins are relayed by the regional stations. The monitoring unit is
equipped with recording and editing facilities. This unit prepares a World News Roundup, with excerpts of
broadcasts by other broadcasting organizations.
The Fiji Broadcasting Commission began its service in 1954. A full news department came into exis-
tence in 1971 only. As a statutory body, the F.B.C. has an independent news service. News releases from
the Ministry of Information or any other government department are treated like any other news release.
The master copy is in English and is then translated into Fijian and Hindustani. There are 14 news broad-
casts in English and ten each in Fijian and Hindustani.
Apart from the central newsroom in the capital Suva, there are two regional news offices to cater for the
country's Western and Northern divisions.
News and current affairs are under the same directions.
The news service of Radio Tuvalu in the South Pacific is part of the Information Division of the govern-
ment, and is within the Ministry for Works and Communications. In 1979 a News Editor was appointed. He
normally is assisted by two reporters/announcers. The news is gathered in either English or Tuvaluan,
whichever is the language of the source. There is an instant translation. There is only one studio facility,
located on the main island. There are two news bulletins daily in the local language and two in English.
World news from Radio Australia is carried as a separate relay twice per day. This bulletin is also translat-
ed into the local language.
Radio Television Brunei is government controlled and is under the umbrella of the State Secretariat. The
newsroom caters for both radio and television. News is broadcast in five languages: Malay, English,
Chinese, Dusun and Iban (two local dialects). The newsroom has 14 editors, 12 reporters, 11 typists, 10
presenters and 10 translators.... who work for both radio and television. There are six news bulletins in
Malay, three in English, four in Chinese and one each in Dusun and Iban every day.

UNIT Unit
1 NEWS DIRECTIVES
1.1 ORGANIZATION
ORGANIZATION OFOF THETHE NEWSROOM
NEWSROOM
Radio Thailand has had news broadcasts for more than 50 years. The home service has 16 news bul-
letins daily, four of which are `national news bulletins' which are relayed by all local broadcasting stations,
including commercial stations. Radio Thailand is under the government's Public Relations Department,
which reports to the Prime Minister's Office. The Public Relations Department operates 60 radio stations,
one in Bangkok and 59 in 34 other provinces all over the country. They have their own news production
and at the same time they supply regional news to the central newsroom. The latter has 3 editors, 20
reporters, 10 typists and 10 presenters.
These examples are typical of the wide range of news operations in this region.
While the range and titles of jobs vary greatly from country to country, the most frequently encountered
positions in radio journalism are somewhat similar in the medium to large scale operations.
What follows is a description of an ideal newsroom for a country with three official languages. It is assumed
that the bulletin editors in each of the languages have a fair degree of autonomy in producing an original
bulletin in their own language. In other words, there is no mere translation of a master copy, though there
will of course be coordination among the bulletin editors in the three languages and the Director of News. It

UNIT Unit
1 NEWS DIRECTIVES
1.1 ORGANIZATION
ORGANIZATION OFOFTHETHE NEWSROOM
NEWSROOM
is also assumed that radio and television are separate organizations, though they may well be under the
same umbrella. It should be recognized that methods of news gathering, presentation style and even con-
tent of news items are different for radio and for television.
News Director
This position generally is the highest in the broadcast news field. The news director must be a person with
extensive news experience, administrative ability and supervisory experience. The news director is usually
responsible to the General Manager or the Director General of Broadcasting.
The news director is in charge of the entire news operation. He or his deputy co-ordinates the news output
in the different languages. He presides over the daily editorial conferences. Fair knowledge of each of the
languages is useful.
Bulletin Editors
The three bulletin editors, or news producers, are responsible for the total look of the news in their respec-
tive languages, from content to the number of items, story lineup, timing and the most effective forms of
story presentation. They will decide on the use of actuality inserts or voice reports, and work closely with
the chief reporter. In some stations, the bulletin editors are in charge of writing the headlines of the news.
The job of bulletin editor requires expert knowledge of radio news and production techniques, and requires
working with the newscasters, reporters, writers and translators.
Chief Reporter
The chief reporter or assignment editor is in charge of covering all news events. He orchestrates coverage
of the day's local news for the three languages. He assigns stories in close collaboration with the bulletin
editors, lines up interviews, etc.
Reporters
There are reporters for the three languages. Some major events will be covered by three reporters, one for
each language. But the chief reporter will send only one reporter to cover a minor event. The report will
then be translated, by the reporter or by a translator from the reporters pool, and be sent to the respective
bulletin editors.
The reporter writes news and reports it, so a thorough understanding of radio news is essential for this
position. A reporter must know the techniques of writing for radio and he must also be able to voice his
report. The "voicer" is recorded for later broadcast.
Some stations have special assignment reporters who specialize in one area of the news - parliament, sci-
ence, education, agriculture, etc. - while others rely primarily on general assignment reporters. They are
assigned to cover the news, whatever it may be. Beginning reporters are often given routine assignments
covering, for example, airport, police headquarters, a ministry, or the courts.
Assistant-editors/Translators
Although reporters do much of the writing for newscasts, the bulletin editor still needs the help of editors or
assistant-editors or writers, who also can be translators (they also can be called sub-editors).

A language supervisor with the status of editor checks outgoing copy.
The newswriter is involved with rewriting and translating wire copy from both national and international
news agencies, rewriting reporter's copy, editing a voice report or selecting an actuality insert.
Newswriters must turn reporters when necessary. Most likely, they will use a telephone for any further
enquiry or confirmation of a report.
Good writers tend to make good reporters. Job divisions between subeditors and reporters should be flexi-
ble. Radio journalists should have the experience of both reporting and sub-editing.
Newscaster
This person is the on-air personality who presents the news to the audience. Some newscasters are little
more than announcers who read prepared news scripts. But, as we explain throughout this manual, mod-
ern radio news presentation requires more than just reading a script. A newscaster should be very much a

part of the news team, a working journalist who helps prepare the news production.
These are the main jobs related to radio news production. Other positions may include:
- newsroom secretary: handles incoming calls, general correspondence and clerical duties
- technical operators in the news editing studio and the transmission studio
This leads us to the physical organization of the news desk which is illustrated by the following floor plan. It
shows the desirable facilities and inputs, necessary for smooth radio news production for a medium sized
news operation in one particular language.
It's important that all the facilities related to the news department are in the same building, on the same
floor. All inputs must be readily available, the processing of foreign and local copy must be centralized and
the news transmission studio (output) not far away.
Each language should have its own newsroom or work area, but the reporting pool could be in a separate
room, catering for the three language sections.
Apart from reporters, there may be a monitoring unit. They may have their own translators who provide
copy in the three languages to each of the language sections. Similarly, wire service copy will go to the
three sections.
Big tables are most helpful in newsrooms. The main table is the one with telephones (direct dialling, not
through an exchange). Here, the bulletin editor works with his assistant-editors/translators.
Ideally, copy is dictated to typists. If there are no typists, journalists type copy themselves. After checking
the typed copy, the bulletin editor arranges the copy on the final editing table.
Voice reports can be recorded in the News Editing Studio. If necessary, these reports can still be edited or
an actuality insert can be prepared. The tapes are once again checked by the bulletin editor or his assis-
tants in one of the audio rooms, before they are lined up on the final editing table.
One of the audio rooms has a telephone pick-up facility. Reporters can phone-in copy, which will then be
processed by the assistant-editors.
There is a third big table in the newsroom. It can be used for reading newspapers, writing a story, or just
for having a cup of tea.
There are the cupboards for recent newspapers and magazines and there is also an essential reference
library, containing dictionaries and the news files of the last few weeks.
The most important part of the newsroom is the transmission studio. Now, the news goes on air and it's up
to the listeners to judge whether the whole effort of reporting, gathering, writing, editing and presenting has
been worthwhile.

Here’s the News : A Radio News Manual
NEWS DIRECTIVES - UNIT 1.2 WHAT IS NEWS?
There’s no exact answer to this question, and certainly not a universal one.
The criteria of what is news vary according to the needs of different countries and societies. The needs of developing
countries are different from those of industrialized societies.
But while it is not possible to describe it precisely, every journalist must come to his own understanding of news. And
of course, news evaluation is something a journalist learns as he develops.
As a working definition one can say that NEWS is a new piece of information about a significant and recent event
that affects the listeners and is of interest to them.
So, first of all, it’s got to be new. For radio, news is what happens now, what happens in the immediate present or
what will happen.
Significance is a primary news value. News is what is significant to your audience: is it important, is it a big event, are
many people involved or affected?
It must be something that happened recently, of which he have not yet heard and everything that is about to happen. It
can be an event, but also an idea or opinion. Beware of stories on intentions: what a minister intends doing or even
what he is considering or thinking about. News should concentrate more on what has happened (performance) rather
than on what is going to happen in a far off future (intention).
The news which is of the greatest interest to radio listeners everywhere is the news which affects them. An effort should
be made always to see all stories from the point of view of how the event, the statement, the new government policy,
etc. will affect people. Where appropriate, a degree of explanation may be necessary. If the story is important to them,
people want to know more about it than a brief headline.
Finally, news must be relevant to the listeners. Our audience consists of people. News must be broadcast in a style and
language people can understand.
Let’s now have a closer look at the elements that may help us to determine what “NEWS” is: timeliness, nearness, con-
flict, government action, people’s stories, human interest, developmental issues, names, meetings, weather, sports.
1. Timeliness - it must be new, fresh. A report is of little interest to a listener if he has already heard it or read it else-
where. However, circulation of newspapers is rather low in most developing countries. It may thus be useful to follow
up newspaper stories. But never read them on the air unchanged.
2. Nearness -
a) people are more interested in what happens in their village, region, country than in distant events.
Local news, news about people we know, interests us more;
b) people are most interested in news affecting the cost of living or their pocketbook or taxes, food prices
and road conditions.
Compare:
“The Government has allocated 30 million Ringgit for the development of during the Fourth Malaysia Plan “
with
“The price of bread will be increased by 10 cents from tomorrow”.
Listener interest can be heightened by finding a local angle to a story and emphasizing it.
A well known phenomenon is that people are eager to read or hear about events in which they have been involved.
Sports fans will listen to a sport report on the game they watched a few hours earlier, because of its proximity to them.
WHAT IS NEWS? Page 1.2 1
3 Conflict - conflicts are newsworthy. Conflict is part of life, and news deals with life. In most Asian and Pacific coun-
tries, much of the (local) news that deals with events is broadcast blandly, as if most events take place without prob-
lems or opposition. Conflicts arouse listeners’ interest. Not to give the opposing view often undermines the station’s
credibility, because people are aware of it.
Dramatic conflict is whatever happens between two opposing forces. The conflict can be between one person and
another or one nation and another or it can be between man and an outside influence or force, fate, nature.
4. Prominence - News is what happens to prominent people, places or things. Names make news and big names make
big news, provided they do or say something of public interest. Unfortunately, in many parts of the world, news is in
practice often defined as “whenever a minister is present”.
5 Government action - This can be the passage of a new law, new projects, a new regulation, inaugurations, cabi-
net meetings, etc. News is given most attention when it tells about the effects of an event, an action or an announce-
ment. Too many bulletins sound like a Government Gazette, or worse, like a diary of what cabinet ministers are
doing. It’s important that listeners know what the government is doing and saying. But, often a news story can start
with the effect of an announcement and then refer to the official position.
Not The government has reached agreement with a delegation from people in Tak province, who are short of food,
to buy rice at cheap prices.
But People in Tak province who are short of food will be able to buy rice at cheap prices. This is the result of
an agreement reached between the government
A story need not necessarily sound official because the information comes from an official source. Even if you take
your notes from a government report or a legal document, your story shouldn’t sound that way. Avoid bureaucratic
language.
Similarly, more important than the opening of a seminar or conference, is what’s being discussed and what are the
results of a meeting. And how those meetings will affect life.
6. Development news - A large part of the Asia-Pacific region consists of countries which have been defined as
“developing countries”. Therefore development news should be a subject of special importance to them and of wide-
spread interest to their people.
However it does not always receive the attention it deserves. Many broadcasting organizations do indeed devote much
time to “development” in their news and current affairs broadcasts. But they fail often to treat the subject in a way
which would bring out its meaning and interest. In particular, the scope of development news is interpreted so nar-
rowly that it fails to arouse public interest.
Development means much more than economic growth, increases in the gross national product, per capita income or
amounts of allocation in a budget. It means the development of society as a whole, and of all its institutions, eco-
nomic, social, political. It comprises the total well-being of all the people, and therefore invokes the most universal
and meaningful principles of human justice.
In particular it calls for improvements in the welfare of the poorest people through a fairer sharing out of economic
and social resources.
Therefore development news has to concern itself with all that happens to the whole people and their welfare in the
broadest sense of the word. It is people’s news; it is not only about government plans and official speeches or the
affairs of corporations and industries. Its subject is not only statistics and projects but also how these affect the lives
of the people. The development story therefore has to be told in terms of the people and what happens to them, not
in abstractions which only experts can understand. This man, or this family or this place and community are also the
stuff of development news, not only this project or plan; in fact the former are more the stuff of it than the latter.
And development news is not always, or only, the “good story”. It should not always talk of achievements and sooth-
ing things. If development means the promotion of human justice and the protection of human rights, and the fulfill-
ment of the basic human needs of all the people, then it also means a new social and economic order, as much with-
in countries as between them. Such development can mean enormous strains and tensions between those who demand
and those who resist the demand. These tensions are also part of the development story and this part also has to be
told with the same skill, and frankness, as the success story. And if it is well told, in terms of the lives of people, it
may help to prevent bigger failures in future.
Always remember: we are broadcasting for people. Failure to remember them, the people at the end of our transmis-
sion, is one of the greatest dangers of our profession. People are very interested in stories about other people.
People’s news also can originate from a variety of nongovernmental organizations, such as consumer unions, com-
munity associations, trade unions, churches or religious groups, women’s and youth clubs, professional associations.
It should be recognized that society is enriched, not weakened, by the growing number of all sorts of groups, volun-
tary organizations and other nongovernmental institutions formed on the basis of common interests and opinions.
Their activities should be reported.
7. Human interest - this is made up of elements with an emotional appeal: oddities, humour, romance, suspense,
tragedy, sympathy, fear, grief, compassion, envy, generosity, loneliness, triumph over handicaps, stories involving
children, aged people, nature, animals, etc.
So far, typical human interest stories are almost totally absent in Asian and Pacific news bulletins. Acquainting your-
self with human interest elements is important.
Often you may begin a straight news assignment and uncover human interest potential in the story. If there is suffi-
cient human interest, it may well deserve more emphasis in the story than the standard news elements.
Human interest stories can also be the result of follow up work. Sometimes they only become obvious when a
reporter has taken the trouble to follow up the human circumstances involved in an event such as a fire, a robbery,
some other tragedy, or a joyful event.
8. Weather - Radio probably ranks number one in the public’s media preference and use for weather information.
Radio has the advantage of being the medium that can include updated weather reports throughout the day both as
part of the regular news bulletin and in special reports as the weather changes. This is particularly important for sea
coast areas, islands, cyclone or earthquake zones.
9. Sport - there is an intense public interest in sports. Don’t take pride in “knowing nothing about sports”. It’s part
of your job to know at least the basic facts and the important people in the popular games and sports in your country
and in the world.
And finally, there is one more characteristic of news that we would like to highlight here. News is something that
develops. People tune in “to hear the latest” on an accident, an international conflict, a decision of an important cab-
inet meeting, etc. A good news story doesn’t end after first reference.

NEWS DIRECTIVES UNIT 1.3 WHO IS THE AUDIENCE?
If news is reporting significant events for a community, we should know something about that community. The more
we know about the audience, the better we are able to serve it.Audience research is the systematic study of the pub-
lic. Techniques have been developed for audience research in countries in which there is a lot of media competition,
for example the United States and Western Europe. Some developing countries simply do not have the economic and
organisational capability for audience research. But there also seems to be a lack of understanding of the importance
of audience building. This is the importance of considering the needs and desires of the audience when constructing
news accounts.
What kind of basic information should audience research provide?
a) Background information about the population
- number and types of radio receivers in use - people’s availability to listen to news
- what people need from broadcasting, and the programme tastes of the population
- spare-time activities and interests of people
b) Audience size
- estimates of audience for news, and their composition in terms of sex, age, socio-economic group, rural-urban etc.
- patterns of listening
c) Research on news as a category of output

- pre-broadcast studies to determine the degree of knowledge of the audience, their opinions, prejudices, etc.
- how understandable are the news broadcasts?
- analysis of the news content, as perceived by the listener
- testing the credibility of news
Never forget that we broadcast for people, not radio sets.

Nor for politicians or senior civil servants.
We broadcast for all types of people, who have different attitudes.
Remember:
− listeners have a short attention span
− they cannot absorb a great deal at one time
− listeners can be distracted by people and happenings around them
− listeners are more interested in things which affect their lives, their friends, neighbours etc.
− it’s easy to switch off mentally and literally. If people learn to switch off when the news comes up, we are wast-
ing our time
− listeners may not be geniuses, but they aren’t stupid either. The journalist must make sure that the least learned
of his audience understand, and at the same time avoid offending the experts. A journalist should interpret infor-
mation so that it is understandable, but not trivial
Few listeners can give undivided attention to a news broadcast. Therefore we are competing for their concentration,
and if we are not getting through to them with clarity, we are losing the most important battle.
1.3 1
NEWS DIRECTIVES UNIT 1.4 NEWS SOURCES
News doesn’t happen in the newsroom, nor does it necessarily happen during office hours. The countless words pour-
ing into a radio newsroom every day come from several sources.
Main sources:
- reporters: they must go out and find the news, wherever it can be found:
Government ministries and divisions, community groups and organizations, various associations, private and public
institutions, trade unions, essential services (water, transport, electricity, hospitals, etc.), police, fire, ambulance, sport-
ing bodies, airlines, shipping, Parliament, the Law courts, etc.
- News Agencies:
national news agencies international news agencies
Other regular sources:
-publications: newspapers, both national and foreign magazines and newsletters.
- news conferences, briefings and public meetings
- monitoring of other radio and television stations, both foreign and national. It’s important to have good monitoring
facilities specially for landlocked and isolated countries who have few news sources of their own. Some agencies and
stations rely almost entirely on foreign sources by monitoring them.
-personal contact with as many people as possible.

Remember that there are over 90 million potential news sources in Bangladesh, 35 million in Burma, 700 million in
India, 150 million in Indonesia, 90 million in Pakistan, 50 million in the Philippines, etc ... If you really take your job
seriously, there’s still a lot more to do!
The great crime in news is inaccuracy. We should be very careful and sure about our news sources. Be suspicious!
Even a government minister or an executive can be wrong sometimes. If in doubt, double check. If you can’t find it,
leave it out altogether. Do not accept any information as infallible.
1.4 1
NEWS DIRECTIVES UNIT 1.5 NEWS FORMATS
In many countries of the region, the news format is still very rigid and formal; a ten or fifteen minute bulletin is read
straight through by one person. Research has shown however, that the attention span of the average listener is limited,
particularly when one person is talking all the time.
The method of straight reading therefore is no longer considered the best way of getting information to the listener.
Even the use of two newsreaders alternating the presentation of the items in a news bulletin is considered better for
keeping the listener's attention. It is recognized that many Asia-Pacific broadcasting services still base the presentation
of their domestic bulletins on what is heard on the World Service broadcasts of the BBC, Radio Australia or the Voice
of America. But the reason these short-wave World Service bulletins maintain the straight read format is related to their
varied worldwide audience. The English used in these bulletins is delivered slowly, in a more formal, authoritative voice,
and it is easier to maintain this style using one reader, than to have several voices in the form of inserts or actuality.
Another reason for this style of World Service presentation is to avoid problems of rapid fade on the signal which often
makes the news unintelligible. But it must be noted that the internal news bulletins of the BBC, Radio Australia, and
those in the United States of America in no way resemble their World News Services.
News presentation techniques have changed greatly in recent years. In many countries, a large proportion of major news
bulletins is made up of actuality inserts. These cover material from any source other than the newsreader, and include
voice reports by the journalists themselves, brief extracts from speeches, interviews, news conferences and genuine
sound effects. Some stations use jingles, gongs, or even drumbeats for instance, between national and foreign news
items.
So there are many new and varied techniques of news presentation which have developed, but which are not being used
in Asia and the Pacific. Maybe you can also draw upon your traditional ways of communicating information. Effective
communication results not from using one method alone, but from the interaction of all the ways of conveying infor-
mation in a society.
All these techniques should be used properly. For example, a tape or 'phone-in' insert would be pointless if the techni-
cal quality does not ensure clarity. So you must also have the best equipment possible. (see further UNIT 9)
Journalists need to be trained extensively in the various modern broadcasting techniques, such as the use of voice inserts
and actuality, tape editing, and presentation. Further Units in this manual deal with these techniques.
Finally, it must be acknowledged that the strict distinction between different formats of news presentation is fast dying
e.g. the bulletin, the newsreel etc. As far as presentation is concerned, all modern techniques can and should be used for
bulletins, as well as in current affairs programmes. (see further UNIT 6 on Presentation).
1.5 1
NEWS DIRECTIVES UNIT 1.6 NATIONAL CONSTRAINTS AND LEGAL ASPECTS
National Parameters
In most developing countries the basic functions of information are supposed to constructively support the
development of the country. Journalistic responsibility is usually defined in terms of the country's political
and social aspirations.
On the other hand, in western industrialized countries, journalistic responsibility, in addition to being set by
social and ethical norms, is determined by professional autonomy and independence. These are con-
sidered absolute requirements for meeting the responsibility of journalism.
As a general rule, the journalists' freedom is restricted by his responsibility vis-a-vis public order, moral
standards, safety of the state and its institutions. Restrictions are often formulated in terms of national ide-
ology.
The constitution of a country usually provides the broad framework within which principles guiding profes-
sional journalistic activity are defined.
Civil Laws usually prescribe rules the journalist must follow in relation to his audience e.g. privacy, slander
etc. In some countries, journalists themselves have adopted professional codes of conduct. In most
cases the professional function is described as a public service, the interpretation of which is guided by the
prevailing social system. Many of these codes of conduct have certain ethical principles in common. These
include the right of secrecy (the respect for the private lives of all citizens), accuracy, impartiality, balance,
good taste, etc.
Self-censorship
The term is used to describe the action of a journalist who stays clear of reporting certain subjects for fear
of incurring institutional retribution or punishment. While much of this fear is rooted in political and social
sensitivity, it is also true that a great deal of it is imagined.
At a seminar on Development Journalism, held at the Asia-Pacific Institute for Broadcasting Development
in 1979, most participants admitted that journalists do not take full advantage of the opportunities and free-
dom available to them, often preferring to blame those in power for their own shortcomings.
As a journalist it is your responsibility to know your National Parameters, the various civil laws, and social
norms which may restrict your profession in the Public Service.
But the media must serve all sections of the society, and you should not imagine policy rules which do not
exist. If in doubt at any time, consult your Senior Editor.
Defamation and Contempt of Court
The most common ways in which radio journalists encounter the law, are with defamation and contempt of
court. But individual countries may have a variety of other laws which restrict what can be broadcast e.g.
some countries forbid the publication or broadcast of the name of the poison used in a suicide; others have
laws governing the mention of political matters on election days. Broadcasters must familiarize themselves
with the various laws of their country, including laws governing defamation and contempt of court. The fol-
1.6 1
lowing comments are based on the British legal system:
Defamation
This can be of an individual, an organization or a product. Defamation is the broadcast of anything which
spoils the good reputation of a person, organization or product in the eyes of the ordinary citizen.
For example, stories which suggest
a person
- has broken the law
- is dishonest or corrupt
- is bankrupt
- is immoral
- is not to be trusted
or an organization
- is working against the public interest
- is financially unsound
- uses dishonest methods or practices
or a product
- is inferior to another brand
- is dangerous
- is useless
Defamatory statements can be broadcast, provided the broadcasting organization is convinced the state-
ments are in the public interest, and is prepared to defend its point of view in a court of law, if necessary.
It may have to prove, for instance, that the statement broadcast was true or fair comment on a matter of
public interest, and not merely malicious. Fair comment must be supported by facts, not rumours or
guesswork.
Public interest can cover such cases as:

-political and governmental matters
- administration of justice
- public health
- safety of products
-the interest of consumers
-the institutions in which the public has invested money
- the public conduct of someone in public office, or who is in a position of public trust.
Beware of quoting a person saying defamatory things about others, an organization or product. These
statements cannot be broadcast unless the person making the statement has evidence of truth, or that the
statements are in the public interest.
1.6 2
Privileged Places
There are places where almost anything said may be reported. These include Parliament, the Courts of
law, and Commissions of Inquiry. Defamatory statements are often made in these places, and you are free
to report them, provided it's an accurate and fair report. Beware however, of statements made outside the
courthouse, or in the corridors of the Parliament building - these areas are not covered by this same privi-
lege. Furthermore, in many countries the presiding officer of Parliament, or the judge or magistrate of a
court has the arbitrary power to order that all or parts of any statements should not be reported by the
media.
Decisions on whether statements are defamatory, and should be broadcast or not, should be discussed
with editors or managers, who in turn may consult lawyers. In a situation where this discussion is not possi-
ble, a rough test would be: `How would I feel if this were said about me in public'.
Contempt of Court
Under British law, a person is innocent until he is proved guilty in a court of law. Crimes or accidents which
may involve negligence, must not be referred to in any way which apportions blame or guilt before the case
has been decided by the courts.
In accident cases, only the facts should be given, without apportioning blame, even if the cause may be
clear to everybody.
For example:
Not
À motorcyclist on Man Pantai failed to give way last night, and collided with another bike travelling along
Man Bangsar'
But
`Two motorcycles collided at the corner of Man Pantai and Man Bangsar last night'
Once an arrest is made, reports must not prejudice a fair trial.
Not `X appeared in court today for murdering Y.

