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One of the fundamental aspects of the colonial conquest of the native peoples
of the Americas was the emergence of a narrative which constructed a series
of stereotyped categories placing colonizers and the colonized into opposing
poles with very marked hierarchies: civilized/savage, cleanliness/impurity,
temperance/intoxication, among others.1 In this respect, the first European ac-
counts of the social behavior of the native peoples linked it to the consump-
tion of alcoholic beverages. Such descriptions represent an extremely valu-
able research tool which informs an understanding of the processes of cultural
contact and social change.2 In the particular case of Brazilian colonization, a
dense body of material exists, including accounts of missionaries, voyagers
and chroniclers. Among those documents is the Cartas dos Primeiros Jesuítas
do Brasil (Letters of the First Jesuits in Brazil), edited by Father Serafim Leite
between the years of 1954 and 1957. The letters sent by the first Christian mis-
sionaries from 1549 and 1563 are gathered in the Cartas. These first letters,
as with other descriptions by Europeans, established a dichotomy that deliber-
ately attempted to place in two diametrically opposed poles the behaviors of a
good Christian and that observed in the indigenous peoples. Not surprisingly,
whereas from the former temperance and moderation were expected, the latter
could only behave in shameful ways due to their irremediable sinful nature.3
In this article, I seek to demonstrate that the struggle of Catholic missionar-
ies against the Tupinambá’s drinking was one of the major ways in the effort
of transforming natives’ minds. By combating binge drinking, the Jesuits di-
rectly attacked a central locus for the expression and reproduction of the Tu-
pinambá culture: their feasts. Even though the documents acknowledged the
native peoples’ ethylic character, this issue is still overlooked by Brazilian his-
toriography. As paradoxical as this may be, the majority of the native peoples
of Brazil, then and now, valued the experiences of alcoholic consumption and
intoxication greatly, both in their daily and ritual lives, as I sought to demon-
strate in my doctoral thesis.4
The word “feast” is here used to designate an analytical category, as pro-
posed by Michael Dietler and Brian Hayden. At the same time it can mean an
event closely linked to daily activities. Since they were occasions for com-
munal consumption of food and drinks, feasts may also possess a ritual and
dramatic character, in which singing and dancing performances are used, to-
gether with oratory exhibitions and drinking excesses, to articulate social and
cosmological relations, reassert gender and age differences and build friend-
ship or enemy relationships.5
The indigenous groups which initially communicated with the Europeans
on Brazilian soil were the Tupi-speaking peoples. They occupied most of
the coastal areas, more specifically by the river banks which run through the
tropical forests of the north-eastern and south-eastern parts of the country.
Although being divided in a large number of “nations” or “breeds” (men-
tioned as such in the first Portuguese documents), these are widely referred
to as the Tupinambá. These peoples presented, in spite of significant regional
variations, a series of linguistic and cultural similarities which enable us to
see them as extremely coherent cultural complex. They lived out of slash-and
burn agriculture, centered very much upon cassava (Manihot utilissima), as
well as hunting, fishing and the collection of wild fruits. The Tupinambá lived
in decentralized villages, where hundreds (sometimes thousands) of individu-
als were ruled by warrior chiefs who established numerous relations among
themselves by means of polygynous marriages and hospitality rituals.f These
were marked by huge consumption of fermented beverages made from cas-
sava (mainly), maize and fruit such as cashew (Annacardium occidentale) and
pineapple (Ananas sativus).
