NDT Lesson 1 - 8 PDF

PREPARED BY: George L.
Pherigo
Director of Education
American Society for Nondestructive Testing. Inc.
REVIEWED AND EDITED BY THE FOLLOWING MEMBERS OF THE

EDUCATIONAL COUNCIL OF ASNT:
Boyd W. Brown
Argonne National Laboratory
Kinney C. McKeel
General Electric Co.
W. C. Morrey
Ebasco Services
Phillip A. Olkle
Yankee Atomic Electric Co.
Allen Reynolds
Stone & Webster Corp.
Ward d. Rummel
Martin Marietta Corp.
A. J. Schwarber
Lawrence Livermore Laboratories
Albert L. Smith
Westinghouse Hanford Co.
John L. Summers
Rockwell Int ernational
Paul H. Todd
Martin Marietta Corp.
Published by The American Society for Nondestructive Testing

4153 Arlington Caller # 28518 Columbus. Ohio 43228
Copyright© by The American Society for Nondestructive Testing. Inc. All

rights reserved.
Portions of this manual have been taken from the General Dynamics
Corporation’s Classroom Training Handbook CT 6-4, Ultrasonic Testing. And
Programmed Instruction Handbooks PI-4-1, Introduction and PI-4-4, Ultrasonic
Testing. These portions are subject to General Dynamics Cooperation’s copyright
1967.
Printed in the United State of America
Non Destructive Testing (NDT) -1- External training services : PT. Diametral Dharma Persada
STUDENT’S GUIDE
NDT TRAINING PROGRAM
ULTRASONIC METHOD
I INTRODUCTION TO THE ULTRASONIC TRAINING PACKAGE

The training materials in this package are designed to provide a basic knowledge of the
fundamentals of ultrasonic testing. The training program that you are participating in will
contain the following classroom hours of instruction to present the information as
suggested in the ASNT publication SNT-IC-IA. Recommended Practice, June 1980
Edition.
Level 1 Training will include lectures on all 14 lesson with approximately 2.9 hours per
lesson. The student should assume the responsibility for reading all assignments,
attending lectures, and participating in class discussions. Short exams will be
administrated after each lesson to provide the student with a measure of progress and to
stimulate study.
II CONTENTS OF TRAINING PACKAGE

Your training package contains the following materials with specific instructions and
assignments to be given by the course instructor.
1. STUDENT PACKAGE
A. Students’ Guide which outline the purpose, content and use of the training
materials.
B. 1 Classroom Training Handbook (CT-6.4) which serves as the major text for the
training course.
C. 1 set of individual lecture guide packets on the fundamentals of ultrasonic
testing the lecture guide materials are provided with each lesson and are
identical to the transparencies used by the instructor during the lecture. During
the lecture, the student should use the guide to make additional notes. and the
guide will then become valuable for future study .
D. 1 packet of exams. The instructor may elect to remove the exams from your
packet poor to starting the course and administer them as each lesson is
completed. An exam will be furnished for each of the 14 lesson in the training
course.
2. INSTRUCTOR PACKAGE
A. The instructor’s package contains all of the information that you have with the
addition of lecture guide transparencies and exam keys.
B. At the option of the instructor a set of filmstrips may be used to provide additional
depth and clanty .
C. At the option of the instructor, the programmable instruction handbook may be
used for additional assignments.
D. Several types of certificates are available from ASNT and may be issued at the
option of the instructor.
III OUTLINE OF LESSONS AND RELATED READING ASSIGNMENTS

The reading assignments will be made by the instructor and will correlate with the lectures
the Classroom Training Handbook (CT-6-4) and programmed instruction Handbooks (PI-
4-4) follow the lesson in this training course in the following order.
Lesson 1 Applications, Training, and Certification
CT-6-4, Chapter 1 all
SNT-TC-1A all
Lesson 2 Ultrasonic, Principles

CT-6-4, Chapter 2 2-5 to 2-8
PI-4-4, Volume 1, Chapter 1 all
PI-4-4, Volume 1, Chapter 2 2-1 to 2-6
Lesson 3 Equipment Controls

CT-6-4, Chapter 2 2-8 to 2-16
PI-4-4, Volume 2, Chapter 4 4-1 to 4- 60
Lesson 4 Wave Propagation, Reflection, and Refraction

CT 6-4, Chapter 2 2-16 to 2-31
Lesson 5 Couplants, Material Characteristics, Beam Spread

CT-6-4, Chapter 2 2-26 to 2-36
Lesson 6 Attenuation, Impedance, and Resonance

CT-6-4, Chapter 2 2-23 to end
PI-4-4, Volume 1, Chapters 2 & 4 all
PI-4-4, Volume 2, Chapter 4 4-61 to end
Lesson 7 Screen Presentations, Angle Beam Inspection With

UT Calculator
CT-6-4, Chapter 3 3-3 to 3-12
PI-4-4, Volume 3, Chapter 3 3-60 to end
Lesson 8 Transducers, Standard Reference Blocks

CT-6-4, Chapter 3 3-3 to 3-12
Lesson 9 Immersion Inspection

CT-6-4, Chapter 4 4-1 to 4-18
Lesson 10 Contact Testing, Longitudinal & Shear Waves, Shell’s Law

CT-6-4, Chapter 4 4-19 to 4-28
Lesson 11 Applications of Angle Beam Contact Testing

CT-6-4, Chapter 4, 4-19 to 4-31
Lesson 12 Nonrelevant Ultrasonic Indications

Lesson 13 Classification of Discontinuities in UT

CT-6-4, Chapter 7 7-1 to 7-7
PI-4-4, Chapters 1 through 7 all
Lesson 14 Identification and Compensation of Discontinuities

Lesson 1
BASIC APPLICATIONS OF ULTRASONICS
ULTRASONICS IS A VERSATILE INSPECTION TECHNIQUE, IT IS USED TO TEST

A VARIETY OF BOTH METALLIC AND NON METALLIC PRODUCTS SUCH AS
WELDS FORGINGS, CASTINGS, SHEET, TUBING, PLASTICS AND CERAMICS.
ULTRASONICS HAS AN ADVANTAGE OF DETECTING SUBSURFACE

DISCONTINUITIES WITH ACCESS TO ONLY ONE SIDE OF THE SPECIMEN.
THE OBJECTIVE OF ULTRASONIC TESTING IS TO ENSURE PRODUCT

RELIABILITY BY MEASNS OF:
1. OBTAINING INFORMATION RELATED TO DISCONTINUITIES

2. DISCLOSING THE NATURE OF THE DISCONTINUITY IMPAIRING THE
USEFULNESS OF THE PART.
3. SEPARATING ACCEPTABLE AND UNACCEPTABLE MATERIALS IN
ACORDANCE WITH PREDETERMINED STANDARDS
TRAINING AND CERTIFICATION
IT IS IMPORTANT THAT THE TECHNICIAN AND SUPERVISOR BE QUALIFIED IN

THE ULTRASONIC METHOD BEFORE THE TECHNIQUE IS USED AND TEST
RESULTS EVALUATED
THE AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTING RECOMMENDS

THE USE OF THEIR DOCUMENT “RECOMMENDED PRACTICE NO. SNT-TC-1A.”
THIS DOCUMENT PROVIDES THE EMPLOYER WITH THE NECESSARY GUIDE

LINES TO PROPERLY QUALIFY AND CERTIFY THE NDT TECHNICIAN IN ALL
METHODS.
TO COMPLY WITH THIS DOCUMENT THE EMPLOYER MUST ESTABLISH A

“WRIT TEN PRACTICE” WHICH DESCRIBES IN DETAIL HOW THE TECHNICIAN
WILL BE TRAINED, EXAMINED AND CERTIFIED.
THE STUDENT IS ADVISED TO STUDY THE CURRENT EDITION OF SNT-TC-1A

TO DETERMINE THE RECOMMENDED INITIAL NUMBER OF HOURS OF
CLASSROOM INSTRUCTION AND MONTHS OF EXPERIENCE NECESSARY TO
BE CERTIFIED AS AN ULTRASONIC TESTING TECHNICIAN
UT Lecture Guide
Lesson 1
CERTIFICATION OF NDT PERSONNEL IS THE RESPONSIBILITY OF THE
EMPLOYER AND IS USUALLYAT THREE LEVELS
LEVEL I PERFORM SPECIFIC CALIBRATIONS, SPECIFIC TESTS, AND

S P E C I F I C E VA L U AT I O N S A C C O R D I N G TO W R I T T E N
INSTRUCTIONS.
LEVEL II SET UP AND CALIBRATE EQUIPMENT AND INTERPRET AND

EVALUATE RESULTS WITH RESPECT TO CODES, STANDARDS
AND SPECIFICATIONS. MUST BE ABLE TO PREPARE WRITTEN
INSTRUCTIONS AND REPORT TEST RESULTS
LEVEL III RESPONSIBLE FOR ESTABLISHING TECHNIQUES,

INTERPRETING CODES, AND DESIGNATING THE TEST METHOD
AND TECHNIQUE TO BE USED. MUST HAVE A PRACTICAL
BACKGROUND IN THE TECHNOLOGY AND BE FAMILIAR WITH
OTHER COMMONLY USED METHODS OF NDT.
THE SNT. TC. 1A DOCUMENT RECOMMENDS THAT LEVEL I AND II NDT

TECHNICIANS BE EXAMINED IN THE FOLLOWING AREAS
A. GENERAL EXAMINATION
B. SPECIFIC EXAMINATION
C. PRACTICAL EXAMINATION
UT Lecture Guide
Lesson 1
ASNT PROVIDES A SERVICE TO THE INDUSTRY BY PROVIDING LEVEL III
EXAMINATIONS IN THE BASIC AND METHOD AREAS, BECAUSE OF THE
INDIVIDUAL REQUIREMENTS OF THE MANY INDUSTRIES USING NDT, THE
SPECIFIC EXAMINATION IS STILL THE RESPONSIBILITY OF THE EMPLOYER.
THE FOLLOWING FLOW CHART INDICATES THE PATHS THAT CAN BE TAKEN
TO C E RT I F I E D A C C O R D I N G TO T H E S N T- T C - 1 A D O C U M E N T.
ASNT CERTIFICATION WITHOUT EXAMINATION

Basic, Method, Specific
15 years Education/ Experience
ASNT CERTIFICATION BY EXAMINATION
CUSTOMER ACCEPTANCE
Basic, Method
LEVEL III QUALIFICATIONS

CERTIFICATION FERIFIED AND
LEVEL III
PER DOCUMENTED
CERTIFICATION
RECOMMENDED PER THE
ISSUED BY THE
PRACTICE EMPLOYERS
EMPLOYER
SNT TC-1A WRITTEN
June 1980 EDITION PRACTICE
EXAMINATION BY THE EMPLOYER
EXAMINATION BY OUTSIDE AGENCY
EMPLOYER WAIVES EXAMINATION
Notes :
Certificate issued to individual
This documentation as recommended
in paragraph 5, 6-3.3, 6.3.4 and
9 of the SNT-TC- 1A 1980 edition
Name
UT LESSON 1
QUIZ
1. The selection of one test method over another is usually the decision
of the Level I technician performing the test.
2. ASNT provides a service for examining Level I, II and III personnel in
the General and specific areas.
3. The responsibility of issuing a certificate to the NDT technician is
always retained by the employer in compliance with the SNT-TC-1A
document.
4. If the SNT-TC-1A document is to be used as recommended guideline,
the “written Practice” must be submitted to ASNT for approval.
5. If the SNT-TC-1A guidelines are followed, the Level III technician
should have a knowledge of other commonly used methods of NDT
even though certification is needed only in the ultrasonic area.
6. A Level I technician performing an ultrasonic test is permitted to accept
or reject the part provided that written instructions or procedures are
given to him by a Level II or Level III. (in accordance with SNT-TC-1A)
7. To comply with the guidelines of SNT-TC-1A all three levels of
technicians must take a “General”, “Practical” and “Specific” test it
examinations are used to determine certification.
8. The June 1980 Edition of SNT-TC-1A permits the employer to waive
an examination for Level III personnel provided that documentation is
on file showing the technician’s qualifications.
9. It is essential that every employer that uses the SNT-TC-1A document
establish a “written Practice”
10. If an employer does not have a Level III in his company the services of
an outside agency may be retained to perform these functions
11. An advantage of ultrasonics is that it reveals internal discontinuities
with access to only one side of the part being inspected.
12. Ultrasonic inspection techniques can be used without impairing the
future usefulness of the material
Lesson 2
ULTRASONIC PRINCIPLES
IN ULTRASONIC TESTING WE USE SOMETHING CALLED “ULTRASONIC
VIBRATIONS.” WE MUST KNOW TWO FACTS ABOUTA VIBRATION
1. A VIBRATION IS A BACK AND FORTH MOVEMENT.

2. A VIBRATION IS ENERGY IN MOTION
A DEPRESSION OF A SURFACE FROM ITS NORMAL POSITION IS CALLED A

DISPLACEMENT.
RUBER BALL
VIBRATIONS PASS THROUGH A SOLID MATERIALAS A SUCCESSION OF PART I

CLE DISPLACEMENTS. THIS CAN BE VISUALIZED AS SHOWN BELOW:
1 2 3 4 5
THE STRUCTURE OF A MATERIAL IS ACTUALLY MANY SMALL PARTICLES OR

GROUPS OF ATOMS.
THESE PARTICLES HAVE NORMAL OR REST POSITIONS, AND CAN BE

DISPLACED FROM THESE POSITIONS BY SOME FORCE WHEN THE FORCE IS
REMOVED, THE PARTICLES WILL TEND TO RETURN TO THEIR ORIGINAL
POSITIONS.
UT Lecture Guide
Lesson 2
ENERGY IS TRANSMITTED THROUGH A SOLID MATERIAL BY A SERIES OF
SMALL MATERIAL DISPLACEMENTS WITHIN THE MATERIAL.
THE TRANSMISSION OF ULTRASONIC VIBRATIONS THROUGH A MATERIAL IS

RELATED TO THE ELASTIC PROPERTIES OF THE MATERIAL.
IF YOU TAP A METAL SURFACE, THE SURFACE MOVES INWARD, CAUSING A

DISPLACEMENT.
PLATE STRUCK
THIN PLATE WITH HAMMER
SUPPORT
VIEW A
SINCE THE METAL IS ELASTIC THE SURFACE WILL TEND TO MOVE BACK TO
ITS ORIGINAL (REST) POSITION. THE SURFACE WILL ALSO MOVE THROUGH
THE ORIGINAL POSITION AND MOVE TO A MAXIMUM DISTANCE IN THE
OPPOSITE DIRECTION
THIS COMPLETE SEQUENCE OF MOVEMENTS IS DEFINED AS A CYCLE.
DIRECTION OF
DIRECTION OF BALL SWING
STRING TRAVEL
STRING B
STRING
A E
BALL C
BALL D
B ONE
CYCLE
A
C PENCIL
PENCIL E
THE TIME REQUIRED FOR SOMETHING TO MOVE THROUGH ONE COMPLETE

CYCLE IS CALLED THE PERIOD
EXAMPLE : IF THE SWINGING BALL ABOVE MOVES OVER PATH ABCDE IN
ONE SECOND, THEN THE PERIOD OF THE CYCLE IS ONE SECOND.
UT Lecture Guide
Lesson 2
THE NUMBER OF CYCLES IN A GIVEN PERIOD OF TIME IS CALLED THE

FREQUENCY.
EXAMPLE: IF THE BALL SWINGS THROUGH THREE COMPLETE CYCLES IN
ONE SECOND, THEN THE FREQUENCY IS 3 CPS (CYCLES PER
SECOND).
IF YOU STRIKE A DRUM, IT HAS A FREQUENCY THAT IS LOW,
APPROXIMATELY 50 CPS.
THE TOP NOTE ON THE PIANO HAS A HIGHER FREQUENCY, APPROXIMATELY
4100 CPS.
THE UNIT OF FREQUENCY USED TO DENOTE ONE CYCLE PER SECOND IS
HERTZ (ABBREVIATED Hz). ONE CYCLE PER SECOND (CPS) IS EQUAL TO
ONE HERTZ (Hz), 2 CPS = 2 Hz, ETC.
SOUND TRAVELS IN METAL AS WELL AS IN AIR SOUND IS A VIBRATION AND
HAS A RANGE OF FREQUENCIES
MAN CAN ONLY HEAR VIBRATIONS (SOUND) UP TO ABOUT 20.000 Hz.
HOWEVER. SOUND FROM AN ULTRASONIC TESTING UNIT IS ABOUT 5,000.000
Hz. (5 MEGAHERTZ)
VIBRATIONS ABOVE THE HUMAN HEARING RANGE ARE CALLED
ULTRASONIC VIBRATIONS.
THE TWO TERMS. SOUND AND VIBRATIONS, AS WE WILL USE THEM WILL
MEAN THE SAME THING.
THE BEST WAY TO DEFINE SOUND IS TO SAY THAT IT IS A VIBRATION THAT
TRANSMITS ENERGY BYA SERIES OF SMALL MATERIAL DISPLACEMENTS
JACK HAMMER
UT Lecture Guide
Lesson 2
ULTRASONIC TESTING IS THE PROCESS OF APPLYING ULTRASONIC SOUND
TO A SPECIMEN AND DETERMINING ITS SOUNDNESS, THICKNESS, OR SOME
PHYSICAL PROPERTY.
THE ENERGY IS ORIGINATED IN SOMETHING CALLED A “TRANSDUCER”

