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Imagining the Apocalypse

Fiction on the end of the world and what


comes after

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Contents
Articles
Apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic fiction 1
Science fiction 6
Dying Earth subgenre 22
Risks to civilization, humans and planet Earth 25
Nuclear holocaust 34
Apocalypse 36
Apocalypticism 40
Book of Revelation 46
The Last Man 65
After London 72
On the Beach (novel) 80
Alas, Babylon 83
A Canticle for Leibowitz 86
The Road 95
The City of Ember 99

References
Article Sources and Contributors 102
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 106

Article Licenses
License 107
Apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic fiction 1

Apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic fiction


Apocalyptic fiction is a sub-genre of science fiction that is concerned with the end of civilization due to a
catastrophic event such as nuclear war, pandemic, impact event, Cybernetic revolt, Supernatural phenomena,
resource depletion or some other general disaster. Post-apocalyptic fiction is set in a world or civilization after such
a disaster. The time frame may be immediately after the catastrophe, focusing on the travails or psychology of
survivors, or considerably later, often including the theme that the existence of pre-catastrophe civilization has been
forgotten (or mythologized). Post-apocalyptic stories often take place in an agrarian, non-technological future world,
or a world where only scattered elements of technology remain. There is a considerable degree of blurring between
this form of science fiction and that which deals with false utopias or dystopic societies.
The genres gained in popularity after World War II, when the possibility of global annihilation by nuclear weapons
entered the public consciousness. However, recognizable apocalyptic novels existed at least since the first quarter of
the 19th century, when Mary Shelley's The Last Man was published.[1] Additionally, the subgenres draw on a body
of apocalyptic literature, tropes, and interpretations that are millennia old.

Ancient predecessors
Numerous societies, including the Babylonian and Judaic traditions, have produced apocalyptic literature and
mythology, some of which dealt with the end of the world and of human society.[2] The scriptural story of Noah and
his Ark describes the end of a corrupt civilization and its replacement with a remade world. The first centuries AD
saw the creation of various apocalyptic works; the best known (due to its inclusion in the New Testament) is the
Book of Revelation (from which the word apocalypse originated, meaning "revelation of secrets"), which is replete
with prophecies of destruction.[2] In the study of religious works, apocalyptic texts or stories, are those that disclose
hidden secrets either by taking an individual literally into the heavens or into the future. Most often these revelations
about heaven and the future are used to explain why some currently occurring event is taking place.[3]
Outside of the corpus of New Testament apocrypha also includes apocalypses of Peter, Paul, Stephen, and Thomas,
as well as two of James and Gnostic Apocalypses of Peter and Paul. The beliefs and ideas of this time, including
apocalyptic accounts excluded from the Bible, influenced the developing Christian eschatology.
Further apocalyptic works appeared in the early Middle Ages. The 7th century Apocalypse of Pseudo-Methodius
includes themes common in Christian eschatology; the Prophecy of the Popes has been ascribed to the 12th century
Irish saint Malachy, but could possibly date from the late 16th century. Islamic eschatology, related to Christian and
Jewish eschatological traditions, also emerged from the 7th century. Ibn al-Nafis's 13th century Theologus
Autodidactus, an Arabic novel, used empirical science to explain Islamic eschatology.[4]

Modern works

Pre-1900 works
The first work of modern apocalyptic fiction may be Mary Shelley's 1826 novel The Last Man, in which the last
portion becomes the story of a man living in a future world emptied of humanity by plague.[1] Containing
recognizable elements of this subgenre, the novel is sometimes considered the first science fiction novel, though that
distinction is more often given to Shelley's more famous and earlier novel, Frankenstein.
The 1885 novel After London by Richard Jefferies is of the type that could be best described as genuine
"post-apocalyptic fiction"; after some sudden and unspecified catastrophe has depopulated England, the countryside
reverts to nature, and the few survivors to a quasi-medieval way of life. The first chapters consist solely of a loving
description of nature reclaiming England: fields becoming overrun by forest, domesticated animals running wild,
roads and towns becoming overgrown, the hated London reverting to lake and poisonous swampland. The rest of the
Apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic fiction 2

story is a straightforward adventure/quest set many years later in the wild landscape and society; but the opening
chapters set an example for many later science fiction stories. Similarly, Stephen Vincent Benét's short story "By the
Waters of Babylon" (1937) describes a young man's coming-of-age quest to a ruined New York City after an
unspecified disaster.
Published in 1898, H.G. Wells' novel The War of the Worlds depicts an invasion of Earth by inhabitants of the planet
Mars. The aliens systematically destroy Victorian England with advanced weaponry mounted on nearly
indestructible vehicles. Due to the famous radio adaptation of the novel by Orson Welles on his show, Mercury
Theatre, the novel has become one of the best known early apocalyptic works. It has subsequently been reproduced
or adapted several times in film, television, radio, music, and computer games.

Post-1900 works

Nuclear war
The period of the Cold War saw increased interest in this subgenre, as the threat of nuclear warfare became real. Paul
Brians published Nuclear Holocausts: Atomic War in Fiction, a study that examines atomic war in short stories,
novels, and films between 1895 and 1984. Since this measure of destruction was no longer imaginary, some of these
new works, such as Mordecai Roshwald's Level 7, Nevil Shute's On the Beach and Pat Frank's Alas, Babylon, shun
[5]
the imaginary science and technology that are the identifying traits of general science fiction. Others include more
fantastic elements, such as mutants, alien invaders, or exotic future weapons such as James Axler's Deathlands. A
seminal work in this subgenre was Walter M. Miller, Jr.'s A Canticle for Leibowitz (1959). Ideas such as a
recrudescent Church (Catholic or other), pseudo-medieval society, and the theme of the rediscovery of the
knowledge of the pre-holocaust world were central to this book.
According to some theorists, the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in its modern past has influenced
Japanese popular culture to include many apocalyptic themes. Much of Japan's manga and anime is filled with
apocalyptic imagery.[6] Andre Norton wrote one of the definitive, post apocalyptic novels, Star Man's Son (AKA,
Daybreak 2250), published in 1952, where a young man, Fors, begins an Arthurian quest for lost knowledge,
through a radiation ravaged landscape, with the aid of a telepathic, mutant cat. He encounters mutated creatures, "the
beast things," which are possibly a degenerated form of humans.
In 2003, children's novelist Jeanne DuPrau released the first of four books in a post-apocalyptic series for young
adults. The City of Ember has since been made into a film starring Bill Murray and Saoirse Ronan.
Cormac McCarthy's Pulitzer Prize-winning The Road (2006) is a recent work of post-apocalyptic fiction, which was
made into a film by director John Hillcoat starring Viggo Mortensen and Kodi Smit-McPhee. The cause of the event
that partially destroys the world is never explained in the text.
William W. Johnstone wrote a series of books (all containing the word "Ashes" in the title) about the aftermath of
worldwide nuclear and biological war: Ashes 1. Out of the Ashes [7] (1983) 2. Fire in the Ashes (1984) 3. Anarchy in
the Ashes (1984) 4. Blood in the Ashes (1985) 5. Alone in the Ashes (1985) 6. Wind in the Ashes (1986) 7. Smoke
from the Ashes (1987) 8. Danger in the Ashes (1988) 9. Valor in the Ashes (1988) 10. Trapped in the Ashes (1988)
11. Death in the Ashes (1990) 12. Survival in the Ashes (1990) 13. Fury in the Ashes (1991) 14. Courage in the
Ashes (1991) 15. Terror in the Ashes (1992) 16. Vengeance in the Ashes (1993) 17. Battle in the Ashes (1993) 18.
Flames from the Ashes (1993) 19. Treason in the Ashes (1994) 20. D-Day in the Ashes (1994) 21. Betrayal in the
Ashes (1996) 22. Chaos in the Ashes (1996) 23. Slaughter in the Ashes (1997) 24. Judgment in the Ashes (1997) 25.
Ambush in the Ashes (1998) 26. Triumph in the Ashes (1998) 27. Hatred in the Ashes (1999) 28. Standoff in the
Ashes (1999) 29. Crisis in the Ashes (1999) 30. Tyranny in the Ashes (2000) 31. Warriors from the Ashes (2001) 32.
Destiny in the Ashes (2001) 33. Enemy in the Ashes (2002) 34. Escape from the Ashes (2003).
CBS produced the TV series Jericho in 2006-2008, which focuses on the survival of the town after 23 American
cities were destroyed by nuclear weapons.
Apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic fiction 3

Pandemic
The Scarlet Plague by Jack London, published in 1912, is set in San Francisco in the year 2072, sixty years after a
plague has largely depopulated the planet.
Earth Abides by George R. Stewart (1949), deals with one man who finds most of civilization has been destroyed by
a plague. Slowly a small community forms around him as he struggles to start a new civilization and preserve
knowledge and learning.
Survivors was a 1970s BBC television series, recently remade in 2008. The series focused on a group of British
survivors in the aftermath of a genetically engineered virus that has killed 99.9% of the world's population. The first
series examined the immediate after-effects of a pandemic, while the second and third series concentrated on the
survivors' attempts to build communities and make contact with other groups.
Empty World a 1977 novel by Samuel Youd (as John Christopher) about an adolescent boy who survives a plague
which was killed off most of the world's population.
In 1978, Stephen King published The Stand, which follows the odyssey of a small number of survivors of a
world-ending influenza pandemic. Although reportedly influenced by the 1949 novel Earth Abides, King's book
includes many supernatural elements and is generally regarded as part of the horror fiction genre.
The award winning novel Emergence by David R. Palmer (1984) is set in a world where a manmade plague destroys
the vast majority of the world's population.
The Portuguese Nobel laureate Jose Saramago wrote Blindness in 1995. It tells the story of a city or country in which
a mass epidemic of blindness destroys the social fabric.
Oryx and Crake by Margaret Atwood is an example of dystopian post-apocalyptic fiction.[8] The framing story is set
after a genetically modified virus wipes out the entire population except for the protagonist and a small group of
humans that were also genetically modified. A series of flashbacks depicting a world dominated by biocorporations
explains the events leading up to the apocalypse. This story was later followed up with The Year of the Flood.
Atwood's short story "Freeforall" deals with a totalitarian society attempting to stop the spread of sexually
transmitted diseases.
Richard Matheson's I Am Legend deals with the life of Robert Neville, the only unaffected survivor of a global
pandemic that has turned the world's population into vampire-like creatures.
The White Plague (1982) a novel by Frank Herbert. When a bomb planted by the IRA goes off, the wife and children
of molecular biologist John Roe O'Neill are killed on May 20, 1996. Driven insane by loss, he plans a genocidal
revenge and creates a plague that kills women. O'Neill then releases it in Ireland (for supporting the terrorists),
England (for oppressing the Irish and giving them a cause), and Libya (for training said terrorists); he demands that
the governments of the world send all citizens of those countries back to their countries, and that they quarantine
those countries and let the plague run its course, so they will lose what he has lost; if they don't, he has more plagues
to release.
Author Jeff Carlson wrote a trilogy of novels beginning with his 2007 debut, Plague Year, a present-day thriller
about a worldwide nanotech contagion that devours all warm-blooded life below 10000 feet (3000 m) in elevation.
Plague War and Plague Zone are its two sequels and deal with a cure that allows return to an environment that
suffered ecological collapse due to massive increases in insects and reptiles.
Apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic fiction 4

Failure of modern technology


In René Barjavel's 1943 novel Ravage, written and published during the German Occupation of France, a future
France is devastated by the sudden failure of electricity, causing chaos, disease, and famine with a small band of
survivors desperately struggling for survival.
Half a century later, S. M. Stirling took up a similar theme in the 2004 Dies the Fire, where a sudden mysterious
worldwide "Change" alters physical laws so that electricity, gunpowder and most forms of high-energy-density
technology no longer work. Civilization devastatingly collapses, and two competing groups struggle to re-create
Medieval technologies and skills, as well as master magic.
Afterworld is a computer-animated American science fiction television series about the failure of modern
technology.
The short story I Have No Mouth, and I Must Scream, published in 1967, is set after the Cold War, where a
super-computer, named AM (Allied Mastercomputer/Adaptive Manipulator), created to run the war office, becomes
self conscious, and destroys all but 5 human beings. In a vast subterrenian complex, the survivors search the shadow
of the former world in search of food, whilst being tortured in many ways by AM on the way.

Extraterrestrial threats
Edgar Allan Poe's 1839 short story "The Conversation of Eiros and Charmion" has two souls in the afterlife
discussing the apocalyptic end-of-the-world by a comet that removed nitrogen from earth's atmosphere leaving only
oxygen, resulting in a worldwide inferno.
In the 1933 novel When Worlds Collide by Philip Wylie and Edwin Balmer, Earth is destroyed by a rogue planet
Bronson Alpha. A selected few escape on a spaceship. In the sequel After Worlds Collide the survivors start a new
life on the planet's companion Bronson Beta, which has taken the orbit formerly occupied by Earth.
In the 1954 novel One in Three Hundred, by J. T. McIntosh, scientists have discovered how to pinpoint the exact
minute, hour, and day the Sun will go "nova" - and when it does, it will boil away Earth's seas, beginning with the
hemisphere that faces the sun, and as Earth continues to rotate, it will take only 24 hours before all life is eradicated.
Super-hurricanes and tornadoes are predicted. Buildings will be blown away. A race is on to build thousands of
spaceships for the sole purpose of transferring evacuees on a one-way trip to Mars. When the Sun begins to go nova,
everything is on schedule, but most of the spaceships turn out to be defective, and fail en route to Mars.
Lucifer's Hammer by Jerry Pournelle and Larry Niven (1977) is about a cataclysmic comet hitting Earth, and various
groups of people struggling to survive the aftermath in southern California.

Cosy catastrophe
The "cosy catastrophe" is a name given to a style of post-apocalyptic science fiction that was particularly prevalent
after World War II among British science fiction writers. A "cosy catastrophe" is typically one in which civilization
(as we know it) comes to an end and everyone is killed except for a handful of survivors, who then set about
rebuilding their version of civilization. The term was coined by Brian Aldiss in Billion Year Spree: The History of
Science Fiction. The concept, however, can be dated back as far as 1890's Caesar's Column by Ignatius L. Donnelly
(under the pseudonym Edmund Boisgilbert), where the violent uprising of the lower class against a plutocratic
oligarchy leads to the destruction of civilization, while the protagonist survives back home in a now-fortified
European colony in the Ugandan highlands. The cosy mystery is an analogous genre in mystery fiction.[9]
English author John Wyndham was the figure at whom Aldiss was primarily directing his remarks, especially his
novel The Day of the Triffids. The critic L. J. Hurst dismissed Aldiss's accusations, pointing out that in the book the
main character witnesses several murders, suicides, and misadventures, and is frequently in mortal danger
himself.[10]
Apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic fiction 5

John Christopher's The World in Winter (1962) also falls into this category, with the main character being able to
avoid the worst excesses of the collapse of European civilization, due to a fall in solar radiation. Those who are
fortunate enough to escape move to Africa where they find themselves treated as second class citizens. Eventually,
an expedition is made by hovercraft to London by Nigerian soldiers and the main character, who sabotages the
mission in order to remain with his new wife who has joined a growing group of survivors there.
The Catalan author Manuel de Pedrolo wrote Mecanoscrit del segon origen (Second origin typescript). It was
published in 1974 and is a post-apocalyptic novel where two children accidentally survive an alien holocaust that
eradicates all life on earth. They take up the mission of preserving human culture and repopulating the Earth.
David Graham's Down to a Sunless Sea (1979) starts off with a seeming "cosy catastrophe" - i.e., the rest of the
world is completely destroyed in an all-out nuclear war spreading deadly radioactivity over the world, but the small
band of survivors led by a heroic jetliner pilot manage to set up a colony in Antarctica and start a new life for
humanity.

Post-peak oil
James Howard Kunstler has written a novel World Made By Hand that imagines life in upstate New York after a
declining oil supply has wreaked havoc on the US economy and people and society are forced to adjust to daily life
without cheap oil.
David Graham also explored a similar theme in his 1982 book Sidewall in which the world is forced to look for
alternatives to oil when OPEC cuts production for political purposes. The story covers the construction of a nuclear
powered, near-supersonic ocean-going craft and the attempts to stop it by various terrorist groups and nations in
order to keep the world dependent on oil.
Alex Scarrow has written a two-novel series (Book one: Last Light, Book two: Afterlight) about a full-scale
disruption to the World's Oil Supplies, and the fallout effects experienced by the populace. In particular, they focus
on one family. The first novel is set during the initial crisis, while the second is set ten years after.
Canadian novelist Douglas Coupland's 2010 book PlayerOne deals with four individuals taking refuge in an Toronto
airport bar following peak oil.

Notes
[1] M. Keith Booker, Anne-Marie Thomas The science fiction handbook (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=uW9xST9UsOIC& pg=PA53&
dq=the+ last+ man+ apocalyptic+ fiction& hl=en& ei=qXP-TNq4NdC7hAeqyISlCw& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=1&
ved=0CCkQ6AEwAA#v=onepage& q=the last man apocalyptic fiction& f=false) John Wiley and Sons, 2009
[2] Zimbaro, Valerie P. (1996). Encyclopedia of Apocalyptic Literature. US: ABC-CLIO. p. 9. ISBN 0874368235.
[3] http:/ / www. theology. edu/ revappen. htm
[4] Dr. Abu Shadi Al-Roubi (1982), "Ibn al-Nafis as a philosopher", Symposium on Ibn al-Nafis, Second International Conference on Islamic
Medicine: Islamic Medical Organization, Kuwait (cf. Ibnul-Nafees As a Philosopher (http:/ / www. islamset. com/ isc/ nafis/ drroubi. html),
Encyclopedia of Islamic World).
[5] http:/ / en. wiktionary. org/ wiki/ shun#English
[6] Murakami, T.: Little Boy: The Arts of Japan's Exploding Subculture, Yale University Press, 2005, ISBN 0-300-10285-2
[7] http:/ / www. fantasticfiction. co. uk/ j/ william-w-johnstone/ out-of-ashes. htm
[8] Guardian book club: Oryx and Crake (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ books/ booksblog/ 2007/ apr/ 11/ guardianbookcluboryxandcr), The
Guardian, April 11, 2007.
[9] http:/ / www. tor. com/ index. php?option=com_content& view=blog& id=58054
[10] Essay by L. J. Hurst (http:/ / dspace. dial. pipex. com/ l. j. hurst/ weredead. htm)
Apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic fiction 6

References
• Wagar, W. Warren (1982). Terminal Visions: The Literature of Last Things. Bloomington: Indiana University
Press. ISBN 0253358477. (http://orbis.uoregon.edu/record=b1072096)

External links
• Empty World (http://www.empty-world.com/) - A website dedicated to apocalyptic fiction
• Sub-Genre Spotlight: Post-Apocalyptic Science Fiction (http://www.irosf.com/q/zine/article/10013) - an
overview of the sub-genre at Internet Review of Science Fiction
• Quiet Earth (http://www.quietearth.us/postapoc.htm) - A website dedicated to post apocalyptic media
• Post-apocalyptic Movies (http://www.fantastique-arts.com/en/definition-of-post-apocalyptic.php) - Movies
and other works about post-apocalyptic events

Science fiction
Science fiction is a genre of fiction dealing with the impact of imagined innovations in science or technology, often
in a futuristic setting.[1] [2] [3]
It differs from fantasy in that, within the context of the story, its imaginary elements are largely possible within
scientifically established or scientifically postulated laws of nature (though some elements in a story might still be
pure imaginative speculation). Exploring the consequences of such differences is the traditional purpose of science
fiction, making it a "literature of ideas".[4] Science fiction is largely based on writing rationally about alternative
possibilities.[5]
The settings for science fiction are often contrary to known reality, but the majority of science fiction relies on a
considerable degree of suspension of disbelief, which is facilitated in the reader's mind by potential scientific
explanations or solutions to various fictional elements.
These may include:
• A setting in the future, in alternative timelines, or in an historical past that contradicts known facts of history or
the archaeological record
• A setting in outer space, on other worlds, or involving aliens[6]
• Stories that involve technology or scientific principles that contradict known laws of nature[7]
• Stories that involve discovery or application of new scientific principles, such as time travel or psionics, or new
technology, such as nanotechnology, faster-than-light travel or robots, or of new and different political or social
systems (e.g., a dystopia, or a situation where organized society has collapsed)[8]

Definitions
Science fiction is difficult to define, as it includes a wide range of subgenres and themes. Author and editor Damon
Knight summed up the difficulty by stating that "science fiction is what we point to when we say it",[9] a definition
echoed by author Mark C. Glassy, who argues that the definition of science fiction is like the definition of
pornography: you don't know what it is, but you know it when you see it.[10] Vladimir Nabokov argued that if we
were rigorous with our definitions, Shakespeare's play The Tempest would have to be termed science fiction.[11]
According to science fiction writer Robert A. Heinlein, "a handy short definition of almost all science fiction might
read: realistic speculation about possible future events, based solidly on adequate knowledge of the real world, past
and present, and on a thorough understanding of the nature and significance of the scientific method."[12] Rod
Serling's definition is "fantasy is the impossible made probable. Science Fiction is the improbable made possible."[13]
Lester del Rey wrote, "Even the devoted aficionado—or fan—has a hard time trying to explain what science fiction
Science fiction 7

is", and that the reason for there not being a "full satisfactory definition" is that "there are no easily delineated limits
to science fiction."[14]
Forrest J Ackerman used the term sci-fi at UCLA in 1954.[15] As science fiction entered popular culture, writers and
fans active in the field came to associate the term with low-budget, low-tech "B-movies" and with low-quality pulp
science fiction.[16] [17] [18] By the 1970s, critics within the field such as Terry Carr and Damon Knight were using
sci-fi to distinguish hack-work from serious science fiction,[19] and around 1978, Susan Wood and others introduced
the pronunciation "skiffy". Peter Nicholls writes that "SF" (or "sf") is "the preferred abbreviation within the
community of sf writers and readers".[20] David Langford's monthly fanzine Ansible includes a regular section "As
Others See Us" which offers numerous examples of "sci-fi" being used in a pejorative sense by people outside the
genre.[21]

History
As a means of understanding the world through speculation and storytelling, science fiction has antecedents back to
mythology, though precursors to science fiction as literature can be seen in Lucian's True History in the 2nd
century,[22] [23] [24] [25] [26] some of the Arabian Nights tales,[27] [28] The Tale of the Bamboo Cutter in the 10th
century,[28] Ibn al-Nafis' Theologus Autodidactus in the 13th century,[29] and Jules Verne's A Journey to the Centre
of the Earth and Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea in the 19th century.
A product of the budding Age of Reason and the development of modern science itself, Jonathan Swift's Gulliver's
Travels[30] was one of the first true science fantasy works, together with Voltaire's Micromégas and Johannes
Kepler's Somnium. The latter work is considered the first science fiction story by Carl Sagan[31] and Isaac
Asimov.[32] It depicts a journey to the Moon and how the Earth's motion is seen from there. Another example is
Ludvig Holberg's novel Nicolai Klimii iter subterraneum, 1741. (Translated to Danish by Hans Hagerup in 1742 as
Niels Klims underjordiske Rejse.) (Eng. Niels Klim's Underground Travels.) Brian Aldriss has argued that Mary
Shelley's Frankenstein(1818) was the first work of science fiction [33]
Following the 18th century development of the novel as a literary form, in the early 19th century, Mary Shelley's
books Frankenstein and The Last Man helped define the form of the science fiction novel;[34] later Edgar Allan Poe
wrote a story about a flight to the moon.[35] More examples appeared throughout the 19th century.
Then with the dawn of new technologies such as electricity, the telegraph, and
new forms of powered transportation, writers like Jules Verne and H. G.
Wells created a body of work that became popular across broad cross-sections
of society.[36] Wells' The War of the Worlds describes an invasion of late
Victorian England by Martians using tripod fighting machines equipped with
advanced weaponry. It is a seminal depiction of an alien invasion of Earth.

In the late 19th century, the term "scientific romance" was used in Britain to
describe much of this fiction. This produced additional offshoots, such as the
1884 novella Flatland: A Romance of Many Dimensions by Edwin Abbott
Abbott. The term would continue to be used into the early 20th century for
writers such as Olaf Stapledon.

H. G. Wells.
Science fiction 8

In the early 20th century, pulp magazines helped develop a new generation of
mainly American SF writers, influenced by Hugo Gernsback, the founder of
Amazing Stories magazine.[37] In the late 1930s, John W. Campbell became
editor of Astounding Science Fiction, and a critical mass of new writers
emerged in New York City in a group called the Futurians, including Isaac
Asimov, Damon Knight, Donald A. Wollheim, Frederik Pohl, James Blish,
Judith Merril, and others.[38] Other important writers during this period
included E.E. (Doc) Smith, Robert A. Heinlein, Arthur C. Clarke, Olaf
Stapledon, A. E. van Vogt and Stanisław Lem. Campbell's tenure at
Astounding is considered to be the beginning of the Golden Age of science
fiction, characterized by hard SF stories celebrating scientific achievement
and progress.[37] This lasted until postwar technological advances, new
magazines like Galaxy under Pohl as editor, and a new generation of writers
began writing stories outside the Campbell mode. Jules Verne.

In the 1950s, the Beat generation included speculative writers like William S.
Burroughs. In the 1960s and early 1970s, writers like Frank Herbert, Samuel R. Delany, Roger Zelazny, and Harlan
Ellison explored new trends, ideas, and writing styles, while a group of writers, mainly in Britain, became known as
the New Wave.[30] In the 1970s, writers like Larry Niven and Poul Anderson began to redefine hard SF.[39] Ursula
K. Le Guin and others pioneered soft science fiction.[40]
In the 1980s, cyberpunk authors like William Gibson turned away from the traditional optimism and support for
progress of traditional science fiction.[41] Star Wars helped spark a new interest in space opera,[42] focusing more on
story and character than on scientific accuracy. C. J. Cherryh's detailed explorations of alien life and complex
scientific challenges influenced a generation of writers.[43] Emerging themes in the 1990s included environmental
issues, the implications of the global Internet and the expanding information universe, questions about biotechnology
and nanotechnology, as well as a post-Cold War interest in post-scarcity societies; Neal Stephenson's The Diamond
Age comprehensively explores these themes. Lois McMaster Bujold's Vorkosigan novels brought the
character-driven story back into prominence.[44] The television series Star Trek: The Next Generation (1987) began a
torrent of new SF shows, including three further Star Trek spin-off shows and Babylon 5.[45] [46] Concern about the
rapid pace of technological change crystallized around the concept of the technological singularity, popularized by
Vernor Vinge's novel Marooned in Realtime and then taken up by other authors.

Innovation
While SF has provided criticism of developing and future technologies, it also produces innovation and new
technology. The discussion of this topic has occurred more in literary and sociological than in scientific forums.
Cinema and media theorist Vivian Sobchack examines the dialogue between science fiction film and the
technological imagination. Technology does impact how artists portray their fictionalized subjects, but the fictional
world gives back to science by broadening imagination. While more prevalent in the beginning years of science
fiction with writers like Arthur C. Clarke, new authors still find ways to make the currently impossible technologies
seem so close to being realized.[47]
Science fiction 9

Subgenres
Authors and filmmakers draw on a wide spectrum of ideas, but marketing departments and literary critics tend to
separate such literary and cinematic works into different categories, or "genres", and subgenres.[48] These are not
simple pigeonholes; works can be overlapped into two or more commonly-defined genres, while others are beyond
the generic boundaries, either outside or between categories, and the categories and genres used by mass markets and
literary criticism differ considerably.

Hard SF
Hard science fiction, or "hard SF", is characterized by rigorous attention to accurate detail in quantitative sciences,
especially physics, astrophysics, and chemistry, or on accurately depicting worlds that more advanced technology
may make possible. Many accurate predictions of the future come from the hard science fiction subgenre, but
numerous inaccurate predictions have emerged as well. Some hard SF authors have distinguished themselves as
working scientists, including Gregory Benford, Geoffrey A. Landis and David Brin,[49] [50] while mathematician
authors include Rudy Rucker and Vernor Vinge. Other noteworthy hard SF authors include Robert A. Heinlein,
Arthur C. Clarke, Hal Clement, Isaac Asimov, Greg Bear, Larry Niven, Robert J. Sawyer, Stephen Baxter, Alastair
Reynolds, Charles Sheffield, Ben Bova, and Greg Egan.

Soft and social SF


The description "soft" science fiction may describe works based on social
sciences such as psychology, economics, political science, sociology, and
anthropology. Noteworthy writers in this category include Ursula K. Le Guin
and Philip K. Dick.[37] [51] The term can describe stories focused primarily on
character and emotion; SFWA Grand Master Ray Bradbury is an
acknowledged master of this art.[52] The Soviet Union produced a quantity of
social science fiction, including works by the Strugatsky brothers, Kir
Bulychov and Ivan Yefremov.[53] [54] Some writers blur the boundary
between hard and soft science fiction.

Related to Social SF and Soft SF are the speculative fiction branches of


utopian or dystopian stories; George Orwell's Nineteen Eighty-Four, Aldous
Huxley's Brave New World and Margaret Atwood's The Handmaid's Tale, are
examples. Satirical novels with fantastic settings such as Gulliver's Travels by
Jonathan Swift may be considered speculative fiction.

The Left Hand of Darkness, by Ursula K.


Le Guin
Science fiction 10

Cyberpunk
The Cyberpunk genre emerged in the early 1980s; combining "cybernetics"
and "punk",[55] the term was coined by author Bruce Bethke for his 1980
short story "Cyberpunk".[56] The time frame is usually near-future and the
settings are often dystopian (characterized by misery). Common themes in
cyberpunk include advances in information technology and especially the
Internet (visually abstracted as cyberspace), artificial intelligence and
prosthetics and post-democratic societal control where corporations have
more influence than governments. Nihilism, post-modernism, and film noir
techniques are common elements, and the protagonists may be disaffected or
reluctant anti-heroes. Noteworthy authors in this genre are William Gibson,
Bruce Sterling, Neal Stephenson, and Pat Cadigan. James O'Ehley has called
the 1982 film Blade Runner a definitive example of the cyberpunk visual
style.[57]

Time travel
Neuromancer, by William Gibson (Ace,
Time travel stories have antecedents in the 18th and 19th centuries. The first
1984)
major time travel novel was Mark Twain's A Connecticut Yankee in King
Arthur's Court. The most famous is H. G. Wells's 1895 novel The Time
Machine, which uses a vehicle that allows an operator to travel purposefully and selectively, while Twain's time
traveler is struck in the head. The term "time machine", coined by Wells, is now universally used to refer to such a
vehicle. Stories of this type are complicated by logical problems such as the grandfather paradox.[58] Time travel is a
popular subject in modern science fiction, in print, movies, and television.

Alternate history
Alternate (or alternative) history stories are based on the premise that historical events might have turned out
differently. These stories may use time travel to change the past, or may simply set a story in a universe with a
different history from our own. Classics in the genre include Bring the Jubilee by Ward Moore, in which the South
wins the American Civil War, and The Man in the High Castle by Philip K. Dick, in which Germany and Japan win
World War II. The Sidewise Award acknowledges the best works in this subgenre; the name is taken from Murray
Leinster's 1934 story "Sidewise in Time." Harry Turtledove is one of the most prominent authors in the subgenre and
is often called the "master of alternate history".[59] [60]

Military SF
Military science fiction is set in the context of conflict between national, interplanetary, or interstellar armed forces;
the primary viewpoint characters are usually soldiers. Stories include detail about military technology, procedure,
ritual, and history; military stories may use parallels with historical conflicts. Heinlein's Starship Troopers is an early
example, along with the Dorsai novels of Gordon Dickson. Joe Haldeman's The Forever War is a critique of the
genre, a Vietnam-era response to the World War II–style stories of earlier authors.[61] Prominent military SF authors
include John Ringo, David Drake, David Weber, and S. M. Stirling. Baen Books is known for cultivating military
science fiction authors.[62]
Science fiction 11

Superhuman
Superhuman stories deal with the emergence of humans who have abilities beyond the norm. This can stem either
from natural causes such as in Olaf Stapledon's novel Odd John, and Theodore Sturgeon's More Than Human, or be
the result of intentional augmentation such as in A. E. van Vogt's novel Slan. These stories usually focus on the
alienation that these beings feel as well as society's reaction to them. These stories have played a role in the real life
discussion of human enhancement. Frederik Pohl's Man Plus also belongs to this category.

Apocalyptic
Apocalyptic fiction is concerned with the end of civilization through war (On the Beach), pandemic (The Last Man),
astronomic impact (When Worlds Collide), ecological disaster (The Wind from Nowhere), or mankind's
self-destruction (Oryx and Crake), or some other general disaster or with a world or civilization after such a disaster.
Typical of the genre are George R. Stewart's novel Earth Abides and Pat Frank's novel Alas, Babylon. Apocalyptic
fiction generally concerns the disaster itself and the direct aftermath, while post-apocalyptic can deal with anything
from the near aftermath (as in Cormac McCarthy's The Road) to 375 years in the future (as in By The Waters of
Babylon) to hundreds or thousands of years in the future, as in Russell Hoban's novel Riddley Walker.

Space opera
Space opera is adventure science fiction set in outer space or on distant planets, where the emphasis is on action
rather than either science or characterization. The conflict is heroic, and typically on a large scale. The best-selling
science fiction book of all time[63] (with 12 million copies) is a space opera: Frank Herbert's Dune (1966), which
sprawls over thousands of years, a multitude of planets in and beyond an Imperium, and themes as diverse as
environmentalism and ecology, empires, religion and jihad, gender issues, and heroism.
Space opera is sometimes used pejoratively, to describe improbable plots, absurd science, and cardboard characters.
But it is also used nostalgically, and modern space opera may be an attempt to recapture the sense of wonder of the
golden age of science fiction. The pioneer of this subgenre is generally recognized to be Edward E. (Doc) Smith,
with his Skylark and Lensman series. Alastair Reynolds' Revelation Space series, Peter F. Hamilton The Dreaming
Void, The Night's Dawn and Pandora's Star series, and the immensely popular Star Wars trilogies are newer
examples of this genre.