But 'X appeared in court today charged with murdering Y.
There's also the danger of contempt of court if you broadcast evidence of previous convictions or the past
record of the accused before these are presented in court.
For more on Crime and Court reporting, see Unit 3, Section 8.
1.6 3
NEWS DIRECTIVES UNIT 1.7 THE A.B.C.S OF PROFESSIONAL JOURNALISM:
ACCURACY - BALANCE - CLARITY
ACCURACY
Accuracy is fundamental to any news service. When you fail in accuracy, you fail the audience, and lose
credibility. So, GET YOUR FACTS RIGHT. Check everything, don't guess. You can never be too careful
with facts, figures and names.
The electronic media have a big advantage in being faster than the press, but speed increases the risk of
error. Limitations of air-time also require news to be tightly compressed, thus raising the possibility of dis-
tortion and ambiguity.
Distortion of news occurs when inaccuracies and untruths replace fact.

For rewriting, always go to the original source. Don't rewrite from someone else's copy - check and recheck
all facts, figures and names.
Do not use rumour. The word rumour must never appear in your copy.
It is not the role of the news service to speculate. The purpose is to report accurately. Speculation is not
fact, although facts need to be explained. Indeed, there's a growing need to place events and issues in a
broader context. So, EXPLAIN, rather than speculate.
A news service should not contain opinion. It should report only the facts, and other people's opinions.
Inaccuracies also occur in translation. Translators have the important task of understanding the message,
and translating it accurately into another language (see further UNIT 8).
BALANCE
Balance is one of the most important issues. You should seek to give both sides to a story, particularly
when it's a controversial subject. If you don't do this, you lose credibility. Balance should be achieved in
each news item, each bulletin, and certainly over a period of time.
There are serious imbalances in the newscasts produced in the Asia Pacific region:
-extensive use of governmental views only
- over-use of stories of intentions (what a minister or somebody intends doing)
- little news in which the opposite opinion is given
- too much foreign news, much of which is irrelevant to the local community
- contradictions between the handling of local news (positive centered news), and foreign news,
which almost exclusively involves conflict and controversy.
- too much urban oriented and urban originated stories, whereas Asia Pacific societies are
predominantly rural
- too few stories with a human interest angle
In the interest of harmony in multi-racial and multi-religious societies, you must be careful in the way you
report news relating to the various communities.
You should also seek balance in presentation styles. For instance, stories with, or without voice inserts.
1.7 1
NEWS DIRECTIVES UNIT 1.7 THE A.B.C.S OF PROFESSIONAL JOURNALISM:
ACCURACY - BALANCE - CLARITY
CLARITY
If the audience cannot understand what you are saying, because it is not clear, the whole effort is wasted
and no communication has taken place. As we explain later in Unit 2, you have only one chance to be
understood. That's why clarity must have top priority. If an item is not crystal clear to you, it will be a mean-
ingless babble to the listener.
ACCURACY + BALANCE + CLARITY = CREDIBILITY
When the message is accurate, balanced and clear, the audience will believe it.
Credibility is journalism's greatest asset.
In Asia and the Pacific, most radio and television services are government controlled. Their messages suf-
fer from lack of independent validation. There's a tendency to say òh, that's Government propaganda'.
Many of us have the experience of not trusting people who have a vested interest in the message. If some-
one tries too hard to sell us something, we look upon that person with suspicion, because we feel that per-
son has something to gain by convincing us.
Only journalism which is both free and responsible, and believed to be both, can enjoy the respect and
confidence of people, and earn credibility in their eyes.
If you do not strive for, and earn credibility, and listeners don't believe your news service, you are wasting
your time, and the contents of this manual will be of little value.
1.7 2
WRITING FOR RADIO NEWS 2.1 WRITING FOR THE EAR: FIVE PRINCIPLES
Writing for radio is writing for the ear. Write as you would speak. Better still, write as you would hear.
Because of the strict time limits observed in news broadcasts, the script must be written. But the difficulty
with having to use a script is that people have been trained in school to write material only for other people
to read silently to themselves. This is writing for reading, not for talking aloud.
Writing for radio is, quite different from writing for print media. We must write for the ear, not for the eye.
The eye can take in a whole sentence at a time. It can take in a news agency lead running to five or six
lines, with clauses going in all directions. This is how it works when you read: you recognize words in
groups - sometimes two or three words at a time. It takes about a third of a second for each group. Then,
the average adult reader pauses for about a quarter of a second between one group of words and another
in order to assign provisional meanings to what he has read. As he goes on, his provisional understanding
may change. He then will go back to look at a key word group. This stop-go-backward-forward movement
is characteristic of the average reader.
The listener cannot go back to recheck a fact. The ear takes in a sentence word by word. It must wait until
the end of a sentence to discover its shape, to understand its full meaning.
In this unit, we'll give you some guidelines on how you can improve your news writing for radio.
It's a good practice to work with typists. In that case, the journalist doesn't type his copy, he dictates, or
rather speaks and the typist writes. Tell the news to your typist as your audience will eventually hear it.
If you have to type the script yourself, it's a must to say it aloud. Too often, a typewriter is a barrier to clear
communication. Good journalists talk to themselves as they write, testing each phrase for its sound and
judging how easy it is to say. Whether you are a reporter or a bulletin editor it is saying copy out aloud that
will achieve the conversational approach necessary in broadcast news.
There are five key principles you should always remember about any radio programme.
- It is spoken
- It's immediate
- It's person to person
- It's heard only once
- It's sound only
2.1 1
A) It is SPOKEN
It's not written literature, it is TALK. So, be natural and use only words you know the meaning of and which
are in your spoken vocabulary. The following example may sound allright in a United Nations Assembly, but
not on air.
Not
The implementation of the environmental quality promotion and preservation project, which will be
launched during the Fifth National Economic and Social Development Plan, will place emphasis on solu-
tions to the problems of pollution, population migration and settlement, the deterioration of natural
resources and the changes of ecology.
But
Government has plans to tackle the problems of environment pollution under the new Economic and Social
Development Plan. A project to improve the quality of the environment is to be launched. It will try to find
solutions for the problems of pollution, the migration of people from villages to cities and the increasing
scarcity of natural resources.
Use the spoken words of everyday speech. Don't be afraid to use the same word twice or three times, if it
is the right word. The broadcast style must be natural, not invented.
Not
The road is not motorable
But
The road is blocked (or closed, impassable) or: The road can't be used
Contractions are common in conversation, but the person starting out to write news for broadcast often
seems instinctively to avoid them.
So use: that's, there's, he's, they're, don't, won't, isn't, aren't, etc.
But don't use contractions if you want to emphasize any words, particularly in the case of a strong negative
emphasis.
Example
He said last night he will not resign.
2.1 2
B) It's IMMEDIATE
Radio is the "now" - medium!
The greatest advantage over newspapers is immediacy, and this can be emphasized by using the present
tense. Wherever possible, use the present tense rather than reported speech. This newspaper style
sounds strange on the air.
Not
The Prime Minister said today the country's economy was booming.
But
The Prime Minister says the country's economy is booming.
If you are telling someone what the Prime Minister said, you will not put it in reported speech, however
grammatically correct that may be. The comfortable newswriter must not care too much about the weight of
rules applying to written English to which few give a second thought in spoken expression.
Things read on the radio should appear to the listener to be happening NOW. The present tense is a typi-
cal broadcast tense because it gives a sense of immediacy.
C) It's PERSON to PERSON
Writing for radio is not great oratory, it must be informal, it's YOU and ME. There may be thousands of oth-
ers listening at the same time, but each of them is listening on his own, or in a small group.
However, in news programmes, the styles can be slightly more formal than ordinary conversation, yet cer-
tainly not as rigid as that of a newspaper. It must be easy to listen to without sounding casual.
Although radio must give news straight, remember that it is also an entertainment medium. Try not to be
dull and too formal in your style. Try to avoid bureaucratic language.
Not
The Executive Committee of the National Economic Council has approved the third phase of the family
planning scheme involving an expenditure of over 200 crore taka with a foreign exchange component of
about 106 crore taka.
But
The National Economic Council has approved the third phase of the family planning scheme. Over 200
crore taka will be spent. Almost half of that money is foreign aid.
2.1 3
But when it is necessary to use an unfamiliar word it should be explained in a short explanatory sentence.
Example ... writ of Habeas Corpus, this means that the authorities must bring the suspect before the
judge.
Radio must become a friend, whom the listener will believe. And when we broadcast, we should talk as to
a friend.
D) It's HEARD ONLY ONCE
The broadcast, once made, is gone and the listener has no means of referring to what was said. If the
audience has to think twice, to disentangle some cumbersome clause, what you say is lost forever.
Clarity has top priority
Use simple, declarative short sentences. When a sentence is too long, it can easily be split up into two or
three simple sentences. Don't cram all the information in one sentence.
Clarity relies almost completely on simplicity. Confusion comes from complex sentence construction, awk-
ward alignment of clauses, unexplained technical terms, etc. In other words, always try to say it simply.
Not
Thailand and Austria have both agreed on the desirability of expanding two-way trade and increasing
Austrian participation in the economic development of Thailand under the fifth Five Year Plan.
But
Thailand and Austria want to expand trade. Austria will also participate more in the economic development
of Thailand under the fifth Five Year Plan.
The enemy is confusion
Leave out superfluous information. The problem of comprehension is not only a question of simple lan-
guage. The idea that is conveyed in a news item must also be easily grasped. You have only one chance!
A most useful technique is to put only one idea in one sentence.
Not
Prices of white sugar and white refined sugar to be sold in the country are set at 7 Rupees and 8 Rupees a
kilo respectively.
But
The price of white sugar is set at 7 Rupees a kilo. And white refined sugar will be sold at 8 Rupees for a
kilogram.
2.1 4
E) It's SOUND ONLY
Words are the bridge between the newswriter and the listener. Words are the tools of our trade.
Don't be vague or ambiguous. Use words that convey concrete images.
Not
The officials point out that the annual elephant birthrate in Burma is usually lower than the death rate.
But
Officials say that more elephants die each year than there are born.
Be exact and concise. Explain complex and abstract concepts. If you can't, avoid them.
Not
He also said reciprocity will be the guiding rule in the implementation of the U.S. - Philippines extradition
treaty, aimed at curbing crimes that could create irritants to their bilateral relations.
But
He also says both the Philippines and the United States will apply the same principles under the extradition
treaty. The treaty aims at curbing crimes that could cause difficulties between the two countries.
Avoid sound clashes, they are distracting to the listener.
Not
The building is built by a local builder.
But
A local company has built the house.
Be careful with words that sound alike.
Example
accepted - excepted
retain - regain
This is also the case with figures (15-50, 19-90 etc.)
Not
Container handling through Port Klang increased by more than 19 percent.
But
Container handling increased by about 20 percent.
2.1 5
Punctuation is absolutely vital.
When eyes see a mark on a page, the brain reacts in a certain way. A large percentage of reading is auto-
matic. Therefore, if the newsreader's brain is suddenly confronted with something unusual, it will cause
some hesitation. No matter how momentary, the hesitation will be noticed by the listener. So, remember
that you are writing a script to be read aloud. Your punctuation must be correct. Newsreaders expect prop-
erly written material.
However, if a sentence is not properly written, punctuation won't be of much help, as this example shows:
"The chairman of the association", said Mr. Khader, "is a liar".
The listener will get the opposite impression of what you intended. In this case put the name of the speaker
first (See further Unit 3, Section 2).
Summary
Having written the script, read it aloud.

If it isn't easy to say ...
it sounds strange ...
it's ambiguous, not clear ...
it's pompous...
it's complex ...
then: CHANGE IT.
2.1 6
WRITING FOR RADIO NEWS 2.2 HOW TO MAKE YOUR COPY SOUND LIVELY
DULL COPY can hardly be read in a lively way. Crisp, lively copy can come only from a lively awareness
of how to use words distinctly in a sparing, but telling way.
Verbs do the work
They are the chief tools in spoken word writing. Think hard about verbs. They are the keystone of broad-
cast style.
Example
A series of violent earth tremors shook a big area of the New Guinea Islands this afternoon. In Rabaul, the
town's main roads heaved and rippled when the main tremor struck shortly after four o'clock... Dozens of
children playing on a beach jumped into the water to escape tons of rubble that swept down a hill and
across the roads towards them.
Adjectives are not as much help as one might think in descriptive and narrative writing. They tend to
slow the pace and obstruct good delivery and perception. In almost every case, adjectives or adverbs are
unnecessary. This is particularly so for the vague adjectives (colourful, traditional, huge, vast, giant, mas-
sive, drastic ).
Whenever possible, use verbs in the active voice
The active voice tells in better. Word order is often the key to movement in a sentence. Active voice is sub-
ject-verb-object.
Not
Sales counters have been opened by the newspapers at a few important places in the city.
But
Newspapers have opened sales counters at a few important places in the city.
Use the present tense
Logical use of the present tense gives a tinge of freshness to news, makes it sound more immediate.
Radio news must report what has just happened, what is happening and what is just about to happen. For
this reason the present, the present perfect and the future are used more than in print journalism.
2.2 1
Newswriters can make good use of the present perfect tense, as in this example:
The Burmese Navy has arrested a Thai trawler.
The "has" gives more feeling of continuing drama. Using the past tense often sounds very silly
Not
The Minister said that the project was expected to be completed in 1985.
But
The Minister expects the project will be completed in two years.
In reporting on statements which refer to a view that is still held by the speaker you can use the word
`says' instead of said.
But remember the present tense must be applied wisely and logically.
Not
Three people are dead today from weekend traffic accidents
But
Three people died in weekend accidents.
In dealing with future events, it is preferable to use "is to" rather than "will". By saying "The minister is to
visit the flooded area tomorrow" we are simply reporting his intention, rather than committing ourselves to
a prediction of fact.
A mixture of tense is usual in conversational language. Don't bother too much about certain grammatical
rules that apply to written English.
Example
The F.A.O. Director said that new development projects can easily be doubled if sufficient resources are
available.
You can humanize stories and add vitality to news items by getting closer in paraphrase to the way people
express themselves in everyday speech. A lot of formal language can be simplified without misrepresent-
ing the source.
Not
The shortfall in the publication of books in Bahasa Malaysia against the increasing rate of literacy in the
language may frustrate government efforts to expand public library services, it was stated today.
But
The Director of the National Library says not enough books are being published in Bahasa Malaysia
whereas more and more people are able to read the national language. This may make government efforts
2.2 2
to expand public libraries very difficult.
But in any case avoid the reverse. This is the process which turns a news contact's simple, straightforward
remarks into formal sounding phrases. A road service spokesman who tells you that a lot of cars have
been breaking down because of floods should not have his words elevated to "a high incidence of vehicle
malfunctions". And a person who says he's fed up with a certain situation should not figure in the. bulletin
as "expressed dissatisfaction".
Everyday cliches that people still use have more vitality than manufactured media cliches!
Try to avoid the negative
You can add colour to many stories by converting from the negative to the positive. It can be done fre-
quently, especially in lead sentences.
Not
The ministry of Agriculture has made it clear that fishermen are not prevented from catching prawns in in-
shore areas by using traditional gear.
But
Fishermen can still catch prawns along the coastline if they use traditional gear. The Ministry of Agriculture
made it clear that ...
Punctuate for sound
With rare exceptions the only punctuation marks you need in writing for radio are the full stop, the comma,
the question mark and the dash.
Punctuation marks are for the newscaster, not for the listener. Therefore, use them only when they will help
the announcer use his voice. It's useful for the announcer if you underline certain words for emphasis.
Newsreaders rely on the writers to use punctuation correctly and intelligently.
2.2 3
WRITING FOR RADIO NEWS 2.3 HOW TO SHAPE A SENTENCE
Remember, again and again that we are writing for the ear, not for the eye. Broadcasting researchers have
found that almost nobody can follow clearly a sentence containing more than about eighteen to twenty
words. Therefore keep your sentences crisp or, in other words, WRITE IT TIGHT!
How can you go about doing this? Try to follow a simple suggestion: think out each sentence in full
before you write it. Most people think out the first two or three words of what they're going to write and
put them on paper. Then they think for a while and add a bit more and so on. The result is labouriously and
badly written copy. In other words start making notes rather than a script. Know and understand the story,
order it in your thoughts and then speak it out. Think it, say it, then write it.
Think of some particular person, to whom you talk often (a friend, your mother, your wife, your brother.....).
Tell him or her the story. How would you say it? Write it that way!
DO'S AND DONT'S
- Tighten your sentences. This basically means that you shouldn't waste words. Every word must count.
Not
The Prime Minister said the effect of the measures would be to increase the availability of finance for the
private sector and to provide a boost to the confidence of business and the community generally.
(35 words)
But
The Prime Minister says the measures will give more financial aid to the private sector and boost the confi-
dence of business and the community.
(24 words)
- Avoid needless repetition. Don't say the same thing twice.
Examples
It's a true fact
She gave birth to two twins
Holiday period
The reason is because
A new record
Future plans
Traffic conditions
In a weeks time
All prisoners in jails in Northern Ireland
Half of the total water supply
He died in a fatal accident
2.3 1
WRITING FOR RADIO NEWS 2.3 HOW TO SHAPE A SENTENCE
- Avoid subordinate clauses. They are rarely used in everyday conversation. Avoid the clumsy `which'
clause. The easy way out is to split the sentence in two.
Not
All one hundred men in the boilermaking section of Millers Limited, who have been on strike for a fortnight
in protest against the dismissal of a welder, reported for work this morning.
But
All one hundred men in the boilermaking section of Millers Limited reported for work this morning. They
have been on strike for a, fortnight in protest against the dismissal of a welder.
- Avoid starting a sentence with a participle. This construction is a writing idiom, not an idiom of speech.
Not
Welcoming the members to the first session of this year, the speaker, Mirza Gholam Hafiz said a sound
democratic atmosphere has been created on the basis of multi-party representation in the House.
But
In his welcoming speech to the first session of this year, the ....
- The simpler the syntax of a sentence, the better.
Not
The Minister of Public Works said it would have been impossible to have chosen a better site than the
Pudu area for the Central Bank Building.
But
The Minister of Public Works says Pudu area is the right choice of site for the Central Bank Building.
- Don't put a vital verb at the end of a sentence. Newsreaders drop their voices slightly at the end of
sentences. The impact of a key verb can then be lost.
Not
A stone mason received minor head injuries this morning when a wall of the General Post Office building
collapsed.
But
A stone mason received minor head injuries this morning when a wall collapsed at the General Post Office
building.
- Try not to end a sentence with an adjective or an adverb. A strong meaningful last word gives a sen-
tence definition.
2.3 2
WRITING FOR RADIO NEWS 2.4 HOW TO STRUCTURE A NEWS ITEM
The structure of a straight news item is an inverted pyramid.
The arrangement in newswriting is the reverse of the literary form. In the conventional literary form, first
comes the introduction, then the facts of increasing importance, building up to the climax and conclu-
sion.
The flow is chronological.
The flow in newswriting is the reverse of the literary

form.
The lead or climax of the story comes on top: What is the news?
Often the second paragraph sets the scene. Who is the main actor, where did the event take place? On
what occasion?
Then it's time to give the other elements of the story and to give important supporting facts.
Now, you can add background, that's a word or phrase or sentence added to make a news item clearer.
The listener wants to know the "why?" of the story Make the news intelligible and complete. Use compari-
son and contrast to show the unusual or the different. Explain and interpret the story for your audience:
"This means that ...."
If possible, have a strong end. Repeat the main news element but of course not using the same words or
sentences. However, always start with the most important element and then give the other elements of the
story in diminishing order of importance.
There are a few reasons for the rather rigid arrangement of the inverted triangle: listeners always get the
important facts of the story in the lead; this structure automatically provides a continuity of ideas so that
nothing gets out of order; and the bulletin editor can always cut a story from the bottom if he has to shorten
2.4 1
it (for instance, because of the length of other more important stories).
Consider this example, a press release from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade in Papua New
Guinea, and how it is converted into the "inverted pyramid" structure.
The National Executive Council today endorsed a submission from the minister
for Foreign affairs and Trade, Mr. Noel Levi, imposing a four-month ban on ply-
wood and veneered panel imports into Papua New Guinea.
Mr. Levi said that the ban, effective immediately, would provide protection for
local industry against foreign imports.
He told Cabinet that sales of locally-manufactured plywood had fallen since

November last year because of imports from New Zealand, Singapore and
Malaysia.
Mr. Levi said that while the ban is in force, Government forestry and trade
experts will study options for the implementation of an import quota system to
apply from January next year.
Papua New Guinea Forest Products Limited -of Bulolo is the only locally-based
manufacturer of plywood.
The company is 65 percent Government-owned and produces variety of fin-