WHICH CAUSES MATERIAL DISPLACEMENT WITHIN THE SPECIMEN.
A TRANSDUCER IS A DEVICE THAT CONVERTS ENERGY FROM ONE FROM TO

ANOTHER.
EXAMPLE : ELECTRICAL ENERGY TO MECHANICAL, OR MECHANICAL TO

ELECTRICAL
A SPEAKER IN A RADIO CONVERTS ELECTRICAL ENERGY TO A
BACK AND FORTH MECHANICAL MOVEMENT
VIEW “A” BELOW ILLUSTRATES THE “PIEZOELECTRIC EFFECT” ELECTRICAL
ENERGY IS APPLIED THROUGH TWO WIRES CONNECTED TO A CRYSTAL,
CAUSING THE CRYSTAL TO VIBRATE.
THE TERMS CRYSTAL AND TRANSDUCER ARE USED INTERCHANGEABLY IN
THIS LESSON.
CRYSTAL
TRANSDUCER
SOUND
WIRE
VIBRATION
ELECTRICAL ENERGY
WIRE
VIEW A VIEW B
ELECTRICAL ENERGY CAUSES A PIEZOELECTRIC CRYSTAL TO EXPAND AND

CONTRACT, FORMING MECHANICAL VIBRATIONS. A PIEZOELECTRIC
TRANSDUCER CAN ALSO CONVERT MECHANICAL ENERGY TO ELECTRICAL
ENERGY. THEREFOR, A TRANSDUCER CAN BOTH SEND AND RECEIVE
ENERGY.
SPECIMEN
NOTE:
TRANSDUCER SOUND IS REFLECTED
WITHIN SPECIMEN AND
RETURN TO TRANSDUCER
VIEW B
UT Lecture Guide
Lesson 2
ENERGY TRANSMITTED BY A TRANSDUCER CAN BE EITHER PULSED OR
CONTINUOUS.
PULSED ULTRASOUND IS DEFINED AS SHORT GROUPS OF TRANSMITTED
VIBRATIONS BEFORE AND AFTER WHICH THE TRANSDUCER CAN ACT AS A
RECEIVER.
STEEL, WATER AND OIL WILL TRANSMIT ULTRASOUND VERY WELL, BUT AIR
PRESENTS A PROBLEM.
TRANSDUCER
OIL
STEEL
SPECIMEN
AIR IS A POOR TRANSMITTER OF ULTRASOUND BECAUSE THE PARTICLE

DENSITY IS SO LOW THAT IT IS DIFFICULT TO TRANSMIT SOUND ENERGY
FROM PARTICLE TO PARTICLE THAT IS WHY WE PUT OIL OR GREASE
BETWEEN THE TRANSDUCER AND THE SPECIMEN.
THE PARTICLE DENSITY OF A MATERIAL HELPS DETERMINE THE VELOCITY
OF SOUND. THE VELOCITY OF SOUND WILL CHANGE AS IT MOVES FROM
ONE MEDIUM TO ANOTHER AS SHOWN BELOW. THE ELASTICITY OF THE
MATERIAL IS ALSO A FA CTOR.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
0.33 KM/SEC 1.48 KM/SEC 5.9 KM/SEC
AIR WATER STEEL
VISUALIZE THAT THE BALLS SHOWN ABOVE REPRESENT THE INTERNAL

STRUCTURE OF AIR, WATER AND STEEL.
THE IMPULSE MOVING THROUGH THE ROW OF BALLS CAN BE COMPARED
TO A PULSE OF ULTRASONIC SOUND
UT Lecture Guide
Lesson 2
A PRACTICAL EXAMPLE OF THE VELOCITY OF SOUND IN DIFFERENT
MATERIALS IS SHOWN BELOW.
PISTON
TRANSDUCER
WATER
STEEL
SPECIMEN
IT WILL TAKE LONGER FOR THE SOUND TO TRAVEL THROUGH THE WATER
THAN THROUGH THE STEEL. THE SOUND VELOCITY IN STEEL IS
APPROXIMATELY FOUR TIMES GREATER THAN IN WATER.
A WAVELENGTH IS CONSIDERED TO BE THE DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO
SUCCESSIVE DISPLACEMENTS.
TRANSDUCER
WAVELENGTH
A A A B A
THE WAVELENGTH CAN ALSO BE DEFINED AS THE DISTANCE A WAVE

TRAVELS DURING ONE COMPLETE CYCLE.
PISTON TRANSDUCER
A B VELOCITY V
SOUND WAVE
1 4 3 2 1
VIEW A VIEW B
THE SYMBOL IS USED TO REPRESENT A WAVELENGTH AND IS CALLED

“LAMBDA”
UT Lecture Guide
Lesson 2
THE ILLUSTRATION BELOW SHOWS A TRANSDUCER VIBRATING AT A FIXED
FREQUENCY (f) AND TRANSMITTING SOUND WAVES INTO THE SPECIMEN.
VELOCITY
TRANSDUCER
SOUND WAVES
THESE SOUND WAVES MOVE AT A FIXED VELOCITY (v) THROUGH THE

SPECIMEN.
THE WAVELENGTH CAN BE CHANGED IF THE FREQUENCY OF THE
TRANSDUCER VIBRATION CHANGES.
v VELOCITY
= WAVELENGTH =
f FREQUENCY
EXAMPLE: YOU CAN SHORTEN THE WAVELENGTH BY INCREASING THE
FREQUENCY
WAVELENGTH IS A RATIO OF A FIXED VALUE (VELOCITY) DIVIDED BY A
VARIABLE (FREQUENCY).
IN PRACTICAL SITUATIONS, THE SMALLEST DISCONTINUITY YOU CAN FIND
WITH ULTRASONIC TESTING IS ABOUT ½ LAMBDA (WAVELENGTH)
THEREFORE . TO DETECT SMALLER DEFECTS, YOU WILL NEED
TRANSDUCERS THAT PRODUCE HIGHER FREQUENCIES.
EXAMPLE: WHAT WOULD BE THE SMALLEST DISCONTINUITY THAT YOU

COULD FIND IN A STEEL SPECIMEN WITH A VELOCITY OF
6KM/SEC USING A TRANSDUCER WITH A FREQUENCY OF 3
MEGAHERTZ (MHz).
5
6 X 10 CM/SEC
= = 2 MILLIMETERS
3 Mhz
IF THE SMALLEST DEFECT DETECTABLE IS ½ LAMBDA. THEN

THE ANSWER IS 1 MILLIMETER OR 0.040 INCHES.
UT LESSON 2
WORKSHEET
A The distance between two displacements is called the WAVELENGTH. This is

the distance a wave advances white a particle makes one complete cycle.
B The symbol used to represent a wavelength “ ” is called LAMBDA.
C The wavelength is a ratio of a fixed value (VELOCITY) divided by a variable
(FREQUENCY).
VELOCITY v
WAVELENGTH = ------------------- or = ----------
FREQUENCY f
D For the purpose of this exercise, consider that the smallest discontinuity
detectable using pulse echo testing is one half lambda.
1. What is the smallest defect you can detect with a 2 Mhz probe inspecting a
steel specimen with a velocity of 60 x 105 cm/sec? = (answer in inches)
-
(1 mm equals . 040 )
2. What is the smallest detect could detect if you increased the probe
frequency to 5 Mhz? (Answer in inches)
3. What probe below would detect the smallest detect if you were inspecting a
5
steel specimen with a velocity of 5.9 x 10 cm/sec?
What is the smallest each of the below would detect? (Answer in inches)
______ 2.5 Mhz
______ 5.0 Mhz
______ 10.0 Mhz
4. With everything else equal. Would a wavelength be longer in water or steel?
UT LESSON 2
QUIZ
1. Relative to ultrasonic testing, air is considered a good conductor and for

ths reason ultrasound will carry long distances in air.
2. Particle density of a material has a direct relationship to the velocity of
sound in that material.
3. The symbol used to represent a wavelength is called “Shepda.”
4. With everything else equal, the wavelength in water would be shorter than
a wavelength in steel.
5. To understand our definition of ultrasonics, a steel ball is considered to be
more elastic than a lead ball
6. Man can hear sound up to approximately 5.000.000 Hz.
7. Vibration pass through a solid material as a series of particle
displacements.
8. The velocity of sound is slower in steel than in water.
9. The number of cycles in a given period of time is called the frequency.
10. For the purposes of this lesson, ½ the wavelength is considered to be the
smallest discontinuity that can be detected with ultrasonics.
5
11. If the longitudinal velocity in aluminum is 6.5 x 10 cm/sec and you are
using a 2.5 MHz probe, what is the smallest discontinuity you can detect?
(3 pts)
12. The ability of a transducer to convert mechanical energy to electrical and

electrical energy to mechanical is due to the _______________ effect.
13. The distance that an ultrasonic pulse travels while a particle makes one
complete cycle is called ______________
LESSON 3
ULTRASONIC EQUIPMENT
CRT
TIMER RECEIVER
MARKER (RATE PULSER
AMPLIFIER
CIRCUIT GENERATION) CIRCUIT
CIRCUIT
SWEEP
CIRCUIT
TRANSDUCER
TEST
SPECIMEN
POWER (TO EACH CIRCUIT)
SUPPLY DISCONTINUITY
BACK REFLECTION
THE ULTRASONIC PULSE ECHO INSTRUMENT GENERATES HIGH VOLTAGE

ELETRICAL PULSES OF SHORT DURATION. THESE PUYLSES ARE APPLIED TO
THE TRANSDUCER WHICH CONVERTS THEM INTO MECHANICAL
VIBRATIONS THATARE APPLIED TO THE MATERIAL BEING INSPECTED.
A LARGE PERCENTAGE OF THE SOUND IS REFLECTED FROM THE FRONT

SURFACE OF THE TEST PART BACK TO THE TRANSDUCER. THE
R E M A I N D E R I S R E F L E C T E D B Y T H E B A C K S U R FA C E O R
DISCONTINUITIES.
THE SOUND REFLECTED BACK TO THE TRANSDUCER IS CONVERTED
BACK TO ELECTRICAL PULSES. WHICH ARE AMPLIPIED AND DISPLAYED
ON THE CATHODE RAY TUBE (CRT) AS VERTICAL PULSES.
THE A-SCAN DISPAY INDICATES THE DEPTH AND THE AMPLITUDE OF THE
SOUND REFLECTIONS FROM A DISCONTINUITY.
THE AMPLITUDE IS A RELATIVE MEASURE OF THE AMOUNT OF
REFLECTED ENERGY.
UT Lecture Guide
Lesson 3
THERE ARE TWO BASIC ULTRASONIC TEST SYSTEMS:
PULSE-ECHO
SPECIMEN
CATHODE-RAY TUBE COUPLANT
TRANSDUCER
DISCONTINUITY
GENERATOR/INDICATOR
INSTRUMENT COAXIAL CABLE
PULSE-ECHO SYSTEM
RECEIVING
SPECIMEN TRANSDUCER
THROUGH TRANSMISSION
COUPLANT COUPLANT
CATHODE-RAY TUBE
TRANSMITTING
TRANSDUCER
DISCONTINUITY
GENERATOR/INDICATOR
INSTRUMENT COAXIAL CABLE
THROUGH TRANSMISSION SYSTEM
UT Lecture Guide
Lesson 3
PULSE-ECHO IS THE MOST WIDELY USED ULTRASONIC SYSTEM.
SHORT EVENLY TIMED PULSES OF ULTRASONIC WAVES ARE
TRANSMITTED INTO THE M ATERIALS BEING TESTED.
THESE PULSES REFLECT FROM DISCONTINUITIES IN THEIR PATH, OR
FROM ANY BOUNDARY THAT THEY STRIKE.
THE RECEIVED REFLECTIONS ARE THEN DISPLAYED ON A CATHODE RAY
TUBE (CRT)
THE SAME TRANSDUCER CAN BE USED TO TRANSMITAND RECEIVE.
THROUGH TRANSMISSION REQUIRES THE USED OF TWO TRANSDUCERS,
ONE FOR SENDING AND THE OTHER FOR RECEIVING.
EITHER SHORT PULSES OR CONTINUOS WAVES ARE TRANSMITTED INTO
THE MATERIAL.
THE QUALITY OF THE MATERIAL BEING TESTED IS MEASURED IN TERMS OF
ENERGY LOST BYA SOUND BEAM AS IT TRAVELS THROUGH THE MATERIAL
THERE ARE TWO TEST METHODS NORMALLY USED IN ULTRASONIC TESTING

"CONTACT TESTING" WHERE THE TRANSDUCER IS COUPLED TO THE
MATERIAL THROUGH THIN LAYER OF COUPLANT.
" IMMERSION TESTING ". BOTH THE MATERIAL AND THE TRANSDUCER ARE
IMMERSED IN ATANK OF COUPLANT (USUALLY WATER).
UT Lecture Guide
Lesson 3
TO DETERMINE THE LOCATION OF DISCONTINUITIES WITHIN A TEST PART,
THE CRT HORIZONTAL DISPAY IS DEVIDED INTO CONVENIENT INCREMENTS
SUCH AS CENTIMETERS, INCHES, ETC.
A B
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
4"
AT A GIVEN SESNSITIVITY (GAIN) SETTING. THE AMPLITUDE OF THE PIP IS

DETERMINED BY THE STRENGTH OF THE SIGNAL GENERATED BY THE
REFLECTED SOUND WAVE.
THUS, THE CRT DISPLAYS TWO TYPES OF INFORMATION:
1. DISTANCE (TIME) OF THE DISCONTINUITY FROM THE TRANSDUCER
2. RELATIVE MAGNITUDE OF THE REFLECTED ENERGY
FOCUS AND ASTIGMATISM COTROLS. ADJUST THE SHARPNESS OF THE

DISPLAYED SIGNALS
SENSITIVITY OR GAIN CONTROLS. DETERMINE THE AMOUNT OF

AMPLIFICATION THE SIGNALS FROM THE DISCONTINUITY RECIEVED.
INCREASING THE SENSITIVITY (GAIN) INCREASES THE AMPLITUDE OF THE
PIPS ON THE CRT SCREEN.
UT Lecture Guide
Lesson 3
TWO CONTROLS, THE "SWEEP LENGTH" AND "SWEEP DELAY" REGULATE
HOW MUCH OF THE TEST PART IS DISPLAYED AT ONE TIME ON THE CRT, AND
WHAT PORTION OF THE PART IS DISPLAYED.
THE SWEEP LENGTH (MATERIAL CONTROL) EXPANDS OR COMPRESSES
THE DISPLAY ON THE CRTAS SHOWN BELOW:
1 IN. 40 FT
EXPANDED SWEEP COMPRESSED SWEEP

VIEW A VIEW B
THE SWEEP DELAY CONTROLALLOWS ONE TO MOVE THE VIEWING SCREEN

ALONG THE DEPTH OF THE TEST PART.
IN IMMERSION TESTING, THE SWEEP DELAY CAN BE USED TO REMOVE THE
INITIAL PULSE FROM THE CRT.
A - INITIAL PULSE
B - FRONT SURFACE PIP
C - 1ST BACK SURFACE REFLECTION PIP
A B A B
C C
VIEW A VIEW B
UT Lecture Guide
Lesson 3
"PULSE REPETITION RATE" CONTROL REGULATES HOW OFTEN THE PULSE
IS APPLIED. PULSE RATES VARY FROM 50 TO 1200 PULSES PER SECOND OR
MORE.
WHEN THE SWEEP IS LONG, THE PULSE RATE MUST BE LOWER TO ALLOW
ENOUGH TIME FOR THE SWEEP TO BE DISPLAYED BEFORE ANOTHER
PULSE IS TRANSMITTED.
IN SOME INSTRUMENTS THE PULSE RATE IS ADJUSTED AUTOMATICALLY.