Space Western
Space Western could be considered a sub-genre of space opera that transposes themes of the American Western
books and film to a backdrop of futuristic space frontiers. These stories typically involve "frontier" colony worlds
(colonies that have only recently been terraformed and/or settled) serving as stand-ins for the backdrop of
lawlessness and economic expansion that were predominant in the American west. Examples include Firefly and the
accompanying movie Serenity by Joss Whedon, as well as the Japanese comic and animation series Trigun, Outlaw
Star and Cowboy Bebop. The Star Wars character Han Solo is also considered elemental to this genre.

Other sub-genres
• Feminist science fiction poses questions about social issues such as how society constructs gender roles, the role
reproduction plays in defining gender and the unequal political and personal power of men and women. Some of
the most notable feminist science fiction works have illustrated these themes using utopias to explore a society in
which gender differences or gender power imbalances do not exist, or dystopias to explore worlds in which
gender inequalities are intensified, thus asserting a need for feminist work to continue.[64]
• New Wave is a term applied to science fiction writing characterized by a high degree of experimentation, both in
form and in content, and a highbrow and self-consciously "literary" or artistic sensibility.
Science fiction 12

• Steampunk is based on the idea of futuristic technology existing in the past, usually the 19th century, and often set
in Victorian era England—but with prominent elements of either science fiction or fantasy, such as fictional
technological inventions like those found in the works of H. G. Wells and Jules Verne, or real technological
developments like the computer occurring at an earlier date. Popular examples include The Difference Engine by
William Gibson and Bruce Sterling, as well as the Girl Genius series by Phil and Kaja Foglio, although seeds of
the genre may be seen in certain works of Michael Moorcock, Philip Jose Farmer and Steve Stiles, and in such
games as Space 1889 and Marcus Rowland's Forgotten Futures. Machines are most often powered by steam in
this genre (hence the name).
• Comic science fiction is a sub-genre that exploits the genre's conventions for comic effect.
• Anthropological science fiction is a sub-genre that absorbs and discusses anthropology and the study of human
kind. Examples include Hominids by Robert Sawyer, and Neanderthal by John Darnton.
• Biopunk focuses on biotechnology and subversives.

Related genres

Speculative fiction, fantasy, and horror


The broader category of speculative fiction[65] includes science fiction, fantasy, alternate histories (which may have
no particular scientific or futuristic component), and even literary stories that contain fantastic elements, such as the
work of Jorge Luis Borges or John Barth. For some editors, magic realism is considered to be within the broad
definition of speculative fiction.[66]

Fantasy
Fantasy is closely associated with science fiction, and many writers have worked in both genres, while writers such
as Anne McCaffrey and Marion Zimmer Bradley have written works that appear to blur the boundary between the
two related genres.[67] The authors' professional organization is called the Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of
America (SFWA).[68] SF conventions routinely have programming on fantasy topics,[69] [70] [71] and fantasy authors
such as J. K. Rowling have won the highest honor within the science fiction field, the Hugo Award.[72] In general,
science fiction is the literature of things that might someday be possible, and fantasy is the literature of things that
are inherently impossible.[13] Magic and mythology are popular themes in fantasy.[73] Some narratives are described
as being essentially science fiction but "with fantasy elements". The term "science fantasy" is sometimes used to
describe such material.[74]
Science fiction 13

Horror fiction
Horror fiction is the literature of the unnatural and supernatural, with
the aim of unsettling or frightening the reader, sometimes with graphic
violence. Historically it has also been known as weird fiction.
Although horror is not per se a branch of science fiction, many works
of horror literature incorporates science fictional elements. One of the
defining classical works of horror, Mary Shelley's novel Frankenstein,
is the first fully-realized work of science fiction, where the
manufacture of the monster is given a rigorous science-fictional
grounding. The works of Edgar Allan Poe also helped define both the
science fiction and the horror genres.[75] Today horror is one of the
most popular categories of films.[76] Horror is often mistakenly
categorized as science fiction at the point of distribution by libraries,
video rental outlets, etc. For example, Syfy (distributed via cable and
satellite television in the United States) currently devotes a majority of
its air time to horror films with very few science fiction titles.

Frankenstein (1931) film poster.


Mystery fiction
Works in which science and technology are a dominant theme, but based on current reality, may be considered
mainstream fiction. Much of the thriller genre would be included, such as the novels of Tom Clancy or Michael
Crichton, or the James Bond films.[77] Modernist works from writers like Kurt Vonnegut, Philip K. Dick, and
Stanisław Lem have focused on speculative or existential perspectives on contemporary reality and are on the
borderline between SF and the mainstream.[78] According to Robert J. Sawyer, "Science fiction and mystery have a
great deal in common. Both prize the intellectual process of puzzle solving, and both require stories to be plausible
and hinge on the way things really do work."[79] Isaac Asimov, Walter Mosley, and other writers incorporate
mystery elements in their science fiction, and vice versa.

Superhero fiction
Superhero fiction is a genre characterized by beings with much higher than usual capability and prowess, generally
with a desire or need to help the citizens of their chosen country or world by using his or her powers to defeat natural
or superpowered threats. Many superhero fiction characters involve themselves (either intentionally or accidentally)
with science fiction and fact, including advanced technologies, alien worlds, time travel, and interdimensional travel;
but the standards of scientific plausibility are lower than with actual science fiction. Authors of this genre include
Stan Lee (co-creator of Spider-Man, the Fantastic Four, the X-Men, and the Hulk); Marv Wolfman, the creator of
Blade for Marvel Comics, and The New Teen Titans for DC Comics; Dean Wesley Smith (Smallville, Spider-Man,
and X-Men novels) and Superman writers Roger Stern and Elliot S! Maggin.
Science fiction 14

Fandom and community


Science fiction fandom is the "community of the literature of ideas... the culture in which new ideas emerge and
grow before being released into society at large".[80] Members of this community, "fans", are in contact with each
other at conventions or clubs, through print or online fanzines, or on the Internet using web sites, mailing lists, and
other resources.
SF fandom emerged from the letters column in Amazing Stories magazine. Soon fans began writing letters to each
other, and then grouping their comments together in informal publications that became known as fanzines.[81] Once
they were in regular contact, fans wanted to meet each other, and they organized local clubs. In the 1930s, the first
science fiction conventions gathered fans from a wider area.[82] Conventions, clubs, and fanzines were the dominant
form of fan activity, or "fanac", for decades, until the Internet facilitated communication among a much larger
population of interested people.

Awards
Among the most respected awards for science fiction are the Hugo Award, presented by the World Science Fiction
Society at Worldcon, and the Nebula Award, presented by SFWA and voted on by the community of authors. One
notable award for science fiction films is the Saturn Award. It is presented annually by The Academy of Science
Fiction, Fantasy, and Horror Films.
There are national awards, like Canada's Aurora Award, regional awards, like the Endeavour Award presented at
Orycon for works from the Pacific Northwest, special interest or subgenre awards like the Chesley Award for art or
the World Fantasy Award for fantasy. Magazines may organize reader polls, notably the Locus Award.

Conventions, clubs, and organizations


Conventions (in fandom, shortened as "cons"),
are held in cities around the world, catering to a
local, regional, national, or international
membership. General-interest conventions cover
all aspects of science fiction, while others focus
on a particular interest like media fandom,
filking, etc. Most are organized by volunteers in
non-profit groups, though most media-oriented
events are organized by commercial promoters.
The convention's activities are called the
"program", which may include panel Pamela Dean reading at Minicon.

discussions, readings, autograph sessions,


costume masquerades, and other events. Activities that occur throughout the convention are not part of the program;
these commonly include a dealer's room, art show, and hospitality lounge (or "con suites").[83]

Conventions may host award ceremonies; Worldcons present the Hugo Awards each year. SF societies, referred to as
"clubs" except in formal contexts, form a year-round base of activities for science fiction fans. They may be
associated with an ongoing science fiction convention, or have regular club meetings, or both. Most groups meet in
libraries, schools and universities, community centers, pubs or restaurants, or the homes of individual members.
Long-established groups like the New England Science Fiction Association and the Los Angeles Science Fantasy
Society have clubhouses for meetings and storage of convention supplies and research materials.[84] The Science
Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America (SFWA) was founded by Damon Knight in 1965 as a non-profit
organization to serve the community of professional science fiction authors,[68] 24 years after his essay "Unite or
Fie!" had led to the organization of the National Fantasy Fan Federation. Fandom has helped incubate related groups,
Science fiction 15

including media fandom,[85] the Society for Creative Anachronism,[86] gaming,[87] filking, and furry fandom.[88]

Fanzines and online fandom


The first science fiction fanzine, The Comet, was published in 1930.[89] Fanzine printing methods have changed over
the decades, from the hectograph, the mimeograph, and the ditto machine, to modern photocopying. Distribution
volumes rarely justify the cost of commercial printing. Modern fanzines are printed on computer printers or at local
copy shops, or they may only be sent as email. The best known fanzine (or "'zine") today is Ansible, edited by David
Langford, winner of numerous Hugo awards. Other fanzines to win awards in recent years include File 770, Mimosa,
and Plokta.[90] Artists working for fanzines have risen to prominence in the field, including Brad W. Foster, Teddy
Harvia, and Joe Mayhew; the Hugos include a category for Best Fan Artists.[90] The earliest organized fandom
online was the SF Lovers [91] community, originally a mailing list in the late 1970s with a text archive file that was
updated regularly.[92] In the 1980s, Usenet groups greatly expanded the circle of fans online. In the 1990s, the
development of the World-Wide Web exploded the community of online fandom by orders of magnitude, with
thousands and then literally millions of web sites devoted to science fiction and related genres for all media.[84] Most
such sites are small, ephemeral, and/or very narrowly focused, though sites like SF Site and Read and Find Out [93]
offer a broad range of references and reviews about science fiction.

Fan fiction
Fan fiction, ...known to aficionados as "fanfic", is non-commercial fiction created by fans in the setting of an
established book, film, or television series.[94] This modern meaning of the term should not be confused with the
traditional (pre-1970s) meaning of "fan fiction" within the community of fandom, where the term meant original or
parody fiction written by fans and published in fanzines, often with members of fandom as characters therein ("faan
fiction"). Examples of this would include the Goon stories by Walt Willis. In the last few years, sites have appeared
such as Orion's Arm and Galaxiki, which encourage collaborative development of science fiction universes. In some
cases, the copyright owners of the books, films, or television series have instructed their lawyers to issue "cease and
desist" letters to fans.

Science fiction studies


The study of science fiction, or science fiction studies, is the critical assessment, interpretation, and discussion of
science fiction literature, film, new media, fandom, and fan fiction. Science fiction scholars take science fiction as an
object of study in order to better understand it and its relationship to science, technology, politics, and
culture-at-large. Science fiction studies has a long history dating back to the turn of the 20th century, but it was not
until later that science fiction studies solidified as a discipline with the publication of the academic journals
Extrapolation (1959), Foundation - The International Review of Science Fiction (1972), and Science Fiction Studies
(1973), and the establishment of the oldest organizations devoted to the study of science fiction, the Science Fiction
Research Association and the Science Fiction Foundation, in 1970. The field has grown considerably since the 1970s
with the establishment of more journals, organizations, and conferences with ties to the science fiction scholarship
community, and science fiction degree-granting programs such as those offered by the University of Liverpool and
Kansas University.
The National Science Foundation has conducted surveys of "Public Attitudes and Public Understanding" of "Science
Fiction and Pseudoscience".[95] They write that "Interest in science fiction may affect the way people think about or
relate to science....one study found a strong relationship between preference for science fiction novels and support
for the space program...The same study also found that students who read science fiction are much more likely than
other students to believe that contacting extraterrestrial civilizations is both possible and desirable (Bainbridge
1982).[96]
Science fiction 16

Science fiction as serious literature


Mary Shelley who wrote a number of science fiction novels including Frankenstein. She is treated as a major
Romantic writer [97] Literary and philosophers(see Phillip Dick) view Phillip Dicks work as important predecessor to
postmodern philosophy. Many science fiction works have received widespread critical acclaim including 1984,
Brave New World, Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep (Movie title Blade Runner) and A Clockwork Orange.
The scholar Tom Shippey asks a perennial question of science fiction: “What is its relationship to fantasy fiction, is
its readership still dominated by male adolescents, is it a taste which will appeal to the mature but non-eccentric
literary mind?”[98] In her much reprinted essay "Science Fiction and Mrs Brown,"[99] the science fiction writer
Ursula K. Le Guin has approached an answer by first citing the essay written by the English author Virginia Woolf
entitled "Mr Bennett and Mrs Brown" in which she states:
I believe that all novels, … deal with character, and that it is to express character – not to preach doctrines,
sing songs, or celebrate the glories of the British Empire, that the form of the novel, so clumsy, verbose, and
undramatic, so rich, elastic, and alive, has been evolved … The great novelists have brought us to see
whatever they wish us to see through some character. Otherwise they would not be novelists, but poets,
historians, or pamphleteers.
Le Guin argues that these criteria may be successfully applied to works of science fiction and so answers in the
affirmative her rhetorical question posed at the beginning of her essay: “Can a science fiction writer write a novel?”
Tom Shippey[98] in his essay does not dispute this answer but identifies and discusses the essential differences that
exists between a science fiction novel and one written outside the field. To this end, he compares George Orwell’s
"Coming Up for Air" with Frederik Pohl and C. M. Kornbluth’s "The Space Merchants" and concludes that the basic
building block and distinguishing feature of a science fiction novel is the presence of the novum, a term first defined
by Darko Suvin[100] as “a discrete piece of information recognizable as not-true, but also as not-unlike-true,
not-flatly- (and in the current state of knowledge) impossible”.
In science fiction the style of writing is often relatively clear and straightforward compared to classical literature.
Orson Scott Card, an author of both science fiction and non-SF fiction, has postulated that in science fiction the
message and intellectual significance of the work is contained within the story itself and, therefore, there need not be
stylistic gimmicks or literary games; but that many writers and critics confuse clarity of language with lack of artistic
merit. In Card's words:
...a great many writers and critics have based their entire careers on the premise that anything that the general
public can understand without mediation is worthless drivel. [...] If everybody came to agree that stories
should be told this clearly, the professors of literature would be out of job, and the writers of obscure, encoded
fiction would be, not honored, but pitied for their impenetrability.".[101]
Science fiction author and physicist Gregory Benford has declared that: "SF is perhaps the defining genre of the
twentieth century, although its conquering armies are still camped outside the Rome of the literary citadels."[102]
This sense of exclusion was articulated by Jonathan Lethem in an essay published in the Village Voice entitled Close
Encounters: The Squandered Promise of Science Fiction.[103] Lethem suggests that the point in 1973 when Thomas
Pynchon's Gravity's Rainbow was nominated for the Nebula Award, and was passed over in favor of Arthur C.
Clarke's Rendezvous with Rama, stands as "a hidden tombstone marking the death of the hope that SF was about to
merge with the mainstream." Among the responses to Lethem was one from the editor of the Magazine of Fantasy
and Science Fiction who asked: "When is it [the SF genre] ever going to realize it can't win the game of trying to
impress the mainstream?"[104] On this point the journalist and author David Barnett has remarked[105] :

The ongoing, endless war between "literary" fiction and "genre" fiction has well-defined

lines in the sand. Genre's foot soldiers think that literary fiction is a collection of meaningless but prettily
drawn pictures of the human condition. The literary guard consider genre fiction to be crass, commercial,
whizz-bang potboilers. Or so it goes.
Science fiction 17

Barnett, in an earlier essay had pointed to a new development in this "endless war"[106] :

What do novels about a journey across post-apocalyptic America, a clone


waitress rebelling against a future society, a world-girdling pipe of
special gas keeping mutant creatures at bay, a plan to rid a
colonizable new world of dinosaurs, and genetic engineering in a
collapsed civilization have in common?

They are all most definitely not science fiction.


Literary readers will probably recognise The Road by Cormac McCarthy, one of the sections of Cloud Atlas by
David Mitchell, The Gone-Away World by Nick Harkaway, Stone Gods by Jeanette Winterson and Oryx and
Crake by Margaret Atwood from their descriptions above. All of these novels use the tropes of what most
people recognize as science fiction, but their authors or publishers have taken great pains to ensure that they
are not categorized as such.

Science fiction world-wide


Although perhaps most developed as a genre and community in the US and UK, science fiction is a worldwide
phenomenon. Organisations devoted to promoting SF in particular countries and in non-English languages are
common, as are country- or language-specific genre awards.

Europe
Germany and Austria: Current well-known SF authors from
Germany are five-time Kurd-Laßwitz-Award winner Andreas
Eschbach, whose books The Carpet Makers and Eine Billion Dollar
are big successes, and Frank Schätzing, who in his book The Swarm
mixes elements of the science thriller with SF elements to an
apocalyptic scenario. The most prominent German-speaking author,
according to Die Zeit, is Austrian Herbert W. Franke.

A well known science fiction book series in German is Perry Rhodan,


which started in 1961. Having sold over one billion copies (in pulp Soviet stamp, part of a 1967 series depicting
science fiction images.
format), it claims to be the most successful science fiction book series
ever written worldwide.[107]

Oceania
Australia: David G. Hartwell noted that while there is perhaps "nothing essentially Australian about Australian
science-fiction", many Australian science-fiction (and fantasy and horror) writers are in fact international English
language writers, and their work is commonly published worldwide. This is further explainable by the fact that the
Australian inner market is small (with Australian population being around 21 million), and sales abroad are crucial to
most Australian writers.[108] [109]
Science fiction 18

Notes and references

Notes
[1] "Science fiction - Definition and More from the Free Merriam-Webster Dictionary" (http:/ / www. merriam-webster. com/ dictionary/ science
fiction). merriam-webster.com. . Retrieved 17 July 2010.
[2] "Definition of science fiction noun from Cambridge Dictionary Online: Free English Dictionary and Thesaurus" (http:/ / dictionary.
cambridge. org/ dictionary/ british/ science-fiction). dictionary.cambridge.org. . Retrieved 17 July 2010.
[3] "science fiction definition - Dictionary - MSN Encarta" (http:/ / encarta. msn. com/ encnet/ features/ dictionary/ DictionaryResults.
aspx?lextype=3& search=science fiction). science fiction definition - Dictionary - MSN Encarta. . Retrieved 17 July 2010.
[4] Marg Gilks, Paula Fleming, and Moira Allen (2003). "Science Fiction: The Literature of Ideas" (http:/ / www. writing-world. com/ sf/ sf.
shtml). WritingWorld.com. .
[5] Del Rey, Lester (1979). The World of Science Fiction: 1926–1976. Ballantine Books. p. 5. ISBN 0-345-25452-x.
[6] Sterling, Bruce. "Science fiction" in Encyclopædia Britannica 2008 (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ oscar/ print?articleId=66289&
fullArticle=true& tocId=235716)
[7] Card, Orson Scott (1990). How to Write Science Fiction and Fantasy. Writer's Digest Books. p. 17. ISBN 0-89879-416-1.
[8] Hartwell, David G. (1996). Age of Wonders: Exploring the World of Science Fiction. Tor Books. pp. 109–131. ISBN 0-312-86235-0.
[9] Knight, Damon Francis (1967). In Search of Wonder: Essays on Modern Science Fiction. Advent Publishing, Inc.. p. xiii. ISBN 0911682317.
[10] Glassy, Mark C. (2001). The Biology of Science Fiction Cinema. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland. ISBN 0-7864-0998-3.
[11] Nabokov, Vladimir Vladimirovich (1973). Strong opinions. McGraw-Hill. pp. 3 et seq. ISBN 0070457379.
[12] Heinlein, Robert A.; Cyril Kornbluth, Alfred Bester, and Robert Bloch (1959). "Science Fiction: Its Nature, Faults and Virtues". The Science
Fiction Novel: Imagination and Social Criticism. University of Chicago: Advent Publishers.
[13] Rod Serling. (1962-03-09). The Twilight Zone, "The Fugitive".
[14] del Rey, Lester (1980). The World of Science Fiction 1926–1976. Garland Publishing.
[15] The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company. 2000.
[16] Whittier, Terry (1987). Neo-Fan's Guidebook.
[17] Scalzi, John (2005). The Rough Guide to Sci-Fi Movies (http:/ / www. scalzi. com/ whatever/ 003672. html). .
[18] Ellison, Harlan (1998). "Harlan Ellison's responses to online fan questions at ParCon" (http:/ / harlanellison. com/ text/ parcon. txt). .
Retrieved 2006-04-25.
[19] John Clute and Peter Nicholls, ed. (1993). ""Sci fi" (article by Peter Nicholls)". Encyclopedia of Science Fiction. Orbit/Time Warner Book
Group UK.
[20] John Clute and Peter Nicholls, ed. (1993). ""SF" (article by Peter Nicholls)". Encyclopedia of Science Fiction. Orbit/Time Warner Book
Group UK.
[21] "Ansible" (http:/ / news. ansible. co. uk/ ). David Langford. .
[22] Grewell, Greg: "Colonizing the Universe: Science Fictions Then, Now, and in the (Imagined) Future", Rocky Mountain Review of Language
and Literature, Vol. 55, No. 2 (2001), pp. 25–47 (30f.)
[23] Fredericks, S.C.: "Lucian's True History as SF" (http:/ / www. depauw. edu/ sfs/ backissues/ 8/ fredericks8art. htm), Science Fiction Studies,
Vol. 3, No. 1 (March 1976), pp. 49–60
[24] Swanson, Roy Arthur: "The True, the False, and the Truly False: Lucian's Philosophical Science Fiction" (http:/ / www. depauw. edu/ sfs/
backissues/ 10/ swanson10art. htm), Science Fiction Studies, Vol. 3, No. 3 (Nov. 1976), pp. 227–239
[25] Georgiadou, Aristoula & Larmour, David H.J.: "Lucian's Science Fiction Novel True Histories. Interpretation and Commentary" (http:/ /
www. brill. nl/ default. aspx?partid=75& pid=2774), Mnemosyne Supplement 179, Leiden 1998, ISBN 90-04-10667-7, Introduction
[26] Gunn, James E.: "The New Encyclopedia of Science Fiction", Publisher: Viking 1988, ISBN 978-0-670-81041-3, p.249 calls it
"Proto-Science Fiction"
[27] Irwin, Robert (2003). The Arabian Nights: A Companion. Tauris Parke Paperbacks. pp. 209–13. ISBN 1860649831.
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Science fiction 19

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[87] Ken St. Andre (2006-02-03). "History" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20061206133219/ http:/ / www. casfs. org/ history. html). Central
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[88] Patten, Fred (2006). Furry! The World's Best Anthropomorphic Fiction. ibooks.
[89] Rob Hansen (2003-08-13). "British Fanzine Bibliography" (http:/ / www. fiawol. demon. co. uk/ biblio/ ). . Retrieved 2007-01-17.
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[91] http:/ / www. noreascon. org/ users/ sflovers/ u1/ web/
[92] Keith Lynch (1994-07-14). "History of the Net is Important" (http:/ / keithlynch. net/ history. net. html). . Retrieved 2007-01-17.
[93] http:/ / www. readandfindout. com
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[97] Bennett, An Introduction, ix – xi, 120–21; Schor, Introduction to Cambridge Companion, 1–5; Seymour, 548–61.
[98] Shippey, Tom (1991) Fictional Space. Essays on Contemporary Science Fiction, page 2, Humanities Press International, Inc., NJ
[99] Le Guin, Ursula K. (1976) "Science Fiction and Mrs Brown," in The Language of the Night: Essays on Fantasy and Science Fiction,
Perennial HarperCollins, Revised edition 1993.
in Science Fiction at Large, (Edited by Peter Nichols) Gollancz, London, 1976
Science fiction 21

in Explorations of the Marvellous, (Edited by Peter Nichols), Fontana, London, 1978


in Speculations on Speculation. Theories of Science Fiction, (Edited by James Gunn and Matthew Candelaria), The Scarecrow Press, Inc.
Maryland, 2005
[100] Suvin, Darko (1979) Metamorphoses of Science Fiction: On the Poetics and History of a Literary Genre, New Haven, page 63-84
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[102] Benford,Gregory (1998) "Meaning-Stuffed Dreams:Thomas Disch and the future fo SF", New York Review of Science Fiction, September,
Number 121, Vol. 11, No. 1
[103] ppJonathan LethemLethem, Jonathan ((1998)"Close Encounters: The Squandered Promise of Science Fiction," Village Voice, June.
Also reprinted in a slightly expanded version under the title "Why can't we All Live Together?: A Vision of Genre Paradise Lost" in the New
York Review of Science Fiction, September 1998, Number 121, Vol 11, No. 1
[104] Van Gelder, Gordon (1998) " Editorial (http:/ / www. sfsite. com/ fsf/ 1998/ gvg9810. htm)," Fantasy and Science Fiction,
October/November v95 #4/5 #567
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neil-gaiman-short-stories)," The Guardian, London, June 23, 2010,
[106] Barnett, David. " Science fiction: the genre that dare not speak its name (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ books/ booksblog/ 2009/ jan/ 28/
science-fiction-genre)," The Guardian, London, January 28, 2009
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[108] David G. Hartwell, Damien Broderick (ed.), Centaurus: The best of Australian science fiction, Damien Broderick, Introduction, .10.21 Tor
Books, 1999m ISBN 0-312-86556-2
[109] David G. Hartwell, Damien Broderick (ed.), Centaurus: The best of Australian science fiction, David. G. Hartwell, The other editor's
introduction, ibid., p.22-25 Tor Books, 1999m ISBN 0-312-86556-2

References
• Barron, Neil, ed. Anatomy of Wonder: A Critical Guide to Science Fiction (5th ed.). Westport, Conn.: Libraries
Unlimited, 2004. ISBN 1-59158-171-0.
• Clute, John Science Fiction: The Illustrated Encyclopedia. London: Dorling Kindersley, 1995. ISBN
0-7513-0202-3.
• Clute, John and Peter Nicholls, eds., The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction. St Albans, Herts, UK: Granada
Publishing, 1979. ISBN 0-586-05380-8.
• Clute, John and Peter Nicholls, eds., The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction. New York: St Martin's Press, 1995.
ISBN 0-312-13486-X.
• Disch, Thomas M. The Dreams Our Stuff Is Made Of. New York: The Free Press, 1998. ISBN
978-0-684-82405-5.
• Reginald, Robert. Science Fiction and Fantasy Literature, 1975–1991. Detroit, MI/Washington, D.C./London:
Gale Research, 1992. ISBN 0-8103-1825-3.
• Weldes, Jutta, ed. To Seek Out New Worlds: Exploring Links between Science Fiction and World Politics. New
York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003. ISBN 0-312-29557-X.
• Westfahl, Gary, ed. The Greenwood Encyclopedia of Science Fiction and Fantasy: Themes, Works, and Wonders
(three volumes). Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2005.
• Wolfe, Gary K. Critical Terms for Science Fiction and Fantasy: A Glossary and Guide to Scholarship. New
York: Greenwood Press, 1986. ISBN 0-313-22981-3.
Science fiction 22

External links
• Science Fiction (Bookshelf) (http://www.gutenberg.org/wiki/Science_Fiction_(Bookshelf)) at Project
Gutenberg
• SF Hub (http://www.sfhub.ac.uk/)—resources for science-fiction research, created by the University of
Liverpool Library
• Science fiction fanzines (current and historical) online (http://www.efanzines.com)
• Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America (http://www.sfwa.org/member-links/
nebula-suggested-reading/)—their "Suggested Reading" page
• Science Fiction Museum & Hall of Fame (http://www.empsfm.org/)
• Science Fiction Research Association (http://www.sfra.org/)
• Science Fiction at the Internet Archive (http://www.archive.org/search.php?query=science fiction/)

Dying Earth subgenre


The Dying Earth subgenre is a sub-category of science fantasy which takes place either at the end of life on Earth or
the End of Time, when the laws of the universe themselves fail. More generally, the Dying Earth sub-genre
encompasses science fiction works set in the far distant future in a milieu of stasis or decline. Themes of
world-weariness, innocence (wounded or otherwise), idealism, entropy, (permanent) exhaustion/depletion of many
or all resources (such as soil nutrients), and the hope of renewal tend to pre-dominate.

Genre
The apocalyptic sub-genre is nearly as old as literature itself. The Dying Earth genre differs in that it deals not with
catastrophic destruction, but with entropic exhaustion of the Earth. The genre was prefigured by the works of the
Romantic movement. Jean-Baptiste Cousin de Grainville's Le Dernier Homme (1805) narrates the tale of Omegare,
the Last Man on Earth. It is a bleak vision of the future when the Earth has become totally sterile. Lord Byron's poem
"Darkness" (1816) shows Earth after the Sun has died.
The first known science fiction story is called La Fin du Monde (The End of the World, aka Omega: the last days of
the world), written by Camille Flammarion and published in France in 1893. The first half of the novel is dealing
with a comet on a collision course with earth in the 25th century. The last half focus on earth's future history, where
civilization rise and fall, humans evolve and finally, its end as an old, dying and barren planet.
Another early and more famous science fiction work to utilize the familiar Dying Earth imagery was H. G. Wells'
famous novella "The Time Machine" (1895). At the end of this work, the unnamed time traveller travels into the far
future where there are only a few living things on a dying Earth. He then returns to his own time to relate his tale to a
circle of contemporaries.
Two brooding works by William Hope Hodgson would elaborate on Wells' vision. The House on the Borderland
(1908) takes place in a house besieged by unearthly forces. The narrator then travels (without explanation and
perhaps psychically) into a distant future in which humanity has died and then even further, past the death of Earth.
Hodgson's later The Night Land (1912) describes a time, millions of years in the future, when the Sun had gone dark.
The last few millions of the human race are gathered together in a gigantic metal pyramid, the Last Redoubt
(probably the first arcology in literature) under siege from unknown forces and Powers outside in the dark.
Dying Earth subgenre 23

From the 1930s onwards, Clark Ashton Smith wrote a series of stories
situated in Zothique, the last continent of Earth. Smith said in a letter to L.
Sprague de Camp, dated November 3, 1953:
"Zothique, vaguely suggested by Theosophic theories about past and
future continents, is the last inhabited continent of earth. The continents
of our present cycle have sunken, perhaps several times. Some have
remained submerged; others have re-risen, partially, and re-arranged
themselves.
[...]The science and machinery of our present civilization have long
been forgotten, together with our present religions. But many gods are
worshipped; and sorcery and demonism prevail again as in ancient
days. Oars and sails alone are used by mariners. There are no
fire-arms—only the bows, arrows, swords, javelins, etc. of antiquity."
Although not technically set on a dying Earth, many of the sword and planet
stories of the early twentieth century set on Mars, most notably Edgar Rice
Cover of a paperback edition of Jack
Burroughs' Barsoom series and works influenced by it, such as the Eric John
Vance's seminal work
Stark stories of Leigh Brackett and C.L. Moore's series focusing on
Northwest Smith, shared similarities with the genre. In these stories, ancient
and exotic Martian (or other) civilizations had undergone a decadent decline, enlivened by the presence of demonic
adversaries from past ages. The fact that scientists had seriously speculated that Mars had once borne life, which had
by the present almost or, perhaps entirely, died out, gave a special entropic kick to these escapist adventures.

Under the influence of Smith, Jack Vance wrote the short story collection The Dying Earth. The collection would
have several sequels. These works gave the sub-genre its name.[1]

Examples
• Brian Aldiss — Hothouse (also known as The Long Afternoon of Earth). The Earth has stopped rotating, the Sun
has increased output, and plants are engaged in a constant frenzy of growth and decay, like a tropical forest
enhanced a thousandfold; a few small groups of humans still live, on the edge of extinction, beneath the giant
banyan tree that covers the entire day side of the earth.
• Greg Bear, City at the End of Time (2008), a novel that is a homage to William Hope Hodgson's The Night Land.
• Damien Broderick, ed. — Earth is But a Star: Excursions through Science Fiction to the Far Future, an
anthology of canonical dying Earth short stories mostly set on Earth in the far future, interwoven with specially
commissioned critical essays on the dying Earth theme.
• John Brunner, Catch a Falling Star, an extended version of The 100th Millennium, first published as "Earth is But
a Star" (1958) which features in the Broderick anthology, above. An early example of a far future tale influenced
by Vance.
• C. J. Cherryh — Sunfall, a collection of short stories set in various locations on Earth in the far future. The tone,
themes and fantasy conventions employed in this collection differ by story. (These were reprinted in The
Collected Short Fiction of C. J. Cherryh).
• Arthur C. Clarke — The City and the Stars, a revision and expansion of the earlier novella "Against the Fall of
Night".
• Philip Jose Farmer - In Dark Is the Sun a tribesman from the distant future quests across the landscape of a dying
earth. As with much of "Dying Earth" science fiction, this text ruminates on the nature of ending, and the meaning
of time itself.
Dying Earth subgenre 24

• Edmond Hamilton — The City at World's End (1951) and the comic book story "Superman Under the Red Sun"
from Action Comics #300 (1963).
• M. John Harrison — a series of short stories and novels set in Viriconium. Viriconium is the capital city in which
much of the action takes place. Viriconium lies on a dying Earth littered with the detritus of the millennia,
seemingly now its own hermetic universe where chronology no longer applies.[2]
• Michael Moorcock — The Dancers at the End of Time series.[3]
• Gene Wolfe — The Book of the New Sun chronicles the journey of a disgraced torturer named Severian to the
highest position in the land. Severian, who has a perfect memory, tells the story in first person. The Book takes
place in the distant future, where the sun has dimmed considerably.[4] Wolfe has stated that Vance's series directly
influenced this work. The Book has several associated volumes.
• H. P. Lovecraft and Robert H. Barlow - " 'Till All The Seas" (published posthumously, copyright 1970 by August
Derleth) is a tale of the slow fading of human civilization and the extinction of all life on Earth, as the planet
became a desert under the sun that has expanded into a red giant. The story centers on a male protagonist named
Ull, the last of his tribe, and his journey across lands and abandoned cities in hopes of finding water, shelter and
other survivors. But all he finds is desolation and death. (Lovecraft may not have done more than make a note on
this story.)