ished timber products including veneered panels, chopsticks and drawer sides.
Mr. Levi said the import ban would encourage Papua New Guinea Forest
Products to boost production for the domestic and export markets.
"Wherever possible the Government will encourage the development of the tim-
ber manufacturing industry. The Government is opposed to the export of Papua
New Guinea's timber resource in its natural form because it offers a small return
for a valuable resource", Mr. Levi said.
"The Government is determined to develop a timber manufacturing industry
which will provide jobs for Papua New Guineans and give us a better return on
our resource, " he said.
2.4 2
2.4 3
WRITING FOR RADIO NEWS 2.5 HOW TO GRAB THE ATTENTION OF THE LISTENER
THE LEAD SENTENCE
You must attract the listener with the sound of the first sentence. Make him want to hear more. The
opening sentence (or lead) is the most important one of a news item. You catch or lose your listener with
that first sentence.
Example
A padi farmer at Kota Bharu has doubled the income from his land by using a new strain of rice.
(Most padi farmers hearing the opening sentence will keep on listening for further details.)
Good newswriters spend much time on writing a catchy lead, a lead with punch. Give the lead your
best shot. Write it, re-write it, and polish it until you're sure it's the best you can do. After you've finished the
first draft of a story, read it over critically. Frequently, a clearer way of saying something in the lead will
become apparent.
The dominant news point must be isolated as the lead. In selecting the lead, ask yourself: "If I have to
say only one sentence about this information to my friend, what would I say?" Then, that information
should be the lead.
A lead should be written in a simple, uncomplicated manner that will not confuse - and lose - the lis-
tener. You should not try to begin the story by answering the questions of WHO, WHAT, WHEN, WHERE,
WHY and HOW all in one sentence. You must emphasize the most newsworthy of the 5 W's and H in the
lead sentence.
Study the following example.
Not
Because of the continuing severe fall in the world price of copra, over which neither the Copra Board
nor the Government have any control, the Copra Board has most reluctantly decided that there is no option
but to reduce the price of first grade copra to 10 cents for a 5 -pound lot effective from the 1st March. The
drop in price has been forced on the Board because it is subsidizing the present price of 2 1/2 cents to the
excessive amount of $22.40 a ton, or 1 cent a pound.
The Board cannot continue to eat into its reserves any longer, or else it will not have enough money
with which to pay cutters for copra. The price for second grade copra will be 71/2 cents.
But
There's to be a further reduction in the copra price. The new price for first grade copra will be two
cents a pound - a reduction of half a cent a pound. The price of second grade copra will be one and a half
cents a pound. The new prices take effect next Monday.
The Copra Board says it was forced to reduce the prices paid to the local cutters because the world
price of copra is still falling.
The Copra Board is already subsidizing the present price at the rate of one cent a pound and this
has eaten into its reserves.
2.5 1
DO'S AND DON'TS
- Avoid overcrowding the lead. Be brief. Most good leads are just one sentence long (with a maximum of
20 words). Other facts not selected for this single sentence are placed in succeeding paragraphs.
Not
The President has reaffirmed this morning his determination to maintain democracy when he addressed
government agents at their annual conference.
But
The President has reaffirmed his determination to maintain democracy. He told government agents at their
annual conference that......
- Be wary of question leads. They can be used effectively at times, if they are original and provocative.
But in general the journalist is there to inform the listener, not to ask him questions.
- Avoid giving away key information in the first two or three words. After each story the reader paus-
es. During that pause the attention cases. It takes the listener a few seconds to tune in with full concentra-
tion to the next item. So, hold the key word back.
Not
273 have died in a plane crash near Manila.
But
There has been a plane crash near Manila in which 273 people have died.
- But don't hold the key word back too far. Get it in as early as possible in the opening sentence. If the
listener is kept waiting too long to discover what it's all about, he'll leave you. So hold it for a second, then
punch it home - what happened and where.
Not
The president of the Women's Association, Mr.'. Khalil, said today increasing importance is needed to be
placed on education if women were to take a more active part in community affairs.
But
The president of the Women's Association says education must be given greater importance if women are
to take a more active part in community affairs.
2.5 2
Here's another example of a key word that comes much too late in the sentence.
Not
A survey by the University Affairs Bureau said that 20 percent of graduates from the 1979-1980 academic
year from 12 universities and other institutions of higher learning remain jobless.
But
One in five graduates who completed university 3 years ago are still without jobs. A survey by the
University Affairs Bureau shows that ... (substantiate).
- You cannot hit listeners with a strange, unfamiliar name. You should tie up the name so that lis-
teners are prepared.
Not
HOJA TULISLAM SYED ALI KHAMENEI has been sworn in as the new President of Iran.
But
Iran has a new President. He's HOJATULISLAM SYED ALI KHAMENEI, who....
- Never start a lead sentence with a long dependent clause.
Not
Quoting from the timeless prose of the Roman writer Cicero, in the original Latin, from the impeccable
poetry of Totagamuwe Sri Rahula and even from the works of the eighteenth century English bard, William
Cowper, the Delimitation Commission, in its report, submitted to the President, goes to some lengths to
explain its concern for the consolidation of friendship and harmony between the various communities in the
country.
But
The Delimitation Commission is concerned for the strengthening of friendship and harmony between the
various communities in the country. In a report submitted to the President, the commission ....
- Do not begin all stories with a location ("In Manila", "In Karachi", etc.). This can easily become repeti-
tive and unimaginative.
Not
In Kuala Lumpur, the government has ....
But
The Malaysian government has ...
- Be wary of figures, certainly in a lead sentence. By themselves, statistics mean nothing. Figures must
be explained before they have any significance. (On figures, see further Unit 7)
2.5 3
- Keep out the "todays" if you can. Be proud that it is today's news that you are telling today. Its overuse
makes newscasts monotonous. You can eliminate some of the todays simply by using the present tense.
However the time element should be mentioned when it's relevant.
Example The body of X was recovered today. He was kidnapped last month.
There might be some point to "this morning" or "last night", "less than an hour ago", "in three hours from
now", etc.
The use of "A.M." or "P.M." should be discouraged. That's for writing.
- Don't keep the listener waiting until the end of a long lead sentence to find out where it happened.
Not
Police have broken up a big car stealing racket in which cars worth thousands of dollars have been stolen
in the last six months in the Metro Manila area.
But
Police in Metro Manila have broken up a big car stealing racket. Cars worth thousands of dollars have
been stolen in the last six months.
- In quotation leads, put the attribution up first. Attribution is necessary for all statements that imply
blame, are of doubtful validity, and may be disputed. Quotation marks cannot be heard. That's why attribu-
tion must precede quoted opinions on radio. Without that attribution, listeners may think the broadcaster is
making his own statement.
Not
Two children's hospitals in Madras will be forced to close if the State Government continues to refuse finan-
cial aid, a clinic administrator said today.
But
A clinic administrator says 2 children's hospitals in Madras will be forced to close if the State Government
continues to refuse them financial aid.
(On attribution: see further Unit 3, Section 2)
2.5 4
WRITING FOR RADIO NEWS 2.6 HOW TO RETAIN THE INTEREST OF THE LISTENER
The more difficult we make it to understand the spoken word, the more quickly we lose the interest of the
listener.
By using simple language, avoiding long words and long awkward sentences, we retain their interest.
Let your sentences breath. You're telling a story, not ramming it down people's throats.
You must convey information in logical order. Once you've chosen a lead, think of the next obvious
question it raises. Answer that question in the second sentence. Then consider what question your second
sentence raises - and answer it. The story must be a progression of facts that cover all major questions the
listener could ask: what, when, where, who, why and how?
A common mistake is the failure to lay the groundwork for a fact you are introducing. You should set the
story up, so that every fact fits into the whole. The listener should be prepared for the facts that are about
to be presented.
Make skillful use of repetition. A listener who has missed the first sentence of a story should not be left
groping for clues as to what the story is all about or where it happened.
In any story that is more than half a minute long, repeat the scene of the event or the name of the speaker.
It's irritating to the listener to hear a succession of "he said's" when he has missed the name of the speaker
in your first sentence.
A useful technique is to repeat the basic information in the last sentence. Many people don't really begin
paying attention until you're well into the story. Give the listener a second chance of getting the news ele-
ment in the story. Remember the last time you heard an obituary on the radio but missed the identity of the
deceased? It's pretty annoying.
Consider the following story. If you happen to miss the first sentence you can finish up without the faintest
idea of what this is all about and where it happened.
Not
Reports from Sabah say that two people have been killed in explosions aboard a patrol boat of the
Malaysian Navy. Five others were injured. They were taken to the General Hospital. The accident occurred
last night. Eyewitnesses say there were at least fifteen explosions. The end of the jetty where the ship was
moored was blown away. A number of fishermen reported that the blazing vessel had been towed away
about half a mile off shore, and firemen were also battling fires on the jetty. The cause of the explosions is
unknown.
But
Reports from Kota Kinabalu in Sabah say that two people have been killed in explosions aboard a patrol
boat of the Malaysian Navy. Five others were injured and taken to the General Hospital in Kota Kinabalu.
Fishermen said they heard at least 15 explosions. The end of the jetty where the ship was moored was
blown away and the burning patrol boat of the Navy had to be towed out about half a mile off shore. The
cause of the Sabah tragedy in which two people died is not yet known.
2.6 1
WRITING FOR RADIO NEWS 2.6 HOW TO RETAIN THE INTEREST OF THE LISTENER
Don't use jargon, abbreviations or initials, without clarifying them. It's the best way of irritating your
listeners. If these are to be used, the short form should be fully spelled out at least once in the story. (On
abbreviations and clichés: see further Unit 7).
Don't put stumbling blocks in your copy. Just as the proper length and placement of a sentence or
phrase can help a story move along, the improper placement or length can make the newsreader stumble.
If, for instance, a long and difficult phrase suddenly appears, the whole momentum of the story is interrupt-
ed. Of course, if all sentences are short, the story will sound monotonous and turn off the listener. So, vary
the length of sentences. Ideally, each story should contain a blend of short, medium and longer sentences.
Other stumbling blocks for the newsreader are typographical errors and difficult, strange names, which are
often unnecessary. They interrupt the flow of the story and the listeners will loose interest.
A smooth flow in newswriting can be obtained by making skillful use of transit points and link sen-
tences.
Very helpful words are "but" or "however", which indicate to the listener that an opposite view or fact will
be given.
The word "meanwhile" is overworked as a link and in most cases it is not used properly. This adverb
should be used only when a close relationship exists in subject matter and intervening time actually is
meant (simultaneously).
"Besides" means "in addition to", but sounds a bit old fashioned. There is no harm in using "also".
"In another development" or "in a related development" are link words which can be used occasionally.
But it would be much better to make clear what is the exact relation between the two events, rather than
just use a general linking sentence.
2.6 2
WRITING FOR RADIO NEWS 2.7 HELP THE NEWSREADER
In this section we deal with the basic rules for setting out stories. The main purpose of these is to make it
easy for the newsreader or announcer to read without stumbling. The newsreader is an important member
of the news team. He is the link between the broadcasting organization and the listener, so there should be
a close relationship between the reader and the bulletin editor. It's something of a partnership. This means
that the editor's job is not finished until the story has been read on air. In most newsrooms, it's the editor's
responsibility to check pronunciation for the newsreader and he should also be able to answer any ques-
tions the reader might have about the meaning of any report. News editors should indeed seek the active
co-operation of news announcers for suggestions. They should be encouraged to point out errors in the
sense or wording of bulletin copy or obscure phrasing that can be changed without affecting the sense of
the item itself. Announcers themselves, however, as a general rule should not make changes in copy with-
out first consulting the editor.
Follow these guidelines
- all newsroom copy must be typed

- type in double or triple space on one side of the paper only
- every sentence should be in a paragraph by itself; with separate paragraphs the
announcer's eye will easily pick up the thought for each sentence
- do not split words at the end of the line
- usually you will have to type an original and three to four carbon copies
Example
The Soviet leader, Mr. BREZHNEV, has warned his communist allies that economic difficulties
will be the greatest challenge to the Soviet bloc in the 1980s.
Mr. BREZHNEV was addressing a special meeting of communist leaders in CZECHOSLOVAKIA.
He said that for the socialist countries everything depends
on improving the efficiency of production and on raising the standard of administration.
For the past five days, Mr. BREZHNEV
has been attending the congress of the Czechoslovak Communist Party.
2.7 1
Exception: When the following sentence is a qualification of the previous one. In that case, the announc-
er's eye should see there is something important that qualifies or adds information to the first sentence.
Example
A JAPANESE cargo ship has sunk off southern JAPAN, after hitting a submarine.
The ship went down fast after the collision.
Thirteen of the crew went picked up by a Japanese destroyer nearly twelve hours later.
Two, including the captain, are missing.
Survivors say the submarine surfaced directly after the accident
but then submerged and disappeared.
The layout of a script

Every item written for news, current affairs and sports should be accompanied by certain reference infor-
mation, included at the top and bottom of the script.
In the top righthand corner is the date. This enables copy to be filed easily in chronological sequence.
Under the date is a slug, one or two words which convey the essence of the item. Avoid general words,
such as "meeting" or "government", but use specific words.
Just under the slug or catchline, some organizations put the time of broadcast for which this copy is pre-
pared.
Move the paper up at least three spaces and begin the first sentence. This is to avoid confusion for the
newsreader. Each item should be kept to one page if at all possible. If more than one page is required
make the last sentence on the page a complete sentence. At the end of a page, if the story carries over
into the next page, the bulletin editor places an arrow. You can also put "more" in the bottom righthand
corner.
Once the item is finished, put the source of the story in the bottom lefthand corner. It is not necessary to
use the word "ends" which is more suited to a written newspaper style.
2.7 2
Some organizations insist that the source in the bottom left hand corner should include all people involved
in processing, sub-editing or re-writing the story. From left to right it should follow the story sequence
beginning specifically with the source and moving through to the final person to process the story before
broadcast.
In a fast breaking radio situation where the story originates in your newsroom it is an advantage to include
the contact phone number of the source to enable anyone later involved in processing the source to make
a quick contact to check or follow up the story.
Example
10/8/82
AFRICAN AID
7.30 am
The United Nations has announced a big aid programme for African refugees.
More than half of the aid programme of 425-million dollars was promised
by the UNITED STATES.
The plight of the refugees was discussed at a special UN conference in GENEVA,
attended by 82 countries.
The UN Secretary General drew a grim picture of life for some five million refugees in Africa.
He said many of the refugees were exhausted women and children
reduced to skeletons in search of bare sustenance.
Reuter/Narayanan/Fetrat
2.7 3
A similar approach is followed when the story contains an audio insert (see further Unit 6). In such a tape-
supported story it is important to give full details of the insert.
Example
22/08/82
NURSES
5.00 pm
Every year sixty nurses graduate from Mahabaudha nursing campus.
This is the only institute in Nepal, where nurses are trained for both
government and private hospitals. DHRUBA THAPA went to the
campus and has this report
Cue in: "The campus is part of ....

Cue out: ... go abroad and study. "
Duration: 57 seconds
And that report of Dhruba Thapa ends this roundup
of health services on the occasion of World Health Day.
Interview/Dhruba Thapa/Reetha
2.7 4
Turn in a clean script: announcers cannot be expected to read news properly if copy is unclear and full of
corrections.
Follow these rules:
a) if a page has more than three corrections, it should be retyped.

b) if a word is incorrect, cross it out completely and write the correct word in capital letters.
Example
dead
Four persons are reported lost in a place crash.
c) leave nothing ambiguous in your script.
Punctuation marks are for the announcers, not for the listener. For radio, do not use the following signs
on your typewriter:
( ) & 1/z 3/a $ @ %
The only punctuation marks you really need for broadcasting are
the period(.) (full stop),
comma (,)
(?)
question mark
and dash (-) to indicate a pause without the finality of the period).
If a name is unfamiliar or likely to give problems in pronunciation, the correct pronunciation should be typed
in parenthesis above the word in question. People don't like having (their) names mispronounced. It's
equivalent to a misprint in newspapers. Proper names and place names should be typed in capital letters.
2.7 5
Example
(yahroo-ZELskee)
The Polish Prime Minister, General JARUZELSKI
(bid-gosh)
expressed regret for the recent incident in BYDGOSZCZ
where several members of the Solidarity trade union were beaten up by police.
Note that the accent can be indicated by upper and lower case. The upper case shows the syllable that
gets the accent: yahroo-ZELskee
When using members - write out numbers one to eleven. Use figures for 12 through 99. After 999, write
out hundred thousand, million etc.
Example
89,000 = 89 - thousand
67,043,000 = 67 - million 43 - thousand
2,500 = two thousand five hundred
Numbers up to 1,900 (except for 1,000) should be written in hundreds.
Example 1,200 = 12-hundred
Fractions are always written out: e.g. one half, three quarters etc.
Take care with roman numerals
Not Queen Elizabeth II (could be read as "eleven")

But Queen Elizabeth the second
Underline for emphasis. This is particularly useful if two sentences seem to be dealing with the same
subject when they are not, or when they are in contrast or comparison.
Example
There were five-thousand refugees this year, that's two thousand more than last year.
The American Defense Secretary says that the United States is already producing the neutron bomb.
When you have finished your story, read it back aloud to make sure it is correct. Check particularly for
spelling errors and words missed out.
It requires a lot of mental discipline to re-read copy. But you should be proud of handing in correct and
clean stories.
2.7 6
REPORTING 3.1 THE BASICS OF REPORTING
News is gathered by reporters. But bulletin editors too should know everything about reporting and have
sufficient reporting experience.
The basis of a news story is to be found in the following questions: "WHO, WHAT, WHEN, WHERE, HOW
and WHY". These are what a reporter has to get. It's a good formula for working on any news story as it
puts the questions uppermost in our minds in a logical order.
Writing the news story is only the second part of the reporter's job. First he must get the news, mainly
through three methods:
(a) observation: a reporter goes to the scene of the news
(b) interview: he talks to people
(c) research: this is consulting secondary sources such as files, reports and all sorts of official and other
documents.
And of course you can go and pick up handouts and press releases, but that's not really reporting.
The reporter must have a high standard of personal ethics. He seeks the truth and reports it accurate-
ly. He presents only verifiable facts as facts. Assumptions should be identified for what they are. We are
not dealing with rumours or speculations. Reporting must not be biased or opinionated.
Reporting must be factual. One of the first rules of reporting is: never take anything for granted, always
check.
Interpretation, however, is an important part of reporting. We must not leave our audience in any doubt
or confusion over the significance of a decision or a happening. It's the reporter's task to spell out the
effects of an announcement on the ordinary citizen. It often means that a reporter needs to follow-up a
story and dig out the necessary information to give the item its full meaning. The reporter's job is only half
done if he doesn't explain the significance of the story to his audience.
A reporter is part of a team. News is a product that is usually highly unpredictable. The basis of news
gathering organizations is flexibility. Be at work at the time the roster says you should be there. Read the
roster closely and take note of shift arrangements. But be flexible enough to do some overtime work if a
story needs it.
Often reporters find that most of their time is spent waiting for people. When that happens, it is the
reporter's business to cut down on the waiting time either by using the telephone, writing a note, or using
some other method of reaching his source.
3.1 1
In any case, a reporter must call his desk at regular intervals. Otherwise, the whole news gathering system
is paralyzed through lack of communication.
Before leaving the office to get a story, brief yourself or get a little background information. You should
also know what the office requires of you, getting the facts, either for writing up yourself or for a direct con-
tribution to a news programme. Never leave without recording equipment and don't forget to check batter-
ies. You must learn to think audio, you're working for radio!
At the scene identify yourself and find out as quickly as you can precisely what is happening or has hap-
pened. Find the right people who can tell you what the story is, and keep asking questions until you under-
stand the situation. Before you can hope to tell a good story, you must be sure in your own mind that you
understand the situation.
Take notes: Good notes remain the basis of good reporting. It's the only way to ensure accuracy. Try not to
depend completely on your tape recorder. It can fail to record! Take written notes as well as make a record-
ing. It will save you a lot of time when you come to write a story.
You should learn to take accurate, legible and useful notes. Proficiency in shorthand is very useful and
valuable, but some sort of shortcut writing system is often a sufficient compromise, if you don't know short-
hand.
A common practice of reporters is to leave a rather wide margin at the left side of the page on which they
take their notes. They use this space to write down a few words, e.g. on the subject matter, or follow-up
with another question or to check out some details.
Bear in mind your deadlines, get your material back to the office in time to allow further checks or alter-
ations to be made before broadcasting.
If necessary, phone copy. Most broadcasting organizations have installed facilities to phone-in copy to the
office. The copy is dictated by the reporter and the typist writes the copy while listening to an earphone.
Dictate slowly, repeat figures, spell out names and place-names. Don't try to dictate directly from your
notes. Write the story first so that you can deliver it to the copy-taker in finished form.
If the office requires a voice piece you must remember that you're not writing copy to be used by some-
one else. It's your story. You tell the story, not read it aloud. If the reporter does a straight reading job and if
his script is written like an ordinary news item, then the difference between his job and that of a newsread-
er is not clear to the public. In other words, let it be clear that you were right where the news was being
made. The maximum duration of a voice report for a radio bulletin is often not more than 45 seconds.
3.1 2
When a reporter is back at the station, he can also do a special package with inserts of interviews, sound
effects and his own voice report. If the story is being broadcast in an evening bulletin, he should also do a
second piece for the morning bulletin, closely watching time references (e.g. "tonight" becomes "last
night").
Finally, put names and telephone numbers of sources at the bottom of your copy. If office and home num-
bers of your contacts are on your story, the follow-up coverage will go more smoothly.
Refusal to comment: people have the right to decline to answer a reporter's questions. But their silence
does not necessarily mean rejection or acceptance. They may have no view at all.
If a person says he does not wish to comment, say just that in your report. If you were to say: "He refused
to confirm or deny", it may be understood to mean that the story is correct, but cannot be attributed to the
person being interviewed. So, be careful.
Many journalists in developing countries have experienced refusals to comment or even to give useful
background information. Ironically, those who refuse are also mostly civil servants, like the broadcasting
journalists.
3.1 3
REPORTING 3.2 QUOTING THE SOURCE
For everything you write, quote an authority wherever possible. Stories gain strength and are more accept-
able if the authority is quoted.
But too much attribution in radio slows the action and makes copy dull.
Attribution must precede all statements that imply blame, express opinions, are of doubtful validity,
come from a dubious source that may be disputed. Attribution must be at the start of a sentence, so
there can be no doubt that what follows is the viewpoint of someone else, not the broadcaster's.
Newspaper stories can delay their attribution. The eye can see the quotation marks on paper. But we have
to turn it around. We must put the source first, then the statement.
Example
The spokesman for the opposition says the economy is in a bad shape.
Simple facts may be written directly. It does not require the authority for a statement to be included
immediately. In other words don't start all your stories with a credit. The factual news comes in the first sen-
tence, without naming the person who said it. The name can come in the next sentence.
Example
A Thai cultural group will go to Malaysia to present four performances in different parts of the country.
Student grants are to be doubled. The Education Minister announced this last night at a dinner....
In factual statements made by government officials we can often dispense with attribution of source alto-
gether. We can take such statements as matters of fact. But beware of some statements which are basical-
ly political, but presented as facts. Never end a sentence with a clause "a government spokesman said".
That's print media style.
When you are quoting local officials, ask yourself whether it is really necessary to give the exact name of
the source. Does the name really matter?
Not
The Trengganu State Welfare and Rehabilitation Committee Chairman, Tengku Mahmud Mansor, said that
a bicycle loan scheme for poor students will be introduced by the State government this year.
But
A bicycle loan scheme for poor students will be introduced later this year in the State of Trengganu. The
State Welfare Committee Chairman says two million ringgit have been approved
Experts should be quoted as experts in their own field only. One can only speak with authority for the area
in which one has expert knowledge.
3.2 1
Avoid use of such phrases as: "It is believed", "It is understood", "It is estimated", "observers said" Try to
find an authoritative person or organization that can be quoted as the source of the statement.
Direct quotations: The listener can't see the quotation marks; so you should use direct quotations only in
exceptional cases.
It is not necessary to start and end a quotation with the verbal quotation marks "quote" and "unquote". You
can use attributing phrases:
Examples
He critizised the plan, calling it ....
That would be, as he expressed it ....
as he said ....
in his words ....
what he described as ....
what is called ....
Avoid direct quotations that ramble on for three or four sentences. For the listener, it's confusing. He does-
n't know where the words of the person being quoted stop and the broadcaster's own words begin. Try
instead to have an audio-insert, if it's really a good statement.
In most cases, you can use indirect quotes.
Example
He says that he ... He believes ....
Again, if something is factual then we can state it as a fact.
Example
He will leave the organization at the end of the month.
3.2 2
HE SAYS (pronounced "sez")
"To say" is better than any other verb to indicate speech but the word is not used enough. Don't hesitate to
use it when it is the right verb. Many substitutions for "said" are clichés or are simply inaccurate because
they have a different meaning. Spell out, point out, state, "went on to say" are clichés. Claim, point out,
insist are coloured words (they have an editorial flavour).
Learn the dictionary meaning of:
allege : to state as a fact (often with suggestion that alleger's veracity is open to question).
assert: to express strongly or positively.
declare : to express explicitly, particularly in a formal or public way.
disclose : expose to view, reveal.
point out : you can point out something which is fact, not opinion. If you say someone pointed out that
government policies have failed, you are asserting it to be a fact. You can avoid using this cliché.
proclaim : make public by herald or crier the truth or existence or accession or happening of - publicly
declare to be.
reveal : make known by inspiration or supernatural means, divulge.
urge : to exhort earnestly and persistently; to advocate pressingly.
Note:
"Add" as in "Housewives, he added, are concerned about..." is wrong;
Better: "Housewives, he continued, are concerned
3.2 3
REPORTING 3.3 TOOLS FOR NEWSGATHERING
1. Editorial conference: news production is team work. Most newsrooms hold regular meetings, once or
twice a day.
A morning briefing session will normally be held at 9 or 10 a.m., while the afternoon briefing can be held at
3 or 4 p.m. It should be at a fixed, but suitable time, preferably at the end of one shift and the beginning of
another.
All news staff on shift are expected to be present, except those on assignments. The meeting is chaired by
the editor in charge of the next major news bulletin or by the Director or Controller of News. It's a brief
meeting, usually not more than twenty minutes. Starting on time is essential.
The purpose of these meetings is to evaluate and plan. The news casts that have been aired since the last
briefing session are evaluated for content and style.
Example
What have we missed yesterday that the newspapers carried this morning? Or a voice report was not audi-
ble?
Then the latest news developments are discussed and assignments are given or confirmed for reporters.
The main stories for the next major bulletin are briefly discussed, and also whether audio-inserts are being
envisaged. During the afternoon session the news diary for the next day is discussed and assignments are
distributed. Editorial conferences are excellent opportunities for new recruits to learn what the profession is
all about.
2. Assignment sheet: on this sheet, the assignments are noted, so that everyone knows what the other
has to do. A blackboard or softboard in the centre of the newsroom can have the same function.
3. A news diary: every newsroom must keep a news diary. Future events which could be newsworthy and
may need covering by a reporter are noted in this diary. Often a senior reporter or editor is in charge of put-
ting together the news diary. He makes a list of the news conferences, openings of seminars, etc. that
have been announced for the next day. Follow-up of news items can be made easier this way. An
announcement made last month that an enquiry will be held on the 16th of this month can easily be forgot-
ten, if it's not put in the diary.
At the briefing session, copies are distributed for all those present and everyone can make notes on
assignments.
3.3 1
Example
Wednesday, 3 May 1982
Kuala Lumpur 9 a.m.

News conference by Deputy Prime Minister on elections at P.M.'s office
Kuala Lumpur 9.30 a.m.

Opening of Seminar on Rubber at Hilton Hotel
Kuala Lumpur 10.30 a.m.

Open enquiry on landslides announced last month, at ....
4. A contact book: it lists the names of organizations or people you often have contact with and their
phone numbers. If they are people who you may need to call after office hours, list their home numbers as
well.
The contact book should be kept at a place where all journalists can easily find it. It should be updated reg-
ularly.
5. Subject files: as a newsroom grows, it's of tremendous benefit to have a well developed documentation
system. The context of development stories requires wider and deeper knowledge, that is readily available
and up-to-date. Newspaper clippings and important newsroom copy should be filed as well.
6. Bulletin files: bulletins should be filed and kept for a certain period in case any dispute arises over a
story. Audio material should be kept along with the bulletin copy. In some broadcasting organizations, the
original source material is kept along with the bulletin copy.
The best system is that where all bulletins for a twenty-four hour period are kept in one file. It's easier to
find the story, if needed. It can be useful to attach a list of the main stories to the front of the file.
3.3 2
7. A telephone: more and more reporting is done by telephone. The telephone can be the most useful tool
for a journalist to gather news.
The advantages are obvious. It saves travelling time, assignments can be carried out when you are tied to
the office, etc.
But there are great disadvantages as well. You will have no idea about the circumstances in which the call
is being taken, some people will not talk freely over the telephone because there are strangers or subordi-
nates in the room. You can't see the facial expression of the person you are talking to, which might indicate
if a person is lying. And it's easier to put you off by telephone; many people seem to be constantly "in
meeting" on certain days.
8. Personal contacts: a good reporter has a diary full of contact names and telephone numbers. It is
important to develop personal contacts who can give you access to background information. But if you
become too close a friend, there is a danger that you become too subjective and that you lose your critical
attitude towards the received information.
9. Original notes: every reporter should keep his original notes of an interview, a telephone conversation,
or eyewitness event until the likelihood of any queries has passed.
3.3 3
REPORTING 3.4 HANDOUTS, NEWS RELEASES
One of the worst developments in all countries is the growing power of Public Relations as a source of
news and information. It is a serious restraint on the media's healthy development.
Journalism is not the same as public relations. Journalists can make careful use of both government and
non-government public relations handouts as a source of news, but the reporter has to avoid the pitfalls of
the handouts.
First of all, government handouts and ministerial speech notes are used wrongly in large chunks, with
almost no attempts to edit them into radio style. This is lazy journalism.
Secondly, and more important, it should be recognized that handouts and prepared statements are not
necessarily designed to give information.
Sometimes they are deliberately written in a way that obscures the news. At other times, the statement is
so ineptly compiled that the effect is the same. In all cases, they are written and offered to news media for
one purpose only: to promote something of interest to the dispensing agency. Whenever possible, seek
additional information that is almost always hidden or simply absent in the handout.
However, much of what comes through Public Relations is legitimate news and most is non-controversial:
the story of an appointment, plans for a building, the opening of a branch office, the development of a new
product. In case the news is controversial, P.R. information should serve as no more than a statement of
the official position of the government agency or company, as an account of one position. In other words,
the statement must clearly be attributed.
How to edit the handouts? Read the handout or press release and always check the following five ques-
tions:
I. What does it mean?