INCREASING THE PULSE LENGTH INCREASES THE AMOUNT OF SOUND
ENERGY APPLIED TO THE TEST PART. BUT DECREASES THE RESOLVING
POWER OF THE EQUIPMENT.
THE "PULSE ENERGY" MUST BE INCREASED TO OBTAIN DEEP
PENETRATION OR TO PENETRATE COARSEGRAINED MATERIALS.
THE "REJECT CONTROL" OR "SUPPRESSION CONTROL" IS USED TO
ELIMINATE OR REDUCE "GRASS" OR VERY LOW AMPLITUDE PIPS ALONG
THE BASE OF THE SWEEP LINE. THIS CONTROL MAY AFFECT THE
VERTICAL LINEARITY OF THE PRESENTATION.
A "FLAW ALARM" OR "GATING CIRCUIT" IS USED TO ESTABLISH ZONES

ALONG THE SWEEP LINE WITHIN WHICH PIPS OF PREDETERMINED
AMPLITUDE WILLACTIVATE EITHER AN ALARM OR A RECORDING SYSTEM.
ALARM AMPLITUDE
A A C
B C B
START OF GATE END OF GATE
VIEW A VIEW B
UT Lecture Guide
Lesson 3
“DISTANCE AMPLITUDE CONTROL” . ULTRASONIC TESTING THE
AMPLITUDE OF THE PIP FROM A DISCONTINUITY OF A GIVEN SIZE
DECREASES AS THE DEPTH INCREASES. TO COMPENSATE FOR THIS
“ATTENUATION,” AN ELECTRONIC CONTROL HAS BEEN ADDED TO MANY
ULTRASONIC UNITS.
SOME OF THE COMMON NAMES FOR THIS CONTROL ARE:
DAC - DISTANCE AMPLITUDE CORECTION
TCD - TIME CORRECTED GAIN
STC - SENSITIVITY TIME CONTROL
THIS CONTROL IS VERY USEFUL WHEN USED IN CONDUCTION WITH
THE FLAW ALARM AND WITH RECORDING SYSTEMS.
WITH DAC
WITHOUT DAC
UT LESSON 3
WORKSHEET #1
A. As shown below, many ultrasonic units have 50 divisions along the base line of
the CRT screen. By using the simple formula below, we can make the distance
across the screen represent any distance we wish from about 5 inches to over
100 inches.
The formula used to find the value of each division on the screen below is:
Range x 2
Increment/Division =
100
0 1 2 3 4 5
-2 -2
-1 -1
0 0
-1 -1
-2 -2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
EXAMPLE: If you wanted the entire screen to represent 10, we would find that by
using the formula that, each division on the base line represents 0.2
10 x 2 20
Inc/Div = = = 02”
100 100
B. After you have selected a suitable screen range it is than possible to use the
sweep controls and match the pulses on the CRT to a know thickness calibration
block. This will be discussed in later lessons.
C. Many Ultrasonic units have 100 divisions across the base line instead of 50 in
this case simply divide the range by 100 to find the increment per division.
D. On the next page rill in the CRT screens as instructed.
UT LESSON 3
WORKSHEET #1
On the CRT screens below, draw in the left edge of the first back reflection and at least
one multiple the back echo as if would appear using a normal beam transducer on a
properly calibrated unit
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
A
-2 -2
-2 -2
-1 -1
B
-1 -1
0 0
0 0
-1 -1
-1 -1
-2 -2
-2 -2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
SCREEN RANGE - 1 inch SCREEN RANGE - 25”

PART THICKNESS - 0.49” PART THICKNESS -
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
C
-2 -2 -2 -2
D
-1 -1 -1 -1
0 0 0 0
-1 -1 -1 -1
-2 -2 -2 -2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
SCREEN RANGE - 20” SCREEN RANGE - 1”

PART THICKNESS - 6 PART THICKNESS - 3/16”
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
E -2 -2 -2 -2
F
-1 -1 -1 -1
0 0 0 0
-1 -1 -1 -1
-2 -2 -2 -2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
SCREEN RANGE - 2.5” SCREEN RANGE - 50”

PART THICKNESS - .6B” PART THICKNESS - 10
Name _______________________________
UT LESSON 3
WORKSHEET #2
Calculate the depth to each pulse on the CRT screens below. Consider that a normal
beam transducer was used on a properly calibrated unit.
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
A B
-2 -2 -2 -2
-1 -1 -1 -1
0 0 0 0
-1 -1 -1 -1
-2 -2 -2 -2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
If The above CRT is calibrated to If The above CRT is calibrated to a

a 25° range, what is the distance 25° range, what is the distance to
to the pulse? ____________ the pulse? ____________
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
C D
-2 -2 -2 -2
-1 -1 -1 -1
0 0 0 0
-1 -1 -1 -1
-2 -2 -2 -2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
If The above CRT is calibrated to If The above CRT is calibrated to

a 2.5° range, what is the distance a 2.5° range, what is the distance
to the pulse? ____________ to the pulse? ____________
0 1 2 3 4 5
E F
-2 -2
-1 -1
0 0
-1 -1
-2 -2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
If The above CRT is calibrated to a

2.5° range, where would the pips for EACH SQUARE REPRESENTS 1/4°
a two discontinuities and back Fig. 1
cohoes shear as shown is Fig. 1?
Name _______________________________
UT LESSON 3
QUIZ
________ 1. With “Through Transmission”, an increase in amplitude indicates the presence of

a possible discontinuity.
________ 2. The “Pulse Echo” system uses a continuous wave and a separate transducer
receives the echo.
________ 3. Both contact testing and immersion testing require the use of a coupling medium.
________ 4. Typically, the “gain” control will determine the amount of amplification for a
suspected discontinuity indication.
________ 5. Sweep length and sweep delay are two names for the same control.
________ 6. The sweep length control is often used to sweep the initial pulse off the CRT in
immersion testing.
________ 7. In the a-scan presentation used in contact testing, the height of the vertical
deflection (pip) on the CRT represents:
A. Velocity
B. Elapsed time
C. Distance
D. Signal amplitude
________ 8. The “distance amplitude correction” control has the ability to automatically
increase the screen range when a thicker part is inspected.
________ 9. On the CRT “A” below, draw in the pulse if a normal beam transducer were used
to show a 9° deep continuity using a 15° screen range. How many division from
the left?
___________ (3 pts)
________ 10. On the CRT “B” below, what is the distance to the pulse if a 2.5° screen range
were being used for the inspection? ___________ (3 pts)
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
A B
-2 -2 -2 -2
-1 -1 -1 -1
0 0 0 0
-1 -1 -1 -1
-2 -2 -2 -2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Lesson 4
MODES OF ULTRASONIC WAVEL TRAVEL
VELOCITY CAN BE DEFINED AS THE DISTANCE A WAVE WILL PROPOGATE

THROUGH A MEDIUM IN A GIVEN UNIT OF TIME, USUALLYA SECOND.
THE WAVE SPEED REMAINS CONSTANT THROUGH A GIVEN MEDIUM.
TRANSOUCER
STEEL
OIL COUPLANT
POINT A
PULSES
POINT B
LISTED BELOW IS A TABLE OF IMPEDANCE, VELOCITY AND DENSITY

VALUES.
THIS INFORMATION WILL BE USEFUL LATER IN THIS LESSON FOR
PERFORMING BASIC ULTRASONIC CALCULATIONS.
ACOUSTIC SOUND
IMPEDANCE VELOCITY DENSITY
MATERIAL 2 2 3
(GRAM)CM - SEC (CM /SEC) (GRAM/CM )
AIR 0.000033 X 106 0.33 X 105 0.001
WATER 0.149 X 106 1.49 X 105 1.00
1.72 X 106 6.35 X 105 2.71

ALUMINUM
STEEL 4.56 X 106 5.85 X 105 7.8
ULTRASONIC WAVES ARE REFLECTED WHEN THEY ENCOUNTER A MEDIUM

OF A DIFFERENT ACOUSTICAL IMPEDANCE. THE “SURFACE” AT WHICH THIS
REFLECTION OCCURS IS CALLED AN “INTERFACE”.
AN INTERFACE IS THE COMMON BOUNDARY BETWEEN TWO MATERIALS OR
PHASES, SUCH AS ALUMINUM-TO-STEEL OR WATER-TO STELL.
UT Lecture Guide
Lesson 4
A BEAM OF ENERGY APPROACHING AN INTERFACE IS REFERRED TO AS

AN “INCIDENT WAVE”.
THE ANGLE AT WHICH THE WAVE STRIKES THE INTERFACE IS KNOW AS

THE “ANGLE OF INCIDENT” AS SHOWN BELOW
IMAGINARY
PERPENDICULAR
LINE
INCIDENT WAVE
INTERFACE
THE INCIDENT WAVE IS SAID TO HAVE NORMAL INCIDENCE WHEN ITS

DIRECTION OF PROPAGATION IS PERPENDICULAR TO AN INTERFACE.
AS SHAWM BELOW THE ANGLE OF INCIDENCE IS ZERO.
INCIDENT WAVE
INTERFACE
NORMAL INCIDENCE
SOME OF THE WAVE ENERGY STRIKING AN INTERFACE WILL BE

TRANSMITTED THROUGH THE INTERFACE, AND SOME WILL BE
REFLECTED AT THE ANGLE OF INCIDENCE.
THE AMOUNT OF REFLECTION DEPENDS ON THE ACOUSTIC IMPEDANCE

RATIO BETWEEN THE TWO MEDIA INVOLVED THIS REFLECTANCE WILL
FACTOR WILL BE DISCUSSED IN DETAIL IN THE NEXT LESSON.
UT Lecture Guide
Lesson 4
THE ANGLE OF REFLECTION AT AN INTERFACE OR BOUNDARY

ALWAYS EQUALS THE ANGLE OF INCIDENCE ANGLE = ANGLE “B”
NORMAL
INCIDENCE
A B
INCIDENT WAVE REFLECTED WAVE
INTERFACE
ANGLE OF REFLECTION
TRANSDUCER
COUPLANT
INCIDENT WAVE
INTERFACE OR BOUNDARY
A
B
REFLECTED WAVE
IMAGINARY LINE
ULTRASONIC VIBRATIONS TRAVEL IN MANY MODES. AND THE

MOST COMMON ARE:
1. LONGITUDINAL (COMPRESSION)
2. SHEAR (TRANSVERSE)
3. SURFACE (RAYLEIGH)
4. PLATE (LAMB)
EACH WAVE MODE HAS A SPECIFIC FUNCTION IN ULTRASONIC
INSPECTION AND IT IS IMPORTANT THAT EACH BE UNDERSTOOD
COMPLETELY
UT Lecture Guide
Lesson 4
LONGITUDINAL (COMPRESSIONAL) WAVES HAVE PARTICLE VIBRATIONS IN A

BACK AND FORTH MOTION IN THE DIRECTION OF WAVE PROPAGATION.
CONSIDER THAT ALL MATERIALS ARE MADE UP OF ATOMS LINED UP IN
STRAIGHT LINES TO FORM A LATTICE STRUCTURE. WHEN STRIKING THE
SIDE OF THE LATTICE, A CHAIN REACTION OF PARTICLE MOVEMENT IS
STARTED CAUSING THE LONGITUDINAL WAVE
MEDIUM
DIRECTION OF PROPAGATION
PARTICLE MOTION
LONGITUDINAL WAVES
S H E A R ( T R A N S V E R S E ) WAV E S H AV E PA RT I C L E V I B R AT I O N S
PERPENDICULAR TO THE DIRECTION OF WAVE MOTION.
SHEAR WAVES WILL NOT TRAVEL THROUGH LIQUIDS OR GASSES.

IN SOME MATERIALS, VELOCITY OF A SHEAR WAVE IS ABOUT ½ THAT OF
LONGITUDINAL WAVES. THEREFORE, THE WAVELENGTH IS SHORTER
(ABOUT ½)PERMTTING SMALLER DISCONTINUITIES TO BE LOCATED.
MEDIUM
PARTICLE MOTION
(SHEAR WAVES)
UT Lecture Guide
Lesson 4
MODE CONVERSION TAKES PLACE WHEN A SOUND BEAM HITS AN INTEFACE

BETWEEN TWO DIFFERENT MEDIAATAN ANGLE OTHER THAN 90 DEGREES.
MODE CONVERSION IN THE CASE PRESENTED BELOW PRODUCES TWO
REFLECTED BEAM:
ONE BEAM CONSISTS OF LONGITUDINAL WAVES. THE OTHER BEAM
CONSISTS OF SHEAR WAVES.
TRANSDUCER
GREASE COUPLANT
INCIDENT BEAM STEEL BLOCK

(LONGITUDINAL WAVES)
AIR
REFLECTED BEAM (LONGITUDINAL WAVES) REFLECTED BEAM (SHEAR WAVES)
THE ULTRASONIC ANGLE BEAM TRANSDUCER USES THE FOLLOWING

EXAMPLE THE “REFRACTED” SHEAR WAVES ARE USEFUL IN MANY
INSPECTION TECHNIQUES.
THE “ANGLE OF REFRACTION” IS THE ANGLE FORMED BETWEEN A
REFRACTED BEAM AS IT ENTERS THE SECOND MEDIUM AND A KLINE
DRAWN PERPENDICULAR TO THE INTERFACE.
NORMAL
INCIDENCE
INCIDENT BEAM LE
(LONGITUDINAL) ANG
OF CE
IDEN
INC
INTERFACE
PLASTIC
STEEL ANGLE OF REFLECTION (LONGITUDINAL)
REFLECTED BEAM
(LONGITUDINAL WAVES)
REFRECTED BEAM (SHEAR WAVES)

ANGLE OF REFRECTION (SHEAR)
UT Lecture Guide
Lesson 4
SNELL’S LAW CAN BE USED TO DETERMINE ANGULAR RELATIONSHIPS

BETWEEN MEDIA FOR BOTH LONGITUDINALAND SHEAR WAVES.
1 = ANGLE OF INCIDENCE
SIN 1 V1 V1 = VELOCITY IN FIRST MEDIUM
=
2 = ANGLE OF REFRACTION
SIN 2 V2
V2 = VELOCITY IN SECOND MEDIUM
THE FOLLOWING EXAMPLE CALCULATES THE ANGLE OF REFRACTION 2 FOR

A LONGITUDINAL WAVE PASSING THROUGH A WATER TO-STEEL INTERFACE.
10 DEGREES = ANGLE OF INCIDENCE 2
1.49 KM/SEC = LONGITUDINAL VELOCITY IN WATER (V1)
5.85 KM/SEC = LONGITUDINAL VELOCITY IN STEEL (V2)
sin 1 V1
=
sin V 1
2 2
V2 (sin 1)
sin =
2 V1
FIRST MEDIUM (WATER) V1
SECOND MEDIUM (STEEL) V2

1 . 012
sin =
2 1 . 49
2
sin = 0 . 6791
2
2
= 42o 46'
UT Lecture Guide
Lesson 4
AS THE ANGLE OF INCIDENCE INCREASES, THE ANGLE OF REFRACTION

INCREASES.
WHEN THE REFRACTION ANGLE OF A LONGITUDINAL WAVE REACHES 90
DEGREES, THE WAVE EMERGES FROM THE SECOND MEDIUM AND
TRAVELS PARALLEL TO THE INTERFACE OR SURFACE.
THIS IS CALLED ITS FIRST OR LOWER "CRITICAL ANGLE" ABOVE
APPROXIMATELY 28 DEGREES WITH A PLASTIC-TO-STEEL INTERFACE,
ONLY SHEAR WAVES ARE GENERATED IN THE PART.
O
28
ANGLE
OF INCIDENCE
PLASTIC REFRACTED
LONGITUDINAL
STEEL WAVE
9 0O
REFRACTED SHEAR
WAVE
IF THE ANGLE OF INCIDENCE IS INCREASED PAST THE FIRST CRITICAL

ANGLE, ONLY A SHEAR WAVE IS GENERATED IN THE PART. WHEN THE ANGLE
OF REFRACTION FOR THE SHEAR WAVE IS 90 DEGREES, THEN WE HAVE
REACHED THE UPPER OR SECOND CRITICAL ANGLE WHICH PRODUCES
SURFACE WAVES,
AS SHOWN BELOW, THERE IS THEN TOTAL REFLECTION FOR BOTH
LONGITUDINALAND SHEAR WAVES.
WITH A PLASTIC-TO-STEEL INTERFACE. THIS HAPPENS AT
APPROXIMATELY 58 DEGREES
O REFLECTED LONGITUDINAL
28
WAVE
ANGLE
OF INCIDENCE
PLASTIC
REFRACTED SHEAR (SURFACE WAVE)
STEEL WAVE
9 0O
UT Lecture Guide
Lesson 4
WHEN THE INCIDENT BEAM IS AT ITS SECOND CRTITICAL ANGLE, A THIRD