References
[1] The Dying Earth | Classic Book Reviews | SCI FI Weekly (http:/ / www. scifi. com/ sfw/ books/ classic/ sfw11758. html)
[2] M John Harrison: The Centauri Device and Viriconium - an infinity plus double review (http:/ / www. infinityplus. co. uk/ nonfiction/
viriconium. htm)
[3] The SF Site Featured Review: The Dancers at the End of Time (http:/ / www. sfsite. com/ 09b/ dan41. htm)
[4] Lupine Nuncio - Gene Wolfe News and Rumors (http:/ / mysite. verizon. net/ ~vze2tmhh/ wolfe. html)

External links
• The Eldritch Dark (http://www.eldritchdark.com) — This website contains almost all of Clark Ashton Smith's
written work, as well as a comprehensive selection of his art, biographies, a bibliography, a discussion board,
readings, fiction tributes and more.
• The Night Land (http://www.thenightland.co.uk/nightmap.html)- A website about "The Night Land" by
William Hope Hodgson, includes also original fiction set in his universe, with influences of Cordwainer Smith
and others Dying Earth authors.
Risks to civilization, humans and planet Earth 25

Risks to civilization, humans and planet Earth


Risks to civilization, humans, and planet Earth are existential risks that could threaten humankind as a whole,
have adverse consequences for the course of human civilization, or even cause the end of planet Earth.[1] The
concept is expressed in various phrases such as "End of the World", "Doomsday", "Ragnarök", "Judgment Day",
"Armageddon", "the Apocalypse", "Yawm al-Qiyāmah" and others.

Types of risks
Various risks exist for humanity, but not all are equal. Risks can be roughly categorized into six types based on the
scope (personal, regional, global) and the intensity (endurable or terminal). The following chart provides some
examples:

[1]
Typology of risk

Endurable Terminal

Global Plate tectonics Nearby gamma-ray burst

Regional Flash flooding Permanent submersion

Personal Assault Death

The risks discussed in this article are at least Global and Terminal in intensity. These types of risks are ones where
an adverse outcome would either annihilate intelligent life on Earth, or permanently and drastically reduce its
potential. Jamais Cascio made an alternative classification system.[2]

Future scenarios
Many scenarios have been suggested. Some that will almost certainly end life on Earth are certain to occur, but on a
very long timescale. Others are likely to happen on a shorter timescale, but will probably not completely destroy
civilization. Still others are extremely unlikely, and may even be impossible. For example, Nick Bostrom writes:
Some foreseen hazards (hence not members of the current category) which have been excluded from the
list on grounds that they seem too unlikely to cause a global terminal disaster are: solar flares,
supernovae, black hole explosions or mergers, gamma-ray bursts, galactic center outbursts, buildup of
air pollution, gradual loss of human fertility, and various religious doomsday scenarios.[3]

Distant future
There are a number of cosmological theories as to the universe's ultimate fate that exclude the indefinite continuation
of life. Most involve time periods and distant futures much greater than the current 13.7-billion-year age of the
universe. A long-established and widely accepted theory is the eventual heat death of the universe.
The theory of stellar evolution predicts that our Sun will exhaust its hydrogen core and become a red giant in about 5
billion years,[4] [5] [6] becoming thousands of times more luminous and losing roughly 30% of its current mass.[7]
Ignoring tidal effects, the Earth would then orbit 1.7 AU ( km) from the Sun at its maximum radius. This would
allow the Earth to escape being enveloped by the Sun's now expanded and thin outer atmosphere, though most life, if
not all, would perish due to the Sun's proximity.[4] However, a more recent study suggests that the Earth's orbit will
decay due to the effects of tidal drag, causing it to enter the Sun's expanded atmosphere and be destroyed[5] [8] [9] in
7.6 billion years.[10] Before being swallowed by the Sun, the Earth's oceans would evaporate, and the Earth would
finally be destroyed by tidal forces.
Risks to civilization, humans and planet Earth 26

Meteorite impact
Earth has collided with several large asteroids in recent geological history. The Cretaceous-Tertiary asteroid, for
example, is theorized to have caused the extinction of the dinosaurs 65 million years ago. If such an object struck
Earth it could have a serious impact on civilization. It is even possible that humanity would be completely destroyed;
for this to occur the asteroid would need to be at least 1 km (0.62 miles) in diameter, but probably between 3 and
10 km (2–6 miles).[11] Asteroids with a 1 km diameter have impacted the Earth on average once every 500,000
years.[11] Larger asteroids are less common. So-called Near-Earth asteroids are regularly being observed.
1.4 million years from now the star Gliese 710 is expected to cause an increase in the number of meteoroids in the
vicinity of Earth by passing within 1.1 light years of the Sun. Some models predict that this will cause a large
number of comets from the Oort cloud to impact Earth,[12] whereas other models predict only a 5% increase in the
rate of impact.

Other cosmic threats


A number of other scenarios have been suggested. Massive objects, e.g., a star, large planet or black hole, could be
catastrophic if a close encounter occurred in the solar system. (Gravity from the wandering objects might disrupt
orbits and/or fling bodies into other objects, thus resulting in meteorite impacts or climate change. Also, heat from
the wandering objects might cause extinctions; tidal forces could cause erosion along our coastlines.) Another threat
might come from gamma ray bursts.[13] Both are very unlikely.[3]
Still others see extraterrestrial life as a possible threat to humankind;[14] although alien life has never been found,
scientists such as Carl Sagan have postulated that the existence of extraterrestrial life is very likely. In 1969, the
"Extra-Terrestrial Exposure Law" was added to the Code of Federal Regulations (Title 14, Section 1211) in response
to the possibility of biological contamination resulting from the US Apollo Space Program. It was removed in
1991.[15] Scientists consider such a scenario technically possible, but unlikely.[16]
In April 2008, it was announced that two simulations of long-term planetary movement, one at Paris Observatory
and the other at University of California, Santa Cruz indicate a 1% chance that Mercury's orbit could be made
unstable by Jupiter's gravitational pull sometime during the lifespan of the sun. Were this to happen, the simulations
suggest a collision with Earth could be one of four possible outcomes (the others being Mercury colliding with the
Sun, colliding with Venus, or being ejected from the solar system altogether). If Mercury were to collide with the
Earth, all life on Earth would be obliterated and the impact may displace enough matter into orbit to form another
moon. Note that an asteroid just 15 km wide is said to have destroyed the dinosaurs; Mercury is some 5,000 km in
diameter.[17]

Earth

Global pandemic
A less predictable scenario is a global pandemic. For example, if HIV were to mutate and become as transmissible as
the common cold, the consequences would be disastrous.[18] It has been hypothesised that such an extremely virulent
pathogen might not evolve.[19] This is because a pathogen that quickly kills its hosts might not have enough time to
spread to new ones, while one that kills its hosts more slowly or not at all will allow carriers more time to spread the
infection, and thus likely out-compete a more lethal species or strain.[20] This simple model predicts that if virulence
and transmission are not linked in any way, pathogens will evolve towards low virulence and rapid transmission.
However, this assumption is not always valid and in more complex models, where the level of virulence and the rate
of transmission are related, high levels of virulence can evolve.[21] The level of virulence that is possible is instead
limited by the existence of complex populations of hosts, with different susceptibilities to infection, or by some hosts
being geographically-isolated.[19] The size of the host population and competition between different strains of
pathogens can also alter virulence.[22] Interestingly, a pathogen that only infects humans as a secondary host and
usually infects another species (a zoonosis) may have little constraint on its virulence in people, since infection here
Risks to civilization, humans and planet Earth 27

is an accidental event and its evolution is driven by events in another species.[23]

Megatsunami
Another possibility is a megatsunami. A megatsunami could, for example, destroy the entire East Coast of the United
States. The coastal areas of the entire world could also be flooded in case of the collapse of the West Antarctic Ice
Sheet.[24] While none of these scenarios are likely to destroy humanity completely, they could regionally threaten
civilization. There has been one recent high-fatality tsunami, although it was not large enough to be considered a
megatsunami. A megatsunami could have astronomical origins as well, such as an asteroid impact in an ocean.

Climate change and global warming


Climate change is any long-term significant change in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region
(or, more relevantly to contemporary socio-political concerns, of the Earth as a whole) over an appropriately
significant period of time. Climate change reflects abnormal variations to the expected climate within the Earth's
atmosphere and subsequent effects on other parts of the Earth, such as in the ice caps over durations ranging from
decades to millions of years. According to the UN’s Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA),
climate disasters are on the rise. Around 70 percent of disasters are now climate related – up from around 50 percent
from two decades ago.[25] These disasters take a heavier human toll and come with a higher price tag.[26] In the last
decade, 2.4 billion people were affected by climate related disasters, compared to 1.7 billion in the previous decade
and the cost of responding to disasters has risen tenfold between 1992 and 2008.[25] Destructive sudden heavy rains,
intense tropical storms, repeated flooding and droughts are likely to increase, as will the vulnerability of local
communities in the absence of strong concerted action.[26] Sea level rise may completely inundate certain areas.

Ice age
In the history of the Earth, twelve ice ages have occurred. More ice ages will be possible at an interval of
40,000–100,000 years although engineers working for Posiva, a Finnish company involved in the underground
storage of nuclear waste[27], have built their facility to withstand an Ice Age starting as 'soon' as 20,000 years. An
Ice Age would have a serious impact on civilization because vast areas of land (mainly in North America, Europe,
and Asia) could become uninhabitable. It would still be possible to live in the tropical regions, but with possible loss
of humidity/water. Currently, the world is existing in an interglacial period within a much older glacial event. The
last glacial expansion ended about 10,000 years ago, and all civilizations evolved later.

Ecological disaster
An ecological disaster, such as world crop failure and collapse of ecosystem services, could be induced by the
present trends of overpopulation, economic development,[28] and non-sustainable agriculture. Most of these
scenarios involve one or more of the following: Holocene extinction event, scarcity of water that could lead to
approximately one half of the Earth's population being without safe drinking water, pollinator decline, overfishing,
massive deforestation, desertification, climate change, or massive water pollution episodes. A very recent threat in
this direction is colony collapse disorder, a phenomenon that might foreshadow the imminent extinction[29] of the
Western honeybee. As the bee plays a vital role in pollination, its extinction would severely disrupt the food chain.

World population and agricultural crisis


The 20th century saw a rapid increase in human population due to medical developments and massive increase in
agricultural productivity[30] made by the Green Revolution.[31] Between 1950 and 1984, as the Green Revolution
transformed agriculture around the globe, world grain production increased by 250%. The Green Revolution in
agriculture helped food production to keep pace with worldwide population growth or actually enabled population
growth. The energy for the Green Revolution was provided by fossil fuels in the form of fertilizers (natural gas),
pesticides (oil), and hydrocarbon fueled irrigation.[32] David Pimentel, professor of ecology and agriculture at
Risks to civilization, humans and planet Earth 28

Cornell University, and Mario Giampietro, senior researcher at the National Research Institute on Food and Nutrition
(INRAN), place in their study Food, Land, Population and the U.S. Economy the maximum U.S. population for a
sustainable economy at 200 million. To achieve a sustainable economy and avert disaster, the United States must
reduce its population by at least one-third, and world population will have to be reduced by two-thirds, says the
study.[33]
The authors of this study believe that the mentioned agricultural crisis will only begin to impact us after 2020, and
will not become critical until 2050. Geologist Dale Allen Pfeiffer claims that coming decades could see spiraling
food prices without relief and massive starvation on a global level such as never experienced before.[34]
Wheat is humanity's 3rd most produced cereal. Extant fungal infections such as Ug99[35] (a kind of stem rust) can
cause 100% crop losses in most modern varieties. Little or no treatment is possible and infection spreads on the
wind. Should the world's large grain producing areas become infected then there would be a crisis in wheat
availability leading to price spikes and shortages in other food stuffs.[36]

Supervolcano
When the supervolcano at Yellowstone last erupted 640,000 years ago, the magma and ash ejected from the caldera
covered most of the United States west of the Mississippi river and part of northeastern Mexico.[37] Another such
eruption could threaten civilization. Such an eruption could also release large amounts of gases that could alter the
balance of the planet's carbon dioxide and cause a runaway greenhouse effect, or enough pyroclastic debris and other
material may be thrown into the atmosphere to partially block out the sun and cause a volcanic winter, as happened
in 1816 following the eruption of Mount Tambora, the so-called Year Without a Summer. Such an eruption may
cause the immediate deaths of millions of people several hundred miles from the eruption, and perhaps billions of
deaths[38] worldwide due to the failure of the monsoon, as well as destruction of the "American breadbasket",
causing starvation on a massive scale.[38] Supervolcanoes are more likely threats than many others, as a prehistoric
Indonesian supervolcano eruption may have reduced the human population to only a few thousand individuals,[39]
while no catastrophic bolide impact, for example, has occurred since long before modern humans evolved.

Humanity
Some threats for humanity come from humanity itself.

Warfare and mass destruction


The scenarios that have been explored most frequently are nuclear warfare and a Doomsday device. It is difficult to
predict whether it would exterminate humanity, but very certainly could alter civilization in the event of a nuclear
winter.[40]

Artificial intelligence
Another category of disasters are unforeseen consequences of technology.
It has been suggested that learning computers that rapidly become superintelligent may take unforeseen actions or
that robots would out-compete humanity.[41] Because of its exceptional scheduling and organisational capability and
the range of novel technologies it could develop, it is possible that the first Earth superintelligence to emerge could
rapidly become matchless and unrivaled: conceivably it would be able to bring about almost any possible outcome,
and be able to foil virtually any attempt that threatened to prevent it achieving its desires.[42] It could eliminate,
wiping out if it chose, any other challenging rival intellects; alternatively it might manipulate or persuade them to
change their behavior towards its own interests, or it may merely obstruct their attempts at interference.[42]
Vernor Vinge has suggested that a moment may come when computers and robots are smarter than humans. He calls
this "the Singularity."[43] He suggests that it may be somewhat or possibly very dangerous for humans.[44] This is
discussed by a philosophy called Singularitarianism.
Risks to civilization, humans and planet Earth 29

In 2009, experts attended a conference hosted by the Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence
(AAAI) to discuss whether computers and robots might be able to acquire any sort of autonomy, and how much
these abilities might pose a threat or hazard. They noted that some robots have acquired various forms of
semi-autonomy, including being able to find power sources on their own and being able to independently choose
targets to attack with weapons. They also noted that some computer viruses can evade elimination and have achieved
"cockroach intelligence." They noted that self-awareness as depicted in science-fiction is probably unlikely, but that
there were other potential hazards and pitfalls.[43] Various media sources and scientific groups have noted separate
trends in differing areas which might together result in greater robotic functionalities and autonomy, and which pose
some inherent concerns.[45] [46] [47]
Some experts and academics have questioned the use of robots for military combat, especially when such robots are
given some degree of autonomous functions.[48] There are also concerns about technology which might allow some
armed robots to be controlled mainly by other robots.[49] The US Navy has funded a report which indicates that as
military robots become more complex, there should be greater attention to implications of their ability to make
autonomous decisions.[50] [51] One researcher states that autonomous robots might be more humane, as they could
make decisions more effectively. However, other experts question this.[52]
Biotechnology could lead to the creation of a pandemic, Nanotechnology could lead to grey goo in which
out-of-control self-replicating robots consume all living matter on Earth while building more of themselves - in both
cases, either deliberately or by accident.[53] It has also been suggested that physical scientists might accidentally
create a device that could destroy the earth and the solar system.[54]

Climate change and ecology


It has been suggested that runaway global warming might cause the climate on Earth to become like Venus, which
would make it uninhabitable. In less extreme scenarios it could cause the end of civilization, as we know it.[55]
According to a UN climate report, the Himalayan glaciers that are the sources of Asia's biggest rivers - Ganges,
Indus, Brahmaputra, Yangtze, Mekong, Salween and Yellow - could disappear by 2350 as temperatures rise,
although an initial announcement of that report erroneously stated the date as 2035.[56] [57] Approximately 3 billion
people live in the drainage basin of the Himalayan rivers, which is almost half of the current human population (see
Environmental migrant.[58] The Himalayan system, which includes outlying subranges, stretches across:
Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, People's Republic of China, India, Nepal, Burma, Cambodia, Thailand, Laos,
Vietnam, Malaysia and Pakistan. Some of the world's major rivers, Ganges, Indus, Brahmaputra, Yangtze, Mekong,
Salween and Yellow River, rise in the Himalayas, and their combined drainage basin in India, China, Pakistan,
Bangladesh, Nepal and Myanmar could experience floods followed by droughts in coming decades. In India alone,
the Ganges provides water for drinking and farming for more than 500 million people.[59] [60] [61] The west coast of
North America, which gets much of its water from glaciers in mountain ranges such as the Rocky Mountains,
Cascade Mountains and Sierra Nevada, also would be affected.[62] [63] According to the California Department of
Water Resources, if more water supplies are not found by 2020, California residents will face a water shortfall nearly
as great as the amount consumed today.[64] Directly linked to observed increases in the intensity and frequency of
natural disasters, global warming and climate change are now considered key drivers behind rising global
humanitarian and emergency relief needs.[26] According to the UN’s Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian
Affairs (OCHA), climate disasters are on the rise. Around 70 percent of disasters are now climate related – up from
around 50 percent from two decades ago.[25] These disasters take a heavier human toll and come with a higher price
tag.[26] In the last decade, 2.4 billion people were affected by climate related disasters, compared to 1.7 billion in the
previous decade and the cost of responding to disasters has risen tenfold between 1992 and 2008.[25] Destructive
sudden heavy rains, intense tropical storms, repeated flooding and droughts are likely to increase, as will the
vulnerability of local communities in the absence of strong concerted action.[26]
Approximately 40% of the world's agricultural land is seriously degraded.[65] In Africa, if current trends of soil
degradation continue, the continent might be able to feed just 25% of its population by 2025, according to UNU's
Risks to civilization, humans and planet Earth 30

Ghana-based Institute for Natural Resources in Africa.[66]


James Lovelock, creator of the Gaia hypothesis, in his book The Revenge of Gaia (2006), has suggested that the
elimination of rain forests, and the falling planetary biodiversity is removing the homeostatic negative feedback
mechanisms that maintain climate stability by reducing the effects of greenhouse gas emissions (particularly carbon
dioxide). With the heating of the oceans, the extension of the thermocline layer into Arctic and Antarctic waters is
preventing the overturning and nutrient enrichment necessary for algal blooms of phytoplankton on which the
ecosystems of these areas depend. With the loss of phytoplankton and tropical rain forests, two of the main carbon
dioxide sinks for reducing global warming, he suggests a runaway positive feedback effect could cause tropical
deserts to cover most of the world's tropical regions, and the disappearance of polar ice caps, posing a serious
challenge to global civilization.
Using scenario analysis, the Global Scenario Group (GSG), a coalition of international scientists convened by Paul
Raskin, developed a series of possible futures for the world as it enters a Planetary Phase of Civilization. One
scenario involves the complete breakdown of civilization as the effects of climate change become more pronounced,
competition for scarce resources increases, and the rift between the poor and the wealthy widens. The GSG’s other
scenarios, such as Policy Reform, Eco-Communalism, and Great Transition avoid this societal collapse and
eventually result in environmental and social sustainability. They claim the outcome is dependent on human
choice[67] and the possible formation of a global citizens movement which could influence the trajectory of global
development.[68]

Other scenarios
• Peak oil: Fossil fuels attain a level of scarcity before an economically viable replacement is devised, leading
firstly to economic strain, followed by the collapse of modern agriculture, then to mass starvation.[69] [70] [71]
• Antibiotic resistance: Natural selection would create super bacteria that are resistant to antibiotics, devastating the
world population and causing a global collapse of civilization.[72]
• Gulf Stream shutdown: There is some speculation that global warming could, via a shutdown or slowdown of the
thermohaline circulation, trigger localized cooling in the North Atlantic and lead to cooling in that region. This
would affect in particular areas like Ireland, the Nordic countries, and Britain that are warmed by the North
Atlantic drift.[73] [74]
• Mutual assured destruction: A full scale nuclear war could kill billions, and the resulting nuclear winter would
effectively crush any form of civilization.
• Overpopulation: Some scenarios of simultaneous ecological (food & water production) and economical (see f.e.
below) collapses with overpopulation are presumed to lead to a global civil war, where the remaining habitable
areas are destroyed by competing humans (so called 'Mad Max'-scenario).[75]
• Famine: As of late 2007, increased farming for use in biofuels, along with world oil prices spiking to more than
$140 per barrel,[76] had pushed up the price of grain used to feed poultry and dairy cows and other cattle, causing
higher prices of wheat (up 58%), soybean (up 32%), and maize (up 11%) over the year.[77] [78] Food riots have
recently taken place in many countries across the world.[79] [80] [81] An epidemic of stem rust on wheat caused by
race Ug99 is currently spreading across Africa and into Asia and is causing major concern. Scientists say millions
of people face starvation.[82] [83] [84]
• Experimental accident: Investigations in nuclear and high energy physics, such as the Trinity test and more
recently with the Large Hadron Collider, theoretical chain-reaction global disasters triggered by these unusual
conditions were worried about by some but have not yet occurred.[85] [86] [87] [88]
• Dysgenics: Widespread occurrence of defective or disadvantageous human genes could cause a catastrophic
decline in the quality of human life, or its total cessation.
• Hypercane
• Economic collapse
• Mass extinction
Risks to civilization, humans and planet Earth 31

• Overconsumption

Historical fictional scenarios


Sir Isaac Newton (1642–1727) studied old texts and surmised that the end of the world would happen no earlier than
2060, although he was reluctant to put an exact date on it.[89]
The belief that the Mayan civilization's Long Count calendar ends abruptly on December 21, 2012, is a
misconception due to the Mayan practice of using only five places in Long Count Calendar inscriptions. On some
monuments the Mayan calculated dates far into the past and future but there is no end of the world date. There will
be a Piktun ending (a cycle of 13 144,000 day Bak'tuns) on December 21, 2012. A Piktun marks the end of a
1,872,000 day or approximately 5125 year period and is a significant event in the Mayan calendar. However, there is
no historical or scientific evidence that the Mayas believed it would be a doomsday. Some believe it will just be the
beginning of another Piktun.[90]
The cataclysmic pole shift hypothesis was formulated in 1872. Revisited repeatedly in the second half of the 20th
century, it proposes that the axis of the Earth with respect to the crust could change extremely rapidly, causing
massive earthquakes, tsunamis, and damaging local climate changes. The hypothesis is contradicted by the
mainstream scientific interpretation of geological data, which indicates that true polar wander does occur, but very
slowly over millions of years.

Probability of Doomsday Events


The probability of a doomsday event varies to the event. The probability of an asteroid impact wiping out mankind is
slim due to the vastness of space; the probability of a pandemic is large due to worldwide transit/connectivity and the
threat of biological terrorism. No one can be certain.

Notes
[1] Bostrom, Nick (March 2002). "Existential Risks: Analyzing Human Extinction Scenarios and Related Hazards" (http:/ / www. nickbostrom.
com/ existential/ risks. html). Journal of Evolution and Technology 9. .
[2] Open the Future: An Eschatological Taxonomy (http:/ / www. openthefuture. com/ 2006/ 12/ an_eschatological_taxonomy. html)
[3] Nick Bostrom, section 4.7.
[4] Our Sun. III. Present and Future (http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ cgi-bin/ nph-bib_query?bibcode=1993ApJ. . . 418. . 457S)
[5] Distant future of the Sun and Earth revisited (http:/ / www. blackwell-synergy. com/ doi/ abs/ 10. 1111/ j. 1365-2966. 2008. 13022. x)
[6] Serge Brunier (1999). Majestic Universe: Views from Here to Infinity. Cambridge University Press. p. 42. ISBN 0521663075.
[7] Red Giants (http:/ / hyperphysics. phy-astr. gsu. edu/ hbase/ astro/ redgia. html)
[8] SPACE.com - Freeze, Fry or Dry: How Long Has the Earth Got? (http:/ / www. space. com/ scienceastronomy/ solarsystem/
death_of_earth_000224. html)
[9] Sun, the solar system's only star (http:/ / www. astronomytoday. com/ astronomy/ sun. html)
[10] Denis Overbye. "Kissing the Earth Goodbye in About 7.59 Billion Years" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2008/ 03/ 11/ science/ space/
11earth. html), New York Times, March 11, 2008.
[11] Nick Bostrom, section 4.10
[12] Date With The Neighbors: Gliese 710 And Other Incoming Stars (http:/ / www. exitmundi. nl/ Gliese710. htm)
[13] Explosions in Space May Have Initiated Ancient Extinction on Earth (http:/ / www. nasa. gov/ vision/ universe/ starsgalaxies/
gammaray_extinction. html), NASA.
[14] Twenty ways the world could end suddenly (http:/ / www. findarticles. com/ p/ articles/ mi_m1511/ is_10_21/ ai_65368918), Discover
Magazine
[15] Urban Legends Reference Pages: Legal Affairs (E.T. Make Bail) (http:/ / www. snopes. com/ legal/ et. htm)
[16] Nick Bostrom, section 7.2.
[17] Ken Croswell, Will Mercury Hit Earth Someday? (http:/ / www. skyandtelescope. com/ news/ home/ 18103199. html),
Skyandtelescope.com April 24, 2008, accessed April 26, 2008
[18] http:/ / www. pbs. org/ wgbh/ evolution/ library/ 10/ 4/ l_104_06. html
[19] Frank SA (March 1996). "Models of parasite virulence". Q Rev Biol 71 (1): 37–78. doi:10.1086/419267. PMID 8919665.
[20] Brown NF, Wickham ME, Coombes BK, Finlay BB (May 2006). "Crossing the line: selection and evolution of virulence traits" (http:/ /
www. pubmedcentral. nih. gov/ articlerender. fcgi?tool=pmcentrez& artid=1464392). PLoS Pathog. 2 (5): e42.
Risks to civilization, humans and planet Earth 32

doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.0020042. PMID 16733541. PMC 1464392.


[21] Ebert D, Bull JJ (January 2003). "Challenging the trade-off model for the evolution of virulence: is virulence management feasible?". Trends
Microbiol. 11 (1): 15–20. doi:10.1016/S0966-842X(02)00003-3. PMID 12526850.
[22] André JB, Hochberg ME (July 2005). "Virulence evolution in emerging infectious diseases". Evolution 59 (7): 1406–12. PMID 16153027.
[23] Gandon S (March 2004). "Evolution of multihost parasites". Evolution 58 (3): 455–69. PMID 15119430.
[24] US West Antarctic Ice Sheet initiative (http:/ / igloo. gsfc. nasa. gov/ wais/ )
[25] "Climate Change: Coping with the Humanitarian Impact" (http:/ / ochaonline. un. org/ News/ InFocus/ ClimateChangeHumanitarianImpact/
tabid/ 5099/ language/ en-US/ Default. aspx). OCHA. .
[26] "Humanitarian costs of climate change unpredictable" (http:/ / www. irinnews. org/ Report. aspx?ReportId=83030). IRIN. .
[27] http:/ / spectrum. ieee. org/ energy/ nuclear/ finlands-nuclear-waste-solution/ 0
[28] Chiarelli, B. (1998). "Overpopulation and the Threat of Ecological Disaster: the Need for Global Bioethics". Mankind Quarterly 39 (2):
225–230.
[29] Lovgren, Stefan. " Mystery Bee Disappearances Sweeping U.S. (http:/ / news. nationalgeographic. com/ news/ 2007/ 02/ 070223-bees.
html)" National Geographic News. URL accessed March 10, 2007.
[30] BBC NEWS | The end of India's green revolution? (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ world/ south_asia/ 4994590. stm)
[31] Food First/Institute for Food and Development Policy (http:/ / www. foodfirst. org/ media/ opeds/ 2000/ 4-greenrev. html)
[32] How peak oil could lead to starvation (http:/ / wolf. readinglitho. co. uk/ mainpages/ agriculture. html)
[33] Eating Fossil Fuels | EnergyBulletin.net (http:/ / www. energybulletin. net/ 281. html)
[34] Agriculture Meets Peak Oil (http:/ / europe. theoildrum. com/ node/ 2225)
[35] http:/ / www. ars. usda. gov/ Main/ docs. htm?docid=14649
[36] http:/ / www. wheatrust. cornell. edu/ about/
[37] Breining, Greg (2007). "Distant Death". Super Volcano: The Ticking Time Bomb Beneath Yellowstone National Park. St. Paul, MN.:
Voyageur Press. p. 256 pg. ISBN 978-0-7603-2925-2.
[38] Breining, Greg (2007). "The Next Big Blast". Super Volcano: The Ticking Time Bomb Beneath Yellowstone National Park. St. Paul, MN.:
Voyageur Press. p. 256 pg. ISBN 978-0-7603-2925-2.
[39] "Under Yellowstone" (http:/ / ngm. nationalgeographic. com/ 2009/ 08/ yellowstone/ achenbach-text). nationalgeographic.com. August
2009. . "The ensuing volcanic winter may have contributed to a period of global cooling that reduced the entire human population to a few
thousand individuals—a close shave for the human race."
[40] Nick Bostrom, section 4.2.
[41] Bill Joy, Why the future doesn't need us (http:/ / www. wired. com/ wired/ archive/ 8. 04/ joy_pr. html). In:Wired magazine. See also
technological singularity.Nick Bostrom 2002 Ethical Issues in Advanced Artificial Intelligence http:/ / www. nickbostrom. com
[42] Nick Bostrom 2002 Ethical Issues in Advanced Artificial Intelligence http:/ / www. nickbostrom. com
[43] Scientists Worry Machines May Outsmart Man (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2009/ 07/ 26/ science/ 26robot. html?_r=1& ref=todayspaper)
By JOHN MARKOFF, NY Times, July 26, 2009.
[44] The Coming Technological Singularity: How to Survive in the Post-Human Era (http:/ / www-rohan. sdsu. edu/ faculty/ vinge/ misc/
singularity. html), by Vernor Vinge, Department of Mathematical Sciences, San Diego State University, (c) 1993 by Vernor Vinge.
[45] Gaming the Robot Revolution: A military technology expert weighs in on Terminator: Salvation (http:/ / www. slate. com/ id/ 2218834/ ).,
By P. W. Singer, slate.com Thursday, May 21, 2009.
[46] Robot takeover (http:/ / www. gyre. org/ news/ explore/ robot-takeover), gyre.org.
[47] robot page (http:/ / www. engadget. com/ tag/ robotapocalypse), engadget.com.
[48] Call for debate on killer robots (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ technology/ 8182003. stm), By Jason Palmer, Science and technology
reporter, BBC News, 8/3/09.
[49] Robot Three-Way Portends Autonomous Future (http:/ / www. wired. com/ dangerroom/ 2009/ 08/
robot-three-way-portends-autonomous-future/ ), By David Axe wired.com, August 13, 2009.
[50] New Navy-funded Report Warns of War Robots Going "Terminator" (http:/ / www. dailytech. com/ New Navyfunded Report Warns of War
Robots Going Terminator/ article14298. htm), by Jason Mick (Blog), dailytech.com, February 17, 2009.
[51] Navy report warns of robot uprising, suggests a strong moral compass (http:/ / www. engadget. com/ 2009/ 02/ 18/
navy-report-warns-of-robot-uprising-suggests-a-strong-moral-com/ ), by Joseph L. Flatley engadget.com, Feb 18th 2009.
[52] New role for robot warriors; (http:/ / www. csmonitor. com/ layout/ set/ print/ content/ view/ print/ 279448) Drones are just part of a bid to
automate combat. Can virtual ethics make machines decisionmakers?, by Gregory M. Lamb / Staff writer, Christian Science Monitor,
February 17, 2010.
[53] Eric Drexler, Engines of Creation, ISBN 0-385-19973-2, available online (http:/ / www. foresight. org/ EOC/ )
[54] Nick Bostrum, section 4.8
[55] Isaac M. Held, Brian J. Soden, Water Vapor Feedback and Global Warming, In: Annu. Rev. Energy Environ 2000. available online (http:/ /
www. gfdl. noaa. gov/ ~gth/ netscape/ 2000/ annrev00. pdf). Page 449.
[56] Vanishing Himalayan Glaciers Threaten a Billion (http:/ / www. planetark. com/ dailynewsstory. cfm/ newsid/ 42387/ story. htm)
[57] "Himalayan glaciers melting deadline 'a mistake'" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ south_asia/ 8387737. stm). BBC. December 5, 2009. .
Retrieved 2009-12-12.
[58] Big melt threatens millions, says UN (http:/ / www. peopleandplanet. net/ pdoc. php?id=3024)
Risks to civilization, humans and planet Earth 33