2. What is the effect of it?
3. What is not clear and asks for explanations?
4. Find out all you can about what is not in the handout.
5. Why do they want the information in this release disseminated?
Most government handouts are written in a uniform style:
"The Minister of ..... has ..."
Always ask yourself if it is necessary for the Minister's name to be carried. If the statement is simply a reit-
eration of government policy, then try: "The government has " Ministers' statements must be judged on
news value.
3.4 1
Beware of the vague handouts that do not really contain any news. There are plenty of them!
Here is an example. Read it carefully and try to write a brief news item.
The Minister of Temple Affairs issued a statement today:
"The most famous and most striking palace in Bangkok, from an architectural point of view is the
Grand Palace which covers an area of over one square mile and contains the Temple of the
Emerald Buddha and the Ministry of Finance within its compound. "
Unfortunately, the number of esteemed visitors from overseas and ASEAN countries had been grow-
ing at an extremely fast rate and this had placed a strain on the floor of the Chakri hall so it is possi-
ble that the building will be permanently damaged if the number of visitors was allowed to continue
at the same rate.
Very regretful, the Ministry had been forced to take some actions which would reduce the strain on
the floor and this would be achieved by the under-utilization of the quota which had been recom-
mended to the Ministry from experts.
The number of visitors was an average of 5,432 per day and under the new quota the number will
be 1,500. Thai people will be guaranteed 500 of those placements, but will need to reserve their
place along with visitors from the many friendly nations to Thailand.
It will not be necessary to reserve to visit the other buildings.
This handout needs a lot of rewriting. There is something newsworthy in it; but you will not find it in the first
three paragraphs. Note also that the use of the past perfect tense sounds very silly. Round off figures and
structure the news item in logical sequence, with the news on top and then the background.
3.4 2
Here is another example of a government handout that begins very promisingly. "A conference has cleared
the way .... ". But try to find out how it "cleared the way". What are the real problems the overseas enter-
tainers face? What concrete steps are being taken? What's the news for the many relatives of overseas
entertainers?
PRESS RELEASE
Ministry of Labor & Employment 19 January 1982
A conference on the employment of Filipino entertainers overseas cleared the way yesterday for the
full implementation of a labor ministry order governing the hiring and deployment of Filipino enter-
tainers to Japan and other countries.
Labor Ministry Order No. 6 was issued by Labor Minister Blas F. Ople in August 1980 to insure the
well-being of Filipino entertainers overseas and to generate more exchange earnings in terms of
inward remittances from overseas Filipinos for strengthening the national economy.
The conference which was opened by Director Jonathan de la Cruz of the Bureau of Employment
Services was attended by Japanese promoters of Filipino entertainers, agents or representatives of
foreign employers and other ministry officials, including Labor Attache to Japan Danilo Cruz,
Florencio de Guzman, chief of the BES employment regulation division, Alfredo Palmiery, head of
the BES central processing and records group, and BES legal officer Leonides Garbida.
The labor ministry order guarantees a minimum wage of not lower than the rates approved by the
BES and can in no case be less than US$500 a month.
Entertainers should be entitled to free air fare from point of hire to employment destination and back
upon successful completion of the contract.
The guidelines also provide regular working periods and number of employment performance in an
establishment for singers, musicians, instrumentalities and dancers.
All hours worked in excess of the regular working periods or performance are considered overtime
work and compensable under the laws of the country of employment but in no case less than 125
per cent of basic salary.
3.4 3
During the conference, foreign employers clamored for the establishment of an audition centre for
overseas-bound Filipino entertainers to test their qualifications.
This will ensure the deployment of only qualified Filipino entertainers.
Another proposal called for more stringent measures against the flight of Filipino tourists who actual-
ly leave the country to look for work overseas.
In a number of cases, it was pointed out, such tourists end up as hostesses in cheap bars and night-
clubs in foreign countries.
The conference focused on problems plaguing both Filipino entertainers in Japan and their agents
and managers, such as implementation of contracts, food and accommodation, payment of salary
and booking.
Director de la Cruz, adverting to a question that Filipino entertainers in Japan were allowed only four
months stay, said representations were being made to extend the period of their stay four months to
at least six months with the Japanese government.
3.4 4
REPORTING 3.5 COVERING SPEECHES
Reporting speeches and meetings is one of the first skills a reporter must master. Speech stories are usu-
ally straightforward and relatively easy to handle. Speeches and meetings make up almost half of an aver-
age radio news bulletin in a developing country. But too often, speech reporting ends up in cold, imperson-
al and predictably uniform sentences.
Advance copies of speeches are often of limited value. Speakers often deviate from prepared notes.
Many politicians have speeches drafted for them by public relations officers or aides. Sometimes, advance
copies carry the warning "check against delivery". This should be done in all cases. When a story carries
the word "EMBARGO", it means that the story MUST be held for release, until the date and time stated.
Without a copy: in covering a speech, the reporter must not emphasize that a speech was given. Rather,
he emphasizes what was said. The second paragraph can be used to give details on what the occasion
was, to whom the speech was given and possibly a general "when" and "where".
If people other than the main speaker also address the audience briefly, that should not be mentioned,
unless they have said something newsworthy. So, avoid: "Mr. So-and-so also spoke". What a speaker has
to say is usually more important than the fact that he spoke.
For radio you can report only the most important and interesting points from a speech and deal with them
as fully as possible. If you try to cover too many facets of a speech, you end up with a confused account.
The structure of a speech is not the same as that of a news item, it's the reverse. The speech has a con-
ventional literary form:
- Expression of thanks for being asked to give a speech. The speaker also says that his audience are
important people.
- Introduction: often this introduction gives clues to what the main ideas are in the speech.
- The body of the speech: a systematic coverage of the subject; the facts and arguments are often pre-
sented in an increasing order of importance.
- Conclusion of the speech (or climax) often summarizing the main elements of the discussion.
3.5 1
REPORTING 3.5 COVERING SPEECHES
The form of newswriting is the reverse of the literary form:
- The news (facts or opinions) must be on top, in the lead. Sometimes the body of the speech does not
contain the main news element. It may be buried in one small sentence towards the end of the speech.
-Then, we have to set the scene: "Mr. X said this at the opening of a seminar this morning. " Avoid the
stereotype "He was speaking at ". The reporter must also identify and characterize the speaker, explain
the occasion, state time and place, describe the atmosphere, note the reaction of the audience. This
makes a story lively.
- More news points, giving background and context to the main news element.
The lead, as always, must capture the important and newsworthy elements of the speech, usually the
speaker's opinion or an important news fact. The lead will be followed immediately by the speaker's identifi-
cation. Remember that attribution must precede all statements that express an opinion. Never use a
direct quotation in a lead. Further in a speech story, direct quotation can be used sparingly, always making
it clear that this is the viewpoint of the speaker, not of the broadcaster.
A useful lead for a speech story is to paraphrase or to summarize the opinion of the speaker.
Example
The Director General of Police, (name) ........ has criticized the way in which the recent hostage crisis was
treated. At the opening of a seminar on police protection this morning, he said that ....
After a speaker's identity is firmly established at the beginning of a story, a simple "he" or "she" is a clear
way of handling attribution. However, we do not want a succession of "he's" or "she's" either. In order to
retain your listener's interest, repeat the name of the speaker occasionally.
Don't be lazy. When a speaker makes a good point and then fails to elaborate, or if you are unclear about
what he really meant, it's your duty to approach him after the speech is over. Most speakers are willing to
co-operate with a reporter who takes such pains to be accurate. You will also experience that some politi-
cians are adept at deliberately throwing up a bold idea and then refusing to discuss it further. In such
cases, the aim may be just to win publicity. In that case you could downplay the issue and you can mention
that the politician did not elaborate or refused to discuss it further.
3.5 2
REPORTING 3.6 COVERING SEMINARS, CONFERENCES SYMPOSIA, ETC.
In the Asia-Pacific region, many news stories deal with the opening of conferences, symposiums, seminars
and even training courses. Frequently all that is given are the opening remarks by the Ministers concerned
.
These speeches often have little news value. Rarely does -such a speech contain new news. It is often a
repetition of a well known government policy.
There are so many dull stories written about the opening of seminars that really shouldn't be reported at all
in radio news. This is also because generalisations are very common in this kind of story and because of
the fairly stereotyped form in which such news items are presented.
Reporters and news organisations should try to develop a more innovative approach to covering them.
Preparation is essential. Get to the meeting early enough to allow time to talk to some officials. Be sure
you get all the names right.
Never start your report by saying that a meeting was held.
You should try to find out what these deliberations really are about, and what is the intended objective or
effect on the general public. Reporters should not only pick up a press release, but should also talk to dele-
gates and organisers to find out what the real issues are and what the impact will be.
It is also very important to follow up the story. Return at the end of the meeting; what has been achieved?
What are the results of the meeting or the training? Has the money invested in this conference been wast-
ed or did the delegates just have a nice time? Or has some useful contribution been made towards the
solution of the problems of people? This is where dull journalism ends and responsible journalism begins.
3.6 1
REPORTING 3.7 COVERING DISASTERS, OBITUARIES
Disasters like airplane crashes, typhoons, explosions, fires and floods are difficult to cover. You must be
doubly wary of speculation and generalization.
Do not be carried away be disasters, as such. They may well be important according to the magnitude, but
much depends on the location. This means that listeners will assess the disaster personally according to
their links or knowledge of the people and place concerned. A remote disaster, such as a plane crash in
Mexico in which 20 people are killed, is less relevant to an Asian audience than an earthquake or floods in
a neighbouring country.
Remember too, that first reports often tend to be exaggerated. Don't accept blindly. Quote the source care-
fully. Rumours are rampant following disasters. An editor must insist on precise, responsible reporting.
Typhoons, cyclones
According to ESCAP (UN Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific), the annual losses
due to tropical typhoons and cyclones is a conservative US$2.8 billion. The damage and destruction
wrought by these natural calamities are particularly heavy on agricultural crops, infrastructure, and private
property - not to mention human lives.
It is clear that these stories ask for a human interest approach, not for cool figures only. But beware of sen-
sationalism.
Floods
Flood damage, in particular, is heavy in many countries of the region. ESCAP says that this will be even
more severe in the future, owing to the economic developments and population increase in flood prone
areas.
In handling flood stories, we must again keep in mind
(a) to all large section of the audience a flood story is merely an item of general interest;
(b) but it is of life or death importance to a particular section of the audience and also of great interest to
relatives who may live elsewhere.
We must ensure the second category is well informed. Apart from their interest in the drama, they want the
facts about rainfall, roads, and river heights. Many countries have installed sophisticated forecasting and
warning systems. Make sure that your audience get the official facts.
Whenever you make a particular statement, ensure that it is accurate. Don't say a town is flooded, if in fact
there is water in only part of the town. It means a lot to the town.
3.7 1
REPORTING 3.7 COVERING DISASTERS, OBITUARIES
Estimates of fire damage
No estimates of the value of damage are to be used in stories unless they come from the owner, or a
responsible, quotable officer of a company or organization.
Unsourced estimates and estimates from third parties should not be used. Fire brigades and police are not
the best placed to estimate the value of damage to a particular property. But they may well be in a position
to give useful information on the technical aspects of the fire. By the way, what does an estimated figure
mean to listeners? It is better to describe the nature, size, and contents of damaged buildings then to give
figure estimates, which are of interest only to people involved in insurance settlements.
Plane crashes
Most plane crashes aren't witnessed. An editor must be careful to qualify statements, because information
frequently comes from a variety of sources with conflicting accounts. Attribution is essential.
Obituaries
Radio news usually reports only the deaths of well known persons, such as politicians or artists.
Most broadcasting organizations do not carry suicide reports unless they concern prominent figures, or in
exceptional circumstances.
All well-organized newsrooms have a file of biographical sketches of nationally or locally prominent per-
sons. This information should be constantly updated and ready for use. In some cases, audio material can
be prepared as well.
For radio news, the writing of obituaries presents the problem of compression in one of its most acute
forms. No detailed life story is needed. You can concentrate on the outstanding events in the career, which
may be very few. In the case of a writer, it can be his most acclaimed book; in the case of a sportsman, his
greatest triumph; in the case of a scientist, the discovery that made his reputation.
Be sparing with lists of appointments, honours and dates. Beware of clichés. Phrases such as "the
famous", "the celebrated", etc. can be used, but use them sparingly.
3.7 2
REPORTING 3.8 CRIME AND COURT REPORTING
As a general practice in many countries, ordinary crime and police stories are left to the newspapers to
cover and do not get broadcast.
For radio news, the bulletin editor will decide which cases have a general news value and should be cov-
ered. In most cases, it will be sufficient to give first appearance at the sessions and the charge. Thereupon
only the verdict and the sentence are given.
The basic principle of court and crime reporting is that nothing is permitted which may prejudice the right
of any accused to a completely fair and impartial trial. Under the British system of justice a person is inno-
cent until he is proved guilty in a court of law.
The following notes are based on Radio Fiji's `News and Current Affairs Manual' and on a similar News
Manual of the National Broadcasting Commission in Papua New Guinea.
Crime and court reporting may be divided into four stages:

1. The crime
2. The arrest
3. The trial
4. The verdict
THE CRIME
The rule here is strict accuracy .... in other words the plain facts, with no fancy dressing, no sensational-
ism and no undesirable or revolting features. Radio should report only the crime stories that are of interest
for the community as a whole. As a general practice, do not touch suicides, rape and 'sex crimes, indecent
assault and common assault.
Wherever possible, give the facts as set down in the police report. In no circumstances should a report say
that an accused person did such and-such a thing until a court has convicted him. However, you can
describe the crime ("A masked man walked into the bank", etc.) without ascribing criminal actions to the
accused.
THE ARREST
The principle when reporting an arrest is that we say nothing that would prejudice an accused at his trial. If
we have a story stating that a bank was robbed in a holdup and police chased a man before making an
arrest, that is fair enough. We give facts that cannot be disproved. But there is a limit. We would not say
such things as "The man was burning office files when police arrived", or "He had certain safe-breaking
tools in his possession", or "He refused to halt when ordered to do so".
3.8 1
Statements made by police on crimes are often in contempt of court. Remember that people are innocent
until proven guilty in court. Police however sometimes tell journalists after arresting somebody that he is
guilty. We must avoid repeating this.
Example
A man was arrested yesterday at Hohola for murdering his wife on Monday.
This is contempt. The police may have said this but a journalist should treat the man as innocent until a
court decides otherwise.
The story can read as:
The man was arrested yesterday at Hohola in connection with the death of his wife on Monday.
The word "murder" has been dropped. Once a person has been arrested we must drop this word. It is for
the court to decide whether murder has been committed or not, as well as who or what caused the death.
When a man is arrested, but not formally charged or has not yet appeared in court, we should not give his
name or identify him otherwise.
THE TRIAL
Get the defendant's full name, age and occupation. Make sure you understand the charge and that you
can put it in simpler language if it is too complex. Check your simplification with the prosecutor or magis-
trate or a lawyer.
Give background to the charge - what happened, when it happened, who was involved, and how the
defendant pleads (guilty or not guilty). Also, get the name of the court right.
If you start reporting a case, you must follow it through to is conclusion. Remember, this does not neces-
sarily mean you have to report all sessions. For radio news the first appearance and the verdict are usually
sufficient.
Anyway, it is always better not to go into much detail, but rather to confine the report to the broad issues of
general interest.
In court reporting, use only what is actually said in court. Do not write into a court story, material gathered
outside the court.
3.8 2
THE VERDICT
If we have started to report a case, then obviously we must give the verdict. If there is an appeal, we
should report it as well.
We cannot say such things as "the judge was biased, unfair, lenient or whatever". Since that questions the
authority of the court, it would be also considered contempt of court.
Finally, here is a list of some legal terms used in court.
ACCESSORY A person who advises or assists a criminal. If another person advises or assists a person
before the crime, this is often called àn accessory before the fact' and if the person advises or assists a
person after a crime, this is referred to as àccessory after the fact'.
ACQUITTAL A verdict of not guilty. To acquit a person is to find him not guilty.
AFFIDAVIT A sworn statement in writing used as evidence in court. It is dangerous to report material from
affidavits unless the passages have been read out in court.
ALIBI A claim by the defense that the accused was somewhere else when the crime was committed.
ALLEGED A word to use when describing charges. For instance, `Mr. X is alleged to have murdered his
wife'.
APPEAL The consideration by a higher court of a decision made in a lower one.
ARBITRATION In the industrial field, the settlement of industrial disputes by a judge or others.
ARREST Detaining a person for the purpose of having him charged in a court with a criminal offense.
ARSON Deliberately setting fire to a building.
BAIL Release from jail on a bond (usually money) to appear in court at a certain time to answer charges.
BANKRUPTCY When a person is unable to pay his debts and his property is put in the hands of a trustee
to distribute among his creditors. It is usual to use the term bankruptcy when referring to individuals and
insolvency when referring to companies.
BURGLARY Breaking and entering a house at night with intent to commit a crime.
3.8 3
CIVIL LAW Usually the law governing private rights and actions
ACTION compensating injured persons.
COMMITAL PROCEEDINGS Preliminary investigation by magistrate into serious charges to decide

whether the accused should stand trial in a higher court.
COUNSEL Barrister, solicitor, lawyer, legal advisor.
CRIME An offense against the community as distinct from an offense against an individual. For instance,
an attack on a person may be an offense against that individual but it is also an offense against the com-
munity's laws so it is a crime. The two types of cases are criminal cases and civil cases, depending on the
offense.
CROSS- EXAMINATION Questioning of a witness by someone other than the person who called him to
give evidence.
DAMAGES Compensation paid in a civil action for doing wrong.
DE FACTO Latin phrase which means 'in fact'.
DE JURE Another Latin phrase which means 'as a matter of Law'.
DEPOSITION Sworn statement of witness taken down in writing and signed by him. Commital proceedings
are often called deposition cases because the evidence is taken down in this way.
DOMICILE The actual or declared permanent home of a person.
EMBEZZLE-MENT The criminal taking of property by an employee after he received the property on behalf
of the employer.
EXHIBIT Document or piece of evidence which is identified in an affidavit or by a witness when evidence
is being given.
FELONY Serious types of crimes including murder.
FORGERY Fraudulent making or alteration of a document intended to have some legal effect.
HABEAS CORPUS A legal document directing a person detaining another person to justify holding him
and to produce the detained person in court.
HEARSAY Secondhand evidence such as gossip. Not usually acceptable as evidence in court.
3.8 4
HOMICIDE The killing of a human being.
HOUSEBREAKING Breaking and entering a house or any other building at any time with intent to commit
a crime.
IN CAMERA Hearing of a case from which the general public, including the press, are excluded.
INDICTMENT A written accusation of serious crime brought before the court.
INJUNCTION A court order to stop someone from doing something. For instance, a woman divorced from
her husband might get an injunction from the court to stop her husband visiting her.
LARCENY Theft
LEADING QUESTIONS Questions which suggest an answer. For instance `You hit your wife did you not?'
Such questions are not allowed when a person is giving evidence but are allowed when cross-examining a
person on what he said in evidence.
MAINTENANCE An order on a husband or-father for the payment of the living expenses to a described
wife or child.
MALICIOUS PROSECUTION Action by a person acquitted of a crime against the person who began the
proceedings. It must be shown that the latter acted from malice.
MANSLAUGHTER Killing in circumstances which are criminal but which are not as serious as murder.
Common cases are killings provoked by insult or attack.
MISADVENTURE An accident for which no one is to blame. Crimes which are not too serious.
MURDER Deliberate killing.
MISDEMEANOUR NEGLIGENCE Failure to observe a duty or care.
PLEAD NOT GUILTY To deny all allegations when pleading.
PLEAD GUILTY To accept all allegations as true.
FOUND NOT GUILTY Magistrate lets an accused go free either because t believes the person is innocent
or there is not enough evidence against him.
OBTAINING BY FALSE PRETENCE Offences covering cases of cheating or fraud which cannot be called
theft.
3.8 5
PERJURY Telling lies in court.
REPLY The last say in a case before the judge's summing u or decision.
ROBBERY Theft from a person with violence, or threat of violence.
SINE DIE Another Latin word meaning ìndefinitely'.
SUBPOENA A legal document requiring the attendance of person at court usually to give evidence.
WARRANT A document allowing a person to do his duty - usually to give police the right to arrest a person
or make a search of a house.
WRIT A formal document by which civil legal proceeding are begun in courts
3.8 6
INTERVIEWING FOR RADIO NEWS 4.1 TYPES OF INTERVIEW
The interview is probably the most important, but at the same time, the hardest technique the radio journal-
ist has to learn. Only practice can make a good interviewer. Here is some advice.
The straight news interview is designed to elicit information in the form of simple direct answers which
tell or explain the story.
This kind of interview can be used for two purposes: It yields factual material for written news stories and it
can be processed to provide audio material for inclusion in the actual broadcast.
In the first case, the informational interview serves to gather information. The reporter is wise to use a
notebook, while the tape recorder merely serves as a memory aid.
In the broadcast interview, the most significant part is used as an actual audio-illustration. The broadcast
interview enlivens the radio news bulletin. It adds human interest as it brings people into the news pro-
gramme. The news source is in direct communication with the audience.
According to the circumstances of an interview, there are several types, and with each, particular skills
come to the fore.
A) Interview by appointment: preferably, it's a one-to-one interview. In this case, it's most important to be
prepared on the background of the man or woman and the subject of the interview. Keep in mind that no
one is obliged to grant an interview and that you are a guest on the interviewee's home ground. Therefore
normal courtesies should be observed. Make an appointment and keep it. If you are delayed, ring and noti-
fy him. But do not discuss the subject too fully on the phone.
B) News conferences: there will be many journalists present and there is no real question line. A note-
book will be most useful. For radio news, it's better to ask for a separate, short interview after the news
conference. Often, the pace of someone who speaks at the news conference is slow and that can be irritat-
ing on radio. But in some cases, recorded words at the news conference itself make excellent "actuality"
for radio news.
You have to make sure you get your questions in and not allow more talkative reporters to monopolize the
questioning. Be careful not to upset the momentum of the news conference by asking a question that has
been already asked by someone else.
C) On-the-spot interview: Be friendly when interviewing survivors, eyewitnesses and the "man in the
street". Be encouraging as well. Your interviewee may never have talked to a journalist before. He should
be encouraged to be relaxed. Be tactful, particularly if you interview survivors of a fire, a flood or some
other disaster. This type of interview is purely for actuality use in a bulletin.
4.1 1
INTERVIEWING FOR RADIO NEWS 4.1 TYPES OF INTERVIEW
D) Telephone interview: Telephone quality is generally not the best for bulletin use, and except in emer-
gencies, telephone recordings should not be used if it is possible to get a location interview.
But the telephone remains an excellent tool for gathering information. Every telephone conversation is, in a
way, an interview.
You should cultivate good phone manners: careful preparation of questions is essential. Put first things
first. You cannot know how long an interviewee may be interrupted by other business, and it's easy for him
to end the interview at any point. Introduce yourself right at the beginning. Keep your questions simple.
Watch for mishearings. If you can't hear what your interviewee is saying, ask him to speak louder.
Don't, unless necessary, talk to people around you while you are on the phone.
A pause while you scribble in your notebook is acceptable in a personal interview, but not on the tele-
phone. Don't irritate your contact in any way.
A brief apology for troubling the person you have called is always appreciated. People like to be thanked
with emphasis for anything they may have done.
E) Live interview: some news programmes are enhanced at times by the inclusion of "live" interviews with
people in the news, except commentators or specialist reporters. Such interviews can give a feeling of
immediacy. The disadvantage of course is that a degree of control over the situation is lost. In a live tele-
phone interview the connection may be cut or the line may deteriorate.
F) Vox pops: occasionally when a major development occurs which affects the general public, it's interest-
ing to obtain man-in-the-street reaction through a series of random interviews, known as "vox
pop
Often these are done in a busy street, railway station or market. Try to minimize the background noise by
choosing the best spot, keeping the microphone up close to the speakers.
Be friendly and direct and explain to each interviewee who you are and what you're doing: "Excuse me, I'm
from Radio X and we would like to know what you think about the celebration".
The results can be lively, amusing and good radio, but don't overdo it. Be careful of your final edited choice
of material. You may end up with something quite unbalanced, especially if the issue is an important one.
The "vox pop" is a most unscientific way of doing a "survey"!
4.1 2
INTERVIEWING FOR RADIO NEWS 4.2
PLANNING AND PREPARATION OF THE INTERVIEW
All sorts of journalistic interviews involve planning and preparation. You should plan the approach to the
interview and define the area you are interested in. You must then prepare for the interview by finding out
about the interviewee and the subject.
A) Plan the interview: First and foremost, you should remember clearly who your audience is. The inter-
viewer must see himself as the representative of the ordinary listener. He is there to ask the questions
that the listeners would themselves like to ask. In other words, the interview should be of interest to the lis-
tener.
You must have a clear purpose. Know what you want to achieve. Do you want just information (facts, or a
clarification of a statement ) or do you want comment and opinion? Keep the reason for the interview in
mind throughout the preparation and the actual interview. "Why am I interviewing this person for this pro-
gramme, at this particular time?"
For radio news, limit your interview to one topic only.
So, what would the listener like to know? If you aren't sure, ask your friends or colleagues what they would
like to know about the subject. Then decide who to go to or telephone and fix an appointment. Who would
know the full story? Who can explain the background of an event? Who is the decision-maker, the man (or
woman) -in-the-news?
A common practice of reporters in locating the right person to interview is to work from the top downwards.
This is particularly so in developing countries.
Know your subject. Gather as much background as time allows. If you have difficulties in finding back-
ground information on a person or a subject, you can try the "what, when, where, who, why and when"
approach. Don't be afraid to appear stupid by asking "silly" questions. Silly questions do not really exist!
B) Prepare the questions: We must caution, however, against rigid adherence to a list of prepared ques-
tions once the interview is under way.
Some other do's and don'ts:

- draw up a tentative list of questions. Make them short and to the point.
- a common fault is that questions are vague or cover too wide an area. Concentrate on one issue rather
than attempt to cover all the problems in a short interview.
Not
Can you tell me about family planning?
What are the factors of ...... ?
What about income tax?
But
What method would you recommend for family planning?
4.2 1
Such open ended questions are likely to produce very long answers, or a silence as the interviewee works
out where to begin. A question should have one, clear, unmistakable point, obvious to both the listeners
and the interviewee.
- Frame your questions so they are direct, short and understandable the very first time.
Not
Will you please explain the functioning of the mechanism?
But
How does it work?
- The best question is "why"
- Avoid one word answers. The right questions will start the interviewee talking whereas the wrong one
will simply prompt a `yes' or `no' answer. Beware of questions beginning "Do you....... "
Not
I understand you've been working on this rural development programme for eight months and expect to be
on it for another six months before it is completed?
Answer would be, "yes" or "no, not another six months, we hope to finish it in four"
But
You have been working on this rural development programme for eight months. What is yet to be done
before it's finished?
The last example illustrates a useful technique. A brief statement giving the background, followed by a
short question. If you have only the over-informative statement, you invite a "yes" or "no" answer.
- Put one question at a time. If you ask two or three things at once, you are likely to get the answer to
only one - the last in the sequence. So: one question - one answer.
- Ask questions, don't make comments. An interviewer does not express his personal opinion during an
interview. If you are challenging a politician by presenting an opposite point of view, don't make it appear
that the view is necessarily yours. Source it to some person or organization.
Not
The government has an excellent record .......
The performance has been very successful .......
The players wouldn't like that very much, would they ?
But
How do the players feel about that?
4.2 2
C) Finally, put the questions in a logical order. If you have too many questions, short-list them to about
three or four, eliminate the others. Plan a strong opening question. You must also prepare the possible
answers. The interviewee's general line is usually predictable. Unless the interviewer has some idea of the
answer he is likely to get, he is merely stabbing in the dark.
So plan the next logical question accordingly.
However, don't have your questions written out in detail. If you have a short memory a few notes may help,
listing the key words of your questions. The more spontaneous your questions are, the better the interview
will sound.
A note on Public Relations
Observe all normal courtesies. Never conceal your identity as a journalist. It's very important to establish
rapport with the interviewee right from the beginning. A good atmosphere is often established by some pre-
liminary conversation. It will also put the person at ease if necessary.
The purpose of the interview must be clearly explained. However, do not rehearse the interview fully.
Discuss in general terms the line you will follow rather than the exact questions. Otherwise, spontaneity will
be lost.
Beware of stating definitely the time of broadcast. It may not be in your authority to decide whether the
interview will be used.
Appreciate the co-operation of the interviewee. He should want to welcome you back.
4.2 3
THE QUESTION-LINE DURING THE BROADCAST INTERVIEW
Interviews for radio news must be short and to the point. We rarely need more than a minute. In most
cases two or three questions are enough. Try to tailor your interviews in such a way that the subject gets
his point across within that time. But if you are not very experienced in news interviewing, it is preferable to
take longer than is actually necessary. You can edit it later.
You should have short-listed the three or four vital questions. But be ready to change the order if the inter-
viewee introduces an interesting point you could follow up. Don't stand or fall on the question-line you've
prepared.
The interviewee must get your complete attention. He must feel that you are interested in everything he
says and that is the most important thing you have to do for that moment. The interviewee - whether he is
a minister or an unskilled labourer - must become an equal to whom you are courteous and in whose opin-
ion you are genuinely interested.
Listen to the answer. In principle, let the answer decide naturally and logically your next question. In other
words, follow up the previous answer instead of passing onto the next prepared question. In fact, in a
broadcast interview, the interviewer must listen twice as hard.
Avoid reading questions and do not allow written answers. These "interviews" are usually disasters.
Never agree to ask set questions. If someone will only be interviewed if he knows exactly every question in
advance, the interview should not take place. This should be a firm professional principle. Once you agree
to ask only set questions you become a sort of public relations officer.
Avoid a "shopping list" approach: "My first question is ....." "My next question is .....“
Be impartial: the interviewer should refrain from making comments, even unintentionally. The following
examples all imply a comment.
Example I see...; yes...; right...; would you believe it...; very good...
Don't argue: if the interviewee answers your question with a question, ignore his question and ask yours
again, or else move on to the next one.
Keep control over the interview: you are holding the mike. Never allow the interviewee to take over your
mike. In general, don't be under the influence of the interviewee. You can't be in control if you are scared
stiff. (The opposite, being superior, is just bad manners to a guest.) Nerves should not be seen or heard.
Make sure the interviewee answers your questions: if he doesn't, come back.
Interrupt if necessary: this can be done if the answer is long-winded or dull, when the interview goes off
the point, or when you need clarification or further explanations to make it intelligible.
Except for the forced interruption, don't overlap. Overlapping may make editing very difficult.
4.3 1
THE QUESTION-LINE DURING THE BROADCAST INTERVIEW
How to interrupt? Jump in during a pause, say anything, but get back control. Open your mouth as
though about to speak or give some visual sign (with your hand) that you wish to interrupt. If all else fails,
overspeak politely .........
Example Can I just interrupt and come back to your comment on .....
Losing control: there are a number of unpleasant things the interviewee can do to make you lose control.
- He can keep on talking and talking. Politicians do this to avoid further questions.
Your move: stop him, politely but firmly. Answers tend to be much briefer if the interview is recorded
with both parties standing up.
- He can stop talking. Two seconds of hesitation can be natural but when the "dead air" is more than that
on radio, it's terrible.
Your move: you must help him out.
- He can give a short answer (yes or no) which is often the result of a poor question.
Your move: "why?" is often the best question. Such a very short question can also speed up the inter-
view.
- He can pause, as though finished and then start up again just as you start on your next question.
Your move: Give way.
- He can ask you to explain what you mean by your question.

Your move: explain what you mean by your question.
- He can say "no comment"

Your move: put your next question.
- He can answer in vague terms ("We are taking steps", etc.). Politicians are used to this way of talking.
But listeners want to know how to solve their housing or financial problems.
Your move: be concrete: "What steps?" and insist on an answer.
Appreciation or compliments should be held back until recording has stopped.
4.3 2
RECORDING THE INTERVIEW
The recorder
Modern tape recorders produce high-quality recordings, provided they are used properly and looked after
carefully.
Open reel tape recorders are of course more reliable, but also more expensive, than cassettes.
Before leaving the newsroom, check for batteries and recording performance. Make sure you have a tape
and an empty spool, in the case of an open reel tape recorder.
Avoid getting your recorder wet or leaving it in the tropical sun.
The venue
Choose this carefully. You want a place that is quiet, free of aural and visual distractions, with suitable
acoustics. Indoors - background noise can be better controlled. Typewriters must be stilled and a notice to
visitors can be put up outside the office door. Avoid the noise of airconditioners. In an office, the atmos-
phere tends to be formal. Try to get an informal, relaxed armchair approach. Outside - wind can cause
over-riding distortion. Use a microphone supplied with a windshield. Watch also for background noises
beyond your control: a bell, a motorbike, etc.
There are, of course, occasions when background noise is appropriate. An interview done in a children's
playground or on a farm should have some natural sound, but not to the extent that it distracts the listener
or overwhelms what the subject is saying.
In general, find as quiet a place as possible to do your interview and thereafter record some of the back-
ground sound "in the clear", separately, if it's important to the story. Then fade the sound in behind your
final edited interview.
Microphone handling
Poor sound quality of recordings is a common problem. Cassette recorders are often equipped with a built-
in microphone. This should not be used to make a recording intended for broadcast. For all broadcast
work, use a separate microphone with cord.
Another common fault lies in not getting the microphone close enough to the subject. The ideal distance
from mouth to microphone is usually about 25cm to 36cm.
If you keep the mike too close, it will allow "popping" of the mike by `plosive' sounds (p's and b's). Take
care also with sibilant (s).
The mike should be held vertically, at an equal distance from interviewer and subject, slightly below mouth
level.
4.4 1
RECORDING THE INTERVIEW
If standing, the interviewer and subject may face each other directly, but it will often put the subject more at
ease if you stand elbow to elbow with heads turned slightly towards each other. This way you can control
outside noise to some extent and limit the chance of mike rattle by long movements of the microphone.
If seated, try to place the chairs so that both interviewer and subject are speaking into the mike at a dis-
tance of about 25cm to 36cm.
Hold the microphone firmly and still. Accidental knocking of the mike controls (remote control switch) or
even nervous movements of the fingers have spoiled many an interview.
Recording
Levels are a well known headache - particularly with cassette recorders. Always check levels before
recording and play the level test back before beginning the recording. And always check the recording
quality immediately after the interview.
Place the recorder so that you can give the meter an occasional glance out of the corner of one eye. If the
recorder operates noisily, keep it well away from the mike.
Keep the possibility of editing always in mind.
This means
- keep background noise constant;
- don't overspeak, except in an emergency;
- and write down a list of all tracks recorded, never rely on your memory.
Tell the interviewee if you are planning to edit and roughly what you aim to do. He should be prepared for a
shortened version.
4.4 2
EDITING THE RECORDED INTERVIEW
Often interviews are too long. They need editing. Only part of an interview can be used in a news bul-
letin. While a longer but still edited version can be used in a current affairs programme.
For the news insert we want mostly one short clip of about 30 to 40 seconds. The rest of the story can be
told more quickly by the newsreader. But those 40-second voice inserts can add the necessary human
interest and make the presentation livelier.
We must edit to get conciseness. Repetition can be eliminated. The question can be omitted and, where
possible, answers or parts of answers can be joined. This keeps the pace smooth and saves time.
We must edit to remove obvious faults, slander, technical faults, hesitations, long pauses, etc. But don't
remove all spontaneity.
The first principle is "What can I leave out?" If a point adds little to the, topic or is of no interest to the
majority of the listeners, leave it out. In a longer interview, there is normally an initial rough editing of mate-
rial. Thereafter comes the final editing process.
Preferably have all IN and OUT cues written down. Duration marks are also a help.
Editing must be fair: the sense of what was said in the original must be maintained at all costs. The char-
acter or intention of the speaker must never be distorted.
The editing should not be audible. Editing has failed if it is noticeable (abrupt changes in level, back-
ground not continuous, pauses that are not natural, etc.)
It is a common technique to edit out the questions in a news programme, certainly the first question. The
audio-illustration must come from the interviewee, the man or woman-in-the-news.
Tape Editing Techniques
There are two ways to edit a tape: by physical cutting or splicing the recorded material, and by dubbing
or copying from the original tape to another.
The dubbing method is cheaper (it saves cutting tapes) and simpler (it requires only two recorders). But
fine detailed work is impossible.
The quickest, smoothest and most professional editing method is cutting or splicing.
If possible, try not to edit an original tape. It only takes a short while to dub a copy of the interview. This
allows the editor to make an error in editing without permanently destroying the interview. And it also keeps
permanent record of the original in case of controversy.
4.5 1
EDITING THE RECORDED INTERVIEW
Splice editing: You'll need a pen or 'chinagraph' pencil for making the points on the tape you want cut,
splicing tape, and a sharp razor or cutting instrument. You'll also need a splicing block which is often fitted
to the face panel of the tape machine.
All professional tape recorders carry three `heads' as the diagram shows:
When you've played your recorded material to the points you want edited, stop the tape. You may then
manually move the reels back and forth to the exact point between the word you want to retain, and that
you wish to cut out.
Then mark the tape on the centre of the replay head, repeating the procedure for the other spot to be
marked. Once this is done, remove the tape and place into the grooves of the splicing block. Your mark
should line up with the angled cutting groove on the block.
Cut the tape along the angle at both your marked spots, removing the length of tape you wish to discard.
Bring the two ends you wish joined, neatly together, and when this is done, apply the splicing tape evenly
to the join, making sure its stuck smoothly.
Always check the accuracy of your handiwork by threading and replaying your tape in the normal way.
Dub editing: This simply needs two tape recorders `patched' into one another. The original material is
played back on one machine, and recorded on the other, stopping your record machine at the point you
wish to edit. The original tape continues to play on to the material you do want, at which point you resume
recording. This, as we've said is a very slow, `hit and miss' method of tape editing, which may require
many stops and starts to ensure accuracy. However, with practice and experience, many users of this
method have been able to achieve a reasonably accurate and acceptable broadcast quality.
As simply as possible, we've tried to describe the very basic procedure for both methods of tape editing. If
it is still difficult to follow there's no better way than to seek a demonstration from an experienced col-
league.
4.5 2
BULLETIN EDITING UNIT 5.1
THE BASICS OF BULLETIN EDITING
Bulletin editing is the process of selecting news, improving the writing of reports and news agency copy,
and putting the different news items in order. The news-, desk-, sub-, or duty- editor (the specific title does-
n't matter - we will use the term "bulletin editor"), is directly involved in the actual production of a news bul-
letin (content and presentation techniques).
A bulletin editor must never forget that any story entrusted to him becomes his story, and his alone, from
that moment. He is responsible for what goes on air; it is no longer the story of a news agency, or of a
reporter or of a correspondent. However, he should respect the work of the originator of the story and
ensure its accuracy is maintained.
A read-in period before taking over the desk is of prime importance for a bulletin editor at the start of his
shift. His responsibility starts then. It's up to him for instance to update or correct anything written by his
predecessor for the coming bulletin, if this becomes desirable.
A) Reporter's copy
As soon as a bulletin editor gets a reporter's story he begins applying a series of tests:
- Does the story make sense to your audience? Is it news?
- How does the introduction flow?
- Does it establish the situation clearly?
- Does the story try to convey too much?
- Are the facts and ideas in logical sequence?
- Do any phrases stand out as obviously redundant?
- Is the phrasing such that the newsreader will easily get the right inflection?
- Does the copy need rewriting? (Remember it's important to rewrite from the original source rather than
subbed material.) Do not change unless it is necessary.
In case of a voice report, the bulletin editor must listen to the tape and organize a lead-in to the voice
report, if it is suitable. He also decides on the use of actuality audio inserts in the news bulletin.
B) News agency copy

The other basic source of news is the news agency copy, both national and international. Most wire servic-
es write in print media style. This is because that's their main market. Too often in Asian and Pacific news-
rooms there is no attempt to rewrite this into radio style. In many cases this copy is only updated and iden-
tified geographically, with no attempt to rewrite it for radio or to relate it to the local scene or audience. The
problem is that this copy is prepared for a very wide, possibly global audience, therefore it lacks local rele-
vance. One of the ways to overcome this is to find out about the local impact or reaction to an international
story.
The wire sub-editor must also realize that the western world agencies (AP, UPI, Reuters, AFP) will offer a
lot of foreign news material that is not relevant for developing countries. This is because the main market
of these news agencies is in North America and Western Europe. If this is not taken into consideration,
there will be too great a proportion of irrelevant foreign news. It's an easy way of filling bulletins!
5.1 1
THE BASICS OF BULLETIN EDITING
What to do?
Discard all stories you wouldn't want to use.
Select the newsworthy stories.
Pile the wire copy, arrange it on your desk.
You may end up with 5 or 6 or more piles.
Label your stories.
Write these labels in capital letters so that they stand out.
Make a list of your stories, and put them in a tentative order of importance.
Group together stories that are related (either in content or geographically).
Start thinking about the presentation technique: do you want a straight voice report, an interview or a tele-
phone correspondence?
It's better to organize this in advance, if at all possible.
That's what editorial conferences are for.
Read the wire copies all. the way through.

Underline what is important.
Learn to read it critically.
Does it make sense?
Is it complete?
Call the national news agency if you are in doubt.
You may have noticed through experience that many of the national news agency stories are not always
correct.
Check with other sources if possible.
To say afterwards! "Well, the news agency had " is not a good excuse.
Be resourceful. Turn reporter yourself. Use the telephone.
When you have read the wire copy carefully, set it aside and tell the story in your own words.
Tell the story all over again in a shorter, more lucid form.
That's the theory.
Of course, you may not be used to working in that way.
But, whatever you do, don't use the wire copy word for word.
5.1 2
LIFETIME OF A NEWS ITEM - FOLLOW-UP OF NEWS
News stories have a lifetime of their own. This means a story will be of interest for a short or long period,
determined by the kind of story it is, and by the availability of other more interesting stories. This aware-
ness of the "natural life of a story" is one of the more subtle intuitions required in a bulletin editor. There are
no rules for it.
Many stories stir interest, reach a peak, decline and disappear within 24 hours. Other stories remain big for
days, while others stay significant for weeks.
Sometimes a bulletin editor is late to see the significance of a new story. Other editors take too long to
abandon a story. They don't perceive that its interest and significance have passed. Some make the mis-
take of letting an important story die in one set of bulletins. For instance, important news in the evening bul-
letin is not taken up or followed up the next morning. Stories of continuing interest must be carried on
through several newscasts. However, every effort should be made to freshen them up, bringing in new
angles.
News generates more news. If you alert people to a certain story, you will irritate them if you don't follow-up
with its developments. If you say in the major morning bulletin that a hunger striker is nearing his death and
you don't mention a word of it in the main evening news, it is annoying, to say the least.
Don't assume that the listener must have heard an earlier broadcast of a story. It's irritating for a listener to
hear that "The fire in Kuala Lumpur is now under control", hearing about the fire for the first time. Only in
the big, long running stories can foreknowledge be assumed (e.g. an election campaign, labour unrest in
Poland).
So, get continuity in the news. This also means follow up. If you say a seminar on the future of rubber
smallholdings has been opened, the rubber planters in the rural areas may well wish to know of the result
of the meeting. Too often, they will hear no more about it. If the subject is taken up, it improves the credibil-
ity of the news service.
Another case of follow up is when there has been a mistake. If it happens, make the correction in the next
bulletin.
5.2 1
LENGTH OF A STORY
Knowing just how long a story should be is part of the bulletin editor's job. Let a story's length be dictated
by two things: its importance and the availability of other interesting stories. Probably the biggest fault with
radio news items is their length.
Too many stories are over-long. There is no ideal length, but on radio, a story of national importance may
be about one minute. In principle, keep the story short - not more than 6 or 7 sentences with each sen-
tence consisting of less than 24 words (maximum). In modern broadcasting, individual stories are consid-
ered long if they go beyond a hundred words, (lasting about 50 seconds).
Vary the length of stories. A bulletin in which every story is at least two pages sounds dull, just as a bulletin
in which every story is only 2 sentences sounds strange. Several consecutive items of the same length
result in monotony.
Short items should have either two or three separate sentences.
The maximum length of a voice report for radio bulletins is around 45 seconds. Together with the lead-in
and the extro, it may come to one minute. Some voice reports or actuality inserts are as short as 15 sec-
onds.
National/regional (or, if there is place, local) stories, in principle should be longer than international ones.
5.3 1
BULLETIN STRUCTURE AND CONTENT
This is the overall responsibility of the bulletin editor.
Once again, it's impossible to lay down strict rules. But you can follow these guidelines.
Modern radio bulletins are seldom longer than 10 minutes. Most of them are shorter.
Major bulletins are broadcast at the peak listening times (in the morning from 6.00 a.m. to 9.00 a.m., at
lunch time and in the evening). Minor bulletins are broadcast in between. A major bulletin must cover
what has been happening since the last major newscast. The top story must be the biggest story of the
period, not necessarily the newest.
General make-up of a newscast calls for simplicity. The stories are assembled in order of importance.
What affects most people? Prominence should be given to local and national stories, with sports and some
human interest stories to round off the bulletin. The bulletin shouldn't fade away to a weak end. Long sto-
ries at the end of a bulletin are rarely, if ever, a good idea.
Radio news must flow naturally. Too often in Asia and the Pacific, the newsreader seems to jump from
one topic to another. One may hear a local story of a deputy minister visiting a plantation followed by a
story about a major international summit.
There are two techniques for an editor to help the presenter lead his listeners from subject to subject:
1) Departmentalization: this is grouping the news items by subject or geography. It helps the news bulletin
to flow smoothly. And it gives a sense of depth reporting; it helps the listener measure the importance of
the news.
2) Transitional phrases: these are used to bridge separate sections. Examples of such linking phrases
are "Now for home news", "Elsewhere in the country", "Turning now to news from abroad", etc.
However, do not always use the same links. Beware of the word "Meanwhile". As we said, this adverb
should be used only when a close relationship exists in subject matter and intervening time actually is
meant.
An editor should try to include as much audio illustration as possible to make the newscast lively.
These include: voice pieces, interviews, on-the-spot features and accounts and even music Keep this
audio illustration short so that the pace of the bulletin keeps flowing. Be strict about sound quality. Many lis-
teners use small transistor radios with poor output quality. If the quality of the audio insert is so poor that
these radios cannot receive your material intelligibly, then you should not use it.
How to keep consecutive bulletins fresh? Keep up a flow of smaller stories which are replaced after one
reading. The major story will usually be changing anyway. At least, write a fresh lead. It's important that the
bulletins change or appear to change. The same news item or bulletin heard several times with exactly the
same words or stories irritates the listener.
5.4 1
BULLETIN STRUCTURE AND CONTENT
National bulletins do not exist merely to give overseas news nor merely to give national news. The pur-
pose must be to give the most important news that is of interest to the listeners. Overseas news can only
be allowed to swamp the bulletin when the news from abroad is of paramount significance. Such occasions
will be rare. However, there will always be a place for some overseas news. The amount depends finally
on its own importance and the amount of available national news.
The aim is always to BALANCE. The bulletin should be a well balanced mixture of local, national and
international news. It should not be too urban oriented, should contain human interest and be presented in
a lively way (not all the inserts in the beginning or at the end).
Where you have two items on separate sheets of paper which are somehow linked - start the second one
with "And" and put an arrow from the end of the final words on the first item to the bottom right hand corner
of that page, to indicate to the announcer that the next page follows on rather more quickly than usual.
Deadlines: The bulk of each newscast should be written, edited, and the copy numbered in sufficient time
to allow the announcer full opportunity to prepare and understand what he's about to present. As more
presentation techniques will be used, there is additional need for the announcer to become fully aware of
cues for tapes and other production aids, such as a live voice report.
News editors should seek the active cooperation of news announcers for suggestions. They should be
encouraged to point out any errors in the wording of newscast copies or obscure phrasing that can be
changed without affecting the sense of the item. In particular we cannot alter what somebody has said.
As a general rule, newsreaders themselves should make no changes in copy without consulting the
editor. The editor is responsible for the output on air.
5.4 2
MAIN POINTS AND RECAPITULATION
Main points or headlines call for the clearest, tightest writing possible. They must be `newsy' yet make the
listener want more. Keep them crisp and as short as possible. Three to five main points should be suffi-
cient.
Essentially, the headline is intended only as an indicator to the main stories. It does not necessarily tell the
story. Where it cannot, it is better to generalize rather than go into a long, confusing sentence.
Example Government has taken measures to stop the spread of foot and mouth disease.
Normally the main points will contain the news in a nutshell, but from time to time you may be a little "tanta-
lizing", arousing the listener's curiosity; by using a `question' headline, for instance. But use it sparingly!
Example .....and "Are former squatters happy with their new apartment life?"
(the bulletin has a special report on this issue)
It's not good practice to use the first sentence of individual news items as main points, the writing of which
is a special but challenging skill.
Radio news is what is happening now. You can accentuate this in the headlines by writing them in the
present tense. Let it sound new news!
Example Syria announces that it accepts an American proposal for a ceasefire in Lebanon.
A headline may be written without a verb. But avoid a succession of verbless main points.
Example A new devastating earthquake in Iran. A general strike in India.
The bulletin editor must see to it that the headline stories get into the bulletin. Few things sound sillier than
a headline without a story. And it does happen.
The word `headline' is a print media word. "Main points" is better. Some variety is fine:
- Here's the hews from.... First the headlines (main points)