TYPE OF WAVE IS DEVELOPED, CALLED A RAYLEIGH OR SURFACE WAVE.
AS SHOWN BELOW, THE WAVE TRAVELS WITH AN ELLIPTICAL PARTICEL
MOTION.
SURFACE WAVES ARE USEFUL IN DETECTING SURFACE CRACKS, BUT
ONLY PENETRATE ABOUT ONE WAVELENGTH.
PARTICLE
MEDIUM'S SURFACE
PARTICLE MOTION
SURFACE WAVES
AS SHOWN, SURFACE WAVES HAVE THE ABILITY TO FOLLOW THE SURFACE

CONTOUR AS LONG AS THE CONTOUR DOES NOT SHARPLY CHANGE.
HOWEVER, THE SURFACE WAVE CAN BE ALMOST COMPLETELY ABSORBED
BY EXCESS COUPLANT OR BY TOUCHING YOUR FINGER TO THE SURFACE
OF THE PARTAHEAD OF THE TRANSDUCER.
TRANSDUCER DISCONTINUITY
WEDGE
TEST SPECIMEN
UT Lecture Guide
Lesson 4
PLATE WAVES OR LAMB WAVES HAVE THE ABILITY TO PROPAGATE

THROUGH THIN PLATES IN A VARIETY OF WAVE MODES DEPENDING ON
PLATE THICKNESS, TRANSDUCER. FREQUENCYAND INCIDENTANGLE.
PLATE WAVES ARE GENERATED BY USING LONGITUDINAL WAVES WHICH
DEVELOP EITHER SYMMETRICAL OR ASYMMETRICAL WAVES AS SHOWN
BELOW.
PLATE WAVES OCCUPY THE ENTIRE THICKNESS OF THE PART. WITHOUT
"SATURATING" THE PART, THE WAVE CANNOT EXIST.
THIN SHEET OR PLATE THIN SHEET OR PLATE
DIRECTION OF PROPAGATION DIRECTION OF PROPAGATION

PARTICLE MOTION PARTICLE MOTION
SYMMETRICAL ASYMMETRICAL
PLATE WAVES
TO GENERATED PLATE WAVES, YOU ADJUST THE INCIDENT ANGLE TO THE

POINT THAT MAXIMUM REFLECTIONS ARE OBSERVED ON THE CRT SCREEN
FROM A KNOWN REFLECTOR.
IT IS NOT POSSIBLE TO GENERATE SHEAR OR SURFACE WAVES ON
MATERIALS THINNER THAN ONE-HALF WAVELENGTH. THEREFORE, PLATE
WAVE ARE USEFULAS SHOWN BELOW.
TRANSDUCER
HOLLOW EXTRUSION
Name _______________________________
UT LESSON 4
WORKSHEET #1
A. Using snell’s Law and the attached Sine table, calculate the following refraction
problems, using the information in the sketch below.
1
LUCITE
(long. Velocity 2.73 x 105 cm/sec)
STEEL ( long. Velocity 5.9 x 105 cm/sec)

( shear velocity 3.23 x 105 cm/sec)
________ 1. Find the refracted longitudinal wave if the incident angle Ø1 is 25 degrees.
(SHOW WORK) (2 pts)
________ 2. Find the refracted shear wave angle if the incidence angle is 45 degrees.
(SHOW WORK) (2 pts)
________ 3. If you wanted a shear wave to travel into the steel at 70 degrees, what would the
incident angle through the lucite be? (SHOW WORK) (2 pts)
________ 4. If Ø1 = 18º, is it possible to have a refracted longitudinal wave?

If yes, what is it? (SHOW WORK) (2 pts)
If no, why not?
________ 5. If Ø1 = 36°, is it possible to have a refracted longitudinal wave?

If yes. what is it?
If no. Why not?
UT LESSON 4
WORKSHEET #1
Angle Cos Tan Angle Sin Cos Tan
1* .0175 .9998 .0175 46* .7193 .6947 1.0355

2* .0349 .9994 .0349 47* .7314 .6820 1.0724
3* .0523 .9986 .0524 48* .7431 .6691 1.1108
4* .0698 .9976 .0699 49* .7547 .6561 1.1504
5* .0872 .9962 .0875 50* .7660 .6428 1.1918
6* .1045 .9945 .1051 51* .7771 .6293 1.2349
7* .1219 .9925 .1228 52* .7880 .6157 1.2799
8* .1392 .9903 .1405 53* .7986 .6018 1.3270
9* .1564 .9877 .1584 54* .8090 .5878 1.3764
10* .1736 .9848 .1763 55* .8192 .5736 1.4281
11* .1908 .9816 .1944 56* .8290 .5992 1.4826
12* .2079 .9781 .2126 57* .8387 .5446 1.5399
13* .2250 .9744 .2309 58* .8480 .5299 1.6013
14* .2419 .9703 .2493 59* .8572 .5150 1.6643
15* .2588 .9659 .2679 60* .8660 .5000 1.7321
16* .2756 .9613 .2867 61* .8740 .4848 1.8040
.2924 .9563 .3057 62* .8829 .4695 1.8807
17*
.3090 .9511 .3249 63* .8910 .4540 1.9626
18*
.3256 .9455 .3443 64* .8988 .4384 2.0503
19*
.3420 .9397 .3640 65* .9063 .4226 2.1445
20*
.3584 .9336 .3839 66* .9135 .4067 2.2460
21*
.3746 .9272 .4040 67* .9205 .3907 2.3559
22*
.3907 .9205 .4245 68* .9272 .3746 2.4751
23*
.4067 .9135 .4452 69* .9336 .3584 2.6051
24*
.4226 .9063 .4663 70* .9397 .3420 2.7475
25*
.4384 .8988 .4877 71* .9455 .3256 2.9042
26* .8910 .5095
.4540 72* .9511 .3090 3.0777
27* .4695 .8829 .5317 73* .9563 .2924 3.2709
28* .4848 .8746 .5543 74* .9613 .2757 3.4874
29* .5000 .8660 .5774 75* .9659 .2588 3.7321
30* .5150 .8572 .6009 76* .9703 .2419 4.0108
31* .5299 .8480 .6249 77* .9744 .2250 4.3315
32* .5446 .8387 .6494 78* .9788 .2079 4.7046
33* .5592 .8290 .6745 79* .9816 .1908 5.1446
34* .5736 .8192 .7002 80* .9848 .1736 5.6713
35* .5878 .8090 .7265 81* .9877 .1564 6.3138
36* .6018 .7986 .7536 82* .9900 .1392 7.1154
37* .6157 .7880 .7813 83* .9925 .1219 8.1443
38* .6293 .7771 .8098 84* .9945 .1045 9.5144
39* .6428 .7660 .8391 85* .9962 .0872 11.4301
40* .8561 .7547 .8893 86* .9976 .0698 14.3007
41* .6691 .7231 .9004 87* .9986 .0523 19.0811
42* .6820 .7314 .9325 88* .9994 .0349 28.6363
43* 6947 7193 .9657 89* .9898 .0175 57.2900
45* .7071 .7071 1.0000 90* 1.0000 .0000
Name _______________________________
UT LESSON 4
QUIZ
________ 1. An “ultrasonic beam” travels trough a medium as waves of sound energy.

________ 2. Normal incidence is when the incident beam is parallel to the interface.
________ 3. The reflection of an incident beam at an interface is equal to its angle of reflection.
________ 4. Particle vibration in a longitudinal wave is in the direction of wave propagation.
________ 5. Shear wave velocity is approximately twice the velocity of longitudinal waves.
________ 6. Mode conversion occurs when a sound beam strikes an interface between two
media of different velocities at an angle.
________ 7. The bending of an incident beam as it passes through an interface is called
refraction.
________ 8. Longitudinal waves will propagate through both solids and liquids.
________ 9. Both plate waves and surface waves can follow the part contour.
Sin O V Shear velocity in steel = 3.23 x 10 cm/sec

5
1 1 5
= Long. Velocity in steel = 5.85 x 10 cm/sec.
5
Sin O V Long. Velocity in water = 1.49 x 10 cm/sec
2 2 5
Long. Velocity in lucite = 2.73 x 10 cm/sec
USING THE ABOVE INFORMATION, SOLVE THE FOLLOWING PROBLEMS.
INDICATE THE APPROXIMATE ANGLES ON THE SKETCH AND LABEL
EACH.
________ 10. If you wanted a shear wave to travel into steel at 60 degrees, what would be the
incident angle on the lucite wedge? (SHOW WORK) (3 pts)
60
________ 11. What would be the refracted longitudinal wave if the angle of incidence through a
water to steel interface is 12 degrees? (SHOW WORK) (3 pts)
0
12
UT LESSON 4
QUIZ
1* .0175 .9998 .0175 46* .7193 .6947 1.0355

2* .0349 .9994 .0349 47* .7314 .6820 1.0724
3* .0523 .9986 .0524 48* .7431 .6691 1.1108
4* .0698 .9976 .0699 49* .7547 .6561 1.1504
5* .0872 .9962 .0875 50* .7660 .6428 1.1918
6* .1045 .9945 .1051 51* .7771 .6293 1.2349
7* .1219 .9925 .1228 52* .7880 .6157 1.2799
8* .1392 .9903 .1405 53* .7986 .6018 1.3270
9* .1564 .9877 .1584 54* .8090 .5878 1.3764
10* .1736 .9848 .1763 55* .8192 .5736 1.4281
11* .1908 .9816 .1944 56* .8290 .5992 1.4826
12* .2079 .9781 .2126 57* .8387 .5446 1.5399
13* .2250 .9744 .2309 58* .8480 .5299 1.6013
14* .2419 .9703 .2493 59* .8572 .5150 1.6643
15* .2588 .9659 .2679 60* .8660 .5000 1.7321
16* .2756 .9613 .2867 61* .8740 .4848 1.8040
.2924 .9563 .3057 62* .8829 .4695 1.8807
17*
.3090 .9511 .3249 63* .8910 .4540 1.9626
18*
.3256 .9455 .3443 64* .8988 .4384 2.0503
19*
.3420 .9397 .3640 65* .9063 .4226 2.1445
20*
.3584 .9336 .3839 66* .9135 .4067 2.2460
21*
.3746 .9272 .4040 67* .9205 .3907 2.3559
22*
.3907 .9205 .4245 68* .9272 .3746 2.4751
23*
.4067 .9135 .4452 69* .9336 .3584 2.6051
24*
.4226 .9063 .4663 70* .9397 .3420 2.7475
25*
.4384 .8988 .4877 71* .9455 .3256 2.9042
26* .8910 .5095
.4540 72* .9511 .3090 3.0777
27* .4695 .8829 .5317 73* .9563 .2924 3.2709
28* .4848 .8746 .5543 74* .9613 .2757 3.4874
29* .5000 .8660 .5774 75* .9659 .2588 3.7321
30* .5150 .8572 .6009 76* .9703 .2419 4.0108
31* .5299 .8480 .6249 77* .9744 .2250 4.3315
32* .5446 .8387 .6494 78* .9788 .2079 4.7046
33* .5592 .8290 .6745 79* .9816 .1908 5.1446
34* .5736 .8192 .7002 80* .9848 .1736 5.6713
35* .5878 .8090 .7265 81* .9877 .1564 6.3138
36* .6018 .7986 .7536 82* .9900 .1392 7.1154
37* .6157 .7880 .7813 83* .9925 .1219 8.1443
38* .6293 .7771 .8098 84* .9945 .1045 9.5144
39* .6428 .7660 .8391 85* .9962 .0872 11.4301
40* .8561 .7547 .8893 86* .9976 .0698 14.3007
41* .6691 .7231 .9004 87* .9986 .0523 19.0811
42* .6820 .7314 .9325 88* .9994 .0349 28.6363
43* 6947 7193 .9657 89* .9898 .0175 57.2900
45* .7071 .7071 1.0000 90* 1.0000 .0000
Lesson 5
COUPLANTS AND ULTRASONIC SOUND ENERGY
THE PRIMARY PURPOSE OF A COUPLANT IS TO PROVIDE A SUITABLE SOUND

PATH BETWEEN THE TRANSDUCER AND THE TEST SURFACE.
A COUPLANT MUST EFFECTIVELY WET OR TOTALLY CONTACT BOTH
SURFACES OF THE TRANSDUCER AND TEST PART.
1. THE COUPLANT MUST EXCLUDE ALL AIR FROM BETWEEN THE
SURFACES AS AIR IS A VERY POOR CONDUCTOR OF SOUND.
2. THE COUPLANT FILLS IN AND SMOOTHS OUT IRREGULARITIES ON
THE SURFACE OF THE TEST PART.
3. THE COUPLANT AIDS IN THE MOVEMENT OF THE TRANSDUCER
OVER THE SURFACE IN CONTACT TESTING.
4. A PRACTICAL COUPLANT MUST BE AESY TO APPLY AND EASY TO
REMOVE IT MUSTALSO BE HARMLESS TO THE PART SURFACE.
TRANSDUCER
COUPLANT
TEST MATERIAL
OIL OR WATER MIXED WITH GLYCERINE (2 PARTS WATER AND 1 PART

GLYCERINE) ARE COMMONLY USED COUPLANTS. EVEN WALLPAPER PASTE
HAS ADVANTAGES AS A COUPLANT.
HEAVER COUPLANTS, SUCH S GREASE OR HEAVY OIL CAN BE USED ON
ROUGH OR VERTICAL SURFACES.
SPECIALLY FORMULATED LIQUID AND PASTE COUPLANTS ARE ALSO
AVAILABLE FROM ULTRASONIC EQUIPMENT MANUFACTURERS.
IN CIRCUMSTANCES WHERE THE USE OF LIQUIDS OR PASTE IS
UNDESIRABLE, THIN RUBBER OR RUBBER-LIKE MATERIALS MAY BE USED.
IN ALL CASES THE COUPLANT SHOULD BE AS THIN AS POSSIBLE IF THE
COUPLANT IS EXCESSIVE, IT MAY ACT AS A WEDGE AND ALTER THE
DIRECTION OF THE SOUND BEAM.
UT Lecture Guide
Lesson 5
THE SURFACE OF A TEST SPECIMEN CAN GREATLY AFFECT ULTRASONIC

WAVE PROPAGATION.
ROUGH SURFACE CAN CAUSE UNDESIRABLE EFFECTS SUCH AS
REDUCTION OF DISCONTINUITY AND BACK SURFACE AMPLITUDES DUE TO
DISTORTION OF WAVE DIRECTIVITY.
COUPLANT COUPLANT
UNEVEN BUT CONSISTANT ROUGH AND IRREGULAR

FLAT SMOOTH SURFACE
SURFACE SURFACE
FAIR TEST POOR
FRONT SURFACE
(INITIAL PULSE)
WIDE
FRONT SURFACE
BACK SURFACE
DISCONTINUITY REDUCED
AMPLITUDE
MARKERS CRT INDICATIONS
FLAT SMOOTH SURFACE - GOOD RESPONSE ROUGH AND IRREGULAR SURFACE-POOR RESPONSE
A-SCAN PRESENTATION
(PULSE-ECHO)
UT Lecture Guide
Lesson 5
A GOOD BACK SURFACE REFLECTION INDICATES A GOOD RESPONSE FROM

THE MATERIAL BEING TESTED. IT IS REFLECTED BACK TO ITS SOURCES
SIMILAR TO LIGHT STRIKING A MIRROR.
IF THE SURFACES ARE NOT PARALLEL, THE REFLECTED ENERGY WILL BE
DIRECTED AWAY FROM THE TRANSDUCER SIMILAR TO LIGHT FALLING ON
A MIRROR ATAN ANGLE.
TRANSDUCER FRONT SURFACE

FRONT SURFACE (INITIAL PULSE)
REDUCED
BACK SURFACE
INDICATION
SPECIMEN
CROSS-SECTION
REFLECTION
BACK SURFACE CRT INDICATIONS
THE PHYSICAL SHAPE OR CONTOUR OF A PART MUST BE CONSIDERED