Just like other indigenous tribes, the Tupinambá possessed deep knowl-
edge of fermenting techniques, which allowed them to produce a wide range
of beverages, commonly known as cauim (Portuguese term, from the Tupi
ca’o-y, or “drunkard´s water”). These drinks were not to be consumed daily,
but on special binge-drinking occasions called cauinagens, which gathered
members of various local groups so as to celebrate weddings and rites of pas-
sage, mourn the dead, decide over war, welcome illustrious visitors (such as
the wandering shamans or caraíbas).7 Above all, they got together to celebrate
that which was the fundamental rite in the Tupinambá society: the death and
devouring of captured enemies (Figure 1).8
Mediated by hospitality, the cauinagens represented the most suitable sce-
nario for social relations and for the power demonstration of the groups offer-
Fernandes, Catholic Missionaries and Native Celebrations in Brazil 113
ing the beverages to the feast. One must not forget to mention the feasts as a
way for the meeting of men for group work to occur (such as the slashing and
burning of forests for the plantations), as well as for the ritual expression of
the contradictions and similarities which were so true in the gender relations
of the Tupinambá.9 The cauim meant, for the natives, “an embodied material
culture,”10 or a prime source rich in symbolism which, since consumed col-
lectively, allowed for the domestic economy to be engendered with politics. It
also enabled that body techniques be developed as a way to handle intoxica-
tion, thus becoming sources for the native identities to be constructed due to
the impact of the arrival of the Europeans.
It was amidst this cultural context that the first Jesuits arrived, led by Fa-
ther Manoel da Nóbrega (1517-70).11 After a two-month voyage, on March
29, 1549, Nóbrega set his feet in Bahia in a very optimistic mood. As far as
he could tell, his only problem would be dealing with about fifty Portuguese
settlers, who lived in the “great sin” of unsanctioned, marital union with vari-
ous native women.12 As for the natives, they were an “ignorant bunch with
no knowledge of God nor of idols”13 who acted according to their “sensual
appetites”14 but who possessed a decisive quality: “to do exactly as they are
told.”15
Eager to fight against Catholicism’s great enemies (Protestant reformers
and Muslims), the Jesuits were taught to face heretic priests and infidels, as
well as temples. Given the fact that the Tupinambá had nothing like priests or
temples, the missionaries saw in the natives the genus angelicum, the virginal
114 Social History of Alcohol and Drugs, Volume 23, No 2 (Spring 2009)
who noticed the dangerous relationship between them and what they wanted
to abolish.”19
The Jesuits brought from Europe information concerning the struggle of
other religious orders against drunkenness of native peoples of the Americans,
also the implications of this habit to religion and to the ways of thinking of
the natives. The example of New Spain (Mexico) stands out as some of its
missionaries coming to Brazil, such as José de Anchieta (1534-97) or Juan de
Azpilcueta Navarro (1521?-57), were Spanish and became Jesuits in Spain.
Individual origins aside, the Portuguese and the Spanish shared very similar
opinions on alcoholic consumption and possessed practically identical drink-
ing practices.20 It was believed that something must be done to get rid of the
terrible drinking habits of the natives, aiming at transforming them into true
Christians and civilized people. Most importantly, what was initially a very
optimistic perspective of evangelization of these peoples of America, turned
into a pessimistic view of an America immersed in sin and in the presence of
the Devil. This shift of perspective concurred decisively to the difficulty in
extirpating the practice of “superfluous drinking.”21
Franciscan missionaries working in Mexico developed a reflection over the
sin of drunkenness that probably influenced somehow the thinking of the Je-
suits in Brazil. By 1549 various works like the Doctrinas of Juan de Zumár-
raga, Alonso de Molina and Pedro de Córdova had been published. These
outlined the ways towards evangelization of the native peoples of Mexico, and
gave special attention to the sin of drunkenness.22
Informed of these influences, the Jesuits in Brazil had certainly been in
touch with the reflections about drunkenness made by well-known theolo-
gian Martín de Azpilcueta Navarro (1491-1586), correspondent of Manuel
da Nóbrega and who had been his pupil in the University of Coimbra, where
he was awarded bachelor of Canon Law. Martín Navarro was uncle of one
of Nóbrega´s travel and mission companions, father Juan de Azpilcueta Na-
varro. Navarro, author of one of the most widely accepted definitions of the
sin of drunkenness, was perfectly in accordance with the Iberian moderate
consumption of wine. He was a major influence for the Mexican evangelists
inasmuch as he held the view that, when consumed as part of meals and for
daily nutrition, wine was not sinful. For him, there was sin when drunkenness
was premeditated, if the individual “knew he was to get drunk, causing harm
to himself and to others, making it impossible to the exercise of reasoning.