- In the news today
- Here are the main points of the news.
-or, Example:
In this bulletin:
A new landslip in a tin mine hear Ipoh. The price of sugar.
And the death of another republican hunger striker in Northern Ireland.
How to end the bulletin? In major newscasts, it's common practice to repeat the main points at the end.
But don't repeat the headlines word for word. Use complete syntax for this summary or roundup.
`Shorthand' forms may be acceptable at the beginning of a bulletin, but sound odd at the end.
5.5 1
PRESENTATION UNIT 6.1
TOWARDS MORE LIVELY NEWS
In Asia and the Pacific, bulletins are still presented in a rigid and formal way. A ten to twelve minute script is
read straight through. But, because news bulletins are presented in this way, it does not mean this accept-
ed method is the best.
Even in developing countries, where communication resources and facilities are relatively scarce, radio
can take the listener to where the news is being made. Radio hardware is comparatively cheap and
modem production and presentation techniques are now within reach of most radio newsrooms.
All over the world, news presentation techniques have changed dramatically over the last ten years.
Nowadays, a large proportion of a major modern news bulletin is made up of audio material, other than the
voice of the presenter. It may be a voice report by a reporter telling the story in his own voice; or actuality
giving the sound of the news happening, brief extracts from speeches, news conferences or interviews.
This asks for tighter planning, more complex production skills and a newscaster who is experienced in
these advanced presentation techniques. Good presentation is something one notices only when it isn't
there. A mistake-free and smooth presentation will avoid clicks, bangs and of course misused tapes.
Audio inserts should not be used simply because they are available, nor merely to provide a change of
sound. There must be a special purpose for using audio material. This can be to enliven the bulletin, to add
colour, for emphasis on a particular subject or statement.
So modern news production is a combination of live presentation and recorded inserts. Most pieces
to be used during the news bulletin will have been recorded before actual newscast. Occasionally, a live
insert will be used. In Asia and the Pacific however, it is still a great exception for a live piece to be done
from outside the studio directly into a news bulletin. If it happens, there is no reason for saying "live
from.....". You can better say "Over now to the National Stadium and our reporter there is X", or "Now at the
National Stadium is our reporter X".
We'll have more on taped audio inserts (actuality and voice reports) in sections 6.3 and 6.4. At this stage
however, we would like to make a general observation on sound quality. The aim must be the best techni-
cal sound possible. If a piece is badly recorded, it should not be used.
The best way to judge whether sound quality is acceptable is to listen to it once yourself - not several
times - and decide whether it is totally understandable on first hearing. Remember, the listener gets no sec-
ond chance.
6.1 1
TYPES OF NEWS PROGRAMS
News formats should change regularly to avoid staleness, and to maintain a lively listener interest. This is
not to say that formats should be changed every three or six months!
When modern radio news gave up the idea of the long, ten minute straight-read bulletin, there was a shift
to livelier and much shorter bulletins of perhaps three to five minutes duration. But even these have given
way to longer news broadcasts, more in the nature of small news programmes. The main emphasis is on
giving fuller details of the news which is of the greatest interest, and which affects radio listeners.
But it is of course still possible to distinguish several types of news programmes, such as the minor and
major bulletins, the news flash and the integrated news broadcast. Current affairs programmes such as a
newsreel, a radio magazine or a documentary expand on the news by explaining it more in-depth.
In this manual, we have concentrated on the production of a major news bulletin (see Unit 5), but other
possible presentation formats are briefly described hereafter.
Headline Newscast
This is a sort of 45 second or 60 second newscast. It has only brief items, often provided by a wire service.
It contains the top news developments of that moment.
Minor Bulletins (News-in-brief)
These are the news broadcasts presented outside of the peak listening periods during the day. This should
not be taken to mean that they are unimportant, and should be treated with less seriousness than other
bulletins. Yo may wish to place less emphasis on production techniques, saving your staff effort for the
major bulletins, but nevertheless, minor bulletins are important.
Your audience for these bulletins may be special interest groups, such as women, both rural and urban, the
unemployed, many of whom are youths, shift workers, farmers, fishermen etc. All of these citizens have a
right to information, presented in the best professional manner.
The minor bulletin is ideal for the story that is continuously developing during the day. It would generally
contain the essential facts of the main news items as they come to hand, as well as stories of special inter-
est to the particular groups of listeners mentioned above.
The length of these minor bulletins is usually about three minutes, of short items, perhaps two or three sen-
tences each. But again, since radio is actuality - you may include at least one audio insert, ideally geared
towards one of the special interest groups.
The News Flash
The flash is traditionally associated with extremely urgent and important information, which cannot wait
until the programme time-slots for major or minor news bulletins. It is used to announce events or decisions
of extreme national importance, and exceptionally rare international ones, especially if these have direct
relevance to the national situation.
6.2 1
Disasters such as earthquakes, storms, typhoons, hurricanes, serious floods etc. fall into this category.
Death, particularly of very important national figures, major accidents of trains, aircrafts, ships and other
forms of public transport, involving large loss of life or injury also can be announced in the news flash.
The fall of a Government, war, or large-scale community conflict may also justify the use of a news flash.
Because of the nature of the content of the news flash, this presentation format is used very sparingly. The
information is often proceeded by some form of attention-getter i.e. a gong, jingle etc - and is presented as
a straight read of the essential facts as they are known., At the end of the flash it is usual to indicate that
more information will be given as it becomes available.
The newsflash can and does pre-empt any other programming at the time.
Integrated News Broadcast
This could be a half-hour news broadcast once a day. It usually includes:

- a three to four minute straight-read bulletin of hard news
- fifteen minutes of interviews and reports, with quick, lively narration links
- about ten minutes of commentary on local, national and international news
The time allotted to each of the three segments could vary from day to day, depending on the material
available and its importance.
These longer type news programmes must be based on whether or not listeners have that much time and
interest to sit and concentrate on thirty minutes (or more) of information.
The Newsreel
This format usually is of fifteen minutes duration. It contains eyewitness accounts, extracts of speeches,
commentaries, reports of events, short talks and interviews. The newsreel needs a lot of time and staff to
be produced professionally. It also requires good technical facilities, and of course, money. Because of
these demands, the Newsreel is often beyond the capacity of many broadcasting organizations, particularly
the smaller ones, in developing countries.
Current Affairs Magazine
Like the Newsreel, Current Affairs magazines expand on the news by explaining it - providing background
so that listeners can understand why something has happened, or exploring it by giving the views and
opinions of those involved.
A Current Affairs magazine aims to follow up the day's news. That's why it is preferable that news reporters
and current affairs producers work closely as a team, one complementing the efforts of the other.
6.2 2
Although in this manual we are not dealing with the specific techniques of current affairs production,
remember that in principle they are the same as for news production. The only difference is that the sub-
jects are treated more in-depth, and that you have more air time than can be allowed in the news bulletin.
The current affairs producer is generally quite experienced, is proficient in the use of a tape recorder, has a
microphone voice and a reputation for having done good voice pieces in news bulletins in the past. He also
is very skilled in the art of interviewing.
Most radio stations do not permit comment from its reporters or current affairs producers - not even in the
questions that might be put in an interview. However, some stations have a separate `Commentary' pro-
gramme, where an analyst or commentator is allowed to express opinions.
Discussion Programme
The current affairs producer might wish to organism a discussion programme. This provides a platform for
the exchange of ideas.
The simplest discussion is an extension of the interview in which the interviewer plays a more positive or
provocative role. He may present his own ideas so as to draw a response from his guest or perhaps to
delve deeper into a subject. This kind of "interview-programme" is best handled by a station personality.
More conventional discussions are those presided over by a chairman and taking place between three or
four participants. Such panel discussions or forums are generally rather formal. The journalist acts as a
moderator and does not participate in the discussion except to spark off a new line of inquiry.
Still another type of discussion follows the line of a debate and is usually held before an audience, either in
the studio or in a public centre. A chairman presides and there are two participants with opposing views.
The audience is invited to join in their discussion. This type can be very popular.
The essential ingredient of any discussion is conflict. The members of the panel must have differing points
of view. A discussion programme in which everyone agrees with everyone makes very dull listening.
News Documentary
The documentary or feature is a creative radio form, in which a single subject is treated, using all of the
techniques of sound radio either in the studio or outside, with the emphasis on real events, real sounds
and real people, where possible, telling their own experience.
The length of a news documentary is usually between 15 minutes to an hour. Most documentaries use a
narrator. The choice of the narrator, the warmth and personality of his voice are very important.
Other formats used in documentary production include interviews, discussions, expert comment, vox pop,
eyewitness accounts, dramatization of information, poetry, songs, music and sound effects.
The feature requires thorough preparation and research. Only experienced radio journalists will be able to
produce a good documentary.
6.2 3
ACTUALITY TAPE INSERTS
There are basically two types of actuality. Speech actuality is the use of recorded words spoken by some-
one during a speech, a news conference or an interview. It is the most frequently used form of audio illus-
tration in modern radio news bulletins. The other type of actuality is the raw sound of a news event (a
cyclone, wild sound from a demonstration, applause and cheers, etc.). This kind of actuality also enlivens
news presentation, but it is not as readily available on an every day basis as speech actuality.
Actualities help you take your audience to the scene of the event. The main principle is for the
reporter, and indeed for everyone who is involved in the production of a radio news programme, to think
audio. A reporter should never leave the office without a tape recorder! If there's a 1980's corollary to the
old proverb that a journalist should always have pen and paper with him, it is this: carry your recorder
with you as much as possible. Where we possibly can let the newsmaker tell the main element of the
story.
There are five rules about actualities.
1) Don't use actualities to tell the entire story. The actuality illustrates the story. It is not a self-contained
report, but it enhances the news story.
2) Use actualities only when they add a dimension that your written report could not. If the actuality doesn't
say anything new, it should not be used.
3) Since actualities are story enhancers, they should be kept fairly short - usually no longer than 30 sec-
onds. To avoid interruption in the flow of the news, generally avoid actualities less than 15 seconds in
length.
4) As an audio medium, radio should be extremely careful about standards of sound quality. The actuality
must be technically acceptable. Poor sound quality is a sign of amateurism.
5) Actuality must be tightly edited, preferably through splice editing. A reporter should supply the bulletin
editor with a full tape of an interview or speech. But of course the reporter can prepare the excerpt which
will be used in the bulletin.
6.3 1
The following example shows how to set out a simple packaged story with spoken actuality for a news bul-
letin. This is the case where a reporter has time to transcribe the voice insert. If not the duration and cues
should be given (see Unit 2, Section 7).
20/10/82
DOMESTIC AIRLINE
5.00 pm
The deputy Prime Minister, Mr. X, has spoken out against suggestions that shares
in the domestic airline P.T.A. should be sold to the public.
Earlier this month, the Federal Transport Minister, Mr. Y, announced that P.T.A.
was to become a public company. Speaking at a lunch in the capital today,
Mr. X welcomed the move to make P.T.A. a public company
as long as the airline remains under government control.
(TAPE BEGINS)
IF SUCH A SALE WENT AHEAD, THE REALITIES OF COMMERCIAL COMPETITION WOULD

MAKE IT INEVITABLE THAT THE MORE COSTLY AND LESS PROFITABLE ROUTES NOW
OPERATED BY P.T.A. WOULD BE DROPPED. THIS WOULD MEAN GREATER HARDSHIP FOR
A GREAT MANY PEOPLE LIVING OUTSIDE THE CAPITAL CITIES. IF SUCH A SALE WENT
AHEAD, THE COMMERCIAL REALITIES OF AIRLINE OPERATION IN THIS COUNTRY WOULD
MEAN THAT YOU HAVE THE RISK OF RUNNING INTO A PRIVATE MONOPOLY AIRLINE SYS-
TEM.
(TAPE ENDS)
The deputy Prime Minister, Mr. X
Note that tape transcripts are always done in capitals with the beginning and end of the tape segments
clearly identified.
Note too that the last three words of the introduction are underlined to cue the studio technician that an
insert follows.
6.3 2
Tape handling
* Clearly mark all tapes (open reel and cassette) with the name of the reporter and the actuality recorded,
plus date and time of recording;
* Use the counter on the cassette recorder, so that you can find the selected material easily;
* Dub the selected material onto open reel; if you have more than one actuality out of an interview, dub
the selected inserts in the right order. This is a kind of rough editing.
* If you as the reporter want to insert your own voice in between two actuality inserts, you can now pro-
ceed to do the final editing.
* Transcribe the selected material, if that is your station's policy.

* Write the lead-in for the announcer and prepare a clean script in at least two copies, one for the news-
reader and one for the studio technician.
Lead-in to an actuality insert
Actualities, no matter what the subject and content, require LEAD-INS.
The opening paragraphs of a news story should be something more than a mere preamble to a tape insert.
As always, the most newsworthy point should be the lead. Think out the structure of the story. Then, and
only then, need you worry about the actuality insert. Remember that the insert illustrates the main news
point or a supplementary point made by the news source.
The lead in should be self-contained, meaning that it doesn't telegraph the fact that an actuality follows.
A lead-in should indicate or summarize the tone and substance of the actuality. This does not mean para-
phrasing the entire argument. The best approach is to write down to the actuality, so that the first words of
the actuality seem to pick up the train of thought where the newsreader's or reporter's script has left off.
The actuality should advance the story and the introduction should signal the way in which the actuality will
do that. But a lead-in should not signal that an actuality will follow. The distinction is subtle!
6.3 3
Consider this example:
Newsreader:
The Finance Minister was asked how the new sugar agreement will affect sugar prices.
Actuality: "WE EXPECT ABSOLUTELY NO ECONOMIC EFFECT.... "
In this example the lead-in signals that an actuality follows. It lacks impact and in case the actuality fails to
play and there is some `dead air', it will sound clumsy.
A proper rewrite of this lead-in can be: "The Finance Minister says the new subsidies will not cause higher
sugar prices. "
In any case it's not necessary to introduce an actuality with the phrase: "Our reporter asked Mr. Bricks
". It should be obvious that you asked a question; the listener is more interested in what the news source
has to say. Also, try not to start with a question by the reporter.
Avoid using a piece of tape that repeats your lead literally. This repetition is annoying. In other words, listen
carefully to an insert before using it. Note what the first sentence is so that you can use different words in
the lead-in.
Not
Newsreader: "The Prime Minister is optimistic
Actuality: "I am optimistic that.... "
But
Newsreader: "According to the Prime Minister the crisis is almost over. "
Actuality: ` I am optimistic that ...... "
This is called the parrot effect. The lead-in uses the same words that are used on the start of the tape.
That sounds very unprofessional.
A useful technique is to listen carefully to the sentence in the interview or speech that precedes the select-
ed insert. By rewriting that preceding sentence, you may find a logical bridge to the actuality insert.
Every actuality should have a unique and exclusive lead-in, a proper introduction that's only used for this
particular actuality. Avoid unimaginative lead-in's such as: " The Minister of Finance has this to say" or "The
project manager says". There will be a noticeable drop in the voice of the announcer and one can almost
hear the semi-colon and the quotation marks appearing.
In exceptional cases, listeners will want to hear with a minimum of leadin, an announcement of major
importance conveyed by the speaker's own voice (e.g. the Prime Minister announcing the election date,
etc.). But dramatic actuality of this kind is rare. In every day news items, actuality should flow smoothly into
the context. It should not be used in a way that sounds awkward, or throws the story-line or bulletin content
6.3 4
out of balance (by using an over-long insert, for instance).
Each voice should be identified just before it is heard. In scripting the edited interview, make sure the last
person named before the insert, is the first voice heard, and similarly, the first name after an insert must be
the person heard. In other words, the speaker should be identified again in a back-announcement.
If the interviewer only asks one or two short questions, he does not need to be identified.
Lead-out of an actuality insert
Just as much as actualities need a lead-in, they need an "extro" or "tag" or "back announcement" ..... a
way to get out of it and on to the next story.
The tag or lead-out wraps up the story and brings it to a polished, professional ending. It often refers back
to the actuality even if it is only a back announcement or reidentification of the speaker in the actuality just
ended.
Example
Actuality: “..... IN THE NEXT FEW MONTHS."
Newsreader: The Chief Justice, Mr. Prasad.
A tag is often something more than a simple reidentification.
Example
Actuality: DROP OFF IN THE LOWER STAGES OF SECONDARY SCHOOL".
Newsreader: Mr. Santiago further proposed that the Education Ministry gives more incentives to
teachers ..... The hearing on the education policy continues tomorrow.
The tag tells your listeners the story has ended and that you are ready to move on to the next item.
6.3 5
VOICE REPORTS
The voice report or 'voicer' is a report narrated by the journalist who has been covering a particular news
story. Its purpose is to supplement and add colour to the basic news. An eyewitness account or on-the-spot
report complete with background sound can be very convincing.
The voice report is a specialized technique of radio reporting. In most cases it will be recorded on tape
(either from outside by telephone or studio based), but it can be live as well. The advantage of a studio
based voice report is that the tape can be edited tightly.
There are two sides to a 'voicer' and they go hand in hand. One is the ability to deliver voice reports in a
manner that's clear, authoritative and easy to listen to.
The other side is to learn how to write a voice report. Writing a voice report is different from writing
straight news stories. The reason for sending you out "on-the-spot" is to obtain an additional element in the
coverage. In a voice report you may add something to the news that is more personal.
If it's a dramatic event, a flood, a big fire or a dramatic operation, news coverage is greatly enhanced by a
reporter's first hand account of what he saw and what it was like being there. This is certainly the case in
the descriptive voice report. If some element of individuality doesn't come across to the listener, the whole
thing may as well have been done by the newsreader.
Voice reports not only add variety in presentation style, but must also improve the content and interest of
the story. But note that a voice piece is not a license to speculate, or give an opinion. The rules about com-
ment, bias, rumour and opinion also apply in voice pieces.
How to get your sound or voice through the telephone? Well, it's fairly easy to hook your recorder up to a
telephone. All you need is a cord with a plug on one end and a pair of alligator clips on the other.
Plug the cord into the "earphone" or "monitor" plug on the recorder. Then, take the mouthpiece off the tele-
phone and hook the alligator clips to the two prongs inside the handset.
Try to find a telephone where you can take the mouthpiece off, so that you can use it.
There are several kinds of voice reports. The most common are
* the descriptive voice piece
* the correspondence from overseas or from another state or region
* the background piece, for instance the chain of events leading up to a major election. Many newsrooms
have a political or parliamentary, or industrial reporter. The specialist reporter acquires authority over the
years
* the explanatory piece, an explanation in voice by a reporter of how something works. For instance, a
new device to save fuel.
Duration: The maximum length of a voice report for radio is one minute. Some are only 20 seconds.
Exceptionally, it can be longer than one minute. The average is 40 to 45 seconds.
6.4 1
VOICE REPORTS
Lead-in to a voice report
The voice report does not tell the basic story. That is again the function of the lead-in, read by the news-
reader.
The lead-in to a voice report provides information for the listener's understanding of what follows. Normally
it tells where the event occurred and when.
There are two parts in the lead-in:

a) What is the news? The hard factual story essential to the understanding of the voice report. In
many cases the reporter will make suggestions for, or actually write this intro for it's an integral part of the
story as he is presenting it. But the bulletin editor is responsible for ensuring that the lead-in is written.
Again, avoid duplication with the first sentence of the voice report. Write the intro so that if flows into the
first line of the report.
If there is a big fire, for instance, the lead-in could contain four or five lines giving the hard news and there-
after, the reporter takes up the story.
b) Introduction of the reporter or correspondent:

Try to avoid stereotyped introductions. Add variety:
- Here's X with the details of that story
- X explains why it took so much trouble
- A report from X in Y
- As X reports, this is only one of the achievements
The same guidelines can be followed as with the lead-in to actualities. But take special care when reports
begin with natural sound (as an actuality insert rather than the correspondent's voice.
Example:
Lead in:
X reports from the United Nations where 600 delegates of the World Assembly have been meeting
Tape
- 10 seconds, off mike voices (angry arguments)
- reporter's voice
This technique puts the report's name up front in the sentence, not at the end. Thus the natural sound is
identified immediately before it hits the listener's ear.
Another technique is the so called wrap-around. It's like a sandwich with actuality in the middle of a voice
report. The voice of a news source can be included in the voice report. A "wrap" is also useful when a
reporter has attended a news conference or done an interview, and wants to give an overall report, includ-
ing highlights of the answers, with linking material in between. The idea is to keep the voice report moving.
6.4 2
VOICE REPORTS
The sign off by the reporter should be according to the version accepted in your station. Always sign off
wrap-arounds, don't let the piece end with actuality or raw sound.
Example
"This is X for RTM news in "Y"
The lead-out or "Extro" is read by the news presenter in the studio. The lead-out re-identifies the voice,
so listeners will know whose voice they just heard.
Example
That was X
If there is an actuality at the end of the voice report, for instance a voice clip from an interview, it is
smoother to have a back announcement in the studio.
Example
"That was Y, talking to our reporter X"
Here's the transcript of an excellent example of what's possible in modern radio. It's the transcription of a
report broadcast in 1981 on CBC News (the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation).
NEWSCASTER
And finally in the news this morning, in Atlanta, Georgia, last night the stars turned out
(TAPE BEGINS)
MUSIC INSERT "I've got the world on a string"
Duration: 15 seconds (music fade to background)
NEWSCASTER
Frank Sinatra, Sammy Davis Junior, Dizzie Gillispie, Burt Reynolds along with several sur-
prise guests helped the city of Atlanta raise nearly a 150-thousand dollars at a benefit concert
before 45-hundred spectators at the city's civic centre. As Mike Buckey reports, the money
will be used to help pay extra-ordinary expenses incurred by Atlanta's police, as they investi-
gate the deaths and disappearance of 21 black children in the city.
MUSIC INSERT Duration: S seconds (instrumental)
VOICE REPORT
AFTER HIS OPENING NUMBER SAMMY DAVIS JUNIOR SET THE TONE FOR LAST
NIGHT'S BENEFIT CONCERT HERE AT THE ATLANTA CIVIC CENTRE WITH THESE
WORDS.
6.4 3
VOICE REPORTS
Actuality Insert THE OCCASION IS SOLEMN..... BUT THE ENTERTAINMENT WE

HOPE WILL BE WORTHY OF YOUR PARTICIPATION. I CAN ONLY
SAY: I THANK YOU FOR YOUR PARTICIPATION, EACH AND EVERY
ONE OF YOU FOR BEING AS SUPPORTIVE AS YOU ARE BY
COMING HERE THIS EVENING
VOICE REPORT (Continued)
A LOT OF PRIZED TICKETS WERE SOLD FOR 25 DOLLARS, CHOICE SEATS WENT FOR
100 DOLLARS, BUT MANY PEOPLE APPARENTLY DECIDED TO PAY MORE THAN THE
ASKING PRICE, AND INSTEAD OF 100-THOUSAND DOLLARS, THE MAYOR OF ATLANTA
TOLD THE CROWD THAT NEARLY 150-THOUSAND DOLLARS WAS RAISED. SECURITY
WAS EXTREMELY TIGHT, POLICEMEN WATCHED THE CROWD CLOSELY BECAUSE
PSYCHOLOGISTS HAD SPECULATED THAT THE KILLER OR KILLERS OF ATLANTA'S 21
CHILD VICTIMS MIGHT TRY TO GET CLOSE TO THE ACTION. IN SUNDAY'S EDITION OF
THE ATLANTA CONSTITUTIONAL JOURNAL IT WAS REPORTED THAT A LETTER WRIT-
TEN BY SOMEONE CLAIMING TO BE THE KILLER, CONTAINED A VEILED THREAT THAT
ANOTHER CHILD MIGHT BECOME A VICTIM WHILE THE CONCERT WAS IN
PROGRESS. THAT HASN'T HAPPENED.
FOR CBC NEWS THIS IS MIKE BUCKEY IN ATLANTA
(TAPE ENDS)
6.4 4
RUNNING ORDER
The running order gives the essential production details. This is a useful service for the person who has to
play the tapes in the correct order. It should be noticed, however, that quite often in modern radio a news-
caster plays his own tapes and cartridges.
Even with four or five pre-recorded tapes radio news should always be a live transmission.
If a report will come in `live', the running order should give the details of where it will come from (studio,
O.B.-van, etc.)
If an item is recorded, the running order supplies the identifying number of the tape to make sure the cor-
rect tape is played, together with any special instruction for the operator. The bulletin editor is in charge of
lining up the tapes and labeling them with the right numbers.
Example of a "Running order"
The presenter may encounter various difficulties in the presentation of news. How to react when a failure
occurs? One good solution is that the presenter's copy should contain a brief summary of the contents of
the report and he can say: "Technical problems prevent us from giving you that report now, but the minister
said in the interview......" and then a brief summary.
Some broadcasting organizations do not use a "running order" on a separate sheet, but, the bulletin editor
gives a copy of the complete bulletin to the technical operators. The script is the same as the newscaster's
and, if the tapes are lined up and labeled properly, there can be no failure!
6.5 1
THE APPROACH OF THE NEWSCASTER
Let's now focus on the job of the presenter, who will no longer be just an "announcer" or a "newsreader",
but a full-fledged newscaster. Ultimately he is responsible for the success or failure of a news programme.
In this sense, the newscaster is the most important member of the news team. He is the link between the
broadcasting organization and the listener. However well planned and well structured, a news bulletin can
virtually be ruined by dull delivery. Since a variety of production techniques will be used, the professional
presenter must be listening to the inserts, reacting instantly to any unforeseen happenings during the bul-
letin (for instance a tape doesn't start, or a wrong tape runs).
The newscaster should be in the newsroom beforehand to go over the bulletin. A few minutes before the
broadcast he should go to the studio, expecting other stories to be delivered either before or during the bul-
letin.
Punctuality is a must for a newscaster. It is almost impossible to present a good bulletin if he arrives
breathless, seconds before the bulletin starts. The newscaster should have gone through the copy at least
once before airtime. As he prepares, he should mark the copy to make his reading easier.
Remember that broadcast speech is a one-way conversation with every listener as an individual. You
have an audience of one! Although we have stressed again and again that the language should be written
conversationally, it must be delivered with authority.
Delivery should be animated without being forced, the diction should be clear. The presenter must be con-
fident and convinced of the importance of the message. He needs to be relaxed, without being chatty.
Delivery must remain impartial, this means that his likes and dislikes should not show through.
Projection of the voice at normal conversational level is just not enough for radio. Voice projection should
be at the level you would use to reach someone 2 metros away.
Speaking rates vary from one person to another, from one language to another. News is generally read at
a rate of 110 to 120 words a minute.
Twenty typewritten lines equal one minute of reading time. The best way of timing a script is to read it
through aloud.
Note that in speech, meaning is not only conveyed by words but by the way the voice is used as well. The
tone of the voice, pauses and emphasis can be used to add colour.
Read the following sentence aloud several times, each time stressing a different word.
I am going to swim in the pool at 3 o'clock.
There are several books which deal with problems of delivery, phrasing emphasis, articulation, pronuncia-
tion, pace, response, voice placing, etc. This information is of interest to anyone who works in the news-
room. Anyone who works in news should be prepared to voice some reports.
The AIBD manual for Media Trainers "Planning, Presenting, Producing the Radio Programme", is a
practical guide. Copies can be ordered from the AIBD. (247 pages, 10 Ringgit).
6.6 1
ADDITIONAL STYLE NOTES 7.1
FIGURES
Figures are bad news in radio news. A listener doesn't have a mind like a computer, so he can't absorb all
the figures in your news item. Before using figures, ask yourself if they are necessary.
Does the following example really give useful information for a listener in Sarawak, one of the states of
Malaysia?
The National Padi and Rice Authority is expected to allocate 9 million ringgit for various projects in
Sarawak under the Fourth Malaysia Plan.
It's vague, and not even hard news ("expected to ...."). In fact, this is wasting air time with useless and irrel-
evant "facts". Radio is best, not at giving detailed specific facts, but at giving the meaning of an event.
Many figures can be eliminated.
Many development stories involve figures and it is our job to present these in the simplest form. Here is a
rule: two sets of figures are about all that can be handled in a radio news item. The fewer figures, the
better. And avoid starting a story with an exact number if possible.
Round off large numbers. The presentation can be simplified by such generalizations as: "about", "nearly",
"almost", "some", "more than", etc.
201.325 = more than 200 thousand