WHEN ATTEMPTING TO DISCERN WHETHER A DISCONTINUITY INDICATION IS
REAL OR FALSE.
EXAMPLES OF SOUND PATHS LEADING TO SPURIOUS INDICATIONS
IN TESTING LONG SPECIMENS, REFLECTION F A SPREADING BEAM CAN

PRODUCE FALSE INDICATIONS ON THE CRTAS SHOWN BELOW
A SHEAR WAVE MAY BE GENERATED WHICH IS REFLECTED AT A STEEP
ANGLE TO THE OPPOSITE SIDE, WHERE MODE CONVERSION TAKES
PLACE. MODE CONVERSION WILL BE DISCUSSED IN A LATER LESSON.
HOWEVER, THIS TYPE OF FALSE SIGNAL WILL APPEAR ON THE RIGHT
SIDE OF THE FIRST BACK ECHO.
FIRST BACK
LONGITUDINAL WAVE SHEAR WAVE LONGITUDINAL WAVE
TRANSDUCER
SPECIMEN
DIAMETER
UT Lecture Guide
Lesson 5
GRAIN STRUCTURE HAS A GREAT INFLUENCE ON THE ACOUSTICAL

PROPERTIES OF A MATERIAL
A STEEL FORGING GENERALLY HAS A FINE GRAIN STRUCTURE AND HAS
A LOW DAMPING EFFECT ON THE SOUND BEM.
HOWEVER, A CASTING GENERALLY HAS A COARSER GRAIN STRUCTURE
WHICH IS MOE DIFFICULT TO GET SOUND THROUGH.
DISCONTINUITY
FRONT SURFACE FRONT SURFACE
BACK SURFCE
BACK SURFACE REFLECTION
REFLECTION LOST OR REDUCED
FINE GRAIN COARSE GRAIN
WHEN A DISCONTINUITY IS NOT NORMAL (AT 90 DEGREES) TO THE INCIDENT

WAVE THE REFLECTED WAVE WILL BE ATAN ANGLE.
AS SHOWN BELOW, THE RESULT IS A REDUCTION IN THE AMPLITUDE OF
THE DISCONTINUITY INDICATION DISPLAYED ON THE CRT.
POSITION C
POSITION B
CRACK
POSITION A CYLINDRICAL SPECIMEN
POSITION A POSITION B POSITION C
AT POSITION “A” ABOVE, THERE IS A SHARP DISCONTINUITY INDICATION AND

LITTLE BACK SURFACE INDICATION. AT POSITION “C” THE DISCONTINUITY S
AT MINIMUM, OR MAY NOT BE SEEN ATALL.
UT Lecture Guide
Lesson 5
TWO BASIC TECHNIQUES ARE USED IN LOCATING AND EVALUATING ANGULAR

FLAWS.
1. CONTACT TESTING UTILIZES AN “ANGLE BEAM” TRANSDUCER WITH

A PLASTIC WEDGE TO CHANGES THE DIRECTION OF WAVE
PROPAGATION.
2. IMMERSION TESTING USES WATER AS A COUPLANT, TILTING THE
TRANSDUCER TO ACHIEVE THE NECESSARY DIRECTIONALITY.
ANGLE BEAM
TRANSDUCER PROBE TRANSDUCER
PLASTIC WEDGE
WATER
SPECIMEN TANK
SPECIMEN
CONTACT TESTING IMMERSION TESTING
THE SHAPE OR SURFACE CONDITION OF A DISCONTINUITY INFLUENCES THE

INDICATION ON THE CRT.
A DISCONTINUITY HAVING A ROUGH SURFACE WILL TEND TO SCATTER THE
REFLECTION AS COMPARED TO A SMOOTH FLAW.
NONMETALLIC INCLUSIONS ARE TYPICAL ROUGH AND WOULD SCATTER THE
SOUND MORE THAN A CRACK-LIKE DISCONTINUITY.
UT Lecture Guide
Lesson 5
AIR IS A POOR MEDIUM FOR TRANSFERRING ULTRASONIC VIBRATIONS

INTO LIQUIDS OR SOLIDS. THEREFORE, A COUPLANT MUST BE USED TO
TRANSFER ENERGY FROM HE TRANSDUCER TO THE TEST MATERIAL.
WATER IS A COMMONLY USED COPLANTAS SHOWN BELOW:
WATER
SECODARY LOBER
TRANSDUCER
PRINCIPAL DIRECTION
OF SOUND BEAM
SECODARY LOBER
MOST OF THE ULTRASONIC ENERGY IS CONCENTRATED ALONG THE

CENTERLINE OF THE BEAM.
THE SECONDARY OR SIDE LOBES FROM AT THE TRANSDUCER FACE AND
RADIATE AWAY FROM THE PRINCIPLE DIRECTION OF SOUND TRAVEL.
THESE SECONDARY LOBES REPRESENT AREAS OF HIGH AND LOW
INTENSITIES AT THE EDGE OF THE BEAM.
BECAUSE OF THE SECONDARY LOBES, THE USEFUL WIDTH OF A
TRANSDUCER BEAM IS-LESS THAN THE TRANSDUCER’S PHYSICAL
WIDTH.
TRANSDUCER DIAMETER HAS A DEFINITE INFLUENCE ON THE SOUND BEAM
TRANSMITTED THROUGH A MEDIUM.
FOR A GIVEN FREQUENCY, A SMALLER TRANSDUCER HAS A GREATER BEAM
SPREAD ANGLE THAN A LARGER DIAMETER TRANSDUCER AS SHOWN
BELOW:
SMALL DIAMETER LARGE DIAMETER MEDIUM

MEDIUM
TRANSDUCER TRANSDUCER
BEAM DIVERGES BEAM CONSTANT
UT Lecture Guide
Lesson 5
CHANGING THE TRANSDUCER’S VIBRATING FREQUENCY WILL ALSO

CHANGE THE BEAM SPREAD.
DIVERGENCE IS INVERSELY PROPORTIONAL TO FREQUENCY.
THEREFORE, A HIGH FREQUENCY TRANSDUCER HAS A MORE
CONSTANT DIAMETER SOUND BEAM THAN A LOW FREQUENCY
TRANSDUCER.
FREQUENCY OR BY USING A LARGER DIAMETER TRANSDUCER.
THE AMOUNT OF BEAM SPREAD IS DETERMINED BY THE FOLLOWING
EQUATION:
SIN O = 1.22
D
WHERE = WAVELENGTH
D = DIAMETER
O = HALF-ANGLE OF
= BEAM SPREAD TO
= HALF-POWER POINT
HALF
POWER
POINT (. 707 OF INTENSITY)
THE BEAM SPREAD OF A ½ INCH 0O
DIAMETER, 1 Mhz TRANSDUCER IS 0 = 34 O
SHOWN TO BE 34 DEGREES.
REMEMBER THAT WAVELENGTH ( ) IS
DETERMINED BY DIVIDING THE
VELOCITY BY THE FREQUENCY.
TO CHANGE INCHES TO CENTIMETERS.
MULTIPLY BY 2.54.
SECONDARY
LOBES
Name _______________________________
UT LESSON 5
WORKSHEET #1
Understanding “Beam Spread” will help point out importance of selecting the proper
frequency and size transducer. The length of the ultrasonic wave and the diameter of the
transducer are often critical in the determination of flaw size and location.
Using the information given below, determine the “Beam Spread” for the conditions listed.
(a) Velocity in steel = .585 x 10º cm/sec
(b) Velocity in aluminum = .625 x 10º cm/sec
(c) One inch = 2.54 centimeters
(D) Wavelength (
y ) = Velocity
Frequency
y
(E) Sin O = 1.22
D
________ 1. What would be the beam spread using a 1” diameter, 2.25 MHz transducer on an
aluminum test part? (SHOW WORK) (3 pts)
________ 2. What would be the beam spread using a 1” diameter, one MHZ transducer on an
aluminum test part? (SHOW WORK) (3 pts)
________ 3. What would be the beam spread using a one half inch diameter, 2.25 MHz
transducer on a steel test part? (SHOW WORK) (3 pts)
UT LESSON 5
WORKSHEET #1
1* .0175 .9998 .0175 46* .7193 .6947 1.0355

2* .0349 .9994 .0349 47* .7314 .6820 1.0724
3* .0523 .9986 .0524 48* .7431 .6691 1.1108
4* .0698 .9976 .0699 49* .7547 .6561 1.1504
5* .0872 .9962 .0875 50* .7660 .6428 1.1918
6* .1045 .9945 .1051 51* .7771 .6293 1.2349
7* .1219 .9925 .1228 52* .7880 .6157 1.2799
8* .1392 .9903 .1405 53* .7986 .6018 1.3270
9* .1564 .9877 .1584 54* .8090 .5878 1.3764
10* .1736 .9848 .1763 55* .8192 .5736 1.4281
11* .1908 .9816 .1944 56* .8290 .5992 1.4826
12* .2079 .9781 .2126 57* .8387 .5446 1.5399
13* .2250 .9744 .2309 58* .8480 .5299 1.6013
14* .2419 .9703 .2493 59* .8572 .5150 1.6643
15* .2588 .9659 .2679 60* .8660 .5000 1.7321
16* .2756 .9613 .2867 61* .8740 .4848 1.8040
.2924 .9563 .3057 62* .8829 .4695 1.8807
17*
.3090 .9511 .3249 63* .8910 .4540 1.9626
18*
.3256 .9455 .3443 64* .8988 .4384 2.0503
19*
.3420 .9397 .3640 65* .9063 .4226 2.1445
20*
.3584 .9336 .3839 66* .9135 .4067 2.2460
21*
.3746 .9272 .4040 67* .9205 .3907 2.3559
22*
.3907 .9205 .4245 68* .9272 .3746 2.4751
23*
.4067 .9135 .4452 69* .9336 .3584 2.6051
24*
.4226 .9063 .4663 70* .9397 .3420 2.7475
25*
.4384 .8988 .4877 71* .9455 .3256 2.9042
26* .8910 .5095
.4540 72* .9511 .3090 3.0777
27* .4695 .8829 .5317 73* .9563 .2924 3.2709
28* .4848 .8746 .5543 74* .9613 .2757 3.4874
29* .5000 .8660 .5774 75* .9659 .2588 3.7321
30* .5150 .8572 .6009 76* .9703 .2419 4.0108
31* .5299 .8480 .6249 77* .9744 .2250 4.3315
32* .5446 .8387 .6494 78* .9788 .2079 4.7046
33* .5592 .8290 .6745 79* .9816 .1908 5.1446
34* .5736 .8192 .7002 80* .9848 .1736 5.6713
35* .5878 .8090 .7265 81* .9877 .1564 6.3138
36* .6018 .7986 .7536 82* .9900 .1392 7.1154
37* .6157 .7880 .7813 83* .9925 .1219 8.1443
38* .6293 .7771 .8098 84* .9945 .1045 9.5144
39* .6428 .7660 .8391 85* .9962 .0872 11.4301
40* .8561 .7547 .8893 86* .9976 .0698 14.3007
41* .6691 .7231 .9004 87* .9986 .0523 19.0811
42* .6820 .7314 .9325 88* .9994 .0349 28.6363
43* 6947 7193 .9657 89* .9898 .0175 57.2900
45* .7071 .7071 1.0000 90* 1.0000 .0000
Name _______________________________
UT LESSON 5
QUIZ
________ 1. Higher frequency transducer have less beam spread than low frequency
transducers.
________ 2. Lower frequency transducers are usually used to find the smaller defects.
________
y
3. The longer the wavelength ( ). The greater the beam spread and better ability to
locate small discontinuities.
________ 4. When comparing two transducer of the same frequency, the larger transducer
will have the greatest beam spread.
________ 5. A rough surface on the test specimen may cause a loss in amplitude on the CRT
screen.
________ 6. If the front and back surface of a test part are not parallel, there will be a greatly
reduced signal amplitude from any discontinuity in the part.
________ 7. Long or thin specimens may cause false indications due to mode conversion of
the longitudinal beam.
________ 8. A smooth discontinuity (crack) will reflect more energy than a discontinuity will a
rough surface (inclusion)
________ 9. Both contact and immersion testing techniques can be used for performing an
“angle beam” examination of a part.
________ 10. The couplant used in ultrasonic inspection should be as thick as possible to
properly direct the sound beam.
________ 11. Where a liquid or paste couplant cannot be used, a rubber sheet may sometimes
be used by placing it between the transducer and test part.
________ 12. What would be the “Beam Spread” if the following conditions existed?
A. 1” Diameter, 5 MHz transducer.
B. Velocity in steel = .585 x 10 cm/sec
y
C. Sin O = 1.22
D
Velocity
D. Wavelength (
Y) =
frequency
E. One inch
UT LESSON 5
QUIZ
Angl Tan Angl Cos Tan
1* .0175 .9998 .0175 46* .7193 .6947 1.0355

2* .0349 .9994 .0349 47* .7314 .6820 1.0724
3* .0523 .9986 .0524 48* .7431 .6691 1.1108
4* .0698 .9976 .0699 49* .7547 .6561 1.1504
5* .0872 .9962 .0875 50* .7660 .6428 1.1918
6* .1045 .9945 .1051 51* .7771 .6293 1.2349
7* .1219 .9925 .1228 52* .7880 .6157 1.2799
8* .1392 .9903 .1405 53* .7986 .6018 1.3270
9* .1564 .9877 .1584 54* .8090 .5878 1.3764
10* .1736 .9848 .1763 55* .8192 .5736 1.4281
11* .1908 .9816 .1944 56* .8290 .5992 1.4826
12* .2079 .9781 .2126 57* .8387 .5446 1.5399
13* .2250 .9744 .2309 58* .8480 .5299 1.6013
14* .2419 .9703 .2493 59* .8572 .5150 1.6643
15* .2588 .9659 .2679 60* .8660 .5000 1.7321
16* .2756 .9613 .2867 61* .8740 .4848 1.8040
.2924 .9563 .3057 62* .8829 .4695 1.8807
17*
.3090 .9511 .3249 63* .8910 .4540 1.9626
18*
.3256 .9455 .3443 64* .8988 .4384 2.0503
19*
.3420 .9397 .3640 65* .9063 .4226 2.1445
20*
.3584 .9336 .3839 66* .9135 .4067 2.2460
21*
.3746 .9272 .4040 67* .9205 .3907 2.3559
22*
.3907 .9205 .4245 68* .9272 .3746 2.4751
23*
.4067 .9135 .4452 69* .9336 .3584 2.6051
24*
.4226 .9063 .4663 70* .9397 .3420 2.7475
25*
.4384 .8988 .4877 71* .9455 .3256 2.9042
26* .8910 .5095
.4540 72* .9511 .3090 3.0777
27* .4695 .8829 .5317 73* .9563 .2924 3.2709
28* .4848 .8746 .5543 74* .9613 .2757 3.4874
29* .5000 .8660 .5774 75* .9659 .2588 3.7321
30* .5150 .8572 .6009 76* .9703 .2419 4.0108
31* .5299 .8480 .6249 77* .9744 .2250 4.3315
32* .5446 .8387 .6494 78* .9788 .2079 4.7046
33* .5592 .8290 .6745 79* .9816 .1908 5.1446
34* .5736 .8192 .7002 80* .9848 .1736 5.6713
35* .5878 .8090 .7265 81* .9877 .1564 6.3138
36* .6018 .7986 .7536 82* .9900 .1392 7.1154
37* .6157 .7880 .7813 83* .9925 .1219 8.1443
38* .6293 .7771 .8098 84* .9945 .1045 9.5144
39* .6428 .7660 .8391 85* .9962 .0872 11.4301
40* .8561 .7547 .8893 86* .9976 .0698 14.3007
41* .6691 .7231 .9004 87* .9986 .0523 19.0811
42* .6820 .7314 .9325 88* .9994 .0349 28.6363
43* 6947 7193 .9657 89* .9898 .0175 57.2900
45* .7071 .7071 1.0000 90* 1.0000 .0000
Lesson 6
ATTENUATION, ACOUSTIC IMPEDANCE, AND RESONANCE

AS SHOWN BELOW, A BEAM OF SOUND ENERGY WILL SPREADS OUT
(DIVERGE) AS IT MOVES THROUGH THE SPECIMEN, AND THE INTENSITY
(ENERGY) DECREASES WITH DISTANCE AWAY FROM THE TRANSDUCER AND
AWAY FROM THE CENTER OF THE BEAM.
SPECIMENT
NEAR ZONE
TRANSDUCER
O
12
4O
FOR A GIVEN SIZE TRANSDUCER

HIGH FREQUENCY TRANSDUCERS PRODUCE NARROWER SOUND BEAMS
THAN LOW FREQUENCY TRANSDUCERS.
FOR THE PURPOSE OF ILLUSTRATION, ULTRASONIC SOUND CAN BE
VIEWED AS A NARROW CONE-SHAPED BEAM WHICH IS DIVIDED INTO TWO
ZONES.
THE INTENSITY IN THE NEAR ZONE VARIES IRREGULARLY DUE TO SOUND
WAVE INTERACTION CLOSE TO THE TRANSDUCER. THIS PREVENTS
RELIABLE DETECTION OF DISCONTINUITIES CLOSE TO THE SURFACE.
IN THE FAR ZONE, THE INTENSITY (ENERGY) DECREASES STEADILY DUE TO
BOTH ATTENUATION AND BEAM SPREAD
SPECIMEN (MATERIAL)
TRANSDUCER X Y TRANSDUCER
(TRANSMITTER) (RECEIVER)
NEAR
FAR ZONE
ZONE
THE INTENSITY AT POINT “Y” ABOVE IS LESS THAN AT POINT “X”.