If he drank having no idea he was about to get drunk, there was no mortal
sin.”23
Even though there were significant differences in the colonization of Brazil
and Mexico, both missionary groups had to face cultures which valued some-
how the ritual of drunkenness, as if it could be room for divine possession.
Drinking practices leveled with occasions for the Devil to take action, and
missionaries had to put an end to that. Both the Spanish and the Portuguese
ought to repress these religious acts of alcoholic intoxication as they were
116 Social History of Alcohol and Drugs, Volume 23, No 2 (Spring 2009)
In the early seventeenth century, during the brief period of French domina-
tion of Maranhão in northern Brazil (1612-15), French Capuchin missionaries
made descriptions very much alike those of the Tupinambá’s binge-drinking.
They were also horrified by the alcoholic folie of Native Brazilians, and de-
scribed their cauinagens in vivid colors, pointing out the special orgiastic char-
acter of these events. This was the case of Friar Yves d’Evreux (1577?-1620?)
who, besides confirming the description of Cardim, perceived a threatening
sexual component in the cauinagens. To the French friar, the worst of it all
was to see the “women and maidens mixed there, seeming quite unlikely the
presence of Bacchus without Venus.”26 His concern was shared by his mis-
sionary partner, Claude d’Abbeville (?-1616?), who was also impressed to see
the satyrs and maenads of America performing their acts, flavored by cauim
and tobacco: “and if in truth the Devil delights himself in the company of
Bacchus and aims at making the souls fall from grace through dance, He will
surely take infinite pleasure in the gatherings of this miserable people, which
always belonged to Him through barbarism, cruelty and intoxication.”27
References to the god Bacchus are emblematic. After all, what the partak-
ers of the cauinagens did, as did the participants of the Hellenic orgia [orgies]
Fernandes, Catholic Missionaries and Native Celebrations in Brazil 117
or the Roman bacchanalia (so much attacked by the first Christians), was to
achieve the enthusiasmos,28 but unlike those ancient practices, not “bringing
the god within,” because there was no God to be brought in, as the missionar-
ies themselves pointed out. In the Tupinambá enthusiasmos, the search was
for the lightness of body in order to facilitate the obtention of an altered state
of consciousness. This was achieved many times by purging for example,
through vomiting (a habit highly criticized by the observer) or through the
extenuation provoked by endless dancing. Above all, they looked forward to
escaping – at least for some hours – from a humanity that was a temporal
condition, and not an essence or a nature.29
The missionaries strongly believed that the natives, when getting drunk in
an apparently crazy way, turned into something other than men. They thought
that the Indians became demons (or beasts), and not supernatural heroes (as
opposed to what the Tupinambá themselves believed), which in any way alters
the cunning nature of their remarks, given their own goals. In order to alter the
direction of the transformation caused by intoxication – from demons to men,
but reduced and subjected men – it was necessary to fight the cauinagens,
which was the virtual, liquid and foamy “temple” of the savages.
In the battle against the mortal sin of alcoholic intemperance, the various
missionaries, and even more the Jesuits, had to face the problems brought by
lay settlers, who not only got drunk with European wine, but willingly ac-
cepted native drinks and festivities. It was fundamental to separate the natives
from the bad influence of such settlers, or else the missionary action would be
not a Herculean task, but rather an impossible one.