248 = almost 250
24.927 = just under 25 thousand
Don't put two figures immediately after each other.
Not
The death toll for this year is 563,124 more than last year.
But
The death toll for this year is 563, an increase of 124 in comparison with last year.
Percentages are normally rounded to a whole number. If it is .5% or higher, bring it to the nearest whole
number above; if it is .4% and below, make it the nearest whole number below it:
Percentages are used by specialists, either to compare
PART AND WHOLE (X homes, of which Y have electricity)

or
THIS TIME AND THAT (X this year - Y last year)
7.1 1
ADDITIONAL STYLE NOTES 7.1
FIGURES
Journalists can express the same comparisons as fractions

20% = a fifth, or one in five
25016 = a quarter, or one in four
33% = a third, or one in three
50% = a half
75% = three quarters
100% = double
Where percentages aren't supplied you should be able to work these out and so add to the understanding
of a story. Do you know the formula?
Remember not to use the % sign. Spell it out (percent).
There is a formula for fractions:
GREATER AMOUNT then multiply to whole numbers

LESSER AMOUNT
The British journalist Cedric Pulford gives this example: If 47 out of 121 engines on the railway system
need spare parts, we can say that two engines out of every five are affected.
GREATER AMOUNT 121

LESSER AMOUNT 47 = 2.6
It would be silly to say that one in every 2.6 engines is affected. The smallest number needed to give a
whole number on both sides of the statement is 2. Actually it comes out as 2 in every 5.2 engines, but we
call the latter 5. If the figure is not more than 0.2 on either side (in this case, from 4.8 to 5.2), we can call it
the whole number. If the figure is outside that range, we must multiply by another amount to give a whole
number.
Large figures can be broken to manageable scale. By simply averaging, we can say what a total amount
means in terms of the individual farmer, consumer, etc.
The formula for an average is

TOTAL AMOUNT
No. of Units
If 239 families between them work 619 hectares of land, an average family has 2.6 hectares (in radio style:
"about two and half hectares').
7.1 2
ADDITIONAL STYLE NOTES
UNIT 7.2 CONSUMER PRICE INDEX (CPI)
People are always interested in news about the cost of living. The rate of inflation is reflected by the
Consumer Price Index or CPI. Price statistics are useful information for the general public, but statistics are
hard to absorb. We hope the following suggestions may help you in writing a news story on the CPI.
The Consumer Price Index is used to compare current prices of a `market basket' of goods and services to
prices of the same items at a given time in the past.
The components of the basket usually include basic necessities like food, clothing, medical care, fuel and
other items which the government considers are representative of the needs of the people.
The CPI is issued regularly by a government's statistical office and measures the average change in the
retail prices for those goods. Often, by studying that change, consumers are able to gauge the purchasing
power of their money.
It should be noted however, that the CPI does not influence price. It only reflects changes in the prices of a
selected group of products and services over a given period.
The concept should be explained at each occasion it is used. A fair, simple and correct description can be:
"The index of consumer prices gives an indication of the average increase or decrease in the prices of con-
sumer products."
The main news element people want to know is whether the index has `gone up' or `gone down' and by
how much. This information is usually found in the summary provided by the national statistical office. The
rise or fall in index points and in percentage represents the main news element, especially if it is a signifi-
cant change, for instance, more than 1 percent.
The news item should further give the main reason for the increase or decrease.
Example
"The increase is caused mainly by the sharp rise in the price of rice during the last three months."
Furthermore, a general idea can be given of what products have become more expensive over a period of
time and what products have become cheaper. This can be specified for certain towns.
Example
"The price of betel nut has fallen sharply in Port Moresby but remained the same in the other towns."
Invariably, in almost all countries, the index of consumer prices tends to go up. People say: "Life is becom-
ing more expensive". A fall in the index is rather exceptional and thus makes news. However, it can be that
only one product causes the general fall in the index, while most other products have increased in price.
This should be clear in the news item. If not, listeners "who know better" will simply not believe you.
Here's an example of a story on the Consumer Price Index in Papua New Guinea, where the concept is
7.2 1
UNIT 7.2 CONSUMER PRICE INDEX (CPI)
still new and largely an urban feature. The index is published every three months by the National Statistical
Office in Port Moresby.
13/08/81
JUNE INDEX
7.00 a.m.
The index of consumer prices for the period from April to June has fallen slightly by 0.1 percent
in comparison with the first three months of this year.
However, since June last year the cost of living has risen by almost nine percent.
The index of consumer prices is published by the National Statistical Office and
gives an indication of the average change in the prices of consumer products.
The index is calculated for the major towns only.
The slight drop in the consumer price index
is mainly caused by the sharp fall in the price of betel nut, especially in Port Moresby.
Prices of meat, fish and bread have risen slightly, but sugar, rice and fresh fruit and vegetables were
generally cheaper in the period from April to June.
During this period electricity and fuel prices also increased.
The Statistical bulletin also shows that the price of betel nut in
Port Moresby is nine times more expensive than in Rabaul.
Statistical Bulletin/Agnes Inape/Evodia Boslogo
7.2 2
UNIT 7.3 JOURNALESE - CLICHES
Many newswriters seem to think that the use of journalistic clichés - or "journalese" identifies the journalist.
Many of the words we use in broadcast news are words you only hear on broadcast news. You seldom
hear these words used in normal everyday conversation. Here is a list of the most overworked clichés. Try
to avoid them. Here's a 85-word blacklist.
CLICHÉS PREFERRED WORD
adequate enough
alleviate ease
anticipate expect
anxious means "worried", not "eager"
age aged 49. But the age is usually irrelevant. In broadcasting we never use "the 49-year-
old" affluent rich
ascertain find out
assist help
attempt try
backlash reaction
blaze fire
cease stop
claim (1) greatly misused in place of "admit", "allege", "charge", "maintain" and so on, when
"say" would be better.
claim (2) As in "the IRA claimed responsibility for..... The IRA did it.
clash is of cymbals. It is not a fight, or a debate in Parliament,
or a disagreement between two parties.
commence begin, or start
conclude end
co-operate help
currently now
curb restrict, reduce
consists of is
dramatic devoid of precise meaning, like big, vital, major, huge, massive, ironically. Describe the
drama, the size, the irony
deceased dead
donate give
death-toll a horrible word. It is better to be simple and to write "2000 people are dead"
draconian severe, harsh
effective as in "the most effective way to" - `the best way to"
endeavour try
evacuate People are not evacuated. A city or area is. excess (in, of) more than
exceedingly very
expense cost
express express hope = hope; express fear = fear;
express dissatisfaction = not to be happy about
fly into fly to or "arrive by air at"
finalize finish or complete
7.3 1
CLICHÉS PREFERRED WORD
facilitate make easy
gathered met
give rise to cause
incorporate include
infrastructure this is jargon; depending on context, there are better words
inform tell
initiate start or begin
inquire ask
inundate "many homes are flooded"
implement do (and never "implementation")
kill usually a better word than its synonyms and euphemisms
launch to start (a project, an enterprise)
located can be eliminated as in "The temple is (located) at"
manufacture make
mean while overworked; this adverb should only be used when a close relationship exists in
subject matter and intervening time actually is meant (simultaneously).
news newsmen attend news conferences - Press refers to newspapers only
necessitate need to force
oust(ed) expelled, deposed
over more than, when giving number
persons people - "person" is used only in police report.
pertaining to of, about
presently now
prior to before (never: "previous to")
purchase buy
preside over the chairman of the meeting was
provided if
reiterate repeat
relinquish give up
require need
request ask for
residence home
rush An ambulance does not rush people to hospital. Patients are always taken there as
quickly as the traffic allows; or patients go there.
shortly soon (never in the near future)
step up increase, intensity
stockpile stock
subsequently later
sufficient enough
terminate end, stop
transportation transport
transmit send
underprivileged poor
uplift pick up or raise
7.3 2
upgrade improve
utilize use
vehicle say what kind (bus, taxi, car)
vessel ship
view as "in view of" - cliché
virtually means "in effect", not "nearly all"
valued at worth
weather not "weather condition"
7.3 3
UNIT 7.4 NAMES AND TITLES
The most important thing about people's names is to get them right. In broadcasting, names and titles are
simplified whenever possible. So, omit initials and middle names unless they've widely recognized as part
of the name.
Never start a story with an unfamiliar name. There's a good chance that the listener will miss it. Delay the
name until you get the listener's attention. Always ask yourself whether the name does really matter.
Example
The UN Economic and Social Commission for Asia and Pacific has appealed for more international help for
landlocked countries. Its Executive Secretary, Mr. Kibria, said donors have contributed ....
The factual precision of newspapers in giving the full name comes in for relaxed treatment on radio. Middle
initials are often dropped. Instead of "Bert C. Floresca", radio style would prefer "Bert Floresca". Just giving
the initial is often distracting as in this example: "The project manager Mr. W. Bogusch". Remember the lis-
tener cannot see, only hear the message, which could be read as: "The project manager, Mr. Bogusch...
Of course, when a person is generally known by his initials, there is no harm in using them.
It is the preferred practice for titles and designations to be given before the name. If the title is long, place a
"the" in front of the title.
Example
Prime Minister Trudeau of Canada has ......
The Prime Minister of Malaysia, Datuk Seri Dr. Mahathir Mohamad, has ....
If a minister has two or more portfolios, it should be enough to mention just the one that is relevant. For
instance, if there is a Minister of Energy and Telecommunications, and he talks about rural electrification,
you can refer to him as "the Minister of Energy".
Titles are not repeated after first reference to a person. Use the title on first reference. But repeat the
name, or the function of the person, if it is a long story.
(Generally speaking, we can use Mr., Mrs. or Miss, unless the person has a title.)
It is impracticable to translate titles.
The important thing is to know by which name to call the person and to recognize which parts of the name
indicate rank or status in the society.
The following notes are reproduced from the Style Notes of the News Division of the Australian
Broadcasting Commission and will give some general advice. But reporters and editors should still check in
individual cases.
7.4 1
BURMA
U (pronounce 00) means Mr. Daw means Mrs. Miss is Ma. Maung and Ma are for younger people.
Burmese generally have two names, but some have only one, or three. Family or surnames generally don't
exist. All names should be used and in their correct order.
CAMBODIA
Most Khmers have two names; the first is the father's name, the second the given name. The given name
is used in conversation. Formally, the full name should be used, and in story references either the full
name or the given name is usually needed to distinguish the person from other members of the family.
CHINA
Chinese generally have three names. The first is the family name and the two following are linked by a
hyphen to form one compound personal name, with the one at the end spelt with 'a small letter. As Chou
En-lai. The first name is used as the surname.
However, some Chinese outside China have adopted to Western ways by switching the surname to the
end, and some have adopted Western "Christian" names. In the event of Mr. Chou having done these
things, he would perhaps be Mr. Herbert En-Lai Chou.
It is acceptable outside China to refer to a man's wife by his family name preceded by Mrs., although in
China a woman does not adopt her husband's name.
INDIA
Shri equals Mr.; Shrimati equals Mrs.; Kumari equals Miss. Those are the Hindu prefixes. With Sikhs, it's
Sardar, Sardarni and Kumari. In either case the English equivalents are correct but NOT doubled up with
the Indian ones.
Singh in a name often (but not always) indicates that the person is of Sikh origin, but he can well be a
Hindu. The feminine equivalent is Kaur. It usually comes at the end or in the middle. The person should be
called Mr. Whatever Singh, or Mrs. Whatever Kaur, keeping up the double-barrelled reference throughout
e.g. Mr. Swaran Singh. Sometimes, the family name is added to the name after Singh, for instance
Gurcharan Singh Chawla. He could be a Sikh or a Hindu, though generally a Sikh.
With Muslim names, many prefer the prefix Maulana. India has a large Muslim population (in numbers next
only to Indonesia). Styles of their names are akin to the Pakistani and Bangladeshi systems.
Secular titles are no longer given in India, but there are many and varied religious or popular honorifics for
revered people e.g. Mahatma, Sant, Maharishi, Acharya, Jagadguru. These should not be confused with
names.
7.4 2
INDONESIA
Some Indonesians, including President Suharto, have only one name; some have three or more, but the
majority have two. Where the second name is a long and difficult one, the first name is generally used by
itself. In fact, the Department of Foreign Affairs say, "It is never offensive and often correct to select the first
name, and address as Mr., Mrs. or Miss". However, where the first name is a common one, and mistaking
of identity likely, both names are used (as by the Finance Minister - Professor Ali Wardhana) or only the
second name is used after the first reference.
In the absence of a surname, identification is sometimes assisted by the use of the word `bin' (son of) or
'binti' (daughter of), e.g. Ahmad bin Ali means Ahmad son of Ali, and he should be called Mr. Ahmad.
JAPAN
The Japanese in Japan put their family name first and given name second, but invert the order in accord
with Western practice when abroad or dealing with foreigners.
It is particularly important not to drop the Mr., Mrs. or Miss in naming a Japanese, since they set some
store by polite forms.
In the Japanese contexts, "san" after the name simply means Mr., Mrs. or Miss, but the Japanese do not
use this form of address when speaking English.
KOREA
The Koreans follow the Chinese pattern of three names, the first of which is the family name and which
should be used in second references. Some Koreans, however, invert the order when dealing with foreign-
ers or in rejecting the assumption of Chinese influence.
Korean wives usually keep their father's family name, but a few voluntarily adopt their husband's family
name when dealing with foreigners.
Some Koreans also adopt Western Christian names, putting them first as in English usage.
LAOS
Laotians write the family name after the given name, but a Laotian is normally addressed by the given
name. We should use the full name first, e.g. Mr. Khamleck Bouapha, and thereafter the given name.... Mr.
Khamleck.
A Laotian wife adopts the family name of her husband. The wife of the above gentleman would be formally
Mrs. Bouapha, informally Mrs. Khamleck.
Laotian prefixes and titles that you should recognize are:

Tiao (also written Chao or Chau) meaning Prince or Princess;
Phagna, roughly equivalent to the Sir of a Knight;
Than, corresponding to Sir or Mr., used for a senior person;
7.4 3
Thao, meaning Mr. or Master, used for young men or men of inferior social standing;
Nang, equivalent to Miss.
MALAYSIA
Encik equals Mr. So does Tuan. Cik equals Miss. Puan equals Mrs. There are numerous titles: Tunku, Tun,
Tan Sri, and Datuk. There are Sultans - always the Sultan of some state. And above all, the Yang Di-
Pertuan Agong, who can be called simply, the King.
The words "Al-Haj" or "Haji" indicate that the person has made the pilgrimage to Mecca. Prefixing them
with "bin" indicate that the person's father made the, pilgrimage. Various considerations govern which
name becomes the right one to use for second references. Bear in mind that Malaysians may be Chinese,
Malay or Indian.
PAKISTAN and BANGLADESH
The system of surnames or family names is only beginning to be used. The safest course is to use all of a
person's name unless an acceptable abbreviation is known in the particular case. There is a relatively
small selection of personal names and differentiation is achieved by using two or three in combination.
Common titles or honorifics are Chaudhry or Khan, Khwaja, Mian, Malik, Maulana or Maulvi, Sardar (or
Sirdar), Shah, Khandakar, Sheikh and Syed, and Begum (equivalent of Mrs., but mostly used for women of
some social standing).
If any of these occurs first in the group of words making up the name, it is almost certainly a title of
address and should be omitted if Mr. or Mrs. is used.
Unfortunately, many of these titles are also used as names. They usually occur towards the end, and Mr.
may then be used. These are Muslim names. Hindus living in Pakistan or Bangladesh have the same
forms of address as Indians.
SRI LANKA
In effect, same as English names. The Sinhalese and Burghers put given name first, family name second
and are referred to by the second. The Tamils put their father's name first and given name second but still
are known by the second.
THAILAND
Most Thais have two names. The first is the given name, the second the family name. Wives take the hus-
band's family name. Mr., Mrs., or Miss may be used with the given name, which is usually shorter and easi-
er to pronounce than the family name. But the full name must be used first time round. The Thai equiva-
lents of Mr., Mrs. and Miss are Nai, Nang and Nangsao, but these are used only in writing, not in speech
when Khun is used.
7.4 4
Thai titles include: Mom Chao (or M.C.) who should be addressed as Prince or Princess; Mom Rajawong
(M.R.) who should be addressed as Mom and first name; Mom Luang (M.L.), Mom and the first name;
Chao Phya or Phya addressed. as Chao Khun; Phra, addressed Khun Phra; Luang, addressed Khun
Luang.
VIETNAM
Most Vietnamese have three names, such as Tran Van Minh, or Vu Thi Bao.
The first name is the family name, and most Vietnamese bear the names of one of the old Royal dynasties:
Nguyan, Tran, Le, Ly, Ho, Mae, for example.
The middle name may indicate sex - Van commonly for men, Thi for women.
The last name is the given name and that is the one to use after the first reference.
LATIN NAMES
Spanish names, as used also in Latin America, embody a trap for the uninformed. A Spaniard (or a
Mexican, Cuban, etc.) uses three names: given name, paternal surname, maternal surname. For example,
Juan Martinez Gonzales, and thereafter as Senor Martinez. To call him Senor Gonzales would be to imply
that he was the illegitimate son of an unknown father.
A Spanish married woman's name becomes complicated, as she retains her paternal surname and adds
her husband's surname preceded by "de". She should be called by her husband's paternal surname.
Sometimes, Spanish people in dealing with English speaking people recognize their confusion and try to
help by lopping off the maternal surname. When in doubt, check.
7.4 5
UNIT 7.5 ABBREVIATIONS
One of the most irritating habits of bad newswriters is the use of initials, without explaining them.
Most abbreviations are to be avoided. The full name of the organization - not the initials - should be
reported when it is mentioned for the first time. The abbreviation can be used in subsequent references,
but there are ways of avoiding that as well.
Example
the Bureau of Internal Revenue (in first reference)
then: The B.I.R., or better: "The bureau"
The National Electricity Board (in first reference)
Later: The N.E.B. or better: "The Electricity Board "
Avoid unfamiliar initials, even after a first reference to the full name of the institution. Repeating the full
name is not necessarily bad, and may be better than falling back on a set of initials familiar only to those
close to the subject.
We should use initial forms only when they are common language to all people. If an abbreviation is imme-
diately recognizable and well known and if the letters of an abbreviation form a pronounceable unit or
acronym.
Example
Unesco B.B.C. Unicef U. S.
But don't presume everyone is familiar with short forms that may be common knowledge to journalists or
government officials. Broadcasters are educators and must always think of the least learned in the audi-
ence.
Example
ASEAN, that is the Association of South East Asian Nations
ESCAP, the UN Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific
An exception from the rule that most abbreviations are to be avoided are: Mr., Mrs. and Dr. These are in
such common usage that newsreaders prefer them abbreviated.
But names of months and days are written in full.
Example
January not Jan.
Monday not Mon.
7.5 1
TRANSLATION ISSUES 8.1
THE MANY PROBLEMS OF TRANSLATION
Since broadcasting is aimed at people, it must seek to reach them in the languages they speak.
The choice of languages for broadcasting therefore is a most important issue and the problem of good
translation should be given absolute priority in Asian and Pacific newsrooms. In many countries, it takes
the form of a political dilemma. On the one hand, governments would like to achieve the maximum
degree of political penetration and control over their populations. This goal requires an increase of lan-
guages broadcast in order to reach the largest possible audience. On the other hand, the encouragement
of a single national language can help to build a sense of nationhood and encourage loyalties at the
national level.
But, of course, a common language broadcast in a multilingual society will not serve the purpose of broad-
casting to the people in the language they know.
All India Radio, for instance, broadcasts news in 23 languages and 35 tribal dialects. These language bul-
letins are more popular than English.
Most multilingual developing countries face a variety of practical problems.
Linguistic diversity creates an economic burden for radio, though much less so than television.
Fortunately many governments have come to realize the importance of developing regional stations which
can promote people's active participation in radio programmes. Anyhow, a sufficient number of specialized
staff must be recruited to produce news bulletins in the chosen variety of languages.
This brings us to another set of problems. Staff recruited for language work are often without any experi-
ence or training. They learn their work at the desk. Not infrequently adhoc recruitment is made to fill ever
existing vacancies and sufficient care is not taken in choosing translators.
Another burden for multilingual societies is that a lot of energy, time and personnel goes to mere transla-
tion of a news script. This also prevents efforts of modernizing the newscast through voice reports and
actuality inserts. Mere translation of one master script certainly suits uniformity of the news message, but in
the long run, it would be better to create separate news desks in respect of the major national languages.
The overall news output can of course still be co-ordinated, but this would allow more variety and livelier
news programmes which are much closer to the audience. Listeners differ from one language to another.
For instance, the priority and emphasis given to some news items in one language may not have the same
merit in another language.
Last but not least there is a problem of bad translation.
A major concern in this manual has been with the effective use of language, any language, in retaining the
interest of the audience. For obvious reasons, we have stressed the correct and effective use of English for
radio news. But we are well aware that most of those using this manual will be dealing with languages
other than English.
8.1 1
However, in many multilingual countries the original or "master" copy is produced in English and then
translated into one or several national languages. It may well occur that speeches or news conferences are
in a language other than English, then translated into English and thereafter re-translated. Sometimes, in
this double translation process, the spirit and content of the original either gets misrepresented or distorted,
not to speak of the waste of energy and time.
Even if the master copy is written in a language other than English, some of the source material, particular-
ly foreign news, will be in English.
Translators of radio news face the double problem of translating from one language into another and
rewriting or "translating" into radio style (writing for the ear, not for the eye). Sometimes, translators do
not have a news approach and some tend to write in literary styles.
The problems of writing news in English are not necessarily the same as those in other languages. For
example, many languages in the Pacific are oral languages only, with no historical, written form. In these
cases the distinction between the written and spoken language does not really arise. The problem may well
be the traditional requirement to communicate in public using a ceremonial form of language which is not
always understood well by the common man, particularly the young.
But the problem may well be the reverse, that the younger, educated people understand the standard lan-
guage, whereas elderly people in the rural areas are only able to speak the local dialect and don't under-
stand the modern words of a language. Some languages have three or more levels of use depending on
the social status of the speaker or the person being addressed. There also may be a lot of difference
between classical forms of a language and the form spoken by the man in the street.
One cannot expect every citizen to speak two or more languages with full fluency. The broadcasting organi-
zation therefore must decide what form of the language will be best understood by the audience. The
broadcasting organization also is responsible for ensuring a first class translation, particularly in news
broadcasts. There are too many complaints about poor translation and it is sad to note that the problem is
often not given sufficient consideration.
Translators must keep expanding their understanding of both the languages they are working in, and
it is preferable to employ native speakers of the language of broadcast. Translators should have a good
grasp of the culture which is surrounding the language. This makes the translator an extremely valuable
element of the newsroom.
Translators should be fully involved in the news production process. Unfortunately most translators are
nowadays only given an edited version of the news requiring just a verbatim translation. If they become
more involved with the news team, a full version of the story will be available, which will help them to draft
better copy.
Ideally radio journalists who are proficient in the two languages should be recruited. A language supervisor,
who is an authority in the language, with the status of editor can check the translated copy. Translators
themselves should have the status of sub-editor.
8.1 2
In this unit we are not giving precise guidelines for translation into a particular language. But we try to
emphasize the principles of good translation.
The following sections are largely based on a paper by Dr. Kemp Pallesen of the Summer Institute of
Linguistics, New Zealand. He has conducted many training courses in the Pacific region, a number of
which have included broadcasters. His paper is entitled: "Learning to translate".
8.1 3
WHAT IS GOOD TRANSLATION ?
As a matter of convenience, Dr. Pallesen uses the expression SOURCE LANGUAGE for the original lan-
guage, the one we are translating from. We can use the expression TARGET LANGUAGE for the lan-
guage we are translating into.
Very often the SOURCE LANGUAGE will be English and the TARGET LANGUAGE will be the local lan-
guage of which you are a native speaker.
The purpose of translation is to communicate a message. A good translation is one which conveys the
same information to the TARGET LANGUAGE as the original did to the SOURCE LANGUAGE audi-
ence.
This involves knowing something about the original audience and the author's purpose; it also involves
defining the TARGET LANGUAGE audience. Translations should be made with a particular audience in
mind.
Many people, and unfortunately some translators, think that translation is merely matching words in the
SOURCE LANGUAGE with words in the TARGET LANGUAGE, the sort of thing you can do with a diction-
ary in one hand, a pencil in the other. This can be done, and has been done, but the results are poor in
terms of communication.
We should be interested in transferring not the meanings of individual words, but the ideas, the meaning,
the message, which words are used to convey.
A great deal of inadequate translation is done. There are four reasons for this:
- A lack of concern for the message.
- A failure to keep in mind a particular TARGET LANGUAGE audience.
- Too great a respect for the SOURCE LANGUAGE and not enough respect for the TARGET LANGUAGE.
This results in the translator being tied to the form of the SOURCE LANGUAGE, with the result that his
translation is unnatural, formal or foreign sounding.
- Lack of confidence.
8.2 1
We must start with the SOURCE LANGUAGE as it is actually written or spoken, that is the form of the
SOURCE LANGUAGE. It is a mistake to assume that good translation can be achieved by going straight
across the top from point to point. It cannot be done successfully without some intermediate steps.
Translation involves an analysis of the meaning of the SOURCE LANGUAGE, so that you really under-
stand the meaning of the message. Then there is a transfer of that meaning across to the TARGET LAN-
GUAGE. And finally there is a restructuring of the transferred meaning into the natural style of the TARGET
LANGUAGE.
The message remains unchanged, but it's now in the usual form of the TARGET LANGUAGE.
It is control of these processes of analysis, transfer and restructuring which make a good translator. The
translator needs to develop his skill in both languages. It is an ongoing process, but translators particularly
fall into the habit of using limited sets of vocabulary and grammar. The work of some translators is marked
8.2 2
by what Dr. Pallesen calls 'translationese', a particular style and lack of variety which marks all their work. It
corresponds to poor journalism.
However, where rapid translation is involved, as in daily broadcast news, the translator or language super-
visor should keep a book in which he writes down for ready reference what he has found to be successful
and easily understood ways of expressing words and figures of speech in one language, which are not
directly translatable from the other language.
The responsibility of radio cannot be underestimated. Radio is the first medium to be affected. Radio is the
opinion leader as far as new phrases and words are concerned. Many local newspapers tend to follow the
translation used by the radio.
Style books for each language at the national and regional levels will be of great help. Words like
`self-reliance', `weaker sections', `marginal farmer', `turnkey project', `grass roots', àrms build-up'... which
need some interpretation, now suffer the most from bad translation. However, adoption of a common style
book should not mean stereotype translation.
8.2 3
TRANSLATION ISSUES UNIT 8.3
TRANSLATE MEANING RATHER THAN FORM
Good translation is the communication of a message from one language to another. It's the message that
matters. Unfortunately, for a variety of reasons, the message is often neglected. We must realise that lan-
guage is always made up of two basic elements: FORM and MEANING.
The idea or MEANING of `house' is represented in English by the FORM we write h-o-u-s-e. We pro-
nounce it in various ways, usually beginning with the consonant h- and ending with the vowel -s. FORM
includes the sounds, the words, the grammar of a language. The purpose of FORM is to convey MEAN-
ING.
Notice that the same idea or MEANING is conveyed by different FORMS in different languages, so that
you hear house in English, maison in French, casa in Spanish, rumah in Bahasa Malaysia, fale in Samoan.
The MEANING in every case is the same; only the FORM is different.
With this basic composition of FORM plus MEANING in mind, Dr. Pallesen offers this definition of transla-
tion:
TRANSLATION is the transferring of the MEANING conveyed by one FORM in the SOURCE LAN-
GUAGE, to the same MEANING conveyed by another FORM in the TARGET LANGUAGE.
The form may change, but the translator tries to keep the MEANING unchanged in the translation process.
This is all very obvious, but one might be surprised to find how often the emphasis is put on the form of the
SOURCE LANGUAGE, rather than on its meaning.
Respect for the SOURCE LANGUAGE isn't the only reason why translators stick to its form. Another rea-
son for following the FORM of English is that the translator is not quite sure what the MEANING of the
English is. He thinks it's safer to keep close to the form. But the result may be "rubbish talk". For news
translators, the best way to transfer the message is to ignore the form of the source language, except for
the information it gives about meaning. The news translator's job is to take the message of the source lan-
guage, and to restructure it into grammatical patterns which are natural to the target language.
In news there tends to be too much of FORMAL TRANSLATION. Dr. Pallesen points to four characteris-
tics of formal translation:
A) There is a tendency to keep the same parts of speech as the Source Language. This means that nouns
are translated by nouns, verbs by verbs, and adjectives by adjectives. An example of this is a sentence
from the bible. It says, in many English versions, `There is no fear in love'. The word fear and the word
love are nouns in Greek as well as in the English translation. Yet love and fear are really descriptions of a
mental attitude and it seems more natural to substitute an adjective and a verb for the nouns fear and
love. Dr. Pallesen suggests this alternative translation: `We do not need to be afraid of someone who loves
us'.
B) There is also a tendency to keep the patterns of the grammar of the Source Language.
An example is a sentence like `The dog bit Charlie'. This sentence has an active form in English. It can be
8.3 1
TRANSLATION ISSUES UNIT 8.3
TRANSLATE MEANING RATHER THAN FORM
translated in Samoan that way, but it would be more natural to put Charlie at the beginning of the sentence,
and simply make the dog the causer of what happened to Charlie, as: Ò Sale ua 'ai e le maile' = `Charlie
was bitten by a dog".
C) There is a tendency to keep the same sentence length as the Source Language. This problem often
occurs when copy from an international newswire (in English) has to be translated. As a matter of fact,
there should be a double translation: one from Source Language into the Target Language, and one from
written style into radio style. In both instances, communication will gain if you shorten the sentences.
D) Finally, there is a tendency to standardize. This means that a Source Language word is translated by
the same Target Language word wherever it occurs.
Dr. Pallesen cites the famous story told among linguists of a translation made by a computer. The comput-
er had been given a set of equivalent words for English and Russian: spirit was represented by a word
meaning ghost; willing by a word meaning agreeable; flesh by the word meat; and weak by a word
meaning feeble or tender.
The sentence "The spirit is willing but the flesh is weak" was fed in. It came out in Russian as "The ghost is
agreeable, but the meat is tender"!
This is of course an extreme example, but news translators have similar problems almost every day. A Fiji
parliamentarian once described an international bank loan for a much needed project as "manna falling
from heaven". Unfortunately, "mana" is also a small mud crab readily found and consumed in Fiji. In the
translation, the loan was-likened to "little crabs falling from heaven".
Another example was about a group of officials, sent overseas to study another country's credit union sys-
tem "because credit unions had revolutionized the lives of the people". As a result of the translator's weak
understanding of the use in this case of "revolutionized" he took it to mean "creating havoc" and so the
translated item appeared as "credit unions had caused so much trouble in the country that people were
being sent to put things right."
And finally there is an example of a Tamil translator who translated "minor irrigation" literally into "urine pas-
sageway". Urine in colloquial is "small water". "Minor irrigation" was therefore translated into "small water
passageway".
To know the real meaning of the words is of course essential for a translator. The meanings of words in two
languages very rarely match exactly.
This means that the translator has to be very much aware of precise distinctions in meaning. This is even
more so if a word has not only a primary meaning, but may have an extended meaning or an extra mean-
ing, in addition to the literal meaning. We won't go into all these details here, but it should be clear that
words can have many senses, and a good translation must take these different senses into account.
Only a competent speaker of a language knows which sense is meant from the context. It's rarely possible
to translate a word in one language by a single word in the other language. The translator's job is that he
understands - and translates - each word with the sense it had in the original.
8.3 2
EQUIPMENT FOR RADIO NEWS PRODUCTION 9.1
The journalist may not always have a say in the choice of equipment he has to work with. However, it is
important for him to know what various types of equipment can do, and what they cannot do.
Equipment for radio news production must be durable, since it is used regularly by many different people. It
should be able to withstand a reasonable amount of mishandling, as often happens.
Equipment should of course be designed according to professional standards. It must be built to be main-
tained. If something goes wrong, it should be possible to repair it well and at low cost. With consumer type
products, this is not always the case.
What follows is a simple guide to basic knowledge of equipment used in modern radio newsgathering. It is
a good idea to be fully briefed by your station technicians on the use and performance of all the equipment
you have at your disposal as a radio journalist: microphones, sound recording machines, portable sound
mixers, line transmission equipment, gear for recording telephone messages, wireless microphones and
microphone transmitters, radio newsgathering vehicles, and wireless news links.
If any particular make of equipment is mentioned, this is by way of information. In every case there are
equivalent units available, at least as good, from other manufacturers.
1. MICROPHONES
There are two types - DYNAMIC and CONDENSER microphones.
The DYNAMIC microphone is the stronger and cheaper of the two. It can withstand heat and humidity bet-
ter than the condenser type, and is well suited to outdoor use and reporting. Generally it does not give the
same sound quality as the condensers. Voices may not sound at their best with a dynamic microphone.
CONDENSER microphones give better sound quality, but are more expensive. They are very sensitive to
heat and humidity, and in tropical climates their use should be restricted to air-conditioned studios. A con-
denser microphone needs either a built-in battery (keep a spare one!) or a phantom power supply, built into
the tape recorder or mixer you are using with it. Condenser microphones are sensitive to handling,
pops and breathing noises. Some types have built-in protection against this. Using a wind-shield will
remove pops in any case. For news production, condenser microphones are ideal studio microphones.
Microphones, whether dynamic or condenser, can either be DIRECTIONAL or OMNIDIRECTIONAL.