[59] Ganges, Indus may not survive: climatologists (http:/ / www. rediff. com/ news/ 2007/ jul/ 24indus. htm)
[60] Glaciers melting at alarming speed (http:/ / english. peopledaily. com. cn/ 90001/ 90781/ 90879/ 6222327. html)
[61] Himalaya glaciers melt unnoticed (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ science/ nature/ 3998967. stm)
[62] Glaciers Are Melting Faster Than Expected, UN Reports (http:/ / www. sciencedaily. com/ releases/ 2008/ 03/ 080317154235. htm)
[63] Water shortage worst in decades, official says (http:/ / www. latimes. com/ news/ local/ la-me-snowpack2-2008may02,0,6563964. story),
Los Angeles Times
[64] World Running Short on Water (http:/ / www. greatlakesdirectory. org/ zarticles/ 082102_water_shortage. htm)
[65] Global food crisis looms as climate change and population growth strip fertile land (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ environment/ 2007/ aug/
31/ climatechange. food)
[66] Africa may be able to feed only 25% of its population by 2025 (http:/ / news. mongabay. com/ 2006/ 1214-unu. html)
[67] World Lines: Pathways, Pivots, and the Global Future (http:/ / www. gtinitiative. org/ documents/ PDFFINALS/ 16WorldLines. pdf). Paul
Raskin. 2006. Boston:Tellus Institute
[68] Dawn of the Cosmopolitan: The Hope of a Global Citizens Movement (http:/ / www. gtinitiative. org/ documents/ PDFFINALS/
15Movements. pdf) Orion Kriegman. 2006. Boston:Tellus Institute
[69] http:/ / www. businessinsider. com/ leaked-german-military-report-warns-of-apocalyptic-peak-oil-scenarios-2010-9
[70] http:/ / www. hubbertpeak. com/ hubbert/ 1956/ 1956. pdf
[71] http:/ / watd. wuthering-heights. co. uk/ mainpages/ agriculture. html
[72] Researchers sound the alarm: the multidrug resistance of the plague bacillus could spread (http:/ / www. pasteur. fr/ actu/ presse/ press/
07pesteTIGR_E. htm)
[73] Gulf Stream shutdown (http:/ / www. gulfstreamshutdown. com/ )
[74] 45% chance Gulf Stream current will collapse by 2100 finds research (http:/ / news. mongabay. com/ 2005/ 1207-uiuc. html)
[75] Phillip Longman "The Global Baby Bust" (http:/ / www. foreignaffairs. org/ 20040501faessay83307/ phillip-longman/ the-global-baby-bust.
html) in Foreign Affairs magazine.
[76] The global grain bubble (http:/ / www. csmonitor. com/ 2008/ 0118/ p08s01-comv. html)
[77] New York Times (2007 September) At Tyson and Kraft, Grain Costs Limit Profit (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2007/ 09/ 06/ business/
06tyson. html?n=Top/ Reference/ Times Topics/ Subjects/ W/ Wheat)
[78] Forget oil, the new global crisis is food (http:/ / www. financialpost. com/ story. html?id=213343)
[79] Riots and hunger feared as demand for grain sends food costs soaring (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ world/ 2007/ dec/ 04/ china. business)
[80] Already we have riots, hoarding, panic: the sign of things to come? (http:/ / www. timesonline. co. uk/ tol/ news/ environment/
article3500975. ece)
[81] Feed the world? We are fighting a losing battle, UN admits (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ environment/ 2008/ feb/ 26/ food. unitednations)
[82] Millions face famine as crop disease rages (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ science/ 2007/ apr/ 22/ food. foodanddrink)
[83] "Billions at risk from wheat super-blight" (http:/ / environment. newscientist. com/ channel/ earth/ mg19425983.
700-billions-at-risk-from-wheat-superblight. html). New Scientist Magazine (2598): 6–7. 2007-04-03. . Retrieved 2007-04-19.
[84] Leonard, K.J. Black stem rust biology and threat to wheat growers (http:/ / www. ars. usda. gov/ Main/ docs. htm?docid=10755), USDA
ARS
[85] New Scientist, 28 August 1999: "A Black Hole Ate My Planet" (http:/ / www. kressworks. com/ Science/ A_black_hole_ate_my_planet.
htm)
[86] http:/ / www. aps. org/ units/ dpf/ governance/ reports/ upload/ lhc_saftey_statement. pdf
[87] "Safety at the LHC" (http:/ / public. web. cern. ch/ Public/ en/ LHC/ Safety-en. html). .
[88] J. Blaizot et al., "Study of Potentially Dangerous Events During Heavy-Ion Collisions at the LHC", CERN library record (http:/ / cdsweb.
cern. ch/ search?sysno=002372601cer) CERN Yellow Reports Server (PDF) (http:/ / doc. cern. ch/ yellowrep/ 2003/ 2003-001/ p1. pdf)
[89] "Isaac Newton, the Apocalypse and 2060 A.D." (http:/ / www. isaac-newton. org/ newton_2060. htm), by Stephen D. Snobelen, University
of King’s College, Halifax
[90] "Apocalypse 2012 - Tall tales that the End of Days is coming in 2012." (http:/ / skeptoid. com/ episodes/ 4093) by Brian Dunning

References
• Corey S. Powell (2000). "Twenty ways the world could end suddenly" (http://discovermagazine.com/2000/oct/
featworld), Discover Magazine
• Martin Rees (2004). OUR FINAL HOUR: A Scientist's warning: How Terror, Error, and Environmental Disaster
Threaten Humankind's Future in This Century — On Earth and Beyond. ISBN 0-465-06863-4
• Jean-Francois Rischard (2003). [High Noon 20 Global Problems, 20 Years to Solve Them (http://www.questia.
com/library/book/). ISBN 0-465-07010-8
• Edward O. Wilson (2003). The Future of Life. ISBN 0-679-76811-4
Risks to civilization, humans and planet Earth 34

Further reading
• Derrick Jensen (2006) Endgame. ISBN 1-58322-730-X
• Jared Diamond (2005). Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed. ISBN 0-670-03337-5
• John Leslie (1996). The End of the World. ISBN 0-415-14043-9

External links
• Last Days On Earth (http://abcnews.go.com/2020/story?id=2319986) (TV documentary) ABC News 2-hour
Special Edition of 20/20 on 7 real end-of-the-world scenarios (Wed. Aug 30 2006)
• "What a way to go" (http://www.guardian.co.uk/life/feature/story/0,13026,1458536,00.html) from The
Guardian. Ten scientists name the biggest danger to Earth and assesses the chances of it happening. April 14,
2005.
• "Confronting the New Misanthropy" (http://www.frankfuredi.com/articles/misanthropy-20060418.shtml), by
Frank Furedi in Spiked, April 18, 2006
• Ted.com (video) - Stephen Petranek: 10 ways the world could end (http://www.ted.com/index.php/talks/
view/id/167)

Nuclear holocaust
Nuclear holocaust refers to the possibility of nearly complete
annihilation of human civilization by nuclear warfare. Under such a
scenario, all or most of the Earth is made uninhabitable by nuclear
weapons in future world wars.
A common definition of the word "holocaust": "great destruction
resulting in the extensive loss of life, especially by fire."[1] The word is
derived from the Greek term "holokaustos" meaning "completely
burnt." Possibly the first printed use of the word "holocaust" to Mushroom cloud from the explosion of Castle
Romeo.
describe an imagined nuclear destruction is Reginald Glossop's 1926:
"Moscow ... beneath them ... a crash like a crack of Doom! The echoes
of this Holocaust rumbled and rolled ... a distinct smell of sulphur ... atomic destruction."[2] In the 1960s the
principal referent of the unmodified "holocaust" was nuclear destruction.[3] Since the mid 1970s the capitalized term
"Holocaust" has been closely associated with the Nazi mass slaughter of Jews (see The Holocaust) and "holocaust"
in its nuclear destruction sense is almost always preceded by "atomic" or "nuclear".[4]

Nuclear physicists and authors have speculated that nuclear holocaust could result in an end to human life, or at least
to modern civilization on Earth due to the immediate effects of nuclear fallout, the loss of much modern technology
due to electromagnetic pulses, or nuclear winter and resulting extinctions.

Nuclear holocaust in popular culture


The theme is widely used in dystopian fiction books, films, and video games.
One of the first depictions of a nuclears holocaust is included in Olaf Stapledon's celebrated Last and First Men
(1930). Unlike the post-1945 treatment of the subject, where the disaster is almost invariably the outcome of a war
between states, Stapeldon depicts this holocaust as the result of class war between an arrogant ruling class and
downtrodden miners in a future civilization. Abuse of the newly-discovered Atomic power source leads to what
would now be called a chain reaction engulfing the entire world, so that "of the two hundred million members of the
human race, all were burnt or roasted or suffocated - all but thirty-five, who happened to be in the neighborhood of
Nuclear holocaust 35

the North Pole" (and from whom humanity is eventually regenerated for many more millions of years of existence).
The book By the Waters of Babylon, written in 1937, also is set in a post-apocalyptic world where a sort of nuclear
or atomic disaster is alluded to.
Throughout the Cold War, nuclear holocaust was something many people in the developed world were afraid of
because of a perceived likelihood of occurrence. The topic became somewhat less common after the collapse of the
Soviet Union, however, as many of the works created during the Cold War were primarily just commentary on that
conflict. Asian work that deals with the theme and western work influenced by it often borrow much imagery from
American atomic bombings of the Japanese cities of Nagasaki and Hiroshima during World War II in 1945. To this
date, those bombings and the failure of the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant in 1986 remain the only nuclear disasters
from which authors and screenwriters can draw real world experience with the aftermath of such instances.
Authors, directors, and game designers have approached the topic from a variety of angles and in every major media.
Novels such as the Hugo Award-winning A Canticle for Leibowitz tell of a reemerging civilization several hundred
years after the bombs fell, likening the civilization of the North American survivors to that of the Dark Ages in
Europe. In a similar vein, the book The City of Ember ties a nuclear holocaust in with the tale of a new civilization's
rise. In some, the holocaust seems complete. Nevil Shute's 1957 novel On the Beach, for instance, chronicles the
extinction of the human race by radioactive fallout in the months following a massive nuclear war; "There Will
Come Soft Rains", a short story by Ray Bradbury, depicts a world of alarm clocks and robotic vacuum cleaners
operating endlessly in the absence of their owners. The notable 1963 French art house film, La jetée, is set in the
post-World War III Parisian underground and the experiments that try to free humanity from its nuclear wasteland.
Planet of the Apes's film franchise alternates between a post-, pre- and, in its fifth entry, post-nuclear war world. The
1979 TV series Buck Rogers in the 25th Century showed the mutant-inhabited crumbling ruins of Chicago (in stark
contrast to the gleaming metropolis of New Chicago on the horizon) five centuries after a professed 1987 nuclear
exchange that had devastated the world and impeded civilization for centuries; (it was later mentioned that only the
Egyptian pyramids and Mount Rushmore had survived this nuclear holocaust unscathed.) The early 1980s also
featured a small wave of made for television movies, such as Threads in Britain or The Day After and Testament in
the United States, dramatizing the devastating effects on civilization of a world nuclear war. The Terminator
franchise is oriented around a nuclear holocaust (called "Judgement Day") triggered by a rogue artificial intelligence.
Although not set on Earth, the reimagined Battlestar Galactica TV series depicts a human civilization inhabiting a
system of twelve planets, where a race of robots known as Cylons, created by humans, rebel and carry out the
Destruction of the Twelve Colonies by a nuclear holocaust. In other works, such as the Fallout series of video
games, in which, in the year 2077, the world was wiped clean in an atomic holocaust. The nuclear holocaust is used
as a backdrop to a dystopian tale of mutant monsters and beasts. In many of these works, a partly forgotten nuclear
holocaust provides a backdrop to a new creation story.

References
[1] American Heritage Dictionary definition of "holocaust" (http:/ / www. thefreedictionary. com/ holocaust)
[2] Reginald Glossop, The Orphan of Space (London: G. MacDonald, 1926) -- p 303 for the words quoted prior to "atomic destruction"; "atomic
destruction" is on p. 306. The atomic weapon of the book is planted in the office of the Soviet dictator who, with German help and Chinese
mercenaries, is preparing the takeover of Western Europe -- a strangely prescient book, biological warfare, cellular phones, a version of the
Gaia hypothesis, and an atomic weapon.
[3] See in http:/ / www. berkeleyinternet. com/ holocaust/ the paragraph preceding footnote 38
[4] President Bush in August 2007: “Iran’s pursuit of technology that could lead to nuclear weapons threatens to put a region already known for
instability and violence under the shadow of a nuclear holocaust." http:/ / www. timesonline. co. uk/ tol/ news/ world/ us_and_americas/
article2343791. ece -- The headline of the article: Bush ... Iran bomb ... warning of 'holocaust'. For the 1970s increasing employment of
"Holocaust" in the sense of mass murder of Jews see http:/ / www. berkeleyinternet. com/ holocaust/ #Post1965
Nuclear holocaust 36

External links
• Nuclear Holocausts: Atomic War in Fiction, By Paul Brians, Professor of English, Washington State University,
Pullman, Washington (http://www.wsu.edu/~brians/nuclear/index.htm)

Apocalypse
An Apocalypse (Greek: ἀποκάλυψις apokálypsis; "lifting of the veil"
or "revelation") is a disclosure of something hidden from the majority
of mankind in an era dominated by falsehood and misconception, i.e.
the veil to be lifted.
The term also can refer to the eschatological final battle, the
Armageddon, and the idea of an end of the world. In Christianity The
Apocalypse of John (Greek Ἀποκάλυψις Ἰωάννου) is the Book of
Revelation, the last book of the Christian Bible.

Characteristic feature

Dreams or visions
The disclosure of future events is made through a dream, as was the
experience for the prophet Daniel,[1] which is recorded in the book
Apocalypse depicted in Christian Orthodox
with his name, or a vision as was recorded by John in the Book of traditional fresco scenes in Osogovo Monastery,
Revelation. Moreover, the manner of the revelation and the experience Republic of Macedonia
of the one who received it are generally prominent.
The primary example of apocalyptic literature in the Bible is the book
of Daniel. After a long period of fasting,[2] Daniel is standing by a river
when a heavenly being appears to him, and the revelation follows
(Daniel 10:2ff). John, in the New Testament Revelation (1:9ff), has a
like experience, told in very similar words. Compare also the first
chapter of the Greek Apocalypse of Baruch; and the Syriac Apocalypse
of Baruch, vi.1ff, xiii.1ff, lv.1-3. Or, as the prophet lies upon his bed,
distressed for the future of his people, he falls into a sort of trance, and
in "the visions of his head" is shown the future. This is the case in
Daniel 7:1ff; 2 Esdras 3:1-3; and in the Book of Enoch, i.2 and
following. As to the description of the effect of the vision upon the
seer, see Daniel 8:27; Enoch, lx.3; 2 Esdras 5:14

Angels
The introduction of Angels as the bearers of the revelationary is a
standing feature. At least four types or ranks of angels are mentioned in
biblical scripture: the Archangels, Angels, Cherubim[3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] St. John at Patmos: the receiving of an
[9]
and the Seraphim.[10] God may give instructions through the apocalyptic vision
Apocalypse 37

medium of these heavenly messengers, and who act as the seer's guide. God may also personally give a revelation, as
is shown in the Book of Revelation through the person of Jesus Christ. The Book of Genesis speaks of the "Angel"
bringing forth the apocalypse.

Future
Apocalyptic visions through the writing of these scriptures is how the prophets revealed God's justice as taking place
in the future. This genre has a distinctly religious aim, intended to show God's way of dealing with humankind, and
God's ultimate purposes. The writers present, sometimes very vividly, a picture of coming events, especially those
connected with the end of the present age. In certain of these writings the subject-matter is vaguely described as "that
which shall come to pass in the latter days" (Daniel 2:28;[11] compare verse 29); similarly Daniel 10:14, "to make
thee understand what shall befall thy people in the later days";[12] compare Enoch, i.1, 2; x.2ff. So, too, in Revelation
1:1 (compare the Septuagint translation of Daniel 2:28ff), "Revelation ... that which must shortly come to pass."
Future history is not included in the vision, traditionally said to give the proper historical setting to the prediction, as
the panorama of successive events passes over imperceptibly from the known to the unknown. Thus, in the eleventh
chapter of Daniel, the detailed history of the Greek empire in the East, from the conquest of Alexander down to the
latter part of the reign of Antiochus Epiphanes (verses 3-39, all presented in the form of a prediction), is continued,
without any break, in a scarcely less vivid description (verses 40-45) of events which had not yet taken place, but
were expected by the writer: the wars which should result in the death of Antiochus and the fall of his kingdom.
Modern scholars therefore date the composition of the book to about 167 BCE, when Antiochus Epiphanes sacked
Jerusalem and desecrated the Holy Places. This serves as the introduction to the eschatological predictions in the
twelfth chapter.
Similarly, in the dream recounted in 2 Esdras 11 and 12, the eagle, representing the Roman Empire, is followed by
the lion, which is the promised Messiah, who is to deliver the chosen people and establish an everlasting kingdom.
The transition from history to prediction is seen in xii.28, where the expected end of Domitian's reign – and with it
the end of the world – is foretold. Still another example of the same kind is Sibyl lines, iii.608-623. Compare also
Assumptio Mosis, vii-ix. In nearly all the writings which are properly classed as apocalyptic the eschatological
element is prominent. The growth of speculation regarding the age to come and the hope for the chosen people more
than anything else occasioned the rise and influenced the development of apocalyptic literature.

Mystical symbolism
Mystical symbolism is frequent characteristic of apocalyptic writing. This feature is illustrated in the instances where
gematria is employed either for the sake of obscuring the writer's meaning, or enhancing its meaning further as a
number of ancient cultures used letters also as numbers (i.e., the Romans with their use of 'roman numerals'). Thus,
the mysterious name "Taxo," "Assumptio Mosis", ix. 1; the "number of the beast" 666, of Revelation 13:18;[13] the
number 888 ('Iησōῦς), Sibyllines, i.326-330.
Similar to this discussion is the frequent prophecy of the length of time through which the events predicted must be
fulfilled. Thus, the "time, times, and a half," Daniel 12:7[14] which has generally been agreed to be 3½ years in
length by dispensationalists; the "fifty-eight times" of Enoch, xc.5, "Assumptio Mosis", x.11; the announcement of a
certain number of "weeks" or days, which starting point in Daniel 9:24, 25 is the "the going forth of the
commandment to restore and to build Jerusalem unto the Messiah the Prince shall be seven weeks",[15] a mention of
1290 days after the covenant/sacrifice is broken (Daniel 12:11),[16] 12; Enoch xciii.3-10; 2 Esdras 14:11, 12;
Apocalypse of Baruch xxvi-xxviii; Revelation 11:3, which mentions "two witnesses" with supernatural power,[17]
12:6;[18] compare Assumptio Mosis, vii.1. Symbolic language is also used to describe persons, things, or events; thus,
the "horns" of Daniel 7 and 8;[19] Revelation 17[20] and following; the "heads" and "wings" of 2 Esdras xi and
following; the seven seals of Revelation 6;[21] trumpets, Revelation 8;[22] "vials of the wrath of God" or "bowl..."
judgments, Revelation 16;[23] the dragon, Revelation 12:3-17,[24] Revelation 20:1-3;[25] the eagle, Assumptio Mosis,
Apocalypse 38

x.8; and so on.


As examples of more elaborate prophecies and allegories, aside from those in Daniel Chapters 7 and 8; and 2 Esdras
Chapters 11 and 12, already referred to, may be mentioned: the vision of the bulls and the sheep, Enoch lxxxv and
following; the forest, the vine, the fountain, and the cedar, Apocalypse of Baruch xxxvi and following; the bright and
the black waters, ibid. liii and following; the willow and its branches, Hermas, "Similitudines," viii.

End of the age


In John's apocalypse, the Book of Revelation, he refers to the
"unveiling" or "revelation" of Jesus Christ as Messiah. This term has
come to mean, in common usage, the end of the world.
The simple pictures of the end of the age in the books of the Old
Testament were images of the judgment of the wicked, as well as the
resurrection and glorification of those who were given righteousness
before God. The dead are seen in the book of Job and in some of the
Psalms as being in Sheol, awaiting the final judgment. The wicked will
then be consigned to eternal torment in the fires of Gehinnom, or the
Lake of Fire mentioned in Revelation.[23] [26] [27] [28] [29]

The New Testament letters written by the Apostle Paul expand on this
theme of the judgment of the wicked, and the glorification of those Russian Orthodox icon Apocalypse
who belong to Christ or Messiah. In his letters to the Corinthians and
the Thessalonians Paul expounds further on the destiny of the righteous. He speaks of the simultaneous resurrection
and rapture of those who are in Christ, (or Messiah).
Christianity had a Millennial expectation for glorification of the righteous from the time it emerged from Judaism
and spread out into the world in the first century. The poetic and prophetic literature of the Hebrew Bible,
particularly in Isaiah, were rich in Millennial imagery. The New Testament Congregation after Pentecost carried on
with this theme. During his imprisonment by the Romans on the Island of Patmos, John described the visions he
experienced, writing the Book of Revelation. Revelation chapter 20 contains several reference to a thousand year
reign of Christ/Messiah upon this earth .
Modern Christian movements in the 18th and 19th Centuries were characterized by a rise of Millennialism. Christian
Apocalyptic eschatology was a continuation of the same two themes referred to throughout all of scripture as "this
age" and "the age to come". Evangelicals have been in the forefront popularizing the biblical prophecy of a major
confrontation between good and evil at the end of this age, a coming Millennium to follow, and a final confrontation
whereby the wicked are judged, the righteous are rewarded and the beginning of Eternity is viewed.
Most evangelicals have been taught a form of Millennialism known as Dispensationalism, which arose in the 19th
century. Dispensationalism sees separate destinies for the Christian Church and Israel. Its concept of a special
Pre-Tribulation Rapture of the Church has become extremely popular. This is the central thesis of the Left Behind
books and films. Dispensationalist interpretations find in biblical prophecy predictions of future events: the various
periods of the church, for example, shown through the letters to the seven churches; the throne of God in Heaven and
his Glory; specific judgments that will occur on the earth; the final form of gentile power; God' re-dealing with the
nation Israel[30] based upon covenants mentioned in the Old Testament; the second coming proper; a one-thousand
year reign of Messiah; a last test of Mankind's sinful nature under ideal conditions by the loosing of Satan, with a
judgment of fire coming down from Heaven that follows; the Great White Throne Judgment, and the destruction of
the current heavens and the earth, to be recreated as a "New Heaven and New Earth"[31] [32] [33] ushering in the
beginning of Eternity. A differing interpretation is found in the Post Tribulation Rapture.
Apocalypse 39

One of the most complete exegetical works on the meaning of the Book of Revelation was written by Emanuel
Swedenborg called the Apocalypse Revealed, first published in two volumes in Amsterdam in 1766. A more current
book, utilizing the literal method of interpretation, is "The Revelation Record" by Henry M. Morris.[34]

References
[1] "Daniel 1 (King James Version)" (http:/ / www. biblegateway. com/ passage/ ?book_id=34& chapter=1& version=9). BibleGateway.com. .
Retrieved 2007-11-15.
[2] "Daniel 10:1-4 (King James Version)" (http:/ / www. biblegateway. com/ passage/ ?search=Daniel 10:1-4;& version=9;). BibleGateway.com.
. Retrieved 2007-11-15.
[3] "Genesis 3:24 (King James Version)" (http:/ / www. biblegateway. com/ passage/ ?book_id=1& chapter=3& verse=24& version=9&
context=verse). BibleGateway.com. . Retrieved 2007-11-15.
[4] "2 Kings 19:15 (King James Version)" (http:/ / www. biblegateway. com/ passage/ ?book_id=12& chapter=19& verse=15& version=9&
context=verse). BibleGateway.com. . Retrieved 2007-11-15.
[5] "Psalm 80:1 (King James Version)" (http:/ / www. biblegateway. com/ passage/ ?book_id=23& chapter=80& verse=1& version=9&
context=verse). BibleGateway.com. . Retrieved 2007-11-15.
[6] "Psalm 99:1 (King James Version)" (http:/ / www. biblegateway. com/ passage/ ?book_id=23& chapter=99& verse=1& version=9&
context=verse). BibleGateway.com. . Retrieved 2007-11-15.
[7] "Isaiah 37:16 (King James Version)" (http:/ / www. bversion=9& context=verse). BibleGateway.com. . Retrieved 2007-11-15.
[8] "Ezekiel 10 (King James Version)" (http:/ / www. biblegateway. com/ pabook_id=33& chapter=11& verse=22& version=9& context=verse).
BibleGateway.com. . Retrieved 2007-11-15.
[9] "Hebrews 9:1-6 (King James Version)" (http:/ / www. biblegateway. com/ passage/ ?search=Hebrews 9:1-6;& version=9;).
BibleGateway.com. . Retrieved 2007-11-15.
[10] "Isaiah 6:1-7 (King James Version)" (http:/ / www. biblegateway. com/ passage/ ?search=Isaiah 6:1-7;& version=9;). BibleGateway.com. .
Retrieved 2007-11-15.
[11] "Daniel 2:28 (King James Version)" (http:/ / www. biblegateway. com/ passage/ ?search=Daniel 2:28;& version=9;). BibleGateway.com. .
Retrieved 2007-11-15.
[12] "Daniel 10:14 (King James Version)" (http:/ / www. biblegateway. com/ passage/ ?search=Daniel 10:14;& version=9;). BibleGateway.com.
. Retrieved 2007-11-15.
[13] "Revelation 13:16-18 (King James Version)- 2012" (http:/ / www. biblegateway. com/ passage/ ?search=Revelation 13:16-18;& version=9;).
BibleGateway.com. . Retrieved 2007-11-21.
[14] "Daniel 12:7 (King James Version)" (http:/ / www. biblegateway. com/ passage/ ?search=Daniel 12:7;& version=9;). BibleGateway.com. .
Retrieved 2007-11-21.
[15] "Daniel 9:24-25 (King James Version)" (http:/ / www. biblegateway. com/ passage/ ?search=Daniel 9:24-25;& version=9;).
BibleGateway.com. . Retrieved 2007-11-21.
[16] "Daniel 12:11 (King James Version)" (http:/ / www. biblegateway. com/ passage/ ?search=Daniel 12:11;& version=9;). BibleGateway.com.
. Retrieved 2007-11-21.
[17] "Revelation 11:3 (King James Version)" (http:/ / www. biblegateway. com/ passage/ ?search=Revelation 11:3;& version=9;).
BibleGateway.com. . Retrieved 2007-11-21.
[18] "Revelation 12:6 (King James Version)" (http:/ / www. biblegateway. com/ passage/ ?search=Revelation 12:6;& version=9;).
BibleGateway.com. . Retrieved 2007-11-21.
[19] "Daniel 7; Daniel 8 (King James Version)" (http:/ / www. biblegateway. com/ passage/ ?search=Daniel 7, 8;& version=9;).
BibleGateway.com. . Retrieved 2007-11-21.
[20] "Revelation 17 (King James Version)" (http:/ / www. biblegateway. com/ passage/ ?search=Revelation 17;& version=9;).
BibleGateway.com. . Retrieved 2007-11-21.
[21] "Revelation 6 (King James Version)" (http:/ / www. biblegateway. com/ passage/ ?search=Revelation 6;& version=9;). BibleGateway.com. .
Retrieved 2007-11-21.
[22] "Revelation 8 (King James Version)" (http:/ / www. biblegateway. com/ passage/ ?search=Revelation 8;& version=9;). BibleGateway.com. .
Retrieved 2007-11-21.
[23] "Revelation 16 (King James Version)" (http:/ / www. biblegateway. com/ passage/ ?search=Revelation 16;& version=9;).
BibleGateway.com. . Retrieved 2007-11-21.
[24] "Revelation 12:3-17 (King James Version)" (http:/ / www. biblegateway. com/ passage/ ?search=Revelation 12:3-17;& version=9;).
BibleGateway.com. . Retrieved 2007-11-21.
[25] "Revelation 20:1-3 (King James Version)" (http:/ / www. biblegateway. com/ passage/ ?search=Revelation 20:1-3;& version=9;).
BibleGateway.com. . Retrieved 2007-11-21.
[26] "Revelation 19:20 (King James Version)" (http:/ / www. biblegateway. com/ passage/ ?search=Revelation 19:20;& version=9;).
BibleGateway.com. . Retrieved 2007-11-21.
Apocalypse 40

[27] "Revelation 20:10 (King James Version)" (http:/ / www. biblegateway. com/ passage/ ?book_id=73& chapter=20& verse=10& version=9&
context=verse). BibleGateway.com. . Retrieved 2007-11-21.
[28] "Revelation 20:14-15 (King James Version)" (http:/ / www. biblegateway. com/ passage/ ?search=Revelation 20:14-15;& version=9;).
BibleGateway.com. . Retrieved 2007-11-21.
[29] "Revelation 21:8 (King James Version)" (http:/ / www. biblegateway. com/ passage/ ?search=Revelation 21:8;& version=9;).
BibleGateway.com. . Retrieved 2007-11-21.
[30] "Isaiah 66:22 (King James Version)" (http:/ / www. biblegateway. com/ passage/ ?book_id=29& chapter=66& verse=22& version=9&
context=verse). BibleGateway. . Retrieved 2007-11-15.
[31] "Isaiah 65:17 (King James Version)" (http:/ / www. biblegateway. com/ passage/ ?book_id=29& chapter=65& verse=17& version=9&
context=verse). BibleGateway. . Retrieved 2007-11-15.
[32] "2 Peter 3:13 (King James Version)" (http:/ / www. biblegateway. com/ passage/ ?book_id=68& chapter=3& verse=13& version=9&
context=verse). BibleGateway. . Retrieved 2007-11-15.
[33] "Revelation 21:1 (King James Version)" (http:/ / www. biblegateway. com/ passage/ ?book_id=73& chapter=21& verse=1& version=9&
context=verse). BibleGateway. . Retrieved 2007-11-15.
[34] Henry M. Morris. The Revelation Record. Tyndale House Inc. and Creation Life Publishers.

External links
• It's the End of the World: 8 Potential Armageddons (http://www.foxnews.com/scitech/2010/09/29/
end-of-the-world-potential-armageddon/)
•  Chisholm, Hugh, ed (1911). "Apocalypse". Encyclopædia Britannica (Eleventh ed.). Cambridge University
Press.   This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed (1911).
Encyclopædia Britannica (Eleventh ed.). Cambridge University Press.

Apocalypticism
Apocalypticism is the religious belief that there will be an
apocalypse, a term which originally referred to a revelation of
God's will, but now usually refers to belief that the world will
come to an end time very soon, even within one's own lifetime.
This belief is usually accompanied by the idea that civilization, as
we know it, will soon come to a tumultuous end with some sort of
catastrophic global event such as war. Apocalypticism is often
conjoined with esoteric knowledge that will likely be revealed in a
major confrontation between good and evil forces, destined to
change the course of history. Apocalypses can be viewed as good,
evil, ambiguous or neutral, depending on the particular religion or
belief system promoting them. They can appear as a personal or
group tendency, an outlook or a perceptual frame of reference, or
merely as expressions in a speaker's rhetorical style.

Jewish apocalypticism
Jewish apocalypticism holds a doctrine that there are two eras of Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse, by Albrecht Dürer.
history, the present era which is ruled over by evil, and a coming
era to be ruled over by God. At the time of the coming era, there will be a messiah which will deliver the faithful into
the new era. Due to incidents arising very early on in Jewish history, predictions about the time of the coming of the
Jewish messiah was highly discouraged. This was so as to prevent people from losing faith when the predictions did
Apocalypticism 41

not come true during the lifespan of a believer.


Moses of Crete, a rabbi in the 5th century claimed to be the Jewish messiah and promised to lead the people, like the
ancient Moses, through a parted sea back to Palestine. His followers left their possessions and waited for the
promised day, when at his command many cast themselves into the sea, some finding death, others being rescued by
sailors.[1]

Christian apocalypticism
Christian apocalypticism is based on Jewish apocalypticism, and therefore holds consistent with the doctrine of two
eras. John the Baptist, Jesus Christ, and the Apostles were all apocalypticists who preached to their followers that the
world would end within their own lifetimes. The apocalyptic preaching of John the Baptist and the Apostles is well
known and accepted as historical by religious and secular scholars due to extensive extra-biblical historical accounts
of their lives. However, the apocalyptic message of Jesus as expressed in the synoptic gospels is much less well
known. Jesus' apocalyptic teachings are usually not emphasized in Christian religious education. However, some
secular scholars believe that Jesus' apocalyptic teachings were the central message Jesus intended to impart, more
central even than his messianism.[2]
Various Christian eschatological systems have developed, providing different frameworks for understanding the
timing and nature of apocalyptic predictions. Some like dispensational premillennialism tend more toward an
apocalyptic vision, while others like postmillennialism and amillennialism, while teaching that the end of the world
could come at any moment, tend to focus on the present life and contend that one should not attempt to predict when
the end should come, though there have been exceptions such as postmillennialist Jonathan Edwards, who attempted
to calculate the precise timing of the end times.

Jesus' apocalypticism
:
The gospels portray Jesus as an apocalyptic prophet, described by himself and by others as the Son of Man –
translated as the Son of Humanity – and hailing the restoration of Israel.[3] Jesus himself, as the Son of God, a
description also used by himself and others for him, was to rule this kingdom as lord of the Twelve Apostles, the
judges of the twelve tribes.[4]
Albert Schweitzer emphasized that Jesus was an apocalyptic prophet, preparing his fellow Jews for the imminent end
of the world. In fact, Schweitzer saw Jesus as a failed, would-be Messiah whose ethic was suitable only for the short
interim before the apocalypse. Many historians concur that Jesus was an apocalyptic prophet, most notably Paula
Fredriksen, Bart Ehrman, and John P. Meier. E. P. Sanders portrays Jesus as expecting to assume the "viceroy"
position in God's kingdom, above the Twelve Disciples, who would judge the twelve tribes, but below God.[4] He
concludes, however, that Jesus seems to have rejected the title Messiah, and he contends that the evidence is
uncertain to whether Jesus meant himself when he referred to the Son of Man coming on the clouds as a divine judge
(see also Daniel's Vision of Chapter 7), and further states that biblical references to the Son of Man as a suffering
figure are not genuine.[4]
However, the prevailing popular exegesis is not that Jesus was a failed would-be Messiah, nor an apocalypicist. One
interpretation is that he didn't expect a world-ending apocalypse within his own life time, but rather a "personal
apocalypse", i.e., the end of his own life. Although there is little, if any, Biblical corroboration of the 'personal
apocalypse' interpretation. The 'personal apocalypse' theory caveat could be interpreted as a rebuttal in that Jesus
never predicted an actual apocalypse at all. Jesus' cryptic style of presentation called for the listener to interpret the
words he spoke in any way they desired. 'Personal apocalypse' could refer to the metaphorical apocalypse of the
Book of Revelation in that the battle between good and evil wages daily within the hearts and souls of those who
believe and will only end the day that individual's life comes to an end. Most Christian believers and theologians,
Apocalypticism 42

however, interpret the Book of Revelation, which was written by John of Patmos and not Jesus Christ himself, to
mean an actual, literal apocalypse with very little backing to support that claim other than Bibical references.
One account supporting the interpretation of Jesus' apocalypticism is at the crucifixion. After there is no apocalypse
upon his crucifixion as he believed there would be, he asks on the Cross, "Why hast thou forsaken me?" The
disciples then have to change their interpretation of Jesus' message as portrayed in Acts of the Apostles[2]
The preaching of John was, "Repent, for the kingdom of heaven is at hand" (Mat.  3:2), and Jesus also taught this
same message (Mat  4:17; Mark  1:15). Additionally, Jesus spoke of the signs of "the close of the age" in the Olivet
Discourse in Mat  24 (and parallels), near the end of which he said, "[T]his generation will not pass away until all
these things take place" (v. 34). Interpreters have understood this phrase in a variety of ways, some saying that most
of what he described was in fact fulfilled in the destruction of the Temple in the Roman Siege of Jerusalem (see
Preterism), and some that "generation" should be understood instead to mean "race" (see NIV marginal note on
Mat  24:34) among other explanations.