Amidst these problems, was the fact that the Tupinambá, in possession of
metal tools supplied by the Europeans, substantially improved the efficiency
of their work, and their production capacity. In 1533, a Jesuit stated that the
natives were “full of tools” which allowed them to plants several crops and
spend most of their time “drinking wines through the villages, ordering wars
and doing many evils, as all those people prone to wine drinking do in all parts
of the world.” In order to ban the cauinagens, the Jesuit proposed banning the
supply of tools to the Tupinambá, so that they would return to a situation of
“hunger and dependence.”30 The great strategy elaborated by missionaries in
Brazil, and that differed a great deal from the model of “itinerant catechesis”
originally proposed by Ignatius of Loyola, was the institution of the aldeam-
entos. These were villages built following a European model, with the end of
the large communal houses (replaced by dwellings inhabited by couples and
their children), the presence of a rigid time schedule marked by prayers, and
total control, on the part of the Jesuits, of all festivities.31
It was not the goal of the missionaries to totally abolish beverages. The
Tupinambá had, in addition to the stronger drinks used in cauinagens, fer-
mented beverages of lower alcohol content which represented a crucial item
in their daily lives. What they were trying to prevent were the war parties,
not the moderate consumption of beverages. It was not an easy undertaking,
118 Social History of Alcohol and Drugs, Volume 23, No 2 (Spring 2009)
own children to be taken to the priests’ boarding schools, where the view
of drunkenness as a sin was inculcated in them. In this way, the Jesuits hit
the nail on the head in attacking the central cleavages of Tupinambá society,
which involved differences of age and gender. Built for and to war, while a
mechanism of creation of memories and temporalities, the Tupinambá society
placed the young and the women in subordinate places, at least in dominant
discourse which, after all, established the Tupinambá being itself.
For the young, this cleavage was temporary, because the cultural centrality
of war would required boys to demonstrate their warrior prowess when they
became adults In this way, the reports from the Jesuits permanently oscillated
between enthusiasm and hope for the conversion of the boys, and the disil-
lusionment and discouragement in seeing that, as soon as they turned into
adults, the sweet catechumens became as “savage” as their parents. The main
symptom of this barbarism was, of course, the tendency to drunkenness: “this
is the sin which it seems they will least stop committing, because they are
hardly ever not drunk, and from these wines, which they make from all the
things, will be brought all malices and dishonesties.”39
Even faced with these difficulties, the great focus of the Jesuits’ action was
the boys. The reason for this may be two-fold. First they were still social
immature, that is, they had not killed enemies, and as such, could not drink.
Secondly, they had not experienced the honors of victory, nor been granted
the prizes such society gave to the chiefs, the body scars or polygyny.40 In
a very similar fashion of the meirinhos and the converted women, the boys
also smashed the large jugs of cauim so as to stop the festivities from hap-
pening.41
However, the boys were very likely to take part in social activities that
diverted from the orthodoxy for which the missionaries aimed. In 1555, for
example, some of them were punished and temporarily banned from entering
the church, due to the fact they had all been to a cannibalistic celebration, “not
exactly to eat human flesh, but to drink and see the party.”42
It took only a few years years for the Jesuits to give up their initial opti-
mism, and conclude that the gentilidades held meanings that temperance and
the “police” failed acknowledge. Writing in 1560, Father José de Anchieta
was forced to recognize that the conversion work had to be far more intense
and that he would need more assistance from the colonial administration. He
also felt that there might be a need for the colonizers to stay away from the
natives.