The OMNIDIRECTIONAL microphone picks up sounds coming from any direction, with equal sensitivity.
The DIRECTIONAL microphone has a main direction of sensitivity, and should always be pointed to the
sound source. This type of microphone helps to reduce sound reverberation inside the studio or back-
ground noises.
Every directional microphone will have a `proximity' effect: if you talk close to it (5-20 cm), your voice will
be `coloured'. The low tones in your voice will get boosted. This is not necessarily bad: it gives a voice a
warmer and `closer' blend; you may like it. If you like your voice cool, you can however eliminate this
effect.
9.1 1
Many directional microphones have an M/S-switch. In the S-position (S stands for `speech') the proximity
effect is cancelled. The S-position should only be used if you want to eliminate the effect, and if you are
really speaking close. In the M-position (M for `music'), the frequency response is flat. This position is used
if you are speaking from far away, or if you speak close and you want the `close' effect.
Contact Noise
Contact noise (some kind of rumble) is caused by touching or handling a microphone. This is mainly
because the cable connector will tug at the microphone itself. There are two remedies: holding the micro-
phone cable in a loop in your hand (very effective) and using the very low tone cut-off filter - for tones
below 80 or 100 Hz - that may be built into the microphone.
Most condenser microphones cannot be hand-held, and, even when used with a stand, they should be pro-
tected against shock or vibration.
Reverberation and background noise
There are two basic rules for obtaining clear `dry' voice recordings (if sound reverberation from the walls of
a room makes the voice `wet', and less easily understood) and to decrease background noises (when
recording outside).
Rule 1: Use a directional microphone, instead of an omnidirectional microphone. The voice level will
remain the same, but the amount of reverberated sound or background noise will decrease. Reverberation
and surrounding noise come from all directions, not just from the sensitive direction of the microphone.
Rule 2: Get closer to the speaker. Direct sound from his voice will increase, while the reverberated sound
or background noise remains the same. You will, in both cases, get a clearer voice. Should you get pops,
from going too close, then try this: speak over the microphone, not into it!
Microphone Types
Lavaliere microphones are dynamic microphones, built specifically to be hung around the neck or attached
to clothing. A Lavaliere microphone that is presently in wide use is the AKG D109.
Some other microphones suitable for reporters are the Beyer SM 69, and the AKG D105, both of which are
dynamic. The AKG CMS with CK22 capsule is an omnidirectional condenser microphone, designed for
close speaking and outside use.
Lip microphones are designed for close speaking as well. They are used with advantage in situations with
very much surrounding noise, for instance sports fields, public meetings
9.1 2
2. SOUND RECORDING MACHINES
Cassette recorders
Cassettes are plastic cases with a length of narrow recording tape, ready for loading into a cassette
recorder. Should you use cassettes, the standard 'Low-Noise' C-60 type is to be preferred. C-120 ('Long-
Play') cassettes tend to turn tape into spaghetti, inside your cassette recorder.
Cassette recorders for reportage work are cheap and handy. There are major problems, however, with reli-
ability and sound quality (tape hiss). Cassette recorders are vulnerable to wear and tear. In humid climates,
cassettes easily give `screaming' on play-back, which is caused by mechanical imperfections and by tape
friction.
Use of automatic level control is sometimes necessary to avoid excessive tape hiss, but it should not really
be used in professional recording.
One professional cassette recorder is the Sony TC-D5PRO. For editing, cassettes are dubbed on 1/4-inch
tape.
Reel to reel tape recorders
Tape recorders use 1/4-inch tape on open reels. For news, single-track machines are recommended.
Operating speeds are 9.5 cm/s or 19 cm/s (which is recommended for easy splicing and good sound quali-
ty).
Tape recorders are reliable and rugged. Some of the recorders commonly used for reportage are those of
the Uher Report series, the Stellavox and the Nagra 4.
Cartridge machines
Cartridges are plastic cases containing endless loops of 1/4-inch tape on a single reel. In a cartridge
machine, the tape moves across the open end of the case, being drawn from the hub of the reel, and at
the same time winding up on the reel's outside. Only half the width of the tape is recorded with the sound
signal. The other half is recorded independently with a brief pulse or `pip', automatically applied to the tape
when the sound recording is begun. The machines will `hear' their own pip when the tape loop has been
completely through to where it began, and will then stop immediately. The tape is thus `cued up', ready to
play again at the correct point. Cartridges contain pre-determined lengths of tape, designed to run for a
certain length of time, and are chosen to match the duration of the material they contain.
Tape and tape standardization
It is recommended that your organization standardize the type of tape it uses and align all recorders for
that tape. Far too many broadcasting systems in the region use various long-play, non-professional tapes
on professional machines - a combination which does not give good value for money.
9.1 3
Roughly, modern tapes of all makes fall into two categories: consumer type (but often labeled as `profes-
sional') semi-matt backed long-play tapes and professional matt backed tapes such as BASF SPR50LH,
Agfa PEM468, Ampex 406 or Scotch 206. Many Asian and Pacific organizations use various types of con-
sumer-type long-play tape.
Every tape recorder should operate with record bias and magnetization level adjusted (internally) for one
particular make of tape. If you record on just any commercial tape on a recorder that is factory
adjusted for one make of professional tape, you lose most advantages of a professional tape
recorder. Your technician can adjust the recorder for the tape you are using. The investment in a profes-
sional recorder justifies the use of just one make of good professional tape; if not, you should use semi-
professional recorders and consumer-type longplay tape for better economy.
Every tape is recorded with either IEC or NAB equalization. These are two different standards for an elec-
tronic procedure to reduce tape hiss. The NAB standard is more widely used throughout the world.
Broadcasting organizations, however, tend to favour IEC (also called CCIR). The confusion is unfortunate.
A broadcasting organization should decide on a single standard. A tape should be played back accord-
ing to the same standard as used when it was recorded. Otherwise sound colouration will occur. Some
tape recorders can play back according to both standards: there is an IEC/NAB switch. It should then be
known to which standard the recording was made.
Level control
Professional equipment is designed to handle sound signals at a standard level. Meters are usually built
into the recording equipment, so the user can read the level of the sound being fed into the equipment.
Level controls allow you to adjust the level of the sound signal you are recording to the standard magneti-
zation level on the tape. The meters are either VU-meters (Volume Unit meters) or PPM-meters (Peak
Program Meters). Competent use of the controls ensures good sound quality.
VU-meters have a scale marked from - 30 dB, over 0 dB, to + 3 dB. The part from 0 to + 3 dB is marked
in red. You can also recognize a VU-meter from the inscription `VU', or by the relatively slow meter move-
ments. For speech, you should adjust the meter so that the peak readings do not go over 0 dB. As
the needle movements are not very consistent, it is safe to adjust for peaks going no higher than - 3
dB. Better set the level a little too low, than too high.
PPM-meters have a scale marked from - 60 dB, over 0 dB, to + 10 dB, or alternatively a numbered scale
from 1 to 7. With a PPM-meter, the needle moves very fast when going up, and slowly (say within a few
seconds) when going down. The needle gives consistent peak readings. It should be possible to adjust
exactly for peak readings of 0 dB, or 6 on the numbered scale.
You have to re-adjust whenever a new position of the speaker, a changing distance to the microphone, or
changes of mean loudness give you different peak readings.
If you set the recording sound level too low, you will get too much tape hiss when playing back: the sound
on tape is `drowned' in tape hiss. If it is set too high, your recording will be distorted: the sound will be
`damaged'.
9.1 4
Automatic level control normally should not be used: you will hear excessive background noise during soft-
spoken or silent parts of a speech recording, since the recorder cannot know what part of a speech is
meant to be soft or loud, and will continuously readjust the sound recording level. If the part is soft-spoken,
background noise will be amplified together with the soft sound: you will hear the noise clearly.
3. PORTABLE SOUND MIXERS
Sound mixers or consoles are fairly complex pieces of equipment. They are normally operated by a techni-
cian. Two types are used in mobile radio newsgathering: commentator units and small multichannel mixers.
A commentator unit contains all necessary equipment to broadcast an interview or news comment live
over a one- or two-way link. It is like a very small studio in a suitcase.
A typical example is the Studer 069. It provides three inputs (microphones or telephone lines) and two out-
puts. There are facilities for command communication, microphone mixing and talkback. It is operated by a
technician or the commentator.
Small multichannel sound mixers are used to record on-the-spot. They may be useful for more complex
news recordings. They are normally conceived to work with a portable recorder, but with some extra gear,
live work over lines can be accommodated.
A typical unit would have 4 to 8 switchable (microphone/line) input channels, two output groups with VU- or
PPM-meters, two line-level auxiliary input channels, a line-up tone generator, headphone outputs for moni-
toring and talkback features. Widely used are, for example, the Audix MT-500 and SAM 82 mixers.
4. SOUND TRANSMISSION OVER LINES
Permanent lines are arranged to conduct sound signals to and from studios, control rooms, transmitters
etc. They are normally hired on a long-term basis from the telecommunications agency. These are wide-
band lines: they are especially set up and equalized to handle the full technical range of frequencies.
The narrowband line has a more restricted frequency response, although it may be better than ordinary
dialled telephone lines. It is used to feed urgent sound material to and from the studio. These lines are
rented in advance for special purposes from the telecommunications agency. Some broadcasting organiza-
tions have lines permanently arranged or available at short notice to points of special interest. The lines are
direct lines, i.e. they do not pass through automatic telephone exchanges.
You may encounter the terms 'two-wire line' or 'four-wire line', sometimes 'one-pair line' and 'two-pair line'; it
really means the same. In broadcasting work, we use two wires (or one pair) to send a signal in one direc-
tion only. (With a telephone conversation, normally two wires, i.e. a single pair, is used for transmission in
both directions.)
9.1 5
You could be asked whether you want a two-wire line or a four-wire line; what you are really being asked
is: `Do you want to send. a signal both way? Depending on what you want to do, you may need a one way
`pair' or a two-way pair of `pairs'! If you want, for instance, a programme link and a return link for cue pur-
poses, you should ask for two pairs, i.e. four wires.
5. TELEPHONE RECORDINGS
With dialled telephone lines, you will always be plagued with insufficient sound quality, clicks, pops, ringing
tones and cross-talk from other conversations. If on dialling first, the line is too bad, hang up and dial again
- hoping for a better line!
Reports can either be spoken directly into the telephone mouthpiece, or else they can be recorded before-
hand. If you send recorded messages, you will need an appropriate cable to connect your recorder to the
telephone mouthpiece. Many telecommunications authorities forbid any tampering with equipment, so its
advisable that this be checked carefully beforehand. There are some adapters which allow playback of
recorded messages without any tampering with the telephone.
Some equipment was recently introduced in order to improve sound transmission quality over telephone
lines. (Rood's portable BAX Reporter System 112, Rood's Extended Bandwidth System, the Comrex Line
Extender). Do not expect wonders, however. Only by using two telephone lines at the same time or by
replaying recorded material at half speed can you really get very significant improvements.
Broadcasting Live Telephone Conversations
Live conversations, dialled and then broadcast from a studio, introduce a new problem. In order to connect
a studio, which has a news announcer live on air, to the telephone network, one needs a two-to four-wire
adapter bridge. The telephone conversation is on two wires, but the studio side uses two pairs (four wires):
one pair for the incoming signal from the correspondent, and one for outgoing signal, which comes via the
mixer from a studio microphone. In- and outgoing signal will be mixed in the studio into a programme.
Technical considerations require that the adapter bridge be adjusted carefully to the characteristics of the
telephone line. But these are unknown, until the line is dialled! Studer makes an automatic two-to four-wire
adapter bridge for this purpose.
6. WIRELESS MICROPHONES AND MICROPHONE TRANSMITTERS
Wireless microphones are microphones with a small, low power transmitter built in. A complete set-up
includes a matching receiver. The set can link a reporter to a newsgathering car. A quality system should
carry a sound signal over a distance of a few hundred meters. Many wireless microphones are built for stu-
dio conditions. They may perform well only when there is a line-of-sight path from the transmitter to the
receiver.
Wireless Microphone Transmitters: For newsgathering, where transmission outdoors, often over longer
distances, is required, it may be advisable to use a separate transmitting unit, i.e. not built into the micro-
9.1 6
phone itself. Transmission power will then. be higher. Apart from the programme link, there may be need
for a return link. This enables cues and commands to be given in two directions.
Suitable microphone transmitters are manufactured by Comrex and Sennheiser (the SER series).
7. RADIO NEWSGATHERING VEHICLES
A newsgathering vehicle may simply be a car for getting a reporter with his tape recorder into the field. It
might be modified to include a two-way radio telephone for assignment purposes. Or it might be a small
mobile recording unit, equipped with a sound mixer, a few recorders, wireless and wired microphones and
auxiliary gear. This could fit into a sedan, an estate car, a four-wheel drive vehicle or a small van. If it is
foreseen to be used for sudden and unexpected news events, it would be equipped with a wireless link to
the studio. For events that are known beforehand, wire links could be accommodated.
Depending on the application, the following items may be included: air conditioning, acoustic treatment,
battery packs for operation without external mains power supply, DC-to-DC or DC-to-AC power inverters,
telescopic antenna mast, radio telephone, off-air receiver, cable reels and storage space.
The sound equipment would include a small sound mixer with enough inputs and outputs: flexibility
demands numerous microphones and tie lines. Tape recorders would be compact. Presumably, portable
machines would be chosen. There would be monitoring, talkback and interpersonal communication facili-
ties. For line links, line amplifiers and equalisers are needed. For wireless links, there will be a suitable
transmitter, receiver and antenna.
Intercom deserves special attention. For roving reporters, wireless systems are required. These can be
simple walkie-talkie paging systems or more sophisticated ones. Comrex's CTA Cue System is designed
specifically for Radio ENG crews.
Some builders of radio newsgathering vehicles are Audix, Midwest and Standard Telephone and Radio.
8. WIRELESS NEWS LINKS
Wireless Link Cars
Wireless link cars are fitted with a two-way radio telephone for communication with `headquarters', a car
radio for receiving the public programmes (for cue purposes, etc.) and with a high quality transmitter, which
realises a programme link to the studio. Of course, a typical `Radio ENG' vehicle is equipped to perform
other functions as well, such as mixing, recording and work over line links. `Radio ENG' is a bit of an awk-
ward term - it comes from television broadcasting, where 'ENG' means: Electronic News Gathering.
9.1 7
Link Transmitters
Link transmitters must be capable of continuous operation without breakdown - conventional communica-
tion transmitters often work only on intermittent duty. Their sound transmission quality must meet broad-
casting requirements, regarding frequency response, noise and distortion.
There is a range of linking transmitters available, ranging from devices designed to be mounted in cars to
hand-held devices. The former usually have 15 W transmission power, or higher. The hand-held units have
2.5 W - 3 W outputs. The hand-held units can be relayed by a larger unit in a link car. Transmission fre-
quency and power levels depend very much on the radio telecommunication regulations in every country.
Transmitter/receiver systems for broadcast wireless links can typically offer frequency ranges from 40 Hz to
10 khz, with a signal-to-noise ratio of 60 dB. This is more than sufficient for speech.
Moseley, Marti, McMartin and Rohde & Schwarz are manufacturers of wireless link equipment.
Wireless Links in FM Radio Band
An attractive way to realize wireless links is by means of a low power transmitter for FM radio, mounted in
a wireless link car, using frequencies in the FM radio band from 87.5 to 108 MHz. Often the Rohde &
Schwarz SU-155 transmitter, with an output power of 50 W, is used for this purpose, with a directional
antenna on a telescopic mast. Such a link can be received with any good FM radio receiver, fitted with a
suitable directional antenna on a mast. With approximate line-of-sight transmission conditions, an apprecia-
ble radius (tens of kilometers) is obtained.
9.1 8

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Here’s the News :

A Radio News Manual

Compiled and Edited by

Original Pagination New Pagination

Unit 5: Bulletin Editing Original Pagination New Pagination

* Radio is the fastest means of disseminating news.

* Radio can be received in areas without electricity.

* Live broadcasting at the location of a news event is easy.

* Illiteracy is not a barrier to radio usage.

Radio also has weaknesses:

* It relies on sound only. Television is more complete.

* Radio is subject to atmospheric and other interferences over long distances.

lingual societies of Asia -and the Pacific.

HERE’S THE NEWS - A RADIO NEWS MANUAL page 1.1 1

HERE’S THE NEWS - A RADIO NEWS MANUAL page 1.1 2

News and current affairs are under the same directions.

HERE’S THE NEWS - A RADIO NEWS MANUAL page 1.1 3

HERE’S THE NEWS - A RADIO NEWS MANUAL page 1.1 4

HERE’S THE NEWS - A RADIO NEWS MANUAL page 1.1 5

HERE’S THE NEWS - A RADIO NEWS MANUAL page 1.1 6

HERE’S THE NEWS - A RADIO NEWS MANUAL page 1.1 7

WHAT IS NEWS? Page 1.2 3

What kind of basic information should audience research provide?

a) Background information about the population

- spare-time activities and interests of people

c) Research on news as a category of output

Never forget that we broadcast for people, not radio sets.

Other regular sources:

-publications: newspapers, both national and foreign magazines and newsletters.

- news conferences, briefings and public meetings

-personal contact with as many people as possible.

Defamation and Contempt of Court

lowing comments are based on the British legal system:

Public interest can cover such cases as:

Once an arrest is made, reports must not prejudice a fair trial.

Not `X appeared in court today for murdering Y.

For more on Crime and Court reporting, see Unit 3, Section 8.

Distortion of news occurs when inaccuracies and untruths replace fact.

ACCURACY + BALANCE + CLARITY = CREDIBILITY

Credibility is journalism's greatest asset.

Radio is the "now" - medium!

C) It's PERSON to PERSON

D) It's HEARD ONLY ONCE

Clarity has top priority

The enemy is confusion

E) It's SOUND ONLY

Don't be vague or ambiguous. Use words that convey concrete images.

Avoid sound clashes, they are distracting to the listener.

Be careful with words that sound alike.

This is also the case with figures (15-50, 19-90 etc.)

Punctuation is absolutely vital.

"The chairman of the association", said Mr. Khader, "is a liar".

Having written the script, read it aloud.

Verbs do the work

Whenever possible, use verbs in the active voice

Use the present tense

The Burmese Navy has arrested a Thai trawler.

to expand public libraries very difficult.

Try to avoid the negative

Punctuate for sound

DO'S AND DONT'S

- Avoid needless repetition. Don't say the same thing twice.

- The simpler the syntax of a sentence, the better.