Year 1000
There are a few recorded instances of apocalypticism leading up to the year 1000. However they mostly rely on one
source, Rodulfus Glaber.

Domesday Book
When William the Conqueror, initiated a census of his conquered land, the "Domesday Book", as it was called, was
interpreted by the many of the English as being the "Book of Life" written of in Revelation. The belief was that when
the book was completed, the end of the world would come.

Fifth Monarchy Men


The Fifth Monarchy Men were active from 1649 to 1661 during the Interregnum, following the English Civil Wars
of the 17th century. They took their name from a belief in a world-ruling kingdom to be established by a returning
Jesus in which prominently figures the year 1666 and its numerical relationship to a passage in the Biblical Book of
Revelation indicating the end of earthly rule by carnal human beings.
Around 1649, there was great social unrest in England and many people turned to Oliver Cromwell as England's new
leader. The Parliamentary victors of the First English Civil War failed to negotiate a constitutional settlement with
the defeated King Charles I. Members of Parliament and the Grandees in the New Model Army, when faced with
Charles's perceived duplicity, reluctantly tried and executed him.
Apocalypticism 43

Isaac Newton and the end of the world in 2060


Isaac Newton proposed that the world would not end until the year 2060, based largely on his own study and
deciphering of Bible codes.

Millerites and Seventh-day Adventists


The Millerites were the followers of the teachings of William Miller
who, in 1833, first shared publicly his belief in the coming Second
Advent of Jesus Christ in roughly the year 1843.
The ideological descendants of the Millerites are the Seventh-day
Adventists, who are distinguished among Christian denominations for
their emphasis on the imminent second coming of Jesus Christ.

Apocalypticism in Islam
Prophet Muhammad prophesied of an Islamic leader,please see Islamic
eschatology for further details.

Apocalypticism in contemporary culture


Apocalypticism is a frequent theme of literature, film and television.

Y2K William Miller

Apocalypticism was especially evident with the approach of the


millennial year 2000, in which some predicted a massive computer crash which would throw global commerce and
financial systems into chaos. These predictions did not come true, although a few remarkable isolated events did
occur due to the glitches in computer coding on which these predictions focused.[5]

Mayan calendar 2012


The 2012 doomsday prediction is a present-day cultural meme proposing that cataclysmic and apocalyptic events
will occur on December 21, 2012. This idea has been disseminated by numerous books, Internet sites and by TV
documentaries with increasing frequency since the late 1990s. The forecast is based primarily on what is claimed to
be the end-date of the Mesoamerican Long Count calendar, which is presented as lasting 5,125 years and as
terminating on December 21 or 23, 2012, along with interpretations of assorted legends, scriptures, numerological
constructions and prophecies.

General
Apocalypticism 44

• The book "1975 in Prophecy!" • Eschatology • Qiyamah


• 2012 phenomenon • Great Apostasy • Rapture
• 3rd millennium • Great Disappointment • Risks to civilization, humans and planet Earth
• Amillennialism • Islamic eschatology • Satan
• Antichrist • Jerusalem syndrome • Second Coming
• Apocalypse of Pseudo-Methodius • Jewish eschatology • Singularitarianism
• Apocalyptic literature • Kali Yug • Summary of Christian eschatological differences
• Armageddon • Messiah • The Bible Code by Michael Drosnin
• Bible code • Messianism • The Celestine Prophecy by James Redfield
• Book of Revelation • Millenarianism • Tribulation
• Buddhist eschatology • Millennialism • Ultimate fate of the Universe
• Center for Millennial Studies • Number of the Beast • Unfulfilled religious predictions
• Christian eschatology • Postmillennialism • Utopia
• Dajjal • Premillennialism • Utopianism
• Dispensationalism • Preterism

Apocalyptic fiction

Apocalyptic films
See List of apocalyptic films

Christian premillennial apocalyptic writers


• Tim LaHaye
• Hal Lindsey
• James Redfield

Apocalyptic songs
See: List of apocalyptic songs

Apocalyptic movements
• Essenes
• Millerites
• Seventh-day Adventist Church
• The Brethren (Jim Roberts group) (also known as The Body of Christ)

Millenarian cults
• Aum Shinrikyo
• Heaven's Gate
• Order of the Solar Temple
• Peoples Temple
Apocalypticism 45

Apocalyptic video games


• Fallout series
• S.T.A.L.K.E.R. series
• Left 4 Dead series
• F.E.A.R. series
• Panzer Dragoon series
• Rage
• Killzone series
• Fallen Earth MMORPG

Further reading (chronological)


• Boyer, Paul S. (1992). When Time Shall Be No More: Prophecy Belief in Modern American Culture. Cambridge,
Mass.: Belknap/Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-95128-X
• Cohn, Norman. (1993). Cosmos, Chaos and the World to Come: The Ancient Roots of Apocalyptic Faith. New
Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-09088-9
• Aukerman, Dale. (1993). Reckoning with Apocalypse. New York: Crossroad. ISBN 0-8245-1243-X
• O’Leary, Stephen. (1994). Arguing the Apocalypse: A Theory of Millennial Rhetoric. New York: Oxford
University Press. ISBN 0-19-508045-9
• Quinby, Lee. (1994). Anti-Apocalypse: Exercises in Genealogical Criticism. Minneapolis: University of
Minnesota Press. ISBN 0-8166-2278-7 (hard bound) ISBN 0-8166-2279-5 (paperback)
• Strozier, Charles B. (1994). Apocalypse: On the Psychology of Fundamentalism in America. Boston: Beacon
Press. ISBN 0-8070-1226-2
• Fuller, Robert C. (1995). Naming the Antichrist: The History of an American Obsession. New York: Oxford
University Press. ISBN 0-19-508244-3
• Thompson, Damian. (1996). The End of Time: Faith and Fear in the Shadow of the Millennium. London:
Sinclair-Stevenson. ISBN 1-85619-795-6
• Thompson, Damian. (1997). The End of Time: Faith and Fear in the Shadow of the Millennium. Hanover, N.H.:
University Press of New England. ISBN 0-87451-849-0
• Strozier, Charles B, and Michael Flynn, eds. 1997. The Year 2000: Essays on the End. New York: New York
University Press. ISBN 0-8147-8030-X (hard bound) ISBN 0-8147-8031-8 (paperback)
• Robbins, Thomas, and Susan J. Palmer, eds. 1997. Millennium, Messiahs, and Mayhem: Contemporary
Apocalyptic Movements. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-91648-8 (hard bound) ISBN 0-415-91649-6
(paperback)
• Stewart, Kathleen and Susan Harding. 1999. "Bad Endings: American Apocalypsis." Annual Review of
Anthropology, 28, pp. 285–310.
• Allison, Dale C. (1999) Jesus of Nazareth: Millenarian Prophet (Augsburg Fortress) ISBN 0-8006-3144-7
• Wessinger, Catherine, ed.. 2000. Millennialism, Persecution, and Violence: Historical Cases. Religion and
Politics Series, Michael Barkun, (ed.). Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press. ISBN 0-8156-2809-9 (hard
bound) ISBN 0-8156-0599-4 (paperback)
• Stone, Jon R., ed. 2000. Expecting Armageddon: Essential Readings in Failed Prophecy. New York: Routledge.
ISBN 0-415-92331-X (paperback)
• Brasher, Brenda E. 2000. "From Revelation to The X-Files: An Autopsy of Millennialism in American Popular
Culture", Semeia 82:281–295.
• Mason, Carol. 2002. Killing for Life: The Apocalyptic Narrative of Pro-life Politics. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell
University Press. ISBN 0-8014-3920-5 (hard cover) ISBN 0-8014-8819-2 (paperback)
Apocalypticism 46

• Urstadt, Bryant. 2006. "Imagine there's no oil: scenes from a liberal apocalypse. (Viewpoint essay)." Harper's
Magazine 313.1875 (August 2006): 31(9) [6]
• Kobb, Kurt. 2006. "Apocalypse always: Is the peak oil movement really just another apocalyptic cult?" (August 5,
2006). http://resourceinsights.blogspot.com/2006/08/apocalypse-always-is-peak-oil-movement.html [7]
Accessed on October 14, 2006.

References
[1] Donna Kossy, Kooks
[2] Bart D. Ehrman's Jesus: Apocalyptic Prophet
[3] Theissen, Gerd and Annette Merz. The historical Jesus: a comprehensive guide. Fortress Press. 1998. translated from German (1996 edition)
[4] Sanders, E. P. The historical figure of Jesus. Penguin, 1993. Chapter 15, Jesus' view of his role in God's plan.
[5] Citation needed
[6] http:/ / find. galegroup. com/ itx/ infomark. do?& contentSet=IAC-Documents& type=retrieve& tabID=T003& prodId=GRGM&
docId=A150367142& source=gale& srcprod=GRGM& version=1. 0
[7] http:/ / resourceinsights. blogspot. com/ 2006/ 08/ apocalypse-always-is-peak-oil-movement. html

Book of Revelation
The Book of Revelation, also known as the Book of Revelation of St John the Divine (in reference to its author) or
Book of Revelation of Jesus Christ (in reference to its opening line) or simply Revelation, (often erroneously
dubbed "Revelations") is the last in the collection of documents which constitute the New Testament (the second of
the two major divisions of the Christian Bible). It is also known as the Apocalypse of John or simply the
Apocalypse. These titles come from Koine Greek apokalupsis, meaning "unveiling" or "revelation", which is the
first word of the book.
The word "apocalypse" is also used for other works of a similar nature, and the genre is known as apocalyptic
literature. Such literature is "marked by distinctive literary features, particularly prediction of future events and
accounts of visionary experiences or journeys to heaven, often involving vivid symbolism."[1] The Book of
Revelation is the only apocalyptic document in the New Testament canon, though there are short apocalyptic
passages in various places in the Gospels and the Epistles.[2]
Revelation brings together the worlds of heaven, earth, and hell in a final confrontation between the forces of good
and evil. Its characters and images are both real and symbolic, spiritual and material. Revelation's cryptic nature
makes the book a source of controversy between scholars who try to interpret its meaning and its message.
Nevertheless, it has not only endured, but captured the imagination of generations of Bible students, both
professional and lay readers alike.
The author, named John, has traditionally been identified with John the Apostle, to whom the Gospel of John is also
attributed. Historical-critical scholars, however, conclude that the author did not also write the Gospel of John.[3] [4]
Most scholars think that Revelation was written near the end of the 1st century.[5]
Book of Revelation 47

Methods of Interpretation
Most of the interpretations fall into one or more of the following categories:
Preterist, in which Revelation mostly refers to the events of the apostolic era (1st century);
Historicist, which sees in Revelation a broad view of history;
Futurist, which believes that Revelation describes future events; and
Idealist, or Symbolic, which holds that Revelation does not refer to actual people or events, but is an allegory
of the spiritual path and the ongoing struggle between good and evil.
These approaches are by no means mutually exclusive, and are often used in combination with each other to form a
more complete and coherent interpretation.

Authorship
The author of Revelation identifies himself
several times as "John".[6] The author also states
that he was on Patmos when he received his first
vision.[7] As a result, the author of Revelation is
sometimes referred to as John of Patmos.

Early views

Justin Martyr (c. 100-165 AD) who was


acquainted with Polycarp, who had been mentored
by John, makes a possible allusion to this book,
and credits John as the source.[8] Irenaeus (c.
115-202) assumes it as a conceded point. At the
end of the 2nd century, it is accepted at Antioch
by Theophilus (died c. 183), and in Africa by
Tertullian (c. 160-220). At the beginning of the
3rd century, it is adopted by Clement of
Alexandria and by Origen of Alexandria, later by
Methodius, Cyprian, Lactantius, Dionysius of
Alexandria,[9] and in the 5th century by
Quodvultdeus.[10] Eusebius (ca. 263–339) was
inclined to class the Apocalypse with the accepted
books but also listed it in the Antilegomena.[11]
Jerome (347-420) relegated it to second class.[12] The Angel Appears to John. The book of Revelation. 13th century
Most canons included it, but some, especially in manuscript. British Library, London.

the Eastern Church, rejected it. It is not included


in the Peshitta (an early New Testament in Aramaic).[13]

Traditional view

The traditional view holds that John the Apostle—considered to have written the Gospel and the epistles of
John—was exiled on Patmos in the Aegean archipelago during the reign of Domitian, and there wrote Revelation.
Those in favour of apostolic authorship point to the testimony of the early church fathers (see "Early Views" below)
and similarities between the Gospel of John and Revelation. For example, both works are soteriological and possess
a high Christology, stressing Jesus' divine side as opposed to the human side stressed by the Synoptic Gospels. In the
Book of Revelation 48

Gospel of John and in Revelation, Jesus is referred to as "the Word of God" (Ὁ λόγος τοῦ Θεοῦ), although the
context in Revelation is very different from John. The Word in Rev 19:13 is involved in judgement but in John 1:1,
the image is used to speak of a role in creation and redemption.[14]
Explanations of the differences between John's works by proponents of the single-author view include factoring in
underlying motifs and purposes, authorial target audience, the author's collaboration with or utilization of different
scribes and the advanced age of John the Apostle when he wrote Revelation. Charles Erdman (1866–1960)
advocated apostolic authorship and wrote that only the Apostle John fits the image of the author derived from the
text[15]

Modern views
More recent methods of scholarship, such as textual criticism, have been influential in suggesting that John the
Apostle, John the Evangelist and John of Patmos were three separate individuals. Differences in style, theological
content, and familiarity with Greek between the Gospel of John, the epistles of John, and the Revelation are seen by
some scholars as indicating three separate authors.[16]
The English Biblical scholar, Robert Henry Charles (1855–1931), reasoned on internal textual grounds that the book
was edited by someone who spoke no Hebrew and who wished to promote a different theology to John's. As a result,
everything after 20:3, he claims, has been left in a haphazard state with no attempt to structure it logically.
Furthermore, he says, the story of the defeat of the ten kingdoms has been deleted and replaced by 19:9-10.[17] John's
theology of chastity has been replaced by the editor's theology of outright celibacy, which makes little sense when
John's true church is symbolised as a bride of the Lamb. Most importantly, the editor has completely rewritten John's
theology of the Millennium which is "emptied of all significance".[18]
John Robinson in "Redating the New Testament" (1976) has heavily criticised Charles' position and accepted
apostolic authorship, dating John's Gospel before the Siege of Jerusalem in 70 AD. He also argues that John's "poor"
Greek is a literary device since Galileans were known to have excellent Greek.[19] He says: "The Greek of the
Apocalypse is not that of a beginner whose grammar and vocabulary might improve and mature into those of the
evangelist. It is the pidgin Greek of someone who appears to know exactly what he is about [to say]".[20]
It has also been contended that the core verses of the book, in general chapters 4 through 22, are surviving records of
the prophecies of John the Baptist.[21] In this view, the Lamb of God references and other hallmarks of Revelation
are linked to what is known of John the Baptist, though it must be confessed that little information about him is
known.
Although ancient traditions attributed to the Apostle John the Fourth Gospel, the Book of Revelation, and the
three Epistles of John, modern scholars believe that he wrote none of them.[22]
—Stephen L. Harris, Understanding the Bible

Dating
According to early tradition, this book was composed near the end of Domitian's reign, around the year 95 AD.
Others contend for an earlier date, 68 or 69 AD, in the reign of Nero or shortly thereafter.[23] The majority of modern
scholars accept one of these two dates, with most accepting the Domitianic one.[5]
Those who favour the later date appeal to the earliest external testimony, that of the Christian father Irenaeus (c.
150-202),[24] who wrote that he received his information from people who knew John personally. Domitian,
according to Eusebius of Caesarea (c. 263–339), started the persecution referred to in the book. While some recent
scholars have questioned the existence of a large-scale Domitian persecution,[25] others believe that Domitian's
insistence on being treated as a god may have been a source of friction between the Church and Rome.[26]
The earlier date, first proposed in modern times by John Robinson in a closely argued chapter of "Redating the New
Testament" (1976), relies on the book's internal evidence, given that no external testimony exists earlier than that of
Book of Revelation 49

Irenaeus, noted above, and the earliest extant manuscript evidence of Revelation (P98) is likewise dated no earlier
than the late 2nd century. This early dating is centered on the preterist interpretation of chapter 17, where the seven
heads of the "beast" are regarded as the succession of Roman emperors up to the time of the fall of Jerusalem in 70
AD.[27]
John W. Marshall dates the book to 69 or early 70 AD, saying it predates any formal separation of Christianity and
Judaism,[28] and that it is a thoroughly Jewish text.[29]
Some interpreters attempt to reconcile the two dates by placing the visions themselves at the earlier date (during the
60s) and the publication of Revelation under Domitian, who reigned in the 90s when Irenaeus says the book was
written.[30]

Canonical history
Revelation was accepted into the canon at the Council of Carthage of 397 AD.[31] Revelation's place in the canon
was not guaranteed, however, with doubts raised as far back as the 2nd century about its character, symbolism, and
apostolic authorship.[32]
2nd century Christians in Syria rejected it because Montanism, a sect which was deemed to be heretical by the
mainstream church, relied heavily on it.[33] In the 4th century, Gregory of Nazianzus and other bishops argued
against including Revelation because of the difficulties of interpreting it and the risk of abuse. In the 16th century,
Martin Luther initially considered it to be "neither apostolic nor prophetic" and stated that "Christ is neither taught
nor known in it",[34] and placed it in his Antilegomena, i.e. his list of questionable documents, though he did retract
this view in later life. In the same century, John Calvin believed the book to be canonical, yet it was the only New
Testament book on which he did not write a commentary.[35] It remains the only book of the New Testament that is
not read within the Divine Liturgy of the Eastern Orthodox Church, though it is included in Catholic and Protestant
liturgies.
According to Merrill Unger and Gary N. Larson, in spite of the objections that have been raised over the years,
Revelation provides a logical conclusion, not just to the New Testament, but to the Bible as a whole, and there is a
continuous tradition dating back to the 2nd century which supports the authenticity of the document, and which
indicates that it was generally included within the, as yet unformalized, canon of the early church.[36]

Literary elements
A number of literary elements can be identified in Revelation, such as structure, plot, major characters, and unifying
themes.

Introduction
The introduction identifies the addressees: “John, to the seven churches which are in Asia"[1:4] ("Asia" was a Roman
province in what is now western Turkey). It describes in greater detail the circumstances in which the prophecy was
received: “I, John, both your brother and companion in tribulation... was on the island that is called Patmos for the
word of God and for the testimony of Jesus Christ.”[1:9] Adela Collins, a theologian at the University of Notre Dame,
writes:
Early tradition says that John was banished to Patmos by the Roman authorities. This tradition is credible
because banishment was a common punishment used during the Imperial period for a number of offenses.
Among such offenses were the practices of magic and astrology. Prophecy was viewed by the Romans as
belonging to the same category, whether Pagan, Jewish, or Christian. Prophecy with political implications, like
that expressed by John in the book of Revelation, would have been perceived as a threat to Roman political
power and order. Three of the islands in the Sporades were places where political offenders were banished
(Pliny Natural History 4.69-70; Tacitus Annals 4.30).[37]
Book of Revelation 50

John's exile to Patmos, together with the phrase, "your brother and companion in tribulation," implies a time of
persecution. This is further indicated by the mention of a martyrdom in Pergamos[2:13] and other passages in the
messages to the churches.[cf. 2:3; 2:9-10]
The introduction also describes the one from whom the prophecy was received:
I turned around to see the voice that was speaking to me. And when I turned I saw seven golden lampstands,
and among the lampstands was someone like a son of man, dressed in a robe reaching down to his feet and
with a golden sash around his chest. His head and hair were white like wool, as white as snow, and his eyes
were like blazing fire. His feet were like bronze glowing in a furnace, and his voice was like the sound of
rushing waters. In his right hand he held seven stars, and out of his mouth came a sharp double-edged sword.
His face was like the sun shining in all its brilliance.[1:12-16 niv]
This person identifies himself to John with these words: “I am he who lives, and was dead, and behold, I am alive
forevermore. And I have the keys of Hades and of Death.”[1:18] After reassuring John that he need not be afraid, he
gives John his commission: “Write the things which you have seen, and the things which are, and the things which
will take place after this.”[1:19] In the New Bible Commentary, G.R. Beasley-Murray writes:
"What you have seen" is the vision just given; "what is now" relates to the existing state of the churches and
the letters about to be given; "what will be hereafter" is the subsequent visions of the book. This should not be
pressed to imply that everything without exception in chs. 4-22 refers to the time future to John, let alone to
the time of the end of all things.[38]

Structure
In terms of structure, the book is built around four successive groups of seven: the messages to the seven churches,
the seven seal judgments, the seven trumpet judgments, and finally, the seven bowl judgments. There are also
introductory and concluding passages, and additional passages which are inserted between the main structural
elements in various places throughout the book (see Outline, below).
The repeated occurrence of the number seven contributes to the overall unity of Revelation. While several numbers
stand out—3, 4, 7, 10, 12, 24, 144, 1000—seven appears to have a special significance. There are seven churches
symbolized by seven lampstands (1:20); the churches have seven angels symbolized by seven stars (1:20); there are
seven spirits before the throne of God, symbolized by seven lamps (4:5), and also by seven horns and seven eyes
(5:6); the judgment scroll has seven seals (5:1) with a corresponding set of seven "seal judgments"; the seventh seal
unleashes seven "trumpet judgments," which are heralded by seven angels (8:1-2); the seventh trumpet unleashes
seven "bowl judgments," where the bowls of God's wrath are poured out by seven angels (15:1); there are seven
mysterious thunders about which John is not permitted to say anything (10:3); 7,000 people are killed in an
earthquake (11:13); the dragon has seven heads and seven diadems on his heads (12:3); and the beast from the sea
has seven heads (13:1).
One half of seven, 3½, is also a conspicuous number in Revelation: two witnesses are given power to prophesy 1,260
days, or exactly 3½ years, according to the Hebrew year of 360 days (11:3); the witnesses are then killed, and their
dead bodies lie in the streets of Jerusalem for 3½ days (11:9); the "woman clothed with the sun" is protected in the
wilderness for 1,260 days, or 3½ years (12:6); Gentiles tread the holy city underfoot for 42 months, or 3½ years
(11:2); and the beast is given authority to continue for 42 months, or 3½ years (13:5).
Book of Revelation 51

Plot
A plot, or general storyline, can be identified in Revelation. The story proper is in included in chapters 4-22, but
chapters 1-3 lay the groundwork. These first three chapters consist of a brief introduction followed by seven separate
messages conveyed by the author to seven churches. The larger themes of the book as a whole – judgment, salvation,
the coming of the Messiah, etc. – are exposed in these messages, each of which is tailor-made for the church in
question. Each message assesses how that particular church is doing, and tells it what changes, if any, need to be
made. In a nutshell, the churches are each presented with a choice: to be faithful or not to be faithful. The potential
consequences of their choices are graphically illustrated in the story proper, in chapters 4-22. The messages to the
churches also serve as a device to convey a message to a wider audience, for each church's message ends with: "He
who has an ear, let him hear what the Spirit says to the churches" (2:7, etc.).
The plot of the story proper (ch. 4-22) is driven by a powerful conflict between the forces, both earthly and spiritual,
of good and evil. Expressed in the simplest terms (for a more detailed outline, see below), it is as follows:
1. There is a time of great tribulation on the Earth which combines natural disasters with war on an unprecedented
scale;
2. The "Lamb" saves his people from the tribulation, destroys the wicked, and ushers in an age of peace; after the
age of peace, there is a second, brief time of trouble which results in the permanent banishment of the wicked;
3. A new heaven and a new earth replace the old, and the people of God go to live in the presence of God and Christ
in a heavenly city described as the "New Jerusalem." (See Interpretations, below, for different understandings of
these details. This section is only concerned with the text itself.)

Characters
Revelation has a variety of richly-drawn characters, including the Lamb, the Dragon, the archangel Michael and a
number of other angels, the Beast from the Land, the Beast from the Sea, the great harlot Babylon, the four beasts
around the throne of God, the four horsemen of the Apocalypse, the two witnesses, the woman clothed with the sun,
and the narrator (John). Some of these characters may be actual persons (whether on the spiritual or the physical
plane), while others may be representative of a larger idea, rather than a personality as such.
The protagonist, known throughout most of the book as the "Lamb," is a hero of magnificent proportions. This figure
represents Jesus Christ, who is also identified as the Lamb of God in the Gospel of John.
Almost as impressive as the Lamb is the antagonist, Satan, an archvillain known as the "dragon." In the end, the
dragon, the Beast, and the False Prophet are thrown into a lake of fire.
A beast with seven heads and ten horns is associated with the number 666. Another beast, looking like a lamb but
speaking like a dragon, is identified as the False Prophet. He leads people to worship the first beast. Preterists (see
Methods of Interpretation, above) commonly identify the beast with the Roman Emperor Nero, because his name
equals 666 in Hebrew,[39] if using the Greek spelling of Nero's name (Neron Caesar), but using the Hebrew symbols
with their assigned numeric values (an ancient method known as gematria). However, a few ancient manuscripts of
the Revelation say the number is 616, fifty less than the more well known numeral. A possible method to this
problem lies in early translation. In the assumption that the Revelation was meant to be distributed among the Early
Christians, it could very well be assumed that occasionally someone may have used the Latin spelling of Nero's
name (Nero Caesar), so the total value of the gematria would be 616.[40] [41]
The great harlot Babylon is associated with the Beast and refers to a counterfeit "bride" to the church. There are two
destruction of Babylon foretold in the Bible. Literal Babylon was built by Nimrod and later destroyed in 478 BC.
The Bible, however, states that Mystery Babylon will not be destroyed until the seventh trumpet, at Armageddon.
The Revelation gives us four clues as to who Mystery Babylon is. In Revelation 11:8, it is identified as the city
"spiritually called Sodom and Egypt, where also our Lord was crucified." Jesus was crucified in Jerusalem. The
second clue is that Mystery Babylon was guilty of shedding the blood of the prophets and saints and all who had
Book of Revelation 52

been killed on earth. (Revelation 11:24). In Matthew 23:34-37, Jerusalem is charged with the blood guilt of all the
bloodshed on the earth up to that time. The third clue is that Mystery Babylon had a covenant relationship with God.
(Revelation 18:7) Through the Old Covenant, God was married to Jerusalem, (Jeremiah 2:14). The fourth clue is
found in Revelation 18:4 where there's a call to God's people to flee Mystery Babylon to avoid its plagues and
destruction. Jesus gave the same warning to his disciples to leave Jerusalem. (Matthew 24:15-17; Luke 21:20-22).
These clues point to Jerusalem as the possible candidate for the Mystery Babylon.
The four horsemen of the Apocalypse appear when Jesus Christ opens the first four of the seven seals. They ride
white, red, black, and pale-green horses. They symbolize conquest, war, famine, and death (or pestilence),
respectively. When translated spiritually, beasts in revelations are identified as nations or organizations.

Outline
The following outline does not attempt to interpret Revelation, but presents the details of the book in the manner, and
in the order, that they appear. Some words (e.g. "locusts") are placed in quotes to indicate that their description in the
text does not match our normal conception of them. Each of the seven churches is listed with the opening words of
the message to that church.
1. Introduction
1. John identifies himself, his addressees, and
the divine source of his visions. (1:1-3)
2. Messages to the Seven Asian Churches
1. Description of the "Son of Man" as John sees
him in his vision. (1:4-20)
2. Ephesus: "I know your works, your labor,
your patience, and that you cannot bear those
who are evil." (2:1-7)
3. Smyrna: "I know your works, tribulation, and
poverty – but you are rich." (2:8-11)
4. Pergamon: "I know your works, and where
you live, where Satan's throne is." (2:12-17)
5. Thyatira: "I know your works, love, service,
faith, and your patience." (2:18-29)
6. Sardis: "I know your works, that you have a
name that you are alive, but you are dead."
(3:1-6)
7. Philadelphia: "I know your works. I have set
before you an open door, and no one can shut
it." (3:7-13)
8. Laodicea: "I know your works, that you are
An 1880 Baxter process colour plate illustrating Revelation 22:17 by
neither cold nor hot... Because you are
Joseph Martin Kronheim.
lukewarm, and neither cold nor hot, I will
spew you out of my mouth." (3:14-22)
3. The Throne of God
1. John comes before the throne of God. (4:1-3)
2. John sees twenty-four elders and four "living creatures" praising God. (4:4-11)
3. Only the "Lamb" is found worthy to take the judgment scroll from God and break the seals. (5:1-7)
4. The creatures in heaven give praise. (5:8-14)
Book of Revelation 53

4. The Lamb Breaks the Seals


1. First Seal: One who is both a king and a conqueror rides forth on a white horse. (6:1-2)
2. Second Seal: A rider on a red horse brings war. (6:3-4)
3. Third Seal: A rider on a black horse brings famine. (6:5-6)
4. Fourth Seal: A rider on a pale horse brings death. (6:7-8)
5. Fifth Seal: The souls of the martyrs "under the altar" cry out for vengeance. (6:9-11)
6. Sixth Seal: There are earthquakes and natural disasters. (6:12-17)
1. 144,000 of "all the tribes of Israel" are "sealed." (7:1-8)
2. A vast multitude worship God after coming out of the Great Tribulation. (7:9-17)
7. Seventh Seal: The breaking of the seventh seal begins another series: the seven trumpets. (8:1-5)
5. The Angels Sound the Trumpets
1. First Trumpet: Hail and fire destroy a third of the trees and grass. (8:6-7)
2. Second Trumpet: A third of the oceans are destroyed. (8:8-9)
3. Third Trumpet: A third of the rivers and springs are poisoned. (8:10-11)
4. Fourth Trumpet: A third of the sky is darkened. (8:12-13)
5. Fifth Trumpet: A plague of "locusts" terrorize the Earth for five months. (9:1-12)
6. Sixth Trumpet: An army of 200 million kills a third of Earth's population. (9:13-21)
1. John eats a little book which is sweet in his mouth, but bitter in his stomach. (10:1-11)
2. Two witnesses prophesy for 3½ years, are killed, and come back to life. (11:1-14)
7. Seventh Trumpet: The ark of the covenant appears in the heavenly temple. (11:15-19)
1.
John sees a woman clothed with the sun, the moon, and the stars. (12:1-6)
2.
Satan is cast down to the Earth. (12:7-12)
3.
The dragon persecutes the people of God. (12:13-17)
4.
The beast from the sea makes war with the people of God. (13:1-10)
5.
The beast from the land forces people to worship the beast from the sea. (13:11-18)
6.
John sees 144,000, "having his Father's name written on their foreheads," with the Lamb on Mount Zion.
(14:1-5)
7. Three angels proclaim judgment. (14:6-13)
8. The angels reap the harvest. (14:14-20)
6. The Angels Pour Out Their Bowls on the Earth
1. Seven angels are given golden bowls containing of the wrath of God. (15:1-8)
2. First Bowl: A "foul and loathsome sore" afflicts the followers of the beast. (16:1-2)
3. Second Bowl: The sea turns to blood and everything within it dies. (16:3)
4. Third Bowl: All fresh water turns to blood. (16:4-7)
5. Fourth Bowl: The sun scorches the Earth with intense heat. (16:8-9)
6. Fifth Bowl: There is total darkness and great pain in the Beast's kingdom. (16:10-11)
7. Sixth Bowl: Preparations are made for the final battle between the forces of good and evil. (16:12-16)
8. Seventh Bowl: A great earthquake: "every island fled away and the mountains were not found." (16:17-21)
7. Babylon the Great
1. The great harlot who sits on many waters: Babylon the Great. (17:1-18)
2. Babylon is destroyed. (18:1-8)
3. The people of the earth mourn Babylon's destruction. (18:9-19)
4. The permanence of Babylon's destruction. (18:20-24)
8. The Marriage Supper of the Lamb
1. A great multitude praises God. (19:1-6)
2. The marriage supper of the Lamb. (19:7-10)
Book of Revelation 54

9. The Millennium
1. The beast and the false prophet are cast into the lake of fire. (19:11-21)
2. Satan is imprisoned in the bottomless pit for a thousand years. (20:1-3)
3. The resurrected martyrs live and reign with Christ for a thousand years. (20:4-6)
10. After the Thousand Years
1. Satan is released and makes war against the people of God, but is defeated. (20:7-9)
2. Satan is cast into the lake of fire. (20:10)
3. The Last Judgment: the wicked, along with death and Hades, are cast into the lake of fire. (20:11-15)
11. The New Heaven and Earth
1. A new heaven and new earth replace the old. There is no more suffering or death. (21:1-8)
2. God comes to dwell with humanity in the New Jerusalem. (21:2-8)
3. Description of the New Jerusalem. (21:9-27)
4. The river and tree of life appear for the healing of the nations. The curse is ended. (22:1-5)
12. Conclusion
1. Christ's reassurance that his coming is imminent. Final admonitions. (22:6-21)

Interpretations
Revelation has a wide variety of interpretations, ranging from the simple message that we should have faith that God
will prevail (symbolic interpretation), to complex end time scenarios (futurist interpretation),[42] [43] to the views of
critics who deny any spiritual value to Revelation at all.[44]
In the early Christian era, Christians generally understood the book to predict future events, especially an upcoming
millennium of paradise on earth. In the late classical and medieval eras, the Church disavowed the millennium as a
literal thousand-year kingdom. With the Protestant Reformation, opponents of Roman Catholicism adopted a
historicist view, in which the predicted apocalypse is believed to be playing out in church history. A Jesuit scholar
countered with preterism, the belief that Revelation predicted events that actually occurred as predicted in the 1st
century. In the 19th century, futurism (belief that the predictions refer to future events) largely replaced historicism
among conservative Protestants.