The very same boys that seemed to be so promising in the early years, when
reaching puberty, “excelled their fathers in evil, as they gave vent to drunken-
ness and lust, in the same degree with which they had showed modesty and
obedience to Christian customs and divine instructions.”43 Getting drunk in
the company of their fathers, the young Tupinambá were also as fierce as them
– when drunk, they encountered the priests “without speaking not looking at
us, but squinting, as if they didn’t know us, and this happened every night,
120 Social History of Alcohol and Drugs, Volume 23, No 2 (Spring 2009)
God) for the Virgin Mary. Also, the notable word karaibebê [flying prophet]
invented to designate the angels. The idea – absolutely odd for the Tupinambá
culture – of “sin” was translated as angaipaba [things of the evil soul], or
things of Anhangá, an evil spirit identified by the Jesuits to the devils.54 This
true “parallel mythology” found itself an ideal space to be expressed in the
theatre of José de Anchieta. It presented itself in the form of autos, a type of
theatre presentation of medieval origin, of a naïve and moralistic nature, which
represented one of the most efficient tools for the religious proselytism among
the Tupinambá who watched and enthusiastically took part in the plays.55
The most important of these plays is the Auto de São Lourenço,56 in which
were presented all the priests’ prejudices against the cauins and all the strate-
gies used to demoralize the followers of alcoholic ceremonies. In the play, the
main characters are Guaixará, identified as the Devil, and his two assistants,
Aimbirê and Saravaia. Guaixará is a Tupinambá chief of the Rio de Janeiro
region, who attacked the Portuguese in 1566-67. Guaixará starts by complain-
ing of the arrival of the Jesuits to his land and presenting himself as leading
champion of Tupinambá “bad customs”:
This foreign virtue
annoys me exceedingly.
Who has brought it here,
with their polite manners
spoiling the whole land?…
Who is strong as I am?
Like me, highly regarded?
I am a well-roasted devil.
My fame preceded me;
Guaixará I am called.
My system is well-living.
Shall never be upset
the pleasure, nor abolished.
I want to light up the villages
with my favorite fire.
A good measure is to drink
cauim until you vomit.
This is the way to enjoy
life, recommend it to
those who want to enjoy.
The young drinkers
I regard well.
Brave is the one who gets drunk
and pours in every cauim,
and to the fight, then, is consecrated…
Then now come the priests
with untimely rules
so as for the people to cast doubt on me.
Law of God that does not come into force.57
The old women that fabricated the cauim, and so many problems brought to
the Ignatians, were not forgotten:
O evil-smelling devil,
your stench bothers me.
If my husband was alive,
Fernandes, Catholic Missionaries and Native Celebrations in Brazil 123
my poor Piracaê,
this I would now tell you.
You are useless, you are a bad devil.
I will not let you drink
of the cauim I chewed.
I will drink it all alone,
until I fall I will drink.58
The devil Guaixará sends his assistant, Saravaia, to ravage the villages and
imprison the natives that had drift away from Christian preaching:
Guaixará
It was faster than lighting!
Did you really go, Saravaia?
Saravaia
I did. Are already celebrating
the indians our victory.
Rejoice!
Overflowed the cauim,
the pleasure regurgitated.
And in drinking, the igabaças
got drained to the bottom.
Guaixará
And was it strong?
Saravaia
Strong it was.
And the drunk young men
that pervert this village,
fell over when soaked
Old men, old women, youngsters
that cauim misled.59
Saint Sebastian enters the scene and asks the demons who gave them the right
to command the natives:
Saint Sebastian
Who was that insensibly,
one day or presently
the indians gave to you?
If God Himself so potent
this people in Holy Office
body and soul has shaped!60
The Devil’s aide, Aimbirê, answers, showing who was the real villain, the true
instrument of demonic action among the natives:
Aimbirê
They drink cauim in their way,
as complete fools
to cauim they pay homage.
This cauim is what hampers
their spiritual grace.
Lost in the bacchanal
their spirits shrink
in our fatal noose.
…They have booze to waste,
124 Social History of Alcohol and Drugs, Volume 23, No 2 (Spring 2009)
Endnotes
1. Gilbert Quintero, “Making the Indian: Colonial Knowledge, Alcohol, and Native Ameri-
cans,” American Indian Culture and Research Journal 25 (2001): 57-71.
2. Michael Dietler, “Alcohol: Anthropological/Archaeological Perspectives,” Annual Review
of Anthropology 35 (2006): 229-49.
3. João A. Fernandes, “Alcohol,” in Iberia and the Americas: Culture, Politics, and History
– A Multidisciplinary Encyclopedia ed. J. Michael Francis (Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2006),
1: 58-61.