ATTENUATION IS THE TERM USED TO DESCRIBE THIS CONDITION OF
ENERGY LOSS. ATTENUATION MEANS THE PROCESS OF LESSENING THE
AMOUNT.
THE PRIMARY REASONS FOR ATTENUATION ARE ABSORPTION AND
SCATTERING OF THE ULTRASONIC ENERGY.
UT Lecture Guide
Lesson 6
ATTENUATION IS DIFFERENT IN DIFFERENT MATERIALS, DEPENDING ON

THE ABSORPTION AND SCATTERING OF THE SOUND ENERGY, ANOTHER
PHENOMENON WHICH PERTAINS TO THE INTERRELATIONSHIP OF THE
SOUND AND MATERIAL PROPERTIES (S “ACOUSTIC IMPEDANCE.” THIS TERM
SHOULD NOT BE CONFUSED WITH “ATTENUATION.”
“ACOUSTICAL IMPEDANCE” (Z) IS DEFINED AS THE PRODUCT OF THE
DENSITY ( ) AND SOUND VELOCITY (V) WITHIN A GIVEN MATERIAL
IMPEDANCE = DENSITY X VELOCITY, OR Z = V
IMPEDANCE VALUES FOR TYPICAL MATERIALS ARE SHOWN BELOW:
MATERIAL (GRAM/CM2 - SEC) (CM/SEC) (GRAM/CM3)
AIR 6 5 0.001
0.000033 X 10 0.33 X 10
6 5
WATER 0.149 X 10 1. 49 X 10 1.00
6 5
ALUMINUM 1.72 X 10 6.35 X 10 2.71
6 5
STEEL 4.56 X 10 5.85 X 10 7.8
ATTENUATION IS DEFINED AS THE LOSS OF ENERGY (ACOUSTIC) PER UNIT

OF DISTANCE. FOR ULTRASONIC WAVE PROPAGATION, THE ATTENUATION
CONSTANT IS GIVEN BY:
I2
= e-2
I1
WHERE = ATTENUATION CONSTANT
I2 RATIO OF INTENSITIES AT TWO POINTS A UNIT DISTANCE APART

=
I1
I1 > I2
UT Lecture Guide
Lesson 6
IF ACOUSTIC ENERGY IS TRANSMITTED INTO TWO PICES OF PERFECTLY

BONDED INDENTICAL STEEL, WE FIND THE SOUND HAS THE SAME
VELOCITY THROUGH BOTH, WITH AN IMPEDANCE RATIO OF 1 TO 1.
STEEL STEEL
TRANSDUCER
SOUND BEAM
VELOCITY REMAINS CONSTANT
AN IMPEDANCE RATIO OF ANYTHING LESS OR GREATER THAN 1 TO 1 IS LESS

THAN IDEAL.
AS SHOWN BELOW A LARGE PORTION OF THE SOUND BEAM FROM A WATER
TO STEEK INTERFACE WILL REFLECT BACK TOWARDS THE TRANSDUCER
AND NEVER ENTER THE PART.
WATER
TRANSDUCER
SOUND BEAM
STEEL
TO DETERMINE HOW MUCH OF THE ENERGY IS REFLECTED YOU CAN USE

THE FOLLOWING FORMULA: 2
Z - Z
1 2
REFLECTION FACTOR (R) = Z + Z
1 2
Z = ACOUSTICAL IMPEDANCE
IN THE ILLUSTRATION ABOVE , HOW MUCH OF THE SOUND ENERGY IS

REFLECTED FROM THE WATER TO STEEL INTERFAACE?
2 2
R = 4. 56 - .149 =
4.411 = 88 PERCENT REFLECTED
4. 56 + .149 4.709
UT Lecture Guide
Lesson 6
RESONANCE CAN BE DEFINED AS THE CHARACTERISTIC OF A VIBRATING

BODY TO RESONATE OR VIBRATE IN SYMPATHY WITH A VIBRATION SOURCE.
AS SHOWN BELOW, A RESONANT CONDITION WILL EXIST ANY TIME A

CONTINOUS LONGITUDINAL WAVE IS INTRODUCED INTO A SPECIMEN AND
REFLECTED "IN PHASE" WITH THE INCOMING WAVE.
COUPLANT
TRANSDUCER STANDING WAVE
RESONANCE WILL OCUR ONLY WHEN THE THICKNESS OF A SPECIMEN IS

EQUAL TO A HALF-WAVELENGTH OR AN EXACT MULTIPLE OF A HALF-
WAVELENGTH. SHOWN BELOW IS A "FUNDAMENTAL FREQUENCY" AND
MULTIPLES CALLED "HARMONICS"
TEST SPECIMEN REFLECTED WAVE

TRANSDUCER
1
MHz INCIDENT WAVE
(FUNDAMENTAL FREQUENCY)
THICKNESS = 1/2 WAVELENGTH
2
MHz
(2ND HARMONIC)
THICKNESS = 1 WAVELENGTH
3
MHz
(3RD HARMONIC)
THICKNESS = 1-1/2 WAVELENGTH
UT Lecture Guide
Lesson 6
ULTRASONIC UNITS USING THE PRINCIPLE OF RESONANCE WERE

COMMONLY USED FOR THICKNESS MEASUREMENT AND BOND OR
LAMINATION INSPECTION.
HOWEVER, PULSE-ECHO UNITS HAVE BEEN REFINED TO PERFORM MOST

OF THESE FUNCTIONS AND RESONANT INSTRUMENTS ARE RARELY USED.
RESONANCE OCCURS WHEN THE MATERIAL THICKNESS IS EQUAL TO A

HALF-WAVENGTH OR EXACT MULTIPLES.
THE WAVELENGTH CAN BE CHANGED BY VARYING THE FREQUENCY
THE FUNDAMENTAL RESONANT FREQUENCY IS THE FREQUENCY AT WHICH

A SPECIMEN WILL RESONATE.
HARMONICS ARE EXACT MULTIPLES OF THE FUNDAMENTAL (MINIMUM)

RESONANT FREQUENCY.
THE FUNDAMENTAL RESONANT FREQUENCY CAN BE FOUND BY:
V
F =
2T F = FUNDAMENTAL RESONANT FREQUENCY
V = VELOCITY OF LONGITUDINAL WAVE
T = THICKNESS OF MATERIAL
MATERIAL TRANSDUCER DISCONTINUITY
"A" "B"
STANDING WAVE
AS SHOWWN ABOVE IN "A" THE FREQUENCY HAS BEEN ADJUSTED UNTIL A

STANDING WAVE "RESONANCE" HAS BEEN ESTABLISHED.
IF THE TRANSDUCER IS MOVED TO POSITION "B" THE MATERIAL WILL STOP

RESONATING UNTIL THE FREQUENCY (WAVELENGTH) IS ADJUSTED TO
AGAIN ESTABLISH RESONANCE AS SHOWN.
Name _______________________________
UT LESSON 6
WORKSHEET #1
A. Using the information given below, solve the problems relating to “reflection factors”.
B. The chart below lists the common impedance values.
(IMPEDANCE = VELOCITY X DENSITY)

MATERIAL 2
(GRAM/CM - SEC) (CM / SEC) 3
(GRAM / CM )
AIR 0.000033 X 106 0.33 X 105 0.001
6 5
WATER 0.149 X 10 1.49 X 10 1.00
ALUMINUM 1.72 X 106 6.35 X 105 2.71
STEEL 4.56 X 106 5.85 X 105 7.8
Z Z 2
C. Reflection factor = 1 - 2
Z1 + Z2
Z. = Acoustic Impedance
Water Z1
Aluminum Z2
________ 1. What percentage of the original sound energy will be reflected back to the probe
at the water to aluminum interface? (SHOW WORK) (3 pts)
________ 2. What percentage of the original sound energy will finally enter the water on its
way back to the transducer from the back surface of the aluminum part? (SHOW
WORK) (3 pts).
Only consider the reflection factors, do not consider the normal attenuation that
would occur in the material it self.
Name _______________________________
UT LESSON 6
WORKSHEET #1 (continued)
________ 3. A clad material is to be tested for bond defects. One material has a thickness of
2 2
0.3 inches and an acoustic impedance of 5.0 x 10 gram/cm - second and the
2
other material is 4.0 inches thick and has an acoustic impedance of 4.5 x 10
2
gram/cm - second.
If the bond is perfect and acceptable, what percentage of sound would you
expect to be reflected from the interface? (SHOW WORK) (3 pts)
________ 4. Would you inspect the bonded material through the thick side or through the thin
side? Why? (2 pts)
________ 5. On the CRT screen below, using a 5 inch screen range, sketch the approximate
location and amplitude of the pips from an acceptable bond condition. (2 pts)
0 1 2 3 4 5
-2 -2
-1 -1
0 0
-1 -1
-2 -2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
• As a general rule, “R” should be less than 20% for adequate bond inspection.
Name _______________________________
UT LESSON 6
QUIZ
________ 1. The gradual loss of energy as a sound beam travels through a material is called
attenuation.
________ 2. Whenever possible, the UT inspection should be done in the “near zone” before
the sound can spread out and attenuated.
________ 3. “Acoustic Impedance” refers to resistance of sound propagation through a part.
________ 4. Compared to steel, air has a very high acoustic impedance value.
________ 5. The original ultrasonic velocity remains the same regardless of the media it is
passing through.
________ 6. A sound beam with a given energy will travel farther in aluminum than in steel
before it is attenuated by the same amount.
________ 7. A fine grained material will usually caused less attenuation than a coarse grained
material.
________ 8. The terms “Intensity” and Impendence” mean the same thing.
________ 9. In immersion testing, it is typical that less than 1% of the original sound energy is
returned to the transducer.
________ 10. Using the information given below, what would be the reflection Factor at the
interface shown between the water (Z1) and steel (Z2)? (SHOW WORK) (3 pts)
2
Z1 - Z2
Reflection Facto (R) = =
Z1 + Z2
Z = Acoustic Impedence
TRANSDUCER
Z1 STEEL Z2
WATER
CRACK BEAM

MATERIAL 2
(GRAM/CM - SEC) (CM / SEC) 3
(GRAM / CM )
AIR 0.000033 X 106 0.33 X 105 0.001
6 5
WATER 0.149 X 10 1.49 X 10 1.00
ALUMINUM 1.72 X 106 6.35 X 105 2.71
STEEL 4.56 X 106 5.85 X 105 7.8
Lesson 7
DISPLAYING ULTRASONIC INDICATIONS
THERE ARE THERE BASIC TYPES OF VISUAL DISPLAYS WHICH ARE

COMMONLY USED TO EVALUATE THE SOUNDNESS OR QUALITY OF A
MATERIAL BEING TESTED; A-SCAN, B-SCAN AND C-SCAN.
A-SCAN IS A "TIME VERSUS AMPLITUDE" DISPLAY WHICH REVEALS A

DISCONTINUITY USING A "PIP" ON A CATHODE-RAY TUBE (CRT).
INITIAL
PULSE
BACK SURFACE
REFLECTION
AMPLITUDE
DISCONTINUITY
HORIZONTAL SWEEP
TIME
THE A-SCAN PRESENTATION, AS HAS BEEN DISCUSSED, IS READ FROM LEFT

TO RIGHT. THE HEIHT OF A PIP CAN BE COMPARED TO THE HEIHT OF A PIP
FROM A KNOWN REFERENCE REFLECTOR TO GIVE AN INDICATION OF
RELATIVE DISCONTINUITY SIZE.
A-SCAN PRESENTATION
AMPLITUDE
HORIZONTAL SWEEP
INITIAL PULSE DISCONTINUITY BACK SURFACE

TRANSDUCER INDICATION REFLECTION
DISCONTINUITY
MATERIAL
UT Lecture Guide
Lesson 7
B-SCAN PRESENTATION, AS SHOWN BELOW, TYPICALLY USES AN
OSCILLOSCOPE SCREEN TO DISPLAY A CROSS-SECTIONAL VIEW OF THE
MATERIAL BEING TESTED.
THE IMAGE IS RETAINED ON THE CRT LONG ENOUGH TO EVALUATE THE

SAMPLE AND TO PHOTOGRAPH THE SCREEN FOR A A PERMANENT
RECORD.
FRONT SURFACE
DISCONTINUITIES
THICKNESS OF
TEST MATERIAL
BACK SURFACE
B-SCAN PRESENTATION
C-SCAN IS A "PLAN VIEW" PRESENTATION SIMILAR TO AN X-RAY PICTURE.
AS SHOWN BELOW, THE C-SCAN SHOWNS THE SHAPE AND LOCATION OF

THE DISCONTINUITY, BUT DOES NOT SHOW THE DEPTH.
DISCONTINUITIES
C-SCAN PRESENTATION
UT Lecture Guide
Lesson 7
HIGH SPEED ULTRASONIC SCANNING GENERALLY UTILIZES THE C-SCAN
PRESENTATION.
AS SHOWN BELOW, SOME RECORDERS USE A CHEMICALLY TREATED

PAPER. THE PAPER MOVEMENT IS SYNCHRONIZED WITH THE MOVEMENT
OF THE TRANSDUCER ACROSS THE TEST SURFACE.
RECORDING PAPER FEED
PRINT BAR
MOTION OF
TRANSDUCER
SCAN LINES
HELIX DRUM
DISCONTINUITY
DISCONTINUITY
THE ADNANTAGE OF THE C-SCAN IS ITS SPEED AND ABILITY TO PRODUCE A

PERMANENT RECORD. HOWEVER, THE SCAN SHOWS ONLY LENGTH AND
WIDTH, BUT NOT DEPTH.
UT Lecture Guide
Lesson 7
A TYPICAL BRIDGE/MANIPULATOR IS SHOWN FOR A BASIC ULTRASONIC
IMMERSION TEST.
WHEN A C-SCAN IS TO BE MADE, ELECTRIC MOTORS ARE UTILIZED TO

ACTIVATE THE TRAVELING MECHANISMS AND THE UP AND DOWN
MOVEMENT OF THE SEARCH TUBE.
TANK WITH MOTORIZED BRIDGE
SCANNER TURBE
MANIPULATOR
TRANSDUCER
CARRIACE OR
BRIDGE
TEST SPECIMEN
SUPPORT FOR TEST SPECIMEN
A TYPICAL A-SCAN PRESENTATION IS SHOWN BELOW USING CONTACT

TESTING WITH AN ANGLE BEAM TRANSDUCER
THE PROCEDURE USED TO CALIBRATE THE UT UNIT IS SIMILAR TO NORMAL

BEAM TESTING AND REQUIRES A CALIBRATION BLOCK WITH A KNOWN SIZE
REFLECTION SURFACE ATA KNOWN METAL TRAVEL
ANGLE BEAM TRANSDUCER
A
A B
SHEAR
CRT WAVES
B
DISCONTINIUTY
UT Lecture Guide
Lesson 7
A CALIBRATION BLOCK (IIW TEST BLOCK FURTHER DISCUSSED IN LESSON 8)
IS SHOWN BELOW WITH A KNOW DISTANCE OF A INCHES TO THE CURVED
SURFACE.
USING THE SWEEP AND DELAY CONTROLS, THE PIPS ARE ADJUSTED TO
SHOWN MULTIPLES OF 4 INCHES ON THE CRT.
NOTCH
4“
0 2 4 6 8 10
IF THE MINATURE ANGLE BEAM CALIBRATION BLOCK SHOWN BELOW WERE

USED TO CALIBRATE THE ABOVE CRT SCREEN, WHERE WOULD THE PIPS
APPEAR?
1”
2”
MINIATURE ANGLE BEAM
DEPENDING ON THE DIRECTION OF THE ANGLE BEAM PROBE, THE PIPS