Religious views

Futurist view
The futurist view assigns all or most of the prophecy to the future, shortly before the second coming; especially
when interpreted in conjunction with Daniel, Isaiah 2:11-22, 1 Thessalonians 4:15–5:11, and other eschatological
sections of the Bible.
Futurist interpretations generally predict a resurrection of the dead and a rapture of the living, wherein all true
Christians and those who have not reached an age of accountability are gathered to Christ at the time God's kingdom
comes on earth. They also believe a tribulation will occur - a seven year period of time when believers will
experience worldwide persecution and martyrdom, and be purified and strengthened by it. Futurists differ on when
believers will be raptured, but there are three primary views: 1) before the tribulation; 2) near or at the midpoint of
the tribulation; or 3) at the end of the tribulation. There is also a fourth view of multiple raptures throughout the
tribulation, but this view does not have a mainstream following.
Pretribulationists believe that all Christians then alive will be taken up to meet Christ before the Tribulation begins.
In this manner, Christians are "kept from" the Tribulation, such as Enoch was removed before God judged the
antediluvian world, in contrast with Noah who was "kept through" wrath and judgement of God in the flood of
Genesis.
Book of Revelation 55

Midtribulationists believe that the rapture of the faithful will occur approximately halfway through the Tribulation,
after it begins but before the worst part of it occurs. Some midtribulationists, particularly those holding to a
"pre-wrath rapture" of the church, believe that God's wrath is poured out during a "Great Tribulation" that is limited
to the last 3½ years of the Tribulation, after believers have been caught up to Christ.
Post-tribulationists believe that Christians will be gathered in the clouds with Christ and join him in his return to
earth. (Pretribulationist Tim LaHaye admits a post-tribulation rapture is the closest of the three views to that held by
the early church.)
All three views hold that Christians will return with Christ at the end of the Tribulation. Proponents of all three views
also generally portray Israel as unwittingly signing a seven year peace treaty with the Antichrist, which initiates the
seven year Tribulation. Many also tend to view the Antichrist as head of a revived Roman Empire, but the
geographic location of this empire is unknown. Hal Lindsey suggests that this revived Roman Empire will be
centered in western Europe, with Rome as its capital. Tim LaHaye promotes the belief that Babylon will be the
capital of a worldwide empire. Joel Richardson and Walid Shoebat have both recently written books proposing a
revived eastern Roman Empire, which will fall with the boundaries of the Ottoman Empire. (Istanbul also has seven
hills, was a capital of the Roman Empire and is known as the Golden Horn - notable given the eschatological
references to the "Little Horn"Daniel  7:8,8:9.)
There is also a variant futuristic view that the Tribulation can occur in any generation, meaning Satan always has an
antichrist in the wings and there is always a nation-state that can become the revived Roman Empire. This variant
view is developed by Angela Hunt in her fictional work, The Immortal.
The futurist view was first proposed by two Catholic writers, Manuel Lacunza and Ribera. Lacunza wrote under the
pen name "Ben-Ezra", and his work was banned by the Catholic Church. It has grown in popularity in the 19th and
20th centuries, so that today it is probably most readily recognized. Books about the "rapture" by authors like Hal
Lindsey, and the more recent Left Behind novels (by Jerry Jenkins and Tim LaHaye) and movies, have done much to
popularize this school of thought.
The various views on tribulation are actually a subset of theological interpretations on the Millennium, mentioned in
Revelation 20. There are three main interpretations: Premillennialism, Amillennialism, and Postmillennialism.
Premillennialism believes that Christ will return to the earth, bind Satan, and reign for a literal thousand years on
earth with Jerusalem as his capital. Thus Christ returns before ("pre-") the thousand years mentioned in chapter 20.
There are generally two subclasses of Premillennialism: Dispensational and Historic. Some form of premillennialism
is thought to be the oldest millennial view in church history.[45] Papias, believed to be a disciple of the Apostle John,
was a premillenialist, according to Eusebius. Also Justin Martyr and Irenaeus expressed belief in premillennialism in
their writings.
Amillennialism, the traditional view for Roman Catholicism, believes that the thousand years mentioned are not
("a-") a literal thousand years, but is figurative for what is now the church age, usually, the time between Christ's
first ascension and second coming. This view is often associated with Augustine of Hippo. Amillennialists differ on
the time frame of the millennium. Some say it started with Pentecost, others say it started with the fulfillment of
Jesus' prophecy regarding the destruction of the temple in Jerusalem (70), and other starting points have also been
proposed. Whether this eschatology is the result of caesaropapism, which may have also been the reason that
premillennialism was condemned, is sharply disputed.
Postmillennialism believes that Christ will return after ("post-") a literal/figurative thousand years, in which the
world will have essentially become a Christendom. This view was held by Jonathan Edwards.
Book of Revelation 56

Historicist view
Historicists hold that the events predicted in the Bible have been taking place in history. Historicism gained
popularity with the Protestant Reformation. In the 19th century, with the rise of dispensationalism, conservative
Protestants largely abandoned historicism in favor of futurism.
Adventists maintain an historicist interpretation of the Bible's predictions of the apocalypse.
The Rastafarians hold to a historicist view of the book of Revelation, relating it both to 20th-century events such as
the crowning of Ethiopian Emperor Haile Selassie and the Second Italo-Ethiopian War, and also to future events
such as the second coming of Selassie on the day of judgment.

Preterist view
Preterism holds that the contents of Revelation constitute a prophecy of events that were fulfilled in the 1st
century.[46] Preterism was first expounded by the Jesuit Luis De Alcasar during the Counter Reformation.[47] [48] The
preterist view served to bolster the Catholic Church's position against attacks by Protestants,[49] [50] who identified
the Pope with the Anti-Christ.
Preterist interpretations generally identify either Jerusalem or the Roman Empire as the persecutor of the Church,
"Babylon", the "Mother of Harlots", etc. They see Armageddon as God's judgement on the Jews, carried out by the
Roman army, which is identified as "the beast". It sees Revelation being fulfilled in 70, thereby bringing the full
presence of God to dwell with all humanity. Some preterists see the second half of Revelation as changing focus to
Rome, its persecution of Christians, and the fall of the Roman Empire.

Eastern Orthodox view

Eastern Orthodoxy treats the text as simultaneously describing


contemporaneous events (events occurring at the same time) and as
prophecy of events to come, for which the contemporaneous events
were a form of foreshadow. It rejects attempts to determine, before the
fact, if the events of Revelation are occurring by mapping them onto
present-day events, taking to heart the Scriptural warning against those
who proclaim "He is here!" prematurely. Instead, the book is seen as a
warning to be spiritually and morally ready for the end times,
whenever they may come ("as a thief in the night"), but they will come
at the time of God's choosing, not something that can be precipitated
nor trivially deduced by mortals.[51] This view is also held by many
Catholics, although there is a diversity of opinion about the nature of
the Apocalypse within Catholicism.

Book of Revelation is the only book of the New Testament that is not Orthodox icon of the Apocalypse of St. John
read during services by the Eastern Orthodox Church. In the Coptic (16th century).

Orthodox Church (which is not in communion with the Eastern


Orthodox church but is liturgically similar), the whole Book of Revelation is read during Apocalypse Night or Bright
Saturday (the eve of the Resurrection).
Book of Revelation 57

Paschal liturgical view


This view, which has found expression among both Catholic and Protestant theologians, considers the liturgical
worship, particularly the Easter rites, of early Christianity as background and context for understanding the Book of
Revelation's structure and significance. This perspective is explained in The Paschal Liturgy and the Apocalypse
(new edition, 2004) by Massey H. Shepherd, an Episcopal scholar, and in Scott Hahn's The Lamb's Supper: The
Mass as Heaven on Earth (1999), in which he states that Revelation in form is structured after creation, fall,
judgment and redemption. Those who hold this view say that the Temple's destruction (70 AD) had a profound effect
on the Jewish people, not only in Jerusalem but among the Greek-speaking Jews of the Mediterranean.[52] They
believe The Book of Revelation provides insight into the early Eucharist, saying that it is the new Temple worship in
the New Heaven and Earth. The idea of the Eucharist as a foretaste of the heavenly banquet is also explored by
British Methodist Geoffrey Wainwright in his book Eucharist and Eschatology (Oxford University Press, 1980).

Esoteric view
The esoterist views Revelation as bearing multiple levels of meaning, the lowest being the literal or "dead-letter."
Those who are instructed in esoteric knowledge enter gradually into more subtle levels of understanding of the text.
They see the book as delivering both a series of warnings for humanity and a detailed account of internal, spiritual
processes of the individual soul.
The Gnostic Kabbalist believes that Revelation (like Genesis) is a very profound book of Kabbalistic symbolism.
This view is held by teachers such as H.P. Blavatsky, Eliphas Levi, Rudolf Steiner.
Christian Gnostics, however, are unlikely to be attracted to the teaching of Revelation because the doctrine of
salvation through the sacrificed Lamb, which is central to Revelation, is repugnant to Gnostics. Christian Gnostics
"believed in the Forgiveness of Sins, but in no vicarious sacrifice for sin ... they accepted Christ in the full realisation
of the word; his life, not his death, was the key-note of their doctrine and their practice."[53]
James Morgan Pryse was an esoteric gnostic who saw Revelation as a western version of the Hindu theory of the
Chakra. He began his work, "The purpose of this book is to show that the Apocalypse is a manual of spiritual
development and not, as conventionally interpreted, a cryptic history or prophecy".[54] Such diverse theories have
failed to command widespread acceptance. But Christopher Rowland argues: "there are always going to be loose
threads which refuse to be woven into the fabric as a whole. The presence of the threads which stubbornly refuse to
be incorporated into the neat tapestry of our world-view does not usually totally undermine that view."[55]

Radical discipleship view


The radical discipleship view asserts that the Book of Revelation is best understood as a handbook for radical
discipleship; i.e., how to remain faithful to the spirit and teachings of Jesus and avoid simply assimilating to
surrounding society. In this view, the primary agenda of the book is to expose as impostors the worldly powers that
seek to oppose the ways of God and God's Kingdom. The chief temptation for Christians in the 1st century, and
today, is to fail to hold fast to the non-violent teachings and example of Jesus and instead be lured into unquestioning
adoption and assimilation of worldly, national or cultural values - imperialism, nationalism, and civil religion being
the most dangerous and insidious. This perspective (closely related to liberation theology) draws on the approach of
Bible scholars such as Ched Myers, William Stringfellow, Richard Horsley, Daniel Berrigan, Wes
Howard-Brook,[56] and Joerg Rieger.[57]
Book of Revelation 58

Paschal spiritual view


There is also a perspective that holds that the book of Revelation describes a spiritual battle that took place while
Jesus was on the cross and in the grave. Some Primitive Baptists believe this to be the intended meaning.

Aesthetic and literary views


Many literary writers and theorists have contributed to a wide range of views about the origins and purpose of the
Book of Revelation. Some of these writers have no connection with established Christian faiths but, nevertheless,
found in Revelation a source of inspiration. Revelation has been approached from Hindu philosophy and Jewish
Midrash. Others have pointed to aspects of composition which have been ignored such as the similarities of
prophetic inspiration to modern poetic inspiration, or the parallels with Greek drama. In recent years theories have
arisen which concentrate upon how readers and texts interact to create meaning and are less interested in what the
original author intended.
Charles Cutler Torrey taught semitic languages at Yale. His lasting contribution has been to show how much more
meaningful prophets, such as the scribe of Revelation, are when treated as poets first and foremost. He felt this was a
point often lost sight of because most English bibles render everything in prose.[58] Poetry was also the reason John
never directly quoted the older prophets. Had he done so, he would have had to use their (Hebrew) poetry whereas he
wanted to write his own. Torrey insisted Revelation had originally been written in Aramaic.[59] This was why the
surviving Greek translation was written in such a strange idiom. It was a literal translation that had to comply with
the warning at Revelation 22:18 that the text must not be corrupted in any way. According to Torrey, the story is that
"The Fourth Gospel was brought to Ephesus by a Christian fugitive from Palestine soon after the middle of the first
century. It was written in Aramaic." Later, the Ephesians claimed this fugitive had actually been the beloved disciple
himself. Subsequently, this John was banished by Nero and died on Patmos after writing Revelation. Torrey argued
that until 80 AD, when Christians were expelled from the synagogues,[60] the Christian message was always first
heard in the synagogue and, for cultural reasons, the evangelist would have spoken in Aramaic, else "he would have
had no hearing."[61] Torrey showed how the three major songs in Revelation (the new song, the song of Moses and
the Lamb and the chorus at 19: 6-8) each fall naturally into four regular metrical lines plus a coda.[62] Other dramatic
moments in Revelation, such as 6: 16 where the terrified people cry out to be hidden, behave in a similar way.[63]
Christina Rossetti was a Victorian poet who believed the sensual excitement of the natural world found its
meaningful purpose in death and in God.[64] Her The Face of the Deep is a meditation upon the Apocalypse. In her
view, what Revelation has to teach is patience.[65] Patience is the closest to perfection the human condition
allows.[66] Her book, which is largely written in prose, frequently breaks into poetry or jubilation, much like
Revelation itself. The relevance of John's visions[67] belongs to Christians of all times as a continuous present
meditation. Such matters are eternal and outside of normal human reckoning. "That winter which will be the death of
Time has no promise of termination. Winter that returns not to spring ... - who can bear it?"[68] She dealt deftly with
the vengeful aspects of John's message. "A few are charged to do judgment; everyone without exception is charged
to show mercy."[69] Her conclusion is that Christians should see John as "representative of all his brethren" so they
should "hope as he hoped, love as he loved."[70]
Recently, aesthetic and literary modes of interpretation have developed, which focus on Revelation as a work of art
and imagination, viewing the imagery as symbolic depictions of timeless truths and the victory of good over evil.
Elisabeth Schuessler Fiorenza wrote Revelation: Vision of a just world from the viewpoint of rhetoric.[71]
Accordingly, Revelation's meaning is partially determined by the way John goes about saying things, partially by the
context in which readers receive the message and partially by its appeal to something beyond logic. It is Professor
Schuessler Fiorenza's view that Revelation has particular relevance today as a liberating message to disadvantaged
groups. John's book is a vision of a just world, not a vengeful threat of world-destruction. Her view that Revelation's
message is not gender-based has caused dissent. She says we are to look behind the symbols rather than make a
fetish out of them. Tina Pippin puts an opposing view:[72] that John writes "horror literature" and "the misogyny
Book of Revelation 59

which underlies the narrative is extreme". Professor Schuessler Fiorenza would seem to be saying John's book is
more like science fiction; it does not foretell the future but uses present-day concepts to show how contemporary
reality could be very different.
D. H. Lawrence took an opposing, pessimistic view of Revelation in the final book he wrote, Apocalypse.[73] He saw
the language which Revelation used as being bleak and destructive; a 'death-product'. Instead, he wanted to
champion a public-spirited individualism (which he identified with the historical Jesus supplemented by an
ill-defined cosmic consciousness) against its two natural enemies. One of these he called "the sovereignty of the
intellect"[74] which he saw in a technology-based totalitarian society. The other enemy he styled "vulgarity"[75] and
that was what he found in Revelation. "It is very nice if you are poor and not humble ... to bring your enemies down
to utter destruction, while you yourself rise up to grandeur. And nowhere does this happen so splendiferously than in
Revelation."[76] His specific aesthetic objections to Revelation were that its imagery was unnatural and that phrases
like "the wrath of the Lamb" were "ridiculous". He saw Revelation as comprising two discordant halves. In the first,
there was a scheme of cosmic renewal "great Chaldean sky-spaces" which he quite liked. Then the book hinged
around the birth of the baby messiah. After that, "flamboyant hate and simple lust ... for the end of the world."
Lawrence coined the term "Patmossers" to describe those Christians who could only be happy in paradise if they
knew their enemies were suffering hell.

Academic views
Modern biblical scholarship attempts to understand Revelation in its 1st century historical context within the genre
of Jewish and Christian apocalyptic literature.
This approach considers the text as an address to seven historical communities in Asia Minor. Under this view,
assertions that "the time is near" are to be taken literally by those communities. Consequently the work is viewed as
a warning not to conform to contemporary Greco-Roman society which John "unveils" as beastly, demonic and
subject to divine judgment. There is further information on these topics in the entries on higher criticism and
apocalyptic literature.
The acceptance of Revelation into the canon is itself the result of a historical process, essentially no different from
the career of other texts. The eventual exclusion of other contemporary apocalyptic literature from the canon may
throw light on the unfolding historical processes of what was officially considered orthodox, what was heterodox,
what was even heretical. Interpretation of meanings and imagery are anchored in what the historical author intended
and what his contemporary audience inferred; a message to Christians not to assimilate into the Roman imperial
culture was John's central message. Thus, his letter (written in the apocalyptic genre) is pastoral in nature, and the
symbolism of Revelation is to be understood entirely within its historical, literary and social context. Critics study
the conventions of apocalyptic literature and events of the 1st century to make sense of what the author may have
intended.
During a discussion about Revelation on 23 August 2006, Pope Benedict XVI remarked: "The seer of Patmos,
identified with the apostle, is granted a series of visions meant to reassure the Christians of Asia amid the
persecutions and trials of the end of the first century."[77]
Book of Revelation 60

Criticism
19th-century agnostic Robert G. Ingersoll branded Revelation "the insanest of all books".[78] Thomas Jefferson
omitted it, along with most of the Biblical canon, from the Jefferson Bible, and wrote that at one time he considered
it as "merely the ravings of a maniac, no more worthy nor capable of explanation than the incoherences of our own
nightly dreams."[79] George Bernard Shaw described it as "a peculiar record of the visions of a drug addict".[80]
Martin Luther changed his perspective on Revelation over time. In the preface to the German translation of
Revelation that he composed in 1522, he said that he did not consider the book prophetic or apostolic, since "Christ
is neither taught nor known in it." But in the completely new preface that he composed in 1530, he reversed his
position and concluded that Christ was central to the book. He concluded, "As we see here in this book, that through
and beyond all plagues, beasts, and evil angels, Christ is nonetheless with the saints and wins the final victory."[81]
John Calvin "had grave doubts about its value."[82]

Old Testament origins


There is much in Revelation which harnesses ancient sources. Although the Old Testament provides the largest
reservoir for such sources, it is not the only one. For example, Howard-Brook and Gwyther[83] regard the Book of
Enoch (1 Enoch) as an equally significant but contextually different source. "Enoch's journey has no close parallel in
the Hebrew scriptures."
Until recently, academics showed little interest in this topic.[84] But this was not the case with popular writers from
non-conforming backgrounds. They liked to intersperse their text of Revelation with the prophecy they thought was
being promised fulfilment. For example, an anonymous Scottish commentary of 1871[85] prefaces Revelation 4 with
the Little Apocalypse of Mark 13, places Malachi 4:5 (Behold I will send you Elijah the prophet before the coming
of the great and dreadful day of the Lord) within Revelation 11, and writes Revelation 12:7 side-by-side with the role
of 'the satan' in the Book of Job. The message is that everything in Revelation will happen in its previously appointed
time.
Steve Moyise[86] uses the index of the United Bible Societies' Greek New Testament to show that "Revelation
contains more Old Testament allusions than any other New Testament book, but it does not record a single
quotation." Perhaps significantly, Revelation chooses different sources than other New Testament books. Revelation
concentrates on Isaiah, the Psalms and Ezekiel and neglects, comparatively speaking, the books of the Pentateuch
which are the dominant sources for other New Testament writers. Methodological objections have been made to this
way of proceeding. Each allusion may not have an equal significance. To counter this, G. K. Beale sought to develop
a system that distinguished 'clear', 'probable' and 'possible' allusions. A clear allusion is one with almost the same
wording as its source, the same general meaning and which could not reasonably have been drawn from elsewhere.
A probable allusion contains an idea which is uniquely traceable to its source. Possible allusions are described as
mere echoes of their putative sources.
Yet, with Revelation, the problems might be judged more fundamental than this. John seems to be using his sources
in a completely different way to the originals. For example, John borrows the 'new temple' imagery of Ezekiel 40 to
48 but uses it to describe a New Jerusalem which, quite pointedly, no longer needs any temple at all because the new
city is now God's own dwelling-place. Ian Boxall[87] writes that Revelation "is no montage of biblical quotations
(that is not John's way) but a wealth of allusions and evocations rewoven into something new and creative." In trying
to identify this something new, he argues that Ezekiel provides the 'backbone' for Revelation. He sets out a
comparative table listing the chapters of Revelation in sequence then identifying against most of them the
structurally corresponding chapter in Ezekiel. The interesting point is that the order is not the same. John, on this
theory, rearranges Ezekiel to suit his own purposes.
Some commentators argue that it is these purposes - and not the structure - that really matters. It is the view of G. K.
Beale that, however much use John makes of Ezekiel, his ultimate purpose is to present Revelation as a fulfilment of
Book of Revelation 61

Daniel 7.[88]

Notes
[1] Walter A. Elwell, ed. "Apocalyptic." Evangelical Dictionary of Biblical Theology. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker, 1996. Page 28.
[2] Other apocalypses popular in the early Christian era did not achieve canonical status, except 2 Esdras (also known as the Apocalypse of
Ezra), which is recognized as canonical in the Ethiopian Orthodox Churches.
[3] Bart D. Ehrman wrote that "it can be stated without reservation that whoever wrote the Gospel did not write this book." Ehrman 2004, p.
467ff
[4] "Although ancient traditions attributed to the Apostle John the Fourth Gospel, the Book of Revelation, and the three Epistles of John, modern
scholars believe that he wrote none of them." Harris, Stephen L., Understanding the Bible (Palo Alto: Mayfield, 1985) p. 355
[5] Robert Mounce. The Book of Revelation, pg. 15-16. Cambridge: Eerdman's. Books.google.com (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=6FAookts4MUC& printsec=frontcover& source=gbs_v2_summary_r& cad=0#v=onepage& q=& f=false)
[6] Rev. 1:1, 4, 9; 22:8
[7] Rev 1:9; 4:1-2
[8] St. Justin Martyr, Dialogue with Trypho Chapter lxxxi.
[9] Eusebius of Caesarea, Ecclesiastical History Book vii. Chapter xxv.
[10] St. Quodvultdeus, On the Symbol, 3.1-6
[11] Eusebius of Caesarea, Ecclesiastical History Book iii. Chapter xxv.
[12] Jerome's Homily on Psalm 149
[13] "Apocalypse", Encyclopedia Biblica
[14] Revelation By Ben Witherington III, p. 32
[15] "The author calls himself John, both in the opening and the closing verses of the book. He states that because of his Christian faith he has
been banished to the isle of Patmos. He addresses the churches of Asia with a consciousness of unquestioned authority. Of no other person in
the first century could these statements be made." Charles R. Erdman. Revelation of John: An Exposition. Westminster, 1936.
[16] Ehrman 2004, p. 467ff
[17] Charles Revelation p. xxviii
[18] Charles Revelation p. liv
[19] J.N.Sevenster, Do you know Greek?, 1968.
[20] J.N.Sevenster, Do you know Greek?, 1968. ch. 9
[21] Ford, p. 30.
[22] Harris, Stephen L., Understanding the Bible (Palo Alto: Mayfield, 1985) p. 355
[23] Kenneth Gentry. Before Jerusalem Fell, ISBN 0-930464-20-6. Powder Springs, Georgia: American Vision, 1989.
[24] St. Irenaeus, Against Heresies, Book 5 Chapter 30 Section 3.
[25] Brown 1997, pp. 806–809
[26] Cary, E. (trans.) "Dio Cassius' Roman History, Epitome of Book LXI-LXX." Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge MA: Harvard University,
1995. p.349.
[27] Mounce, pg.19-21
[28] David L. Barr (July 2006). The reality of Apocalypse: rhetoric and politics in the book of Revelation (http:/ / books. google. com/
?id=zHLZob88C44C& pg=PA153). Society of Biblical Lit. pp. 153–. ISBN 9781589832183. . Retrieved 31 July 2010.
[29] John William Marshall; Canadian Corporation for Studies in Religion (19 November 2001). Parables of war: reading John's Jewish
Apocalypse (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=aKJ5ZJSZrAQC& pg=PA2). Wilfrid Laurier Univ. Press. pp. 2–. ISBN 9780889203747. .
Retrieved 31 July 2010.
[30] cf. Paul Touilleux, Albert Gelin, André Feuillet
[31] Denzinger 186 (http:/ / catho. org/ 9. php?d=bxk#a4r) in the new numbering, 92 (http:/ / www. catecheticsonline. com/ SourcesofDogma1.
php) in the old
[32] Stephen Pattemore, "The People of God in the Apocalypse," (Cambridge University Press, 2004), p.1
[33] see N. B. Stonehouse, Apocalypse in the Ancient Church, (c. 1929), pp. 139–142, esp. p. 138
[34] Luther's Treatment of the 'Disputed Books' of the New Testament (http:/ / www. bible-researcher. com/ antilegomena. html)
[35] Anthony A. Hoekema, The Bible and the future (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=c2yT_7xw35sC& pg=PA297& dq=calvin+ "book+
of+ revelation"& sig=AmfrifDlGtS92J3RYA22eIK-Fqs), P.297. ISBN 0-8028-3516-3 ISBN 978-0-8028-3516-1, Grand Rapids, Mich.:
Eerdmans, 1979.
[36] Merrill Unger and Gary Larson. "Revelation." The New Unger's Bible Handbook. Chicago: Moody, 2005.
[37] Adela Collins. "Patmos." Harper's Bible Dictionary. Paul J. Achtemeier, gen. ed. San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1985. p755.
[38] D.Guthrie, J.A.Motyer, A.M.Stibbs, D.J.Wiseman, eds. New Bible Commentary. 3rd ed. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdman's, 1970. p.1282.
[39] "Apocalypse" (http:/ / www. newadvent. org/ cathen/ 01594b. htm). Catholic Encyclopedia. . Retrieved 2007-05-11.
[40] Grout, James. "Nero as the Antichrist" (http:/ / penelope. uchicago. edu/ ~grout/ encyclopaedia_romana/ gladiators/ nero. html).
Encyclopaedia Romana. . Retrieved 2008-06-13.
[41] Hanegraaff, Hank. 2007. The Apocalypse Code (ISBN 0-8499-0184-7) Nashville, Tennessee: Thomas Nelson, Inc.
Book of Revelation 62

[42] Robert J. Karris (ed.) The Collegeville Bible Commentary Liturgical Press, 1992 p. 1296.
[43] Ken Bowers, Hiding in plain sight, Cedar Fort, 2000 p. 175.
[44] Carl Gustav Jung in his autobiography Memories Dream Reflections said "I will not discuss the transparent prophecies of the Book of
Revelation because no one believes in them and the whole subject is felt to be an embarrassing one."
[45] Erickson, Millard J. (1982). Contemporary Options in Eschatology. Baker Book House. ISBN 0801032628. pp. 94–95
[46] "The Whore of Babylon" (http:/ / www. catholic. com/ library/ Whore_of_Babylon. asp). Catholic Answers. . Retrieved 2007-05-11.
[47] 'It has been usual to say that the Spanish Jesuit Alcasar, in his Vestigatio arcani sensus in Apocalpysi (1614), was the founder of the
Præterist School', Farrar, Frederic, 'The Early Days of Christianity', volume 2 (1882)
[48] 'Alcazar was the first to apply Preterism to the Apocalypse with anything like completeness, though it had previously been applied
somewhat to Daniel', Froom, Leroy Edwin, 'The Prophetic Faith Of Our Fathers', volume 2, page 509 (1954)
[49] 'It might be expected, that a commentary which thus freed the Romish church from the assaults of Protestants, would be popular among the
advocates of the papacy. Alcassar met, of course, with general approbation and reception among the Romish community', Stuart, Moses ‘A
Commentary On The Apocalypse’, page 464 (1845)
[50] 'It is hardly surprising, given this general context, that the relatively few English Catholic commentators who turned their hands to the
interpretation of these same passages should be concerned to counter this widely held, if somewhat variously presented, Protestant view. The
response came in three basic forms: preterism, futurism, and 'counter historicism' - a term that has been created for the purposes of this
discussion', Newport, Kenneth GC, 'Apocalypse and Millennium: Studies in Biblical Eisegesis', page 74 (2000)
[51] Averky (Taushev), Archbishop (1996-Eng. tr. Fr. Seraphim Rose). The Apocalypse: In the Teachings of Ancient Christianity. Platina,
California: St. Herman of Alaska Brotherhood. ISBN 978-0938635673
[52] Scott Hahn, The Lamb's Supper: The Mass as Heaven on Earth, ISBN 0-385-49659-1. New York, New York: Doubleday, 1999.
[53] R. Frances Swiney (Rosa Frances Emily Biggs) The Esoteric Teaching of the Gnostics London: Yellon, Williams & Co (1909) p.3 & 4
[54] James M. Pryse Apocalypse unsealed London: Watkins (1910). The theory behind the book is given in Arthur Avalon (Sir John Woodroffe)
The Serpent Power Madras (Chennai): Ganesh & Co (1913). One version of how these beliefs might have travelled from India to the Middle
East, Greece and Rome is given in the opening chapters of Rudolf Otto The Kingdom of God and the Son of Man London: Lutterworth (1938)
[55] Christopher Rowland Revelation London:Epworth (1993) p.5
[56] Howard-Brook, Wes; Gwyther, Anthony (1999). Unveiling Empire: Reading Revelation Then and Now. Orbis Books.
ISBN 9781570752872.
[57] Rieger, Joerg (2007). Christ & Empire: From Paul to Postcolonial Times. Fortress Press. ISBN 978-0800620387.
[58] Charles C. Torrey The Apocalypse of John New Haven: Yale University Press (1958). Christopher R. North in his The Second Isaiah
London: OUP (1964) p. 23 says of Torrey's earlier Isaiah theory, "Few scholars of any standing have accepted his theory." This is the general
view of Torrey's theories. However, Christopher North goes on to cite Torrey on 20 major occasions and many more minor ones in the course
of his book. So, Torrey must have had some influence and poetry is the key.
[59] Apocalypse of John p. 7
[60] Apocalypse of John p. 37
[61] Apocalypse of John p. 8
[62] Apocalypse of John p. 137
[63] Apocalypse of John p. 140
[64] "Flowers preach to us if we will hear", begins her poem 'Consider the lilies of the field' Goblin Market London: Oxford University Press
(1913) p. 87
[65] Ms Rossetti remarks that patience is a word which does not occur in the Bible until the New Testament, as if the usage first came from
Christ's own lips. Christina Rossetti The Face of the Deep London: SPCK (1892) p. 115
[66] "Christians should resemble fire-flies, not glow-worms; their brightness drawing eyes upward, not downward." The Face of the Deep p. 26
[67] 'vision' lends the wrong emphasis as Ms Rossetti sought to minimise the distinction between John's experience and that of others. She quoted
1 John 3:24 "He abideth in us, by the Spirit which he hath given us" to show that when John says, "I was in the Spirit" it is not exceptional.
[68] The Face of the Deep p. 301
[69] The Face of the Deep p. 292
[70] The Face of the Deep p. 495
[71] Elisabeth Schuessler Fiorenza Revelation: Vision of a just world Edinburgh: T&T Clark (1993). The book seems to have started life as
Invitation to the Book of Revelation Garden City: Doubleday (1981)
[72] Tina Pippin Death & Desire: The rhetoric of gender in the Apocalypse of John Louisville: Westminster-John Knox (1993) p. 105
[73] D. H. Lawrence Apocalypse London: Martin Secker (1932) published posthumously with an introduction (p. v - xli) by Richard Aldington
which is an integral part of the text.
[74] Apocalypse p. xxiii
[75] Apocalypse p. 6
[76] Apocalypse p. 11 Lawrence did not consider how these two types of Christianity (good and bad in his view) might be related other than as
opposites. He noted the difference meant that the John who wrote a gospel could not be the same John that wrote Revelation.
[77] Pope Benedict: Read Book of Revelation as Christ's victory over evil - Catholic Online (http:/ / www. catholic. org/ international/
international_story. php?id=20995)
[78] Robert Green Ingersoll. "The Devil" (http:/ / www. infidels. org/ library/ historical/ robert_ingersoll/ devil. html). . Retrieved 2007-11-30.
Book of Revelation 63

[79] Bergh: Writings of Thomas Jefferson, Vol. 16 (http:/ / www. constitution. org/ tj/ jeff16. htm)
[80] Keith Gilmour on Revelation (http:/ / www. infidels. org/ library/ modern/ keith_gilmour/ revelation. html)
[81] For the preface of 1522 see Luther's Works volume 35 pp. 398–399. For the quotation of the preface from 1530 see the same volume, p.
411.
[82] Drane, John. An Introduction to The Bible. ISBN 0-7459-1910-3 p 778
[83] Wes Howard-Brook & Anthony Gwyther Unveiling Empire New York: Orbis (1999) p. 76
[84] S Moyise p.13 reports no work whatsoever done between 1912 and 1984
[85] Anon An exposition of the Apocalypse on a new principle of literal interpretation Aberdeen: Brown (1871)
[86] S. Moyise The Old Testament in the Book of Revelation Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press (1995) p. 31
[87] Ian Boxall The Revelation of St John London: Continuum & Peabody MA: Hendrickson (2006) p. 254
[88] G. K. Beale John's use of the Old Testament in Revelation Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press (1998) p. 109

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• Hahn, Scott (1999) The Lamb's Supper: Mass as Heaven on Earth, Darton, Longman, Todd, ISBN 0-232-52500-5
• Shepherd, Massey H. (2004) The Paschal Liturgy and the Apocalypse, James Clarke, ISBN 0-227-17005-9
• Stonehouse, Ned B., (c. 1929) The Apocalypse in the Ancient Church. A Study in the History of the New
Testament Canon, n.d., Goes: Oosterbaan & Le Cointre. [Major discussion of the controversy surrounding the
acceptance/rejection of Revelation into the New Testament canon.]
Book of Revelation 64

• Sweet, J. P. M., (1979, Updated 1990) Revelation, London: SCM Press, and Philadelphia: Trinity Press
International. ISBN 0-334-02311-4.
• Wikenhauser A., Offenbarung des Johannes, Regensburg 1947, 1959.
• Witherington III, Ben, (2003) Revelation, The New Cambridge Bible Commentary, New York: Cambridge
University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-00068-0.
• Zahn Th., Die Offenbarung des Johannes, t. 1-2, Leipzig 1924–1926.
• Francesco Vitali, Piccolo Dizionario dell'Apocalisse, TAU Editrice, Todi 2008

External links
• Early Christian Writings: (http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/revelation.html) Apocalypse of John: text,
introduction, context
• "Revelation to John." (http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/500324/Revelation-to-John)
Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
• Apocalypse, Book of (http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01594b.htm) - Article from the Catholic
Encyclopedia
• Understanding the Book of Revelation (http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/apocalypse/
revelation/white.html) - Article by L. Michael White from PBS Frontline program "Apocalypse!"
• Jewish Encyclopedia (http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=248&letter=R)
• Revelation Audio and Video (http://www.shanejwood.com) - Over 80 hours of free audio and video lectures on
Revelation
''The Last Man'' 65

The Last Man


The Last Man

Title page from an 1826 edition of volume II printed in Paris


Author Mary Shelley

Country England

Language English

Genre(s) Science Fiction, Apocalyptic fiction

Publisher Henry Colburn

Publication date February 1826

Media type Three-volume novel

The Last Man is an apocalyptic science fiction novel by Mary Shelley, which was first published in 1826. The book
tells of a future world that has been ravaged by a plague. The novel was harshly reviewed at the time, and was
virtually unknown until a scholarly revival beginning in the 1960s. It is notable in part for its semi-biographical
portraits of Romantic figures in Shelley's circle, particularly Shelley's late husband Percy Bysshe Shelley and Lord
Byron.