4. João A. Fernandes, “Selvagens Bebedeiras: Álcool, Embriaguez e Contatos Culturais no
Brasil Colonial” (Ph. D. diss., Universidade Federal Fluminense, 2004).
5. Michael Dietler and Brian Hayden, “Digesting the feast: good to eat, good to drink, good
to think – an introduction,” in Feasts: archaeological and ethnographic perspectives on food,
politics, and power, ed. Michael Dietler and Brian Hayden (Washington/London: Smithsonian
Institution Press, 2001): 1-20.
6. About the indigenous peoples of Brazil in the times of European conquest, see John Hem-
ming, Red Gold: The Conquest of Brazilian Indians (Chatham: Papermac, 1995), and Manuela
L. Carneiro da Cunha (ed.), História dos índios no Brasil (São Paulo: Companhia das Letras,
1992).
7. From Tupi kara’ib, “wise,” “intelligent,” word which later came to be used to describe the
Europeans.
8. The existence or not of cannibalism, beyond colonial stereotypes regarding the barbarism of
native peoples, represents one of the most controversial topics in anthropology. The Tupinambá
are at the centre of this controversy, as a result of the account of Hans Staden, German artillery-
man who is said to have been a prisoner of the Tupinambá for nine months, in 1554-55. The
criticism to the ethnographical of Staden’s accounts (of which one of the most recent is H. E.
Martel, “Hans Staden’s captive soul: Identity, imperialism, and rumors of cannibalism in six-
teenth-century Brazil,” Journal of World History 17 [2006]: 651-69) seem fragile to me when
they ignore, frequently, the existence of other descriptions of cannibalism, especially those of Je-
suit missionaries (concerning these accounts, see Douglas W. Forsyth, “The beginnings of Brazil-
ian anthropology: Jesuits and Tupinamba cannibalism,” Journal of Anthropological Research 39
[1983]: 147-78). The best analysis of the role of cannibalism in native cultures of Brazil, one that
owes much to the historical records about the Tupinambá, is that of Eduardo Viveiros de Castro,
From the Enemy’s Point of View: Humanity and Divinity in an Amazonian Society (Chicago: The
University of Chicago Press, 1992).
9. Fernandes, “Selvagens Bebedeiras,” 86-125.
10. Michael Dietler, “Theorizing the feast: rituals of consumption, commensal politics, and
power in african contexts,” in Dietler and Hayden, eds., Feasts, 65-114.
11. The best introductory study in the English language about the history of the Jesuits in Bra-
126 Social History of Alcohol and Drugs, Volume 23, No 2 (Spring 2009)
zil, to my mind, is Dauril Alden, The Making of a Enterprise: The Society of Jesus in Portugal,
Its Empire, and Beyond, 1540-1750 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1996). Recently other
works have shed some light for the study of the Society of Jesus: among others, Charlotte de
Castelneau-L’Estoile, Les ouvriers d’une vigne sterile: Les jésuites et la conversion des Indiens
au Brésil, 1580-1620 (Lisboa/Paris: Centre Culturel Calouste Gulbenkian, 2000) and Cristina
Pompa, Religião como Tradução: Missionários, Tupi e Tapuia no Brasil colonial (Bauru: Edusc/
Anpocs, 2003).
12. “Carta do Padre Manuel da Nóbrega ao Padre Simão Rodrigues, Lisboa (Bahia,
09/08/1549),” in Cartas dos Primeiros Jesuítas do Brasil, ed. Serafim Leite (Coimbra: Tipografia
da Atlântida/Comissão do IV Centenário da Cidade de São Paulo, 1954), 1: 119.
13. Carta do Pe. Manuel da Nóbrega ao Pe. Simão Rodrigues, Lisboa (Bahia, 10/04/1549),
Ibid., 111.