WOULD EITHER APPEAR AT ONE, FOUR, AND SEVEN INCHES OR TWO, FIVE,
AND EIGHT INCHES.
UT Lecture Guide
Lesson 7
THE ANGLE BEAM TECHNIQUE IS OFTEN USED FOR WELD INSPECTION AS
SHOWN BELOW.
2nd LEG 4th LEG
1st LEG 3rd LEG
1 st skip distance 2 nd skip distance

(”V” PATH) (”V” PATH)
TYPICALLY, THE WELD SHOULD BE INSPECTED IN THE 1 ST OR 2 ND LEG

WHENEVER POSSIBLE AS SHOWN BELOW.
SKIP
DISTANCE
VIEW A VIEW B VIEW C
TO ASSIST IN EVALUATING THE RESULTS OF ANGLE BEAM INSPECTION, A

DIRECT READING ULTRASONIC CALCULATOR IS COMMONLY USED.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0
80
1 1
70
60
2 2
50
40
THE HORIZONTAL SCALE ACROSS THE TOP OF THE CARD REPRESENTS THE
NUMBER OF INCHES BETWEEN THE TRANSDUCER AND THE CENTER OF THE
WELD.
THE VERTICAL SCALE REPRESENTS SPECIMEN THICKNESS AND THE ARC
SHOWN THE ANGLE OF THE SOUND BEAM.
UT Lecture Guide
Lesson 7
THE FOLLOWING IS AN EXAMPLE OF A TYPICAL ANGLE BEAM INSPECTION
USING THE ULTRASONIC CALCULATOR.
A DOUBLE VEE WELD WITH AN OPENING OF 30 DEGREES IN A 2” STEEL PLATE
USING A 60 DEGREE SHEAR WAVE IN THE SPECIMEN.
POINT OF INCIDENCE DASHED LINE B

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0
7
1 80
6
1 1
2 70 DISCONTINUITY
5
3 4
60
2 2
50
40 A
THE FOLLOWING PROCEDURE SHOULD BE USED IN SETTING UP THE

CALCULATOR:
1. DRAW A LINE REPRESENTING THE SOUND PATH FROM THE UPPER
LEFT CORNER THROUGH THE 60 DEGREE MARK ON THE ARC,
EXTENDING TO THE 2 - POINT REPRESENTING THE PLATE
THICKNESS. CALIBRATE THE HORIZONTAL SWEEP OF THE CRT TO
REPRESENT BEAM TRAVEL DISTANCE IN THE MATERIAL BEING
TESTED.
2. TO SHOW THE FULL SKIP DISTANCE OF THE SOUND BEAM, YOU
THEN DOUBLE THE 3 7/16” AND MARK THAT POINT AT
APPROXIMATELY 6 7/8” (POINT “B” ABOVE)
3. NEXT, DRAW THE 30 DEGREE FEE WELD ON THE PLASTIC SLIDE OR
TRANSPARENT PAPER THAT SLIDES BACK AND FORTH OVER THE
CALCULATOR.
4. AS SHOWN ABOVE, A DISCONTINUITY IS DISPLAYED ON THE CRT
SCREEN AT 5.5”.THE OPERATOR THEN MEASURES THE DISTANCE
BETWEEN THE CENTER OF THE TRANSDUCER (EXIT POINT) AND
THE CENTER OF THE WELDMENT (4 5/8”) AND SLIDES THE
TRANSPARENT PAPER TO THE SAME DISTANCE.
5. THE POSITION OF THE DISCONTINUITY IS INDICATED AND CAN BE
EVALUATED.
Name _______________________________
LESSON 7
WORKSHEET #1
Angle beam inspection requires that the operator understand how the sound beam is
reflected within the specimen. On the CRT screen provided, indicate the location of each
pip based on the sound path distances shown. (3 pts each)
0 1 2 3 4 5
A 15 INCH SCREEN RANGE
-2 -2
-1 -1
0 0
3”
-1
3”
-1
-2 -2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0 1 2 3 4 5
B 20 INCH SCREEN RANGE
2”
-2 -2
-1 -1
0 0
8”
-1 -1
-2 -2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0 1 2 3 4 5
C 12 INCH SCREEN RANGE
2”
-2 -2
-1 -1
0 0
-1 -1
8”
-2 -2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Name _______________________________
UT LESSON 7
QUIZ
________ 1. On a typical B-Scan, the horizontal sweep represents time and the vertical
deflection represents amplitude.
________ 2. The B-Scan can display how deep the discontinuity is below surface of the
specimen.
________ 3. The typical A-Scan is the display commonly used for recording a permanent
record with the immersion inspection technique.
________ 4. The vertical pip on an A-Scan can be used to compare the relative size of a
discontinuity.
________ 5. The C-Scan display will indicate length and width of a discontinuity, but it cannot
show death.
________ 6. To obtain an A-Scan display with ultrasonic immersion testing, it is necessary to
auto mate the bridge/manipulator with electric motors.
________ 7. The “Ultrasonic Calculator” can be used in weld inspection to indicate the
location of a discontinuity in the weldment.
________ 8. Whenever possible, the weld should be inspected in the “2nd Skip Distance.”
________ 9. The calibration of a UT instrument for sound path distance can be performed
using the curved surface of the “IIW Block”
________ 10. To accurately utilize the “Ultrasonic Calculator” it is necessary to accurately
measure the distance from center line of the weld to the exist point of the
transducer.
________ 11. Using an E-Screen range on the CRT below, indicate where the “pips” should
appear if the instrument is to be properly calibrated for sound path distance in the
block shown (SHOW WORK) (3 pts).
0 1 2 3 4 5
1”
2”
-2 -2
MINIATURE ANGLE BEAM -1 -1
0 0
-1 -1
-2 -2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Lesson 8
ULTRASONIC TRANSDUCERS AND STANDARD REFERENCE BLOCKS THE
ULTRASONIC TRANSDUCER IS THE HEART OF THE UT TEST SYSTEM.
SEALED CASE
SIGNAL
CONNECTOR
BACKING
GROUND
CONNECTOR
ELECTRODES
CRYSTAL
THE CRYSTAL MATERIAL IN AN ULTRASONIC TRANSDUCER IS MADE OF

PIEZOELECTRIC MATERIAL SUCH AS QUARTZ, LITHIUM SULFATE AND
POLARIZED CERAMICS.
1. QUARTZ WAS THE FIRST MATERIAL USED. IT HAS VERY STABLE
FREQUENCY CHARACTERISTICS. HOWEVER, QUARTZ IS A POOR
GENERATOR OF ACOUSTIC ENERGY AND HAS GENERALLY BEEN
REPLACED BY MORE EFFICIENT MATERIALS.
2. LITHIUM SULFATE IS A VERY EFFICIENT RECEIVER OF ACOUSTIC
ENERGY, BUT IS FRAGILE, SOLUBLE IN WATER AND LIMITED TO USE
AT TEMPERATURES BELOW 165OF.
3. POLARIZED CERAMICS PRODUCE THE MOST EFFICIENT
GENERATORS OF ACOUSTICS ENERGY BUT THEY DO HAVE A
TENDENCY TO WEAR. COMMON POLARIZED CERAMICS INCLUDE
B A R I U M T I TA N AT E , L E A D M E TA N I O B AT E , A N D L E A D
ZIRCONATE/TITANATE.
THE CAPABILITY OF ATRANSDUCER IS DESCRIBED BY THREE TERMS:
1. SENSITIVITY. THE ABILITY TO DETECT SMALL DISCONTINUITIES.
2. RESOLUTION. THE ABILITY TO SEPARATE THE SOUND REFLECTIONS
FROM TWO DISCONTINUITIES CLOSE TOGETHER IN DEPTH OR TIME.
3. EFFICIENCY. ENERGY CONVERSION EFFECTIVENESS.
UT Lecture Guide
Lesson 8
SENSITIVITY OF A TRANSDUCER IS RATED BY ITS ABILITY TO DETECT A
CERTAIN SIZE FLAT-BOTTOM HOLE, AT A SPECIFIED DEPTH, IN A STANDARD
REFERENCE BLOCK.
THE SMALLER THE DETECTABLE HOLE, THE GREATER THE SENSITIVITY.
TRANSDUCER SENSITIVITY IS MEASURED BY THE AMPLITUDE OF ITS

RESPONSE FROM AN ARTIFICIAL DISCONTINUITY IN A STANDARD
REFERENCE BLOCK
THE REFERENCE BLOCK IS NECESSARY, BECAUSE EVEN TRANSDUCERS

OF THE SAME SIZE, FREQUENCY AND MATERIAL DO NOT ALWAYS PRODUCE
THE SAME AMPLITUDE SIGNAL FROM A GIVEN REFLECTOR.
TRANSDUCER
REFERENCE
BLOCK
FLAT BOTTOMED HOLE
RESOLUTION IS THE ABILITY TO SEPARATE (DISTINGUISH BETWEEN) THE

SOUND REFLECTIONS FROM A DISCONTINUITY CLOSE TO A BOUNDARY OR
TWO DISCONTINUITIES CLOSE TOGETHER IN DEPTH OR TIME.
POOR RESOLUTION
GOOD RESOLUTION
INITIAL INITIAL
PULSE PULSE
BACK SURFACE BACK SURFACE
REFLECTION REFLECTION
DISCONTINUITY DISCONTINUITY
TIME TIME
UT Lecture Guide
Lesson 8
TRANSDUCER MATERIALARE USUALLY CUT IN TWO WAYS:
1. CRYSTALS CUT PERPENDICULAR TO THE X-AXIS PRODUCE

LONGITUDINAL WAVES.
2. CRYSTALS CUT PERPENDICULAR TO THE Y-AXIS PRODUCE SHEAR
WAVES.
AS SHOWN BELOW, MOST CRYSTALS USED FOR UT ARE CUT

PERPENDICULAR TO THE X-AXIS.
CRYSTAL DEFORMATION
AXIS X-AXIS
Y-AXIS
Z-AXIS
SIZE IS A CONTRIBUTING FACTOR IN PERFORMANCE OF ATRANSDUCER.

1. THE LARGER DIAMETER THE TRANSDUCER, THE LESS THE SOUND
BEAM WILL SPREAD FOR A GIVEN FREQUENCY.
2. HOWEVER, THE SMALL, HIGH FREQUENCY TRANSDUCER ARE
BETTER ABLE TO DETECT VERY SMALL DISCONTINUITIES.
3. THE LARGER THE TRANSDUCER, THE MORE SOUND ENERGY IT
TRANSMITS INTO THE TEST PART. LARGE LOW FREQUENCY
TRANSDUCERS ARE OFTEN USED TO GET MORE PENETRATION.
4. LARGE SINGLE CRYSTAL TRANSDUCERS ARE GENERALLY LIMITED
TO THE LOWER FREQUENCIES. HIGH FREQUENCY CRYSTALS ARE
SUSCEPTIBLE TO DAMAGE BECAUSE THEYARE VERY THIN.
UT Lecture Guide
Lesson 8
THE FREQUENCY OF A TRANSDUCER IS AN IMPORTANT FACTOR IN ITS
APPLICATION.
1. THE HIGHER THE FREQUENCY OF A TRANSDUCER, THE LESS THE

SOUND BEAM WILL SPREAD AND THE GREATER THE SENSITIVITY
AND RESOLUTION.
WHEN THE SOUND BEAM IS SPREAD AS SHOWN BELOW, LESS
SOUND IS LIKELY TO BE REFLECTED FROM A SMALL
DISCONTINUITY
HIGH FREQUENCY TRANSDUCER LOW FREQUENCY TRANSDUCER
DISCONTINUITY
FIG. 1A FIG. 1B
2. THE LOWER THE FREQUENCY, THE DEEPER THE SOUND

PENETRATION AND THE LESS SCATTER. THE GREATER BEAM
SPREAD AIDS IN DETECTING REFLECTORS WHICH ARE NOT
PERPENDICULAR TO THE AXIS OF THE SOUND BEAM.
3. CRYSTALS THICKNESS IS ALSO RELATED TO TRANSDUCER
FREQUENCY. THE HIGHER THE FREQUENCY OF THE
TRANSDUCER, THE THINNER THE CRYSTAL WILL BE.
MOST ULTRASONIC TESTING IS DONE BETWEEN 0.2 MHz AND 25
Mhz AND CRYSTALS CUT FOR USE ABOVE 10 MHz ARE TO THIN AND
FRAGILE FOR CONTACT TESTING.
THEREFORE, TRANSDUCERS WITH OPERATING FREQUENCIES
ABOVE 10 MHz ARE USED PRIMARILY FOR IMMERSION TESTING.
UT Lecture Guide
Lesson 8
TRANSDUCERS FOR CONTACT TESTING AND IMMERSION TESTING ARE
ESSENTIALLY THE SAME BUT USUALLYARE NOT INTERCHANGEABLE.
MOST CONTACT TESTING TRANSDUCERS HAVE WEAR PLATES IN FRONT OF

THE PIEZOELECTRIC ELEMENT TO PROTECT IT. THE EXCEPTION TO THIS IS A
QUARTZ TRANSDUCER.
AS SHOWN BELOW, CONTACT TRANSDUCERS CAN BE EITHER “STRAIGHT

BEAM” OR “ANGLE BEAM.”
TRANSDUCER A TRANSDUCER B
LUCITE
CERAMIC
STRAIGHT BEAM TRANSDUCERS USUALLY HAVE A LUCITE, CERAMIC, OR

QUARTZ WEAR PLATE IN FRONT OF THE CRYSTAL.
ANGLE BEAM TRANSDUCERS HAVE THE WEAR PLATE WEDGE-SHAPED TO

PRODUCE THE DESIRED REFRACTED ANGLE.
AS SHOWN ABOVE, THE LUCITE WEDGE PROTECTS THE FACE OF THE

CRYSTAL AND DETERMINES THE ANGLE OF INCIDENCE OF THE SOUND
BEAM ON THE TEST PART.
AS HAS BEEN DISCUSSED, WHEN SOUND WAVES ARE DIRECTED INTO THE
TEST PART AT AN ANGLE, THEY ARE DIVIDED INTO LONGITUDINAL AND
SHEAR WAVES BY REFRACTION.
MOSTANGLE BEAM TESTING IS DONE WITH SHEAR WAVES.
STRAIGHT BEAM TRANSDUCER ANGLE BEAM TRANSDUCER
LONGITUDINAL SHEAR
WAVES WAVES
DISCONTINUITY
UT Lecture Guide
Lesson 8
THE ANGLE BEAM PROBE CAN ALSO BE USED TO GENERATE SURFACE
WAVES.
AS WE HAVE DISCUSSED, SURFACE WAVES ARE GENERATED WHEN THE

INCIDENT ANGLE OF THE SOUND BEAM REACHES THE SECOND OR UPPER
CRITICALANGLE.
MOST ANGLE BEAM CONTACT TRANSDUCERS ARE IDENTIFIED. BY THE

REFRACTED SHEAR WAVE PRODUCED (70O, 60O, ETC.), IN A SPECIFIC
MATERIAL, USUALLY STEELAND ALUMINUM.
SPHERICALLY GROUND AND CYLINDRICALLY GROUND ACOUSTICAL

LENSES ARE COMMONLY ADDED TO IMMERSION TYPE TRANSDUCERS.
THEYARE USED TO:
1. IMPROVE SENSITIVITYAND RESOLUTION.

2. COMPENSATE FOR TEST PART CONTOURS.
3. EXAMINE A GIVEN DEPTH OF THE TEST PART MORE CAREFULLY.
AS SHOWN BELOW, CYLINDRICALLY GROUND LENSES FOCUS THE SOUND

ENERGY TO A LINE. SPHERICALLY GROUND LENSES FOCUS THE SOUND
ENERGY TO A POINT.
WATER
TRANSDUCER
BEAM ACOUSTICAL
LENS
METAL
UT Lecture Guide
Lesson 8
CYLINDRICAL LENSES ARE USED IN TWO WAYS:
1. TO INCREASE THE SENSITIVITYAND RESOLUTION OF EQUIPMENT.