Characters
Lionel Verney The Last Man. The orphan son of an impoverished nobleman, Lionel is originally lawless,
self-willed, and resentful of the nobility for casting aside his father. When he is befriended by Adrian, however, he
embraces civilization and particularly scholarship. Verney is largely an autobiographical figure for Mary Shelley.[1]
Adrian, Earl of Windsor Son of the last King of England, Adrian embraces republican principles. He is motivated
by philosophy and philanthropy, rather than ambition. He is based on Percy Bysshe Shelley.[2]
Lord Raymond An ambitious young nobleman, Raymond becomes famous for his military efforts on behalf of
Greece against the Turks, but eventually chooses love over his ambition to become King of England. He instead
becomes Lord Protector of England before returning to Greece. Raymond is motivated by passion and ambition
rather than principle. He is based on Lord Byron.[3]
Perdita Lionel's sister, and Raymond's wife. Growing up an orphan, Perdita was independent, distrustful, and proud,
but she is softened by love for Raymond, to whom she is fiercely loyal.
Idris Adrian's sister, and Verney's wife. She is loving, maternal, and self-sacrificing.
Countess of Windsor Mother of Adrian and Idris, an Austrian princess and former Queen of England. She is
haughty and ambitious, scheming to restore the monarchy through her children.
''The Last Man'' 66

Evadne A Greek princess with whom Adrian falls in love, but who loves Raymond. She is devoted and proud, even
when she becomes impoverished.
Clara Daughter of Raymond and Perdita.
Alfred and Evelyn Sons of Verney and Idris.
Ryland Leader of the popular Democratic party, Ryland has grand plans for the abolition of nobility before the
plague, but is unwilling to govern England during the plague.
Merrival An astronomer who is oblivious to the plague, instead speculating about the condition of earth in six
thousand years, until his family dies.
Lucy Martin A young woman who chose to marry a repulsive suitor rather than wait for her true love, in order to
provide for her aging mother. Her devotion to her mother almost leads to her being left behind in England after the
exile.
The Imposter Unnamed - a false prophet (from ambition, rather than fanaticism) who creates a radical religious sect
in opposition to Adrian while in France.
Juliet A young noblewoman who joins the Imposter's party in order to support her baby, but is later killed revealing
his imposture.

Plot summary

Introduction
Mary Shelley claims that in 1818 she discovered, in the Sibyl's cave near Naples, a collection of prophetic writings
painted on leaves by the Cumaean Sibyl. She has edited these writings into the current narrative, the first-person
narrative of a man living at the end of the 21st century.

Volume 1
Lionel's father was a friend of the king before he was cast away because of his gambling. Lionel's father left to take
his life but before he did, he left a letter for the king to take care of his family after his death. After Lionel's father
died the letter was never delivered. Lionel and his sister grew up with no support and because of it grew to be
uncivilized. Lionel grew to hate the royal family and Perdita grew to enjoy her isolation from society. When the king
left the throne the monarchy came to an end and a republic is created. When the king dies the Countess attempts to
raise their son, Adrian, to reclaim the throne, but Adrian opposes his mother and refuses to take the throne. Adrian
moves to Cumberland where Lionel, who bears a grudge against Adrian and his family for the neglect of the Verney
family, intends to terrorize and confront Adrian. He is mollified by Adrian's good nature and his explanation that he
only recently discovered the letter. Lionel and Adrian become close friends, and Lionel becomes civilized and
philosophical under Adrian's influence.
Lionel returns to England to face the personal turmoil amongst his acquaintances. Lord Raymond, who came to
renown for his exploits in the war between Greece and Turkey, has returned to England in search of political
position, and soon Perdita and Evadne both fall in love with him. On discovering that his beloved, Evadne, is in love
with Raymond, Adrian goes into exile, presumably mad. Raymond intends to marry Idris (with whom Lionel is in
love) as a first step towards becoming king, with the help of the Countess. However, he ultimately chooses his love
for Perdita over his ambition, and the two marry. Under Lionel's care Adrian recovers, although he remains
physically weak. On learning of the love between Idris and Lionel, the Countess schemes to drug Idris, bring her to
Austria, and force her to make a politically motivated marriage. Idris discovers the plot and flees to Lionel, who
marries her soon after. The Countess leaves for Austria, resentful of her children and of Lionel.
Adrian and the others live happily together until Raymond runs for Lord Protector and wins. Perdita soon adjusts to
her newfound social position, while Raymond becomes well-beloved as a benevolent administrator. He discovers,
''The Last Man'' 67

however, that Evadne, after the political and financial ruin of her husband (on account of her own political schemes)
is living in poverty and obscurity in London, unwilling to plead for assistance. Raymond attempts to support Evadne
by employing her artistic skills in secrecy, and later nursing her in illness, but Perdita learns of the relationship and
suspects infidelity. Her suspicions arouse Raymond's proud and passionate nature, and the two separate. Raymond
resigns his position and leaves to rejoin the war in Greece, accompanied for a time by Adrian. Shortly after the
wounded Adrian returns to England, rumors arise that Raymond has been killed. Perdita, loyal in spite of everything,
convinces Lionel to bring her and Clara to Greece to find him.

Volume 2
Lionel finds Raymond and brings him back to Greece. Lionel and Raymond then go back to fighting and go to
Constantinople. Lionel discovers Evadne, dying of wounds received fighting in the war. Before she dies, Evadne
prophesies Raymond's death, a prophecy which confirms Raymond's own suspicions. Raymond's intention to enter
Constantinople causes dissension and desertion amongst the army because of reports of the plague. Raymond enters
the city alone, and soon dies in a fire. He is taken to Athens for burial.
In 2092, while Lionel and Adrian attempt to return their lives to normality, the plague continues to spread across
Europe and the Americas, and reports of a black sun cause panic throughout the world. At first England is thought to
be safe, but soon the plague reaches even there. Ryland, recently elected Lord Protector, is unprepared for the
plague, and flees northward, later dying alone amidst a stockpile of provisions. Adrian takes command and is largely
effective at maintaining order and humanity in England, although the plague rages on summer after summer. Ships
arrive in Ireland carrying survivors from America, who lawlessly plunder Ireland and Scotland before invading
England. Adrian raises a military force against them, but ultimately is able to resolve the situation peacefully.

Volume 3
The few remaining survivors decide to abandon England in search of an easier climate. On the eve of their departure
Alfred before reaching Dover Lionel receives a letter from Lucy Martin, who was unable to join the exiles because
of her mother's illness. Lionel and Idris travel through a snowstorm to assist Lucy, but Idris, weak from years of
stress and maternal fears, dies along the way. Lionel and the Countess, who had shunned Idris and her family out of
resentment towards Lionel, are reconciled at Idris' tomb. Lionel recovers Lucy (whose mother has died), and the
party reaches Dover en route to France.
In France, Adrian discovers that the earlier emigrants have divided into factions, amongst them a fanatical religious
sect led by a false messiah who claims that his followers will be saved from disease. Adrian unites most of the
factions, but this latter group declares violent opposition to Adrian. Lionel sneaks into Paris, where the cult has
settled, to try to rescue Juliet. She refuses to leave because the imposter has her baby, but she helps Lionel to escape.
Later, when Juliet's baby sickens, Juliet discovers that the imposter has been hiding the effects of the plague from his
followers. She is killed warning the other followers, after which the imposter commits suicide, and his followers
return to the main body of exiles at Versailles.
The exiles travel towards Switzerland, hoping to spend the summer in a colder climate less favorable to the plague.
By the time they reach Switzerland, however, all but four (Lionel, Adrian, Clara, and Evelyn) have died. The four
spend a few relatively happy seasons at Switzerland, Milan, and Como before Evelyn dies of typhus. The survivors
attempt to sail across the Adriatic Sea to Greece, but a sudden storm drowns Clara and Adrian. Lionel, the last man,
swims to shore. The story ends in the year 2100.
''The Last Man'' 68

Themes

Biographical elements
Many of the central characters are wholly or partially based upon Shelley's acquaintances (Peck, 1923). Shelley had
been forbidden by her father-in-law, Sir Timothy Shelley, from publishing a biography of her husband, so she
memorialized him, amongst others, in The Last Man. The utopian Adrian, Earl of Windsor, who leads his followers
in search of a natural paradise and dies when his boat sinks in a storm, is a fictional portrait of Percy Bysshe Shelley,
although other minor characters such as Merrival bear traces of Percy as well.[4] Lord Raymond, who leaves England
to fight for the Greeks and dies in Constantinople, is based on Lord Byron. The novel expresses Mary Shelley's pain
at the loss of her community of the "Elect",[5] as she called them,[6] and Lionel Verney has been seen as an outlet for
her feelings of loss and boredom following their deaths and the deaths of her children.[7]
It appears that Shelley found inspiration for the novel in Jean-Baptiste Cousin de Grainville's Le Dernier Homme
(1805), translated into English in 1806 as Omegarus and Syderia.[8]

Failure of romantic political ideals


The Last Man not only laments the loss of Shelley's friends, but also questions the Romantic political ideals they
stood for.[9] In a sense, the plague is metaphorical, since the revolutionary idyll of the élite group is corroded from
within by flaws of human nature.[10] As literary scholar Kari Lokke writes, "in its refusal to place humanity at the
center of the universe, its questioning of our privileged position in relation to nature, then, The Last Man constitutes
a profound and prophetic challenge to Western humanism."[11] Specifically, Mary Shelley, in making references to
the failure of the French Revolution and the Godwinian, Wollstonecraftian, and Burkean responses to it, "attacks
Enlightenment faith in the inevitability of progress through collective efforts".[12]

Isolation
Hugh Luke argues that "By ending her story with the picture of the Earth's solitary inhabitant, she has brought nearly
the whole weight of the novel to bear upon the idea that the condition of the individual being is essentially isolated
and therefore ultimately tragic" (xvii). Shelley shares this theme of tragic isolation with the poetry of Lord Byron and
William Wordsworth.[13]

Publication history and reception


Two editions of The Last Man were published by Henry Colburn in London in 1826, and one edition in Paris in 1826
by Galignani. A pirated edition was printed in America in 1833.[14] The Last Man received the worst reviews of all
of Mary Shelley's novels: most reviewers derided the very theme of lastness, which had become a common one in
the previous two decades. Individual reviewers labeled the book "sickening", criticised its "stupid cruelties", and
called the author's imagination "diseased".[15] The reaction startled Mary Shelley, who promised her publisher a
more popular book next time. Nonetheless, she later spoke of The Last Man as one of her favourite works. The novel
was not republished until 1965. In the 20th century it received new critical attention, perhaps because the notion of
lastness had become more relevant.[16]
''The Last Man'' 69

Notes
[1] Luke, Hugh J. Introduction. The Last Man by Mary Shelley. Lincoln, Nebraska: U of Nebraska Press, 1965. xii
[2] Luke xi
[3] Luke xii
[4] Bennett, An Introduction, 74; Lokke, 119; Luke xi-xiv.
[5] Paley, Introduction to The Last Man, viii. Mary Shelley used this term in a letter of 3 October 1824.
[6] Paley, Introduction to The Last Man, viii. "The last man!" Mary Shelley wrote in her journal in May 1824. "Yes I may well describe that
solitary being's feelings, feeling myself the last relic of a beloved race, my companions extinct before me". Paley, Introduction to The Last
Man, vii–viii.
[7] Luke xii.
[8] Science Fiction in France before Verne (http:/ / www. depauw. edu/ sfs/ backissues/ 14/ angenot14art. htm)
[9] Paley, Introduction to The Last Man, xvi; Lokke, 117.
[10] Lokke, 128–29.
[11] Lokke, 116.
[12] Lokke, 128.
[13] Luke xvii.
[14] Luke xxi
[15] Paley, Introduction to The Last Man, xxi.
[16] Paley, Introduction to The Last Man, xxii–xxiii.

Bibliography
• Aaron, Jane. "The Return of the Repressed: Reading Mary Shelley's The Last Man". Feminist Criticism: Theory
and Practice. Ed. Susan Sellers. New York: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1991.
• Aldiss, Brian W. "On the Origin of Species: Mary Shelley". Speculations on Speculation: Theories of Science
Fiction. Eds. James Gunn and Matthew Candelaria. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow, 2005.
• An, Young-Ok. "'Read Your Fall': The Signs of Plague in The Last Man". Studies in Romanticism 44.4 (2005):
581-604.
• Bannet, Eve Tavor. "The 'Abyss of the Present' and Women's Time in Mary Shelley's The Last Man".
Eighteenth-Century Novel 2 (2002): 353-81.
• Bennett, Betty T. Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley: An Introduction. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press,
1998. ISBN 080185976X.
• Bennett, Betty T. "Radical Imaginings: Mary Shelley's The Last Man". Wordsworth Circle 26.3 (1995): 147-52.
• Blumberg, Jane. Mary Shelley's Early Novels: "This Child of Imagination and Misery". Iowa City: University of
Iowa Press, 1993. ISBN 0877453977.
• Cantor, Paul A. "The Apocalypse of Empire: Mary Shelley's The Last Man". Iconoclastic Departures: Mary
Shelley after "Frankenstein": Essays in Honor of the Bicentenary of Mary Shelley's Birth. Eds. Syndy M. Conger,
Frederick S. Frank, and Gregory O'Dea. Madison, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1997.
• Canuel, Mark. "Acts, Rules, and The Last Man". Nineteenth-Century Literature 53.2 (1998): 147-70.
• Clemit, Pamela. The Godwinian Novel: The Rational Fictions of Godwin, Brockden Brown, Mary Shelley.
Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993. ISBN 0198112203.
• Eberle-Sinatra, Michael. "Gender, Authorship and Male Domination: Mary Shelley's Limited Freedom in
Frankenstein and The Last Man". Mary Shelley's Fictions: From Frankenstein to Falkner. Eds. Michael
Eberle-Sinatra and Nora Crook. New York: Macmillan; St. Martin's, 2000.
• Fisch, Audrey A. "Plaguing Politics: AIDS, Deconstruction, and The Last Man". The Other Mary Shelley: Beyond
Frankenstein. Eds. Audrey A. Fisch, Anne K. Mellor, and Esther H. Schor. New York: New York University
Press, 1993. ISBN 0195077407.
• Haggerty, George E. "'The End of History': Identity and Dissolution in Apocalyptic Gothic". Eighteenth Century:
Theory and Interpretation 41.3 (2000): 225-46.
• Hopkins, Lisa. "Memory at the End of History: Mary Shelley's The Last Man". Romanticism on the Net 6 (May
1997).
''The Last Man'' 70

• Hopkins, Lisa. "The Last Man and the Language of the Heart". Romanticism on the Net 22 (May 2001).
• Hutchings, Kevin. "'A Dark Image in a Phantasmagoria': Pastoral Idealism, Prophecy, and Materiality in Mary
Shelley's The Last Man". Romanticism 10.2 (2004): 228-44.
• Johnson, Barbara. "The Last Man". The Other Mary Shelley: Beyond Frankenstein. Eds. Audrey A. Fisch, Anne
K. Mellor, and Esther H. Schor. New York: New York University Press, 1993. ISBN 0195077407.
• Kilgour, Maggie. "'One Immortality': The Shaping of the Shelleys in The Last Man". European Romantic Review
16.5 (2005): 563-88.
• Lokke, Kari. "The Last Man". The Cambridge Companion to Mary Shelley. Ed. Esther Schor. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 2003. ISBN 0521007704.
• Lomax, William. "Epic Reversal in Mary Shelley's The Last Man: Romantic Irony and the Roots of Science
Fiction". Contours of the Fantastic: Selected Essays from the Eighth International Conference on the Fantastic in
the Arts. Ed. Michele K. Langford. New York: Greenwood, 1994.
• McWhir, Anne. "'Unconceiving Marble': Anatomy and Animation in Frankenstein and The Last Man". Mary
Wollstonecraft and Mary Shelley: Writing Lives. Eds. Helen M. Buss, D. L. Macdonald, and Anne McWhir.
Waterloo, ON: Wilfrid Laurier University Press, 2001.
• Mellor, Anne K. Mary Shelley: Her Life, her Fiction, Her Monsters. London: Routledge, 1990. ISBN
0415901472.
• Nellist, Brian. "Imagining the Future: Predictive Fiction in the Nineteenth Century". Anticipations: Essays on
Early Science Fiction and Its Precursors. Ed. David Seed. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1995.
• O'Dea, Gregory. "Prophetic History and Textuality in Mary Shelley's The Last Man". Papers on Language and
Literature 28.3 (1992): 283-304.
• Palacio, Jean de. "Mary Shelley, The Last Man: A Minor Romantic Theme". Revue de Littérature Comparée 42
(1968): 37-49.
• Paley, Morton. "The Last Man: Apocalypse without Millennium". The Other Mary Shelley: Beyond Frankenstein.
Eds. Audrey A. Fisch, Anne K. Mellor, and Esther H. Schor. New York: New York University Press, 1993. ISBN
0195077407.
• Peck, Walter E. "The Biographical Elements in the Novels of Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley." PMLA, XXXCIII
(1923), 196-220.
• Poovey, Mary. The Proper Lady and the Woman Writer: Ideology as Style in the Works of Mary Wollstonecraft,
Mary Shelley and Jane Austen. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985. ISBN 0226675289.
• Richardson, Alan. "The Last Man and the Plague of Empire (http://www.rc.umd.edu/villa/vc97/richardson.
html)". Romantic Circles MOO Conference. 13 September 1997.
• Shelley, Mary. The Last Man. Ed. Morton D. Paley. Oxford: Oxford Paperbacks, 1998. ISBN 0192838652.
• Snyder, Robert Lance. "Apocalypse and Indeterminacy in Mary Shelley's The Last Man". Studies in Romanticism
17 (1978): 435-52.
• Spatt, Hartley S. "Mary Shelley's Last Men: The Truth of Dreams". Studies in the Novel 7 (1975): 526-37.
• Sterrenburg, Lee. "The Last Man: Anatomy of Failed Revolutions". Nineteenth-Century Fiction 33 (1978):
324-47.
• Sussman, Charlotte. "'Islanded in the World': Cultural Memory and Human Mobility in The Last Man". PMLA
118.2 (2003): 286-301.
• Thomas, Sophie. "The Ends of the Fragment, the Problem of the Preface: Proliferation and Finality in The Last
Man". Mary Shelley's Fictions: From Frankenstein to Falkner. Eds. Michael Eberle-Sinatra and Nora Crook.
New York: Macmillan; St. Martin's, 2000.
• Wagner-Lawlor, Jennifer A. "Performing History, Performing Humanity in Mary Shelley's The Last Man".
Studies in English Literature, 1500-1900 42.4 (2002): 753-80.
• Webb, Samantha. "Reading the End of the World: The Last Man, History, and the Agency of Romantic
Authorship". Mary Shelley in Her Times. Eds. Betty T. Bennett and Stuart Curran. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins
''The Last Man'' 71

University Press, 2000.


• Wells, Lynn. "The Triumph of Death: Reading Narrative in Mary Shelley's The Last Man". Iconoclastic
Departures: Mary Shelley after "Frankenstein": Essays in Honor of the Bicentenary of Mary Shelley's Birth. Eds.
Syndy M. Conger, Frederick S. Frank, and Gregory O'Dea. Madison, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press,
1997.
• Wright, Julia M. "'Little England': Anxieties of Space in Mary Shelley's The Last Man". Mary Shelley's Fictions:
From Frankenstein to Falkner. Eds. Michael Eberle-Sinatra and Nora Crook. New York: Macmillan; St. Martin's,
2000.

External links
• The Last Man (1826) (http://books.google.com/books?id=qL8NAAAAQAAJ&dq=inauthor:Mary+
inauthor:Shelley&lr=&as_brr=1) from Google Books
• The Last Man (http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/18247) at Project Gutenberg
• Audio recording (http://librivox.org/the-last-man-by-mary-shelley) of this work at LibriVox.
After London 72

After London
Richard Jefferies

Richard Jefferies, aged 33


Born

Died 14 August 1887

Nationality English

John Richard Jefferies (6 November 1848 - 14 August 1887) was an English nature writer, noted for his depiction
of English rural life in essays, books of natural history, and novels. His childhood on a small Wiltshire farm had a
great influence on him and provides the background to all his major works of fiction. For all that, these show a
remarkable diversity, including Bevis (1882), a classic children's book, and After London (1885), an early work of
science fiction. For much of his adult life, he suffered from tuberculosis, and his struggles with the illness and with
poverty also play a role in his writing. Jefferies valued and cultivated an intensity of feeling in his experience of the
world around him, a cultivation that he describes in detail in The Story of My Heart (1883). This work, an
introspective depiction of his thoughts and feelings on the world, gained him the reputation of a nature mystic at the
time. But it is his success in conveying his awareness of nature and people within it, both in his fiction and in essay
collections such as The Amateur Poacher (1879) and Round About a Great Estate (1880), that has drawn most
admirers. Walter Besant wrote of his reaction on first reading Jefferies: "Why, we must have been blind all our lives;
here were the most wonderful things possible going on under our very noses, but we saw them not."[1]

Life and Works

Early life
John Richard Jefferies (he used the first name only during his
childhood)[3] was born at Coate, in the parish of Chiseldon, near
Swindon, Wiltshire, the son of a farmer, James Luckett Jefferies
(1816–1896).[4] His birthplace and home is now a museum open to the
public. James Jefferies had the farm from his father, John Jefferies,
who had been a London printer before returning to Swindon to run the
family mill and bakery. Richard's mother, Elizabeth (1817–1895),
always called Betsy, was the daughter of John Jefferies' binder and Coate farm in 1896. The roof was originally
manager.[4] These relationships are mirrored in the characters of thatched.
[2]

Jefferies' late novel Amaryllis at the Fair (1887); and the portraits of
the family in the novel tally with external accounts of the Jefferies.[5] James Jefferies, like Iden in Amaryllis, was
After London 73

devoted to his garden, while struggling to make a financial success of the farm. The garden, lovingly recalled in
Wood Magic and Amaryllis, also makes a strong impression on the memories of those who knew the Jefferies at the
time.[6] Betsy, like Iden's wife, seems to have been dissatisfied with life on the farm:[3] "a town-bred woman with a
beautiful face and a pleasure-loving soul, kind and generous to a fault, but unsuited to a country life." The farm was
very small, with 39 acres ( m2) of pasture; and a mortgage of £1500 would later begin a slide into debt for James
Jefferies, who lost the farm in 1877 and became a jobbing gardener.[7] But these difficulties were less evident in
Richard's childhood. The situation was much as in After London (1885), where the farming and gardening Baron is
again based on James Jefferies:[8] "The whole place was thus falling to decay, while at the same time it seemed to be
flowing with milk and honey". One part of the Jefferies family is strikingly missing from the books. In Wood Magic,
Bevis and Amaryllis, the hero (or heroine) has no siblings; only After London gives the main character brothers and
depicts the imperfect sympathy between them. James and Elizabeth's first child, Ellen, had died young; but Richard
had two younger brothers and a younger sister.[3]
Jefferies spent several of his earlier years, between the ages of four and nine, with his aunt and uncle, the Harrilds, in
Sydenham, where he attended a private school, returning to Coate in the holidays.[9] He kept a close friendship with
Mrs. Harrild and his letters to her are an important source for biographers. At Coate, he spent most of his time in the
countryside; and much of what he narrates of Bevis is true of himself. His father had taken him shooting when he
was eight; and already at nine he had shot a rabbit. He was soon spending much of his time hunting (both with a gun
and with snares) and fishing.[10] He also, like Bevis, added home-made rigging to a boat to sail on the reservoir; and
he is said to have built his own canoe, like the hero of After London.[11] At the same time, he became a keen reader:
favourite books included Homer's Odyssey, Percy's Reliques, Don Quixote and James Fenimore Cooper's The
Pathfinder, which served as a model for mock battles fought on a field between the farm and the reservoir.[12]
In November 1864, at the age of sixteen, he and a cousin, James Cox, ran off to France, intending to walk to Russia.
(Cox, slightly older than Jefferies, worked for the Great Western Railway and had a little money saved.) After
crossing the channel, they soon found that their schoolboy French was insufficient and returned to England. Before
they reached Swindon, they noticed an advertisement for cheap crossings from Liverpool to America and set off in
this new direction. The tickets however, did not include the cost of food; and the boys were forced to return to
Swindon after an attempt to pawn their watches had drawn the attention of the police.[13]
Jefferies left school at fifteen and at first continued his habits of
solitary wanderings about the local countryside. He dressed carelessly
and allowed his hair to grow down to his collar. This, with his "bent
form and long, rapid stride made him an object of wonder in the town
of Swindon. But he was perfectly unconscious of this, or indifferent to
it."[14] He helped little on the farm (his only enthusiasm was for
chopping and splitting wood) and was regarded as something of an
idler. The gun that he always carried drew the suspicion of local
landowners — one said, "That young Jefferies is not the sort of fellow
you want hanging about in your covers".[15] Finally, early in 1866, he
started work as a newspaper reporter for the North Wiltshire
Herald.[16] For several years he worked as a reporter, contributing not
only to the North Wiltshire Herald, but also to the Wilts and
Gloucestershire Standard and to the Swindon Advertiser.[17] The editor
of the Swindon Advertiser, William Morris, an antiquarian and local
Jefferies in 1872 historian, lent Jefferies books and encouraged his early writing
attempts.[18] Jefferies himself developed an antiquarian interest in the
countryside: he published articles on local history in the North Wiltshire Herald and was the first to notice a stone
After London 74

circle near Coate Farm. He was also spending much time on the downs, particularly at the iron age hill fort,
Liddington Castle, where he would lie on the grass, ecstatically feeling and seeking a connection with the natural
world.[19] In September 1867 and July 1868 he was very ill. In retrospect the illnesses were clearly the first
symptoms of the tuberculosis that would kill him. He emerged from them weakened and very thin — "My legs are as
thin as a grasshopper's", he wrote to his aunt. Illness also prompted some reconsideration of his own character: he
was going to be "not swell but stylish" in future, since people set so much store by appearance.[20]
He was now actively pursuing a career as a writer, writing a history of the Goddards, a local family, and Reporting,
Editing, and Authorship: Practical Hints for Beginners in Literature (1873), in which he shared the fruits of his brief
experience as a local reporter. Meanwhile the novels he was writing could not find a publisher.[21] What national
attention he attracted was instead from a series of letters to The Times on the Wiltshire agricultural labourer,
published in November 1872. The letters, like his other writings from this period, reflect the Conservative outlook of
his upbringing.[22]
In 1874, the year of his first published novel, The Scarlet Shawl, he married Jessie Baden (1853–1926), the daughter
of a nearby farmer. After living for a few months at Coate Farm, the couple moved to a house in Swindon in 1875
(its current address is 93 Victoria Road); and their first child, Richard Harold Jefferies, was born there on 3 May.[23]

First successes

Essays
While in Swindon, Jefferies had found it difficult to seek publication or employment with London publishers[24] ;
and early in 1877, with Jessie and their baby son Harold, he moved to a house at what is now 296 Ewell Road,
Tolworth, near Surbiton.[25] (There is a wooden plaque commemorating this by the entrance to Surbiton Library.[26] )
The area was then at the limits of London's growth. Jefferies spent much time wandering through the nearby
countryside; and these walks would later provide the material for Nature Near London (1883).[27]
The Surbiton years were momentous. The couple's next child, a
daughter called Jessie after her mother (but known by her second
name, Phyllis), was born (on December 6, 1880),[4] and Jefferies began
to make his name at last. His new surroundings defined him, both to
himself and others, as a country writer. Articles drawing on Jefferies'
Wiltshire experiences found a ready market in the Pall Mall Gazette.
First came a series of essays based on his friendship with the keeper of
the Burderop estate, near Coate, The Gamekeeper at Home, collected
as a book in 1878. The book was well received and Jefferies was
compared with the great English nature writer, Gilbert White.[4] Three
more collections followed the same pattern of publication in the Pall
Anemone leaf from Round About a Great Estate,
Mall Gazette and then in book form: Wild Life in a Southern County
described in chap. 5. Smith, Elder & Co. used the
and The Amateur Poacher (both 1879), and Round About a Great emblem in subsequent editions of Jefferies'
Estate (1880). Another collection, Hodge and his Masters (1880), [28]
books.
brought together articles first published in the Standard. In the few
years that Jefferies took to write these essays, his literary skill developed rapidly: The Amateur Poacher in particular
is regarded as a major advance on the earlier works, the first in which he approaches the autobiographical subject
matter that is behind his best works.[29] A minor novel, Greene Ferne Farm (1880), was the first to gain recognition,
both from contemporaries and in later scholarship.[30]
After London 75

The Bevis books


Two books of these years form a sequence. Wood Magic: A Fable (1881) introduces his child-hero, Bevis, a small
child on a farm near a small lake, called the "Longpond", clearly Coate Farm and Coate Reservoir. Bevis's
exploration of the garden and neighbouring fields brings him into contact with the country's birds and animals, who
can speak to him, as can even inanimate parts of nature, such as the stream and the wind. Part of the book is a
depiction of a small child's interaction with the natural world, but much is a cynical animal fable of a revolt against
the magpie Capchack, the local tyrant. In Bevis (1882), the boy is older, and the fantasy element, by which animals
can talk, is quite absent. Rather, we have realistically related adventures of Bevis and his friend Mark, fighting a
mock battle with other local children, rigging a boat and sailing to an island on the lake (which they call "The New
Sea"), fishing and even shooting with a homemade gun.

Illness and death

Onset
In December 1881, Jefferies began to suffer from his until then undiagnosed tuberculosis, with an anal fistula. After
a series of painful operations, he moved to West Brighton to convalesce.[4] About this time he wrote his
extraordinary autobiography, The Story of My Heart (1883). He had been planning this work for seventeen years and,
in his words, it was 'absolutely and unflinchingly true'. It was not an autobiography of the events of his life, but an
outpouring of his deepest thoughts and feelings.
Articles about the Surbiton area were reprinted in the popular Nature Near London (1883), although the last chapters
of the book refer to Beachy Head, Ditchling Beacon and other Sussex landmarks.
In Brighton, his third child, Richard Oliver Launcelot Jefferies, was born on July 18, 1883. But his life was to be a
short one. Jefferies moved to Eltham, then in Kent, now a part of Greenwich, in June 1884, and here, early in 1885,
the child died suddenly of meningitis. Jefferies was so affected that he could not attend the funeral.[31]

After London
Jefferies' next novel, After London (1885), can be seen as an early example of "post-apocalyptic fiction": after some
sudden and unspecified catastrophe has depopulated England, the countryside reverts to nature, and the few
survivors to a quasi-medieval way of life.
The book has two parts. The first, "The Relapse into Barbarism", is the account by some later historian of the fall of
civilisation and its consequences, with a loving description of nature reclaiming England: fields becoming overrun
by forest, domesticated animals running wild, roads and towns becoming overgrown, the hated London reverting to
lake and poisonous swampland. The second part, "Wild England", is largely a straightforward adventure set many
years later in the wild landscape and society (here too Jefferies was setting an example for the genre); but the
opening section, despite some improbabilities, has been much admired for its rigour and compelling narrative.
Critics dissatisfied with the second part often make an exception of chapters 22-4, which go beyond recreation of a
medieval world to give a disturbing and surreal description of the site of the fallen city.[32]
Jefferies interest in catastrophes predates After London: two short unpublished pieces from the 1870s describe social
collapse after London is paralysed by freak winter conditions. In the better achieved of these, the narrator is a future
historian piecing the story together from surviving accounts.[33] The fantasy of the second part also has a predecessor
in a short work, The Rise of Maximin, Emperor of the Occident, serialised in The New Monthly Magazine in 1876, in
this case an adventure set in a remote and imaginary past.[34]
Although the society that Jefferies depicts after the fall of London is an unpleasant one, with oppressive petty tyrants
at war with each other, and insecurity and injustice for the poor, it still served as an inspiration for William Morris's
utopian News from Nowhere (1890). In a letter of 1885, he writes of his reaction to After London: "absurd hopes
curled around my heart as I read it."[35]
After London 76

Final Years
After Eltham, Jefferies lived briefly in various parts of Sussex, first at Rotherfield, then in a house on Crowborough
Hill. In Crowborough Jefferies completed his most ambitious and most unusual novel, Amaryllis at the Fair (1887).
Closely based on his own family at Coate, it describes a farm and family imperceptibly approaching disaster. There
is little narrative development; instead significant or typical moments are presented in short scenes or even
tableaux.[36]
Illness and resulting lower productivity had impoverished Jefferies; and the editor Charles Longman suggested an
application to the Royal Literary Fund. At first Jefferies resisted the suggestion, regarding aid from aristocratic
patrons not involved in literary work humiliating: "Patrons of literature! was there ever such a disgrace in the
nineteenth century? Patrons of literature! The thing is simply abominable!" Longman finally succeeded in
convincing Jefferies that the fund was "assisted by everybody who had made any success in literature". An
application was accepted and the committee voted a grant of one hundred pounds. Another fund arranged by
Longman enabled Jefferies to move nearer to the sea, to the Worthing suburb of Goring.[37] Here, on 14 August
1887, he died of tuberculosis and exhaustion.[4] He is buried in Broadwater and Worthing Cemetery in Worthing.
After his death, a number of posthumous collections were made of his writings previously published in newspapers
and magazines, beginning with Field and Hedgerow (1889), edited by his widow. New collections have appeared
over the century following his birth, but even now not all have been reprinted in book form.