14. Carta do Pe. Manuel da Nóbrega ao Dr. Martín de Azpilcueta Navarro, Coimbra (Salvador
[Bahia], 10/08/1549), Ibid, 136.
15. Carta do Pe. Manuel da Nóbrega ao Pe. Simão Rodrigues, Lisboa (Bahia, 10/04/1549),
Ibid., 111.
16. Pompa, Religião como Tradução, 35-56.
17. Eduardo Viveiros de Castro, “O mármore e a murta: sobre a inconstância da alma selva-
gem,” in A inconstância da alma selvagem - e outros ensaios de antropologia,” (São Paulo: Cosac
& Naify, 2002): 192.
18. Jácome Monteiro, “Relação da província do Brasil, 1610,” in História da Companhia de
Jesus no Brasil, ed. Serafim Leite (Rio de Janeiro: Civilização Brasileira, 1949), 8: 410. The
Jesuits used to call the natives’ manioc beer “wines”, as they called their drinking bouts “wines”
(vinhos) or “winers” (vinhaças).
19. Viveiros de Castro, “O mármore e a murta,” 248.
20. Ruth C Engs, “Do Traditional Western European Practices Have Origins In Antiquity?”
Addiction Research, 2 (1995): 227-39.
21. Sonia C. de Mancera, El fraile, el índio y el pulque: Evangelización y embriaguez en la
Nueva España, 1523-1548 (México [D. F.]: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1991): 239-56.
22. Ibid., 154-60.
23. Martín de Azpilcueta Navarro, Manual de Confesores y Penitentes (1569), quoted in Sonia
C. de Mancera, Del amor al temor: Borrachez, catequesis y control en la Nueva España, 1555-
1771 (México [D. F.]: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1994): 53.
24. Mancera, Del amor al temor, 45.
25. Fernão Cardim, Tratados da Terra e Gente do Brasil, (São Paulo/Brasília: Cia. Ed. Nacio-
nal/INL, 1978): 116 (1st edition: 1625).
26. Yves d’ Evreux, Viagem ao norte do Brasil feita nos anos de 1613 a 1614, (São Paulo:
Siciliano, 2002) : 275-276 (1st edition : 1615).
27. Claude d’Abbeville, História da Missão dos Padres Capuchinhos na Ilha do Maranhão e
terras circunvizinhas (Belo Horizonte/ São Paulo: Itatiaia/Edusp, 1975) : 239 (1st edition: 1614).
28. In Greek, “bring the god within oneself”.
29. Viveiros de Castro, “O mármore e a murta,” 205, 256.
30. “Carta do Ir. Pero Correia ao Pe. Simão Rodrigues, Lisboa (S. Vicente, 10/03/1553),” in
Leite, Cartas, 1: 445-46; on this subject, see John M. Monteiro, Negros da Terra: índios e ban-
deirantes nas origens de São Paulo, (São Paulo: Cia. das Letras, 1994): 30-31.
31. Maria R. Celestino de Almeida, Metamorfoses Indígenas: Identidade e cultura nas aldeias
coloniais do Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro, Arquivo Nacional, 2003): 103.
32. The warriors who had already killed and eaten enemies had their bodies painted and tat-
tooed, and the old women were the great coordinators of beverage production for the cauinagens,
social function that brought them enormous prestige: Fernandes, “Selvagens Bebedeiras,” 103-
114.
33. “Carta de Mem de Sá, Governador do Brasil, a D. Sebastião, Rei de Portugal (Rio de Janei-
ro, 31/03/1560),” in Leite, Cartas, 3: 172.
34. “Carta do Pe. António Pires aos Padres e Irmãos de Portugal (Aldeia de Santiago, Bahia,
22/10/1560),” ibid, 312-13.
35. “Carta do Ir. António Rodrigues ao Pe. Manuel da Nóbrega, Baía (Aldeia do Espírito San-
Fernandes, Catholic Missionaries and Native Celebrations in Brazil 127