2. FOR CONTOUR CORRECTION AS SHOWN BELOW. THE LENS CAN BE
GROUND SPECIALLY TO DIRECT THE SOUND ENERGY NORMAL
(PERPENDICULAR) TO A CURVED SURFACE ATALL POINTS.
CONTOUR
CORRECTION
FLAT SHOE LENS
CRT SCREEN DISPLAY
TUBING TUBING
VIEW A VIEW B
SPHERICAL LENSES CONCENTRATE THE SOUND ENERGY INTO A CONE

SHAPED BEAM.
1. THE FOCUSING INCREASES ITS INTENSITY, BUT SHORTENS ITS

USEFUL RANGE.
2. WHILE THE CYLINDERICAL LENS ABOVE HAS A GREATER WIDTH, THE
SPHERICAL LENS HAS THE GREATEST SENSITIVITY.
3. THE SPHERICAL LENS IS OFTEN USED WHEN IMMERSION TESTING
PARTS HAVING A ROUGH SURFACE.
FOCUSED TRANSDUCERS ARE DESCRIBED BY THEIR FOCAL LENGTH.
THE SHORT FOCAL LENGTHS ARE FOR EXAMINING AREAS OF THE

SPECIMEN CLOSE TO THE SURFACE. LONGER FOCAL LENGTHS ARE FOR
INCREASINGLY DEEPER AREAS.
UT Lecture Guide
Lesson 8
TRANSDUCERS COME IN MANY SHAPES, SIZES AND PHYSICAL
CHARACTERISTICS.
SOME COMMON TYPES INCLUDE PAINT-BRUSH, DUAL ELEMENT, SINGLE

ELEMENT, ANGLE BEAM, FOCUSED, MOSAIC, CONTACT, AND IMMERSION.
SINGLE ELEMENT TRANSDUCERS MAY BE TRANSMITTERS ONLY,

RECEIVERS ONLY, OR BUT TRANSMITTER AND RECEIVER.
DOUBLE ELEMENT TRANSDUCERS (AS SHOWN BELOW) MAY BE EITHER

SINGLE TRANSDUCERS MOUNTED SIDE BY SIDE OR STAKED.
IN A DOUBLE ELEMENT TRANSDUCER, ONE IS A TRANSMITTER AND THE

OTHER A RECEIVER.
RECEIVER TRANSMITTER
TRANSMITTER RECEIVER
SOUND BARRIER
SOUND BARRIER
SIDE BY SIDE STACKED
DOUBLE ELEMENT TRANSDUCERS HAVE BETTER NEAR SURFACE

RESOLUTION BECAUSE THE RECEIVER CAN RECEIVER DISCONTINUITY
SIGNALS BEFORE THE TRANSMITTER COMPLETES ITS TRANSMISSION.
DISCONTINUITY OBSCURED
BY INITIAL PULSE COAXIAL CABLE
TRANSDUCER
DISCONTINUITY
SWEEP
TEST
MARKER SPECIMEN
UT Lecture Guide
Lesson 8
STANDARD REFERENCE BLOCKS
IN ULTRASONIC TESTING, DISCONTINUITIES ARE USUALLY COMPARED TO A

REFERENCE STANDARD.
THE STANDARD MY BE ONE OF MANY REFERENCE BLOCKS OR SETS OF

BLOCKS SPECIFIED FOR A GIVEN TEST.
REFERENCE BLOCKS COME IN MANY DIFFERENT SHAPES AND SIZES AND

THIS LESSON WILL DISCUSS ONLY A FEW OF THOSE COMMONLY USED. A
TYPICAL BLOCKS IS SHOWN BELOW
TEST SURFACE
A = DIAMETER OF FBH
B = METAL DISTANCE
FROM TEST
SURFACE TO FBH
B
C = METAL DISTANCE
C
FROM TEST
A SURFACE TO
FLAT-BOTTOM HOLE
BOTTOM OF BLOCK
MOST REFERENCE BLOCKS HAVE THE FOLLOWING IN COMMON:

1. THEYARE MADE FROM CAREFULLY SELECTED MATERIAL
2. THE MATERIAL MUST HAVE THE PROPER ATTENUATION, GRAIN SIZE,
HEAT TREATMENTAND BE FREE OF DISCONTINUITIES.
3. ALL DIMENSIONS MUST BE PRECISELY MACHINED.
4. ALL HOLES MUST BE FLAT-BOTTOMED AND HAVE A SPECIFIED
DIAMETER TO BE AN IDEAL REFLECTOR.
5. SIDE DRILLED HOLE DIAMETER MUST BE CAREFULLY CONTROLLED.
THREE COMMONLY USED SETS OF STANDARD REFERENCE BLOCKS ARE:

1. ARE AMPLITUDE BLOCKS
2. DISTANCE AMPLITUDE BLOCKS
3. ASTM BASIC SET OF ARE AND DISTANCE AMPLITUDE BLOCKS.
AREAAMPLITUDE BLOCKS PROVIDE STANDARDS FOR DISCONTINUITIES OF

DIFFERENT SIZES, AT THE SAME DEPTH.
D I S TA N C E A M P L I T U D E B L O C K S P R O V I D E S TA N D A R D S F O R
DISCONTINUITIES OF THE SAME SIZE AT DIFFERENT DEPTHS.
UT Lecture Guide
Lesson 8
THE ASTM BASIC SET OF AREA/DISTANCE AMPLITUDE BLOCKS CONSISTS
OF TEN, TWO INCH DIAMETER BLOCKS AS SHOWN BELOW:
FLAT-BOTTOM
HOLE (FB) DIA
TEST (SEE TABLE)
TARGET
SURFACE
METAL DISTANCE
(SEE TABLE) 3/4 INCH
METAL DISTANCE, INCHES 1/8 1/4 1/2 3/4 1-1/2 3 3 3 6 6
FBH DIA IN 64 THS INCH 5 5 5 5 5 3 5 8 5 8
ANOTHER TYPE OF CALIBRATION BLOCK IS THE IIW BLOCK

(INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF WELDING). IT PROVIDES THE FOLLOWING:
VERIFICATION OF DISTANCE KNOWN DISTANCES & ANGULAR

RELATIONSHIPS, VERIFIES TRANSDUCER ANGLE AND BEAM EXIT POINT AND
CHECKS TRANSDUCER RESOLUTION.
8” 0.125”
0.25”
40” 50” 60”
0.06” HOLE
4” 3.64”
2” DIAMETER HOLE
60” 70” 75”
FOCAL POINT 4”
12”
1”
PLASTIC INSERT
UT Lecture Guide
Lesson 8
IN CONTACT ANGLE BEAM TESTING, THE BEAM EXIT POINT OF THE
TRANSDUCER MUST BE KNOWN TO ACCURATELY DETERMINE THE
LOCATION OF THE DISCONTINUITY.
AS SHOWN BELOW, THE TRANSDUCER IS MOVED BACK AND FORTH UNTIL

THE PIP ON THE CRT REACHES MAXIMUM AMPLITUDE.
THE FOCAL POINT ON THE IIW BLOCK THEN CORRESPONDS WITH THE BEAM
EXIT POINT OF THE TRANSDUCER.
ANGLE BEAM
TRANSDUCER
BEAM EXIT POINT
FOCAL POINT
75” 70” 60”
60” 50” 40”
SPECIAL CALIBRATION STANDARDS

SPECIAL STANDARDS ARE OFTEN USED FOR ITEMS SUCH AS WELDMENT,
CASTINGS, AND PIPING. THE STANDARDS ARE NORMALLY OF THE SAME
MATERIAL AND PRODUCT FROM TO BE TESTED. REFERENCE REFLECTORS
SUCH AS NOTCHES OR HOLES ARE ARTIFICIALLYADDED TO THE STANDARD.
UT Lecture Guide
Lesson 8
VERIFICATION OF THE TRANSDUCER ANGLE IS ACCOMPLISHED AS SHOWN
BELOW:
THE PLASTIC WEDGE OF THE ANGLE BEAM TRANSDUCER IS SUBJECT TO

WEAR IN NORMAL USE. THIS WEAR CAN CHANGE THE BEAM EXIT POINT AND
THE ANGLE OF THE SOUND BEAM.
BEAM EXIT POINT
60 DEGREE TRANSDUCER
40” 50” 60”
2” DIAMETER HOLE
60” 70” 75”
FROM THE POSITION SHOWN ABOVE, THE TRANSDUCER IS MOVED BACK

AND FORTH UNTIL THE REFLECTION FROM THE 2 INCH HOLE SHOWS
MAXIMUM AMPLITUDE ON THE CRT.
THE ANGLE OF SOUND BEAM CAN THEN BE READ FROM WHERE THE EXIT
POINT ON THE TRANSDUCER MATCHES THE DEGREES STAMPED ON THE
SIDE OF THE BLOCK.
THE TRANSDUCER SOUND BEAM EXIT POINT SHOULD ALWAYS BE CHECKED

FIRST. IF THE EXIT POINT MARKING IS NOT CORRECT, THEN THE ANGLE
CHEXK WILL NOT BE ACCURATE.
UT Lecture Guide
Lesson 8
THE FAR FIELD RESOLVING POWER OF THE TEST EQUIPMENT CAN BE
ESTIMATED BY PLACING A NORMAL BEAM TRANSDUCER ON THE IIW BLOCK
AS SHOWN.
GOOD RESOLUTION WILL BE INDICATED IF THE INSTRUMENT CAN

SATISFACTORILY SEPARATE THE PIPS FROM ALL THREE REFLECTORS
TRANSDUCER
COOD BAD
IIW BLOCK
CRT DISPLAY
THE MINIATURE ANGLE BEAM BLOCK CAN ALSO BE USED TO CALIBRATE THE
INSTRUMENT FOR ANGLE BEAM INSPECTION.
THE MINIATURE BLOCK IS INTENDED FOR FIELD WORK AND IS NOT AS

COMPREHENSIVE AS THE LARGER IIW BLOCK.
3”
FOCAL POINT
0. 750”
45o 60o
1” 2”
0. 750”
o
70
1.75”
MINIATURE ANGLE BEAM BLOCK
0.060” HOLE
Name _______________________________
UT LESSON 8
QUIZ
________ 1. The term “resolution” refers to the ability of a transducer to detect a very small
discontinuity.
________ 2. Quartz is the only transducer material commonly used that is not a piezoelectric
material.
________ 3. If the frequency of a transducer is raised then the beam spread is reduced.
________ 4. The polarized ceramic transducer is considered to be a very good generator of
ultrasonic energy.
________ 5. Quartz is a type of polarized ceramic transducer material.
________ 6. A transducer that can defect a discontinuity close to the surface is saint to have a
good resolving power.
________ 7. Larger transducer usually have a higher frequency because they are more
fragile.
________ 8. The higher the frequency of a transducer, the smaller the sound cone (i.a. Less
beam spread).
________ 9. Immersion testing is always done with transducer that have a frequency between
2.5 and 5.0 MHz.
________ 10. Angle beam testing is usually done with longitudinal waves.
________ 11. Angle beam probes may be used to generate surface waves.
________ 12. A spherical focusing lens will usually have the ability to provide better sensitivity
as compared to a cylinderical lens.
________ 13. Focused transducers are often used for shear wave inspection of welded plate
due to the increased penetration.
________ 14. A double or dual element transducer can only be used in the longitudinal wave
mode.
________ 15. With a double element transducer, the sensitivity is increased because both
elements are receiving and sending sound energy.
________ 16. Acoustical tenses increases transducer sensitivity and resolution, but decreases
their useful range.
________ 17. A reference block should be made from the same basic material as the part being
tested.
________ 18. Blocks which provide a size reference and are used to check the systems
linearity are known as area amplitude blocks.
________ 19. The exist point of an angle beam transducer should always be determined before
the angle of the transducer is checked.
________ 20. Both the iiw block and miniature block will check the test system resolution.

NDT Lesson 1 - 8 PDF

Enviado por

Dados do documento

Descrição original:

Título original

Direitos autorais

Formatos disponíveis

Compartilhar este documento

Compartilhar ou incorporar documento

Opções de compartilhamento

Você considera este documento útil?

Este conteúdo é inapropriado?

Direitos autorais:

Formatos disponíveis

NDT Lesson 1 - 8 PDF

Enviado por

Direitos autorais:

Formatos disponíveis

PREPARED BY: George L.

REVIEWED AND EDITED BY THE FOLLOWING MEMBERS OF THE

Published by The American Society for Nondestructive Testing

Copyright© by The American Society for Nondestructive Testing. Inc. All

Printed in the United State of America

NDT TRAINING PROGRAM

I INTRODUCTION TO THE ULTRASONIC TRAINING PACKAGE

II CONTENTS OF TRAINING PACKAGE

III OUTLINE OF LESSONS AND RELATED READING ASSIGNMENTS

Lesson 2 Ultrasonic, Principles

Lesson 3 Equipment Controls

Lesson 4 Wave Propagation, Reflection, and Refraction

Lesson 5 Couplants, Material Characteristics, Beam Spread

Lesson 6 Attenuation, Impedance, and Resonance

Lesson 7 Screen Presentations, Angle Beam Inspection With

Lesson 8 Transducers, Standard Reference Blocks

Lesson 9 Immersion Inspection

Lesson 10 Contact Testing, Longitudinal & Shear Waves, Shell’s Law

Lesson 11 Applications of Angle Beam Contact Testing

Lesson 12 Nonrelevant Ultrasonic Indications

Lesson 13 Classification of Discontinuities in UT

Lesson 14 Identification and Compensation of Discontinuities

BASIC APPLICATIONS OF ULTRASONICS

ULTRASONICS IS A VERSATILE INSPECTION TECHNIQUE, IT IS USED TO TEST

ULTRASONICS HAS AN ADVANTAGE OF DETECTING SUBSURFACE

THE OBJECTIVE OF ULTRASONIC TESTING IS TO ENSURE PRODUCT

1. OBTAINING INFORMATION RELATED TO DISCONTINUITIES

TRAINING AND CERTIFICATION

IT IS IMPORTANT THAT THE TECHNICIAN AND SUPERVISOR BE QUALIFIED IN

THE AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTING RECOMMENDS

THIS DOCUMENT PROVIDES THE EMPLOYER WITH THE NECESSARY GUIDE

TO COMPLY WITH THIS DOCUMENT THE EMPLOYER MUST ESTABLISH A

THE STUDENT IS ADVISED TO STUDY THE CURRENT EDITION OF SNT-TC-1A

LEVEL I PERFORM SPECIFIC CALIBRATIONS, SPECIFIC TESTS, AND

LEVEL II SET UP AND CALIBRATE EQUIPMENT AND INTERPRET AND

LEVEL III RESPONSIBLE FOR ESTABLISHING TECHNIQUES,

THE SNT. TC. 1A DOCUMENT RECOMMENDS THAT LEVEL I AND II NDT

ASNT CERTIFICATION WITHOUT EXAMINATION

ASNT CERTIFICATION BY EXAMINATION

LEVEL III QUALIFICATIONS

EXAMINATION BY THE EMPLOYER

EXAMINATION BY OUTSIDE AGENCY

EMPLOYER WAIVES EXAMINATION

1. A VIBRATION IS A BACK AND FORTH MOVEMENT.

A DEPRESSION OF A SURFACE FROM ITS NORMAL POSITION IS CALLED A

VIBRATIONS PASS THROUGH A SOLID MATERIALAS A SUCCESSION OF PART I

THE STRUCTURE OF A MATERIAL IS ACTUALLY MANY SMALL PARTICLES OR

THESE PARTICLES HAVE NORMAL OR REST POSITIONS, AND CAN BE

THE TRANSMISSION OF ULTRASONIC VIBRATIONS THROUGH A MATERIAL IS

IF YOU TAP A METAL SURFACE, THE SURFACE MOVES INWARD, CAUSING A

THE TIME REQUIRED FOR SOMETHING TO MOVE THROUGH ONE COMPLETE

THE NUMBER OF CYCLES IN A GIVEN PERIOD OF TIME IS CALLED THE

THE ENERGY IS ORIGINATED IN SOMETHING CALLED A “TRANSDUCER”

A TRANSDUCER IS A DEVICE THAT CONVERTS ENERGY FROM ONE FROM TO

EXAMPLE : ELECTRICAL ENERGY TO MECHANICAL, OR MECHANICAL TO

ELECTRICAL ENERGY CAUSES A PIEZOELECTRIC CRYSTAL TO EXPAND AND

AIR IS A POOR TRANSMITTER OF ULTRASOUND BECAUSE THE PARTICLE

0.33 KM/SEC 1.48 KM/SEC 5.9 KM/SEC

AIR WATER STEEL

VISUALIZE THAT THE BALLS SHOWN ABOVE REPRESENT THE INTERNAL

THE WAVELENGTH CAN ALSO BE DEFINED AS THE DISTANCE A WAVE

THE SYMBOL IS USED TO REPRESENT A WAVELENGTH AND IS CALLED