Influence and reputation


Early works included three by Henry Stephens Salt:
• Richard Jefferies: A Study (1894)
• Richard Jefferies: His Life and His Ideas (1905)
• The Faith of Richard Jefferies (1906)
Jefferies' works inspired Henry Williamson to take up writing ; Williamson edited a collection of Jefferies' writings
with a title that indicates the great regard that he held for Jefferies:
• RICHARD JEFFERIES : Selections of his Work with details of his Life and Circumstances, his Death and
Immortality (1947)
Other writers who admired Jefferies included David Garnett,[38] Edward Thomas (who wrote his biography), Leslie
Paul, Ethel Mannin, [39] John Fowles, Henry Miller [40] and Raymond Williams.
The Richard Jefferies Bird Sanctuary in Surbiton commemorates him.[41]

Published books by Jefferies


The following list is necessarily selective. Much of Jefferies' writing was not published in book form in his lifetime.
Many works surviving in manuscript or only published in journals have been published piecemeal by various editors
since his death. Since his contributions to journals were generally anonymous, identification is often a problem. For
a fuller survey, see Miller and Matthews (1993).

Books published in Jefferies' lifetime


• The Scarlet Shawl (London: Tinsley Brothers, 1874)
• Restless Human Hearts (London: Tinsley Brothers, 1875)
• World's End (London: Tinsley Brothers, 1877)
• The Gamekeeper at Home (London: Smith, Elder & Co., 1878) (reissued by Cambridge University Press, 2009;
ISBN 9781108004107)
• Wild Life in a Southern County (London: Smith, Elder & Co., 1879)
After London 77

• The Amateur Poacher (London: Smith, Elder & Co., 1879) (reissued by Cambridge University Press, 2009; ISBN
9781108004091)
• Greene Ferne Farm (London: Smith, Elder & Co., 1880)
• Hodge and His Masters (London: Smith, Elder & Co., 1880)
• Round About a Great Estate (London: Smith, Elder & Co., 1880)
• Wood Magic (London: Cassell, Petter, Galpin & Co., 1881)
• Bevis: the Story of a Boy (London: Sampson Low, Marston, Searle, & Rivington, 1882)
• Nature Near London (London: Chatto & Windus, 1883)
• The Story of My Heart: An Autobiography (London: Longmans, Green, & Co., 1883)
• Red Deer (London: Longmans, Green, & Co., 1884)
• The Life of the Fields (London: Chatto & Windus, 1884)
• The Dewy Morn (London: Richard Bentley and Son, 1884)
• After London; Or, Wild England (London: Cassell & Company, Ltd., 1885)
• The Open Air (London: Chatto & Windus, 1885)
• Amaryllis at the Fair (London: Sampson Low, Marston, Searle, & Rivington, 1887)

Posthumous publications
Only the first of these (produced by his widow) was planned by Jefferies.
• Field and Hedgerow; Being the Last Essays of Richard Jefferies (London: Longmans, Green, & Co., 1889)
• The Toilers in the Field (London: Longmans, Green, & Co., 1892)
• The Early Fiction of Richard Jefferies, ed. G. Toplis (London: Simpkin, Marshall, Hamilton, Kent & Co Ltd.,
1896), somewhat bowdlerised[42]
• Jefferies' Land: A History of Swindon and its Environs, ed. G. Toplis (London: Simpkin, Marshall, Hamilton,
Kent & Co Ltd., 1896)
• The Hills and the Vale, collected and introduced by E. Thomas (London: Duckworth & Co, 1909)

Secondary literature
• Banerjee, Jacqueline Literary Surrey John Owen Smith (2005) ISBN 1873855508 ISBN 978-1873855508
pp55–56, 64–72
• W. Besant, The Eulogy of Richard Jefferies (London: Chatto and Windus, 1888, fourth impression 1905)
• J. Fowles, "Introduction", in R. Jefferies, After London (Oxford: OUP, 1980), vii-xxi. ISBN 0192812661
• W.J. Keith, Richard Jefferies, A Critical Study (London: University of Toronto Press, 1965)
• Q.D. Leavis, "Lives and works of Richard Jefferies", Scrutiny 6 (1938) 435-46, reprinted in Collected Essays Vol.
3 (Cambridge: CUP, 1989), 254-64. ISBN 052126703X
• S.J. Looker and C. Porteous, Richard Jefferies, Man of the Fields (London: John Baker, 1965)
• H. Matthews and P. Treitel, The Forward Life of Richard Jefferies (Oxford: Petton Books, 1994). ISBN
9780952281306
• H. Matthews and P. Treitel, Richard Jefferies: An Index (Longcot:Petton Books, 2008). ISBN 9780952281320
• G. Miller and H. Matthews, Richard Jefferies, A bibliographical study (Aldershot: Scolar Press, 1993). ISBN
0859679187
• B. Morris, Richard Jefferies and the Ecological Vision (Oxford: Trafford Publishing, 2006). ISBN 1412098289
• A. Rossabi, ‘(John) Richard Jefferies (1848-1887)’ Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (Oxford: OUP,
2004)
• A. Smith, The Interpreter: a biography of Richard Jefferies (Swindon: Blue Gate Books, 2008). ISBN
9780955587436.
• B. Taylor, Richard Jefferies (Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1982) ISBN 0805768165
After London 78

• E. Thomas, Richard Jefferies: His Life and Work (London: Hutchinson, 1909)
• H. Sheehan, Jill Carter[www.jillcarterartworks.com]: "''The Cunning Spider"' (Swindon: BlueGate Books, 2007)

Footnotes
[1] Besant (1905), 167.
[2] Looker and Porteous (1965), 4, cite a letter by James Jefferies: "My old house was originally thatch. … I have not seen it since Blue Slates as
[sic] been put on."
[3] Thomas (1909), 29.
[4] Rossabi (2004).
[5] Besant (1905), 5; 14-16; Thomas (1909), 24-5; 28-29; Rossabi (2004).
[6] Besant (1905), 4; Thomas (1909), 29-30.
[7] Rossabi (2004)
[8] After London, Chapter 4, cited in Thomas (1909), 47.
[9] Besant (1905), 27-8; Thomas (1909), 39; Rossabi (2004).
[10] Thomas (1909), 39; 41-2; Looker and Porteous (1965), 16.
[11] Besant (1905), 29-30; Thomas (1909), 40.
[12] Thomas (1909), 45-6.
[13] Besant (1905), 50-3; Thomas (1909), 46-7.
[14] Besant (1905), 57; Thomas (1909), 56; 65; Looker and Porteous (1965), 54.
[15] Thomas (1909), 47-9.
[16] Thomas (1909), 50.
[17] Besant (1905), 60; Thomas (1909), 74.
[18] Besant (1905), 54-5; 60; Thomas (1909), 55.
[19] Thomas (1909), 20; 57-8; Rossabi (2004).
[20] Besant (1905), 70-5; Thomas (1909), 61-3; Rossabi (2004).
[21] Thomas (1909), 74-8.
[22] Thomas (1909), 80-3.
[23] Thomas (1909), 96; Rossabi (2004).
[24] Besant (1905), 83-5.
[25] Thomas (1909), 111; Rossabi (2004).
[26] Literary Surrey (http:/ / www. johnowensmith. co. uk/ books/ lis1873855508. htm) Page 72
[27] Thomas (1909), 111-5.
[28] Miller and Matthews (1993), 232.
[29] Thomas (1909), 132; Keith (1965), 64 "It is, in my opinion, easily the best of the country books, and this judgment would not, I think, be
disputed by most readers".
[30] Miller and Matthews (1993), 202 on its contemporary reception; Leavis (1989), 262, "Greene Ferne Farm is the best of his early novels
comparable with the Hardy of Under the Greenwood Tree."
[31] Looker and Porteous (1965), 169, quoting Jefferies' son Harold, "His sufferings were so great that they prevented him from attending the
funeral … The agonized expression on father's face, as he stood at the open door, watching the little procession move away, haunted my mind
for many years"; Rossabi (2004).
[32] Thomas (1909), 256 "[The Relapse into Barbarism] reveals an unsuspected strength of remorseless logic and restraint"; Fowles (1980),
xviii-xix; Miller and Matthews (1993), 440.
[33] Fowles (1980), x (the fragment, called The Great Snow by Looker, is given in an appendix to the same edition, 243-8); Miller and Matthews
(1993), 432-3.
[34] Fowles (1980), xi-xv; Miller and Matthews (1993), 33-6, 431-2.
[35] Fowles (1980), vii-viii.
[36] Cf. Besant (1905), 151-2 (on the later novels generally); Keith (1965), 139-43, particularly 139, citing a letter of Jefferies: "I originally
intended this book to form a series of scenes from country life and so proposed to call it Scenes from Country Life … The idea of calling it a
novel was secondary."
[37] Looker and Porteous (1965), 198-202.
[38] D. Garnett, Great Friends, Portraits of seventeen writers (London: Macmillan, 1979), 58.
[39] Morris (2006) 14.
[40] Morris (2006) 314.
[41] 'The Woods' and Richard Jefferies Bird Sanctuary (http:/ / www. london. gov. uk/ wildweb/ PublicSiteViewFull. do?pictureno=1&
siteid=6892)
[42] Miller and Matthews (1993), 569.
After London 79

External links
• Works by Richard Jefferies (http://www.gutenberg.org/author/Richard_Jefferies) at Project Gutenberg
• Works by or about John Richard Jefferies (http://www.archive.org/search.php?query=mediatype:(texts)
-contributor:gutenberg AND (subject:"Jefferies, John Richard, 1848-1887" OR creator:"Jefferies, John Richard,
1848-1887" OR creator:"John Richard Jefferies" OR title:"John Richard Jefferies" OR description:"Jefferies, John
Richard" OR subject:"Jefferies, Richard 1848-1887" OR creator:"Jefferies, Richard, 1848-1887" OR
creator:"Richard Jefferies" OR title:"Richard Jefferies" OR description:"Richard Jefferies")) at Internet Archive
(scanned books original editions color illustrated)
• Richard Jefferies: his life and works (http://www.bath.ac.uk/~lissmc/rjeffs.htm)
• Richard Jefferies Society (http://www.richardjefferiessociety.co.uk/)
• The Old House at Coate: Jefferies Museum Development Project (http://www.richardjefferies.org/)
• Richard Jefferies' House and Museum (http://www.swindon.gov.uk/heritage/richardjefferies.htm)
• Free MP3 audiobook of After London (http://librivox.org/after-london-or-wild-england-by-richard-jefferies/)
from LibriVox (http://librivox.org)
''On the Beach (novel)'' 80

On the Beach (novel)


On the Beach

1st edition cover


Author Nevil Shute

Country Australia

Language English

Genre(s) Post-apocalyptic novel

Publisher Ballantine Books

Publication date 1957

Media type Print (Hardcover & Paperback)

Pages 312 pp

ISBN First edition published prior to adoption of ISBN standard

On the Beach is a post-apocalyptic end-of-the-world novel written by British-Australian author Nevil Shute after he
had emigrated to Australia. It was published in 1957.
The novel was adapted for the screenplay of a 1959 film featuring Gregory Peck, Ava Gardner, and Fred Astaire, and
a 2000 television film starring Armand Assante and Rachel Ward. BBC Radio 4 broadcast a full cast audio
dramatisation in two hour-long episodes as part of their Classic Serial strand in November 2008.[1]

Plot summary
The story is set in what was then the near future (1963, approximately a year following World War III). The conflict
has devastated the northern hemisphere, polluting the atmosphere with nuclear fallout and killing all animal life.
While the nuclear bombs were confined to the northern hemisphere, global air currents are slowly carrying the
fallout to the southern hemisphere. The only part of the planet still habitable is the far south of the globe, specifically
Australia and New Zealand, South Africa, and the southern parts of South America, although all of these areas are
slowly succumbing to radiation poisoning as the fallout continues to circulate southwards.
From Australia, survivors detect a mysterious and incomprehensible Morse code radio signal originating from the
United States. With hope that some life has remained in the contaminated regions, one of the last American nuclear
submarines, USS Scorpion, placed by its captain under Australian naval command, is ordered to sail north from its
port of refuge in Melbourne (Australia's southernmost major mainland city) to try to contact whoever is sending the
signal. In preparation for this long journey the submarine first makes a shorter trip to some port cities in northern
Australia including Cairns, Queensland and Darwin, Northern Territory, finding no survivors. The American captain,
Dwight Towers, leads the operation, leaving behind a woman of recent acquaintance, the alcoholic Moira Davidson,
to whom he has become attached, despite his feelings of guilt regarding the certain deaths of his wife and children in
''On the Beach (novel)'' 81

the U.S. He refuses to admit that they are dead and continues to behave as though they are still alive, buying them
gifts and imagining his children growing older.
The Australian government makes arrangements to provide its citizens
with free suicide pills and injections, so that they will be able to avoid
prolonged suffering from radiation sickness. One of the novel's
poignant dilemmas is that of Australian naval officer Peter Holmes,
who has a baby daughter and a naive and childish wife, Mary, who is
in denial about the impending disaster. Because he has been assigned
to travel north with the Americans, Peter must try to explain to Mary
how to euthanize their baby and kill herself with the pill should he not
return from his mission.

The submarine travels to an abandoned naval installation in Seattle,


where a crewman sent onto land with oxygen tanks and protective gear
discovers that, although the city's residents have long since perished in
the fallout, some of the region's hydroelectric power is still on-line,
owing to the primitive automation technology available at that time.
The mysterious signal is the result of a broken window sash teetering
in the breeze and occasionally hitting a telegraph key. The expedition
members then sail to the Gulf of Alaska in the northern Pacific Ocean,
where they determine that radiation levels are not decreasing. Doing so Cover of the 1970 edition
discredits the "Jorgensen Effect," a scientific theory which posited that
radiation levels would gradually decrease due to weather effects and might allow for human life to continue in
southern Australia or at least in Antarctica. After a brief stop at Pearl Harbor (Hawaii), (most of) the submariners
return to Australia to live out the little time that remains before lethal levels of radioactive contamination arrive and
kill the remaining Southern Hemisphere survivors. One crew member, who is from one of the coastal areas the
expedition visits, jumps ship to spend his last days in his hometown.

The characters make their best efforts to "enjoy" what time and pleasures remain to them before dying from radiation
poisoning, speaking of small pleasures and continuing their customary activities. The Holmeses plant a garden that
they will never see; Moira takes classes in typing and shorthand; scientist John Osborne and others organize a
dangerous motor race that results in the violent deaths of several participants; and elderly members of a "gentlemen's
club" drink up the wine in the club's cellar and fret about moving the fishing season up and whether agriculturally
destructive rabbits are going to survive human beings. In the end, Captain Towers chooses not to remain with Moira
but rather to lead his crew on a final mission to scuttle their submarine beyond the twelve-mile (20 km) limit, so that
she will not rattle about, unsecured, in a foreign port. He refuses to allow his coming demise to turn him aside from
his duty to the U.S. Navy and acts as a pillar of strength to his crew.
Moira watches the departure of the submarine from an adjacent hilltop as she takes her suicide pill, imagining herself
together with Dwight as they die. The Holmeses get sick together, and take their pills simultaneously, so they can die
as a family.
Typically for a Shute novel, the characters avoid the expression of intense emotions and do not mope or indulge in
self-pity. They do not, for the most part, flee southward as refugees but rather accept their fate once the lethal
radiation levels reach the latitudes at which they live. Finally, most of the Australians do opt for the
government-promoted alternative of suicide when the symptoms of radiation-sickness appear.
The war is said to have involved the bombing of the United Kingdom and the United States by Egypt. The aircraft
used were obtained from the USSR and so the attack was mistakenly thought to have been led by the Soviets, leading
to a retaliation on the USSR by the NATO powers. The book also hints at a strike by the People's Republic of China
''On the Beach (novel)'' 82

against the USSR, aiming at occupying Soviet industrial areas near the Chinese border; this strike leads to a Russian
retaliatory strike.

References
[1] BBC Programmes - Classic Serial: On the Beach (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ programmes/ b00f5xch)

External links
• Nuclear Holocausts: Atomic War In Fiction (http://www.wsu.edu/~brians/nuclear/index.htm) Paul Brians,
Washington State University. Contains extensive discussion of Shute's book.
''Alas, Babylon'' 83

Alas, Babylon
Alas, Babylon

Cover of first edition (hardcover)


Author Pat Frank

Country United States

Language English

Genre(s) Apocalyptic novel

Publisher J.B. Lippincott

Publication date 1959

Media type Print (Hardcover & Paperback)

ISBN NA

Alas, Babylon is a 1959 novel by American writer Pat Frank (the pen name of Harry Hart Frank). It was one of the
first apocalyptic novels of the nuclear age and remains popular fifty years after it was first published. The novel
deals with the effects of a nuclear war on the small town of Fort Repose, Florida, which is based upon the actual city
of Mount Dora.[1]

Explanation of the novel's title


The novel's title is derived from Revelation 18:10, which is interpreted and quoted frequently in the book as the
characters' way of warning each other of an impending crisis, such as the threat of a nuclear attack. It is loosely
interpreted by the author as referring to nuclear holocaust.
In the King James Bible, this passage reads:
Standing afar off for the fear of her torment, saying, Alas, alas that great city Babylon, that mighty city! For in
one hour is thy judgment come.

Plot summary
Randy (Randolph) Bragg, the protagonist, is a man who dabbles at law and lives a life with little purpose. He lives in
the small, Central Florida town of Fort Repose, which was founded by an ancestor during the 19th century. The
scion of a once prominent political family, Bragg is a former Korean War infantry officer whose own foray into
public life was a run for the state legislature which proved disastrous because of his open support for racial
desegregation based on the Supreme Court decision in Brown v. Board of Education. Randy's life appears to be
drifting down a somewhat aimless path when he receives a telegram from his older brother, Colonel Mark Bragg, an
Air Force Intelligence officer currently serving with the Strategic Air Command (SAC) at its headquarters outside of
Omaha, Nebraska. In the telegram, Mark informs Randy that he is sending his wife and two children to stay in Fort
''Alas, Babylon'' 84

Repose, and that he wants to meet with Randy during a brief layover at McCoy AFB, in Orlando. The telegram ends
the message with an ominous code: "Alas Babylon", a Biblical reference that the Bragg brothers employed
throughout their lives to warn of danger.
Randy drives to McCoy Air Force Base and meets Mark's arriving plane. While the jet is refueled, Mark explains to
Randy the background for sending the urgent message. The Soviets evidently perceive a weakness in US and Allied
defense posture and are believed to be staging an attempt to take advantage of the situation. A defecting Soviet
military officer has brought the Russian "war plan" to the West. Mark believes the Russian plan is flawed and that
the West would ultimately prevail, but danger lies in Moscow's belief that they can succeed, which emboldens them
to risk war. Mark informs Randy that he is flying his family down to Florida to stay with him indefinitely - or until
Mark feels the threat has passed. The brothers soon say their goodbyes, and Randy realizes that he may never see
Mark again. Heading back to Fort Repose, Randy privately warns those people of Fort Repose whom he believes to
be his friends of the impending war, including Dr. Daniel Gunn (perhaps Randy's closest friend in Fort Repose) as
well as Elizabeth "Lib" McGovern, a young woman for whom Randy has come to care deeply.
During the early hours of the next morning, Randy drives to Orlando airport to meet his sister-in-law (Helen) and her
two children (Peyton and Ben Franklin) arriving from Omaha. Meanwhile, in the Eastern Mediterranean, a U.S.
Navy task force is being shadowed by unidentified (and presumably hostile) aircraft. The USS Saratoga launches a
pursuit aircraft to intercept, identify and (if necessary) shoot down the "bogie". Ensign "Pee Wee" Cobb, is flying the
pursuit plane, an F-11 Tiger off the coast of Syria (a Soviet ally) and locates the unidentified aircraft. He is given
permission to pursue and attack. Cobb closes on the "bogie" and fires a heat-seeking missile. The missile goes off
course because the enemy plane shuts off its engines, and the missile hits an ammunition depot at Latakia, Syria,
resulting in an explosion that may or may not have included nuclear devices. This event becomes the apparent casus
belli for the Soviet Union to launch a preemptive nuclear strike against the United States and her allies.
Early the following morning, Mark is on duty at SAC headquarters at Offutt Air Force Base in Omaha, Nebraska,
known as "The Hole". He and fellow officers express concern that reports of unidentified submarines ("skunks")
approaching the US Eastern seaboard overnight, coupled with Moscow's unsettling silence following the attack at
Latakia may signal the Kremlin is preparing to launch an attack. Mark recommends to SAC's commander, General
Hawker, that SAC ask Washington to transfer the direct authority to use nuclear weapons, since the weapons-release
process takes about a minute and a half, and the U.S. expects only about a fifteen minute warning if the Soviet Union
were to attack. This is granted. Minutes later, radar stations report what appear to be inbound Soviet missiles from
over the Arctic, as well as possible submarine-launched missiles heading toward the East Coast. Mark realizes what
he feared most has arrived and turns to walk back to his office. General Hawker orders all SAC facilities to go
immediately to Red Alert. As Mark leaves, General Hawker says to him, "Thanks for the 95 seconds."
In Fort Repose, Randy and his houseguests are awakened by shaking due to the bombing of Miami. While looking at
the glow to the south caused by the destruction of Miami, the family sees the nuclear explosion and mushroom cloud
that destroy Tampa temporarily blinding Randy's niece, Peyton. These events culminate to what will later be called
"The Day" by the residents of Fort Repose—in effect, a one-day war—has begun.
The effects of "The Day" on Fort Repose are varied. Tourists are trapped in their hotels. The local bank manager
tries to get instructions from the Federal Reserve sub-branch in Jacksonville, but since Jacksonville has also been
destroyed, no advice is available. The local disc jockey nervously reads instructions on the CONELRAD system.
The only reliable method of news from the outside world is a shortwave receiver owned by one of Randy's
neighbors, Sam Hazzard, a retired U.S. Navy admiral. Convicts escape; the local retirement homes are filled with
panicked people; and a run on the bank results in the bank closing and local merchants selling out of nearly all
supplies.
As the effects of the disintegration of society get worse, many prominent people fail. The local banker, Edgar
Quisenberry, commits suicide once he realizes money is useless. Randy's political rival, Porky Logan, obtains looted
radioactive jewelry and becomes seriously ill with radiation sickness. Randy organizes his immediate neighbors to
''Alas, Babylon'' 85

provide housing, food, and water for themselves, organizes the community into self-defense, guides his family, and
helps find salt and new supplies of food when they grow short. He fights "highwaymen" who murder residents and
seriously assault Dr. Gunn in their search for narcotics. Some in Fort Repose discover faith; others degenerate into
drunkenness. Randy eventually learns that, as an active-duty reservist, he has the legal right to exercise martial
law—shortly after he had already begun to do so, albeit in a de facto mode. The authority comes from an order of
acting Chief Executive Josephine Vanbruuker-Brown (who prior to The Day had been the Secretary of Health,
Education and Welfare, and is believed to be governing the country from Denver, Colorado) for any surviving
active-duty or reserve officers to form local militias.
When the Air Force finally makes contact with Fort Repose again, and express a willingness to move the families
out of the area, none accept the offer; they have come to believe that the life they have built in Fort Repose is at least
as good, if not better, than the life they would face outside. The Air Force officer reveals that the United States won
the war - but at a tremendous cost: the large-scale death and destruction suffered by the United States have left it a
secondary (perhaps even tertiary) world power, and is the recipient of aid from third world countries such as Brazil
and Venezuela. He also explains nothing is left of Miami, Tampa, and Orlando. There are two huge craters where
McCoy AFB and downtown Orlando once stood. This gives the reader the impression Fort Repose is now the only
major city left in Florida. The officer also informs them that it will take a thousand years to get the contaminated
areas decontaminated and habitable again.

Effects of the novel on other writers


In the foreword of the 2005 edition of Alas, Babylon, David Brin notes that
the book was instrumental in shaping his views on nuclear war and had an
effect on his own book, The Postman (pp. xi-xii, ISBN 0-06-074187-2,
Harper Perennial Modern Classics).
The novelist James Wesley Rawles credits Alas, Babylon as a "key influence"
and one of the main reasons that he wrote his survivalist novel Patriots in a
similar style.[2]

Adaptations
An adaptation of Alas, Babylon was broadcast on April 3, 1960 as the 131st
episode of the Playhouse 90 dramatic television series.[3] It starred Don
Murray, Burt Reynolds, and Rita Moreno.[4]

References
[1] Owens, Vivian W. The Mount Dorans: African American History Notes of a Florida Town. Cover of Bantam Books 1979 paperback
Waynesboro: Eschar, 2000 edition, ISBN 0-553-13260-1
[2] http:/ / www. survivalblog. com/ bookshelf. html
[3] Playhouse 90 Episode Guide, TV.com (http:/ / www. tvtome. com/ tvtome/ servlet/ GuidePageServlet/ showid-2182/ epid-134672)
[4] IMDB "Playhouse 90" Alas, Babylon (1960) (http:/ / www. imdb. com/ title/ tt0053581/ )
''A Canticle for Leibowitz'' 86

A Canticle for Leibowitz


A Canticle for Leibowitz

First edition dust jacket


Illustration by George Sottung
Author Walter M. Miller, Jr.

Cover artist George Sottung

Country United States

Language English

Genre(s) Science fiction

Publisher J. B. Lippincott & Co.

Publication date 1960 (©1959)

Media type Print (Hardcover, Paperback)

Pages 320

OCLC Number 1451434 [1]

Followed by Saint Leibowitz and the Wild Horse Woman

A Canticle for Leibowitz is a post-apocalyptic science fiction novel by American writer Walter M. Miller, Jr., first
published in 1960. Based on three short stories Miller contributed to The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction,
it is the only novel published by the author during his lifetime. Considered one of the classics of science fiction, it
has never been out of print and has seen over 25 reprints and editions. Appealing to mainstream and genre critics and
readers alike, it won the 1961 Hugo Award for best science fiction novel.
Set in a Roman Catholic monastery in the desert of the southwestern United States after a devastating nuclear war,
the story spans thousands of years as civilization rebuilds itself. The monks of the Albertian Order of Leibowitz take
up the mission of preserving the surviving remnants of man's scientific knowledge until the day the outside world is
again ready for it.
Inspired by the author's participation in the Allied bombing of the monastery at Monte Cassino during World War II,
the novel is considered a masterpiece by literary critics. It has been compared favorably with the works of Evelyn
Waugh, Graham Greene, and Walker Percy, and its themes of religion, recurrence, and church versus state have
generated a significant body of scholarly research. Miller's follow-up work, Saint Leibowitz and the Wild Horse
Woman, was published posthumously in 1997.
''A Canticle for Leibowitz'' 87

Publication history

Development
Walter Miller was a prolific writer of science fiction short stories; by 1955 he had published over 30 stories in such
magazines as Astounding Science Fiction, Amazing Stories, and Fantastic Adventures.[2] Significant themes of his
stories included loss of scientific knowledge or "socio-technological regression and its presumed antithesis,
continued technological advance", its preservation through oral transmission, the guardianship of archives by priests,
and "that side of [human] behavior which can only be termed religious."[3] [4] These thematic elements, combined
with the growing subgenre of the “post-disaster” story and Miller’s own World War II experiences, set the stage for
the short story that would become the opening section of A Canticle for Leibowitz.[5]
During World War II, Miller served as part of a bomber crew that participated in the destruction of the ancient
Roman Catholic monastery at Monte Cassino (Italy) founded by St. Benedict in the 6th century. This experience
impressed him enough to write, a decade later, the short story "A Canticle for Leibowitz" about an order of monks
whose abbey springs from the destroyed world around it.[6] [7] The story, which would evolve into the first part of the
novel ("Fiat Homo"), was published in the April 1955 edition of The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction
(F&SF). Although not originally intended as a serialization, the saga continued in "And the Light is Risen", which
was published in August 1956 (also in The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction); this work would later grow
into "Fiat Lux". It was while writing the third "novelette", "The Last Canticle", for magazine publication the
following year (February) that Miller realized he was really completing a novel: "Only after I had written the first
two and was working on the third did it dawn on me that this isn't three novelettes, it's a novel. And I converted it."[7]
The publication of the three Canticle stories, along with Miller's "The Lineman", in The Magazine of Fantasy and
Science Fiction marked a significant evolution in the writer's craft. Under the editorship of Anthony Boucher, F&SF
possessed a reputation for publishing works with "careful writing and characterization." Walker Percy considered the
magazine "high-class sci-fi pulp".[8] The appearance of these stories in the magazine is indicative of the direction
Miller's writing had taken toward "'human' stories, less crowded with incident, more concerned with values."[4]
For the novelization, Miller did not simply colligate the three short stories. He changed the title and the names of
some characters, added new characters, changed the nature and prominence of existing characters, and added Latin
passages. These revisions affected the religious and recurrence themes of the story, resulting in "decided
improvements" over the magazine versions.[4]
The Latin phrases related to Roman Catholic Church practices, rituals and official communications. Susan Olsen
writes that Miller did not include the Latin phrases just to "add dignity" to the work, but to emphasize its religious
themes, making it consonant with the tradition of Judeo-Christian writings.[9]
Changing the name of the abbot of the first part from "Father Juan" to "Abbot Arkos" strengthened the
cyclical/recurrence motif, since the name of the first abbot encountered, "Arkos", begins with the first letter of the
Roman alphabet and the name of the last abbot, "Zerchi", begins with the last letter.[9] This echoes the alpha and
omega nature of the Hebrew Tsade (‫ )צ‬and Lamedh (‫ )ל‬that the Wandering Jew inscribes on the rock for Brother
Francis in the beginning of the novel.[10] Miller also expanded scenes, increasing their importance: for instance, the
initial encounter between Brother Francis and Abbot Arkos in "Fiat Homo" grew from two pages in the short story to
eight pages in the novel. Abbot Arkos was shown to possess doubts and uncertainty, unlike the dogmatism of Father
Juan.[9]
Miller also used the adaptation process to add a significant layer of complexity to the story. Walker Percy recognized
this dimension of the novel, which he compared to a "cipher, a coded message, a book in a strange language."[11]
David Seed deemed the novel "charged with half-concealed meaning," an intricacy that seems to have been added as
Miller was revising the stories for publication as a novel. Decoding messages such as this is an important activity in
Miller's works, both in A Canticle for Leibowitz and his short stories.[3] For example, in the original version of "Fiat
Homo" Miller limits his "wordplay" to an explicit symbolism involving the letter "V" and Brother Francis's
''A Canticle for Leibowitz'' 88

"Voice/Vocation" during Francis's encounter with the wandering pilgrim. In the novel, however, "Miller reserves
such symbolistic cross-references to the more intellectual analysts and builds a comedy of incomprehension around
Francis."[3]
Miller's extensive experience in writing for science fiction magazines contributed to his achievement with A Canticle
for Leibowitz. His strengths were with the medium lengths of the short story, novelette, and short novel, where he
effectively combined character, action, and import. The success of this full-length novel rests on its tripartite
structure: each section is "short novel size, with counterpoint, motifs, and allusions making up for the lack of more
ordinary means of continuity."[4]

Publication
The novel was published by J. B. Lippincott & Co. as a hardcover in
1960 (although the copyright is 1959), and demand for the book was
enough to prompt two reprints within the first year.[12] In 1961 it was
awarded the prestigious Hugo Award for Best Novel by The World
Science Fiction Convention.[2] Since then A Canticle for Leibowitz has
had new editions and reprints issued in paperback and hardcover more
than 40 times, and has never been out of print. It regularly appears on
"best of" lists and has been recognized three times with Locus Poll
Awards for best all-time science fiction novel.[2] [7]

Plot summary

Background
A Canticle for Leibowitz opens 600 years after 20th century civilization
has been destroyed by a global nuclear war, known as the "Flame
Deluge". The text reveals that as a result of the war there was a violent
backlash against the culture of advanced knowledge and technology
Cover of a 1997 Spectra paperback edition of A
that had led to the development of nuclear weapons. During this Canticle for Leibowitz.
backlash, called the "Simplification," anyone of learning, and
eventually anyone who could even read, was likely to be killed by rampaging mobs, who proudly took on the name
of "Simpletons". Illiteracy became almost universal, and books were destroyed en masse.

Isaac Edward Leibowitz had been a Jewish electrical engineer working for the United States military. Surviving the
war, he converted to Roman Catholicism and founded a monastic order, the "Albertian Order of Leibowitz",
dedicated to preserving knowledge by hiding books, smuggling them to safety (booklegging), memorizing, and
copying them. The Order's abbey is located in the American southwestern desert, near the military base where
Leibowitz had worked before the war, on an old road that may have been "a portion of the shortest route from the
Great Salt Lake to Old El Paso." Leibowitz was eventually betrayed and martyred. Later beatified by the Roman
Catholic Church, he became a candidate for sainthood.
Centuries after his death, the abbey is still preserving the "Memorabilia", the collected writings that have survived
the Flame Deluge and the Simplification, in the hope that they will help future generations reclaim forgotten science.
The story is structured in three parts titled: "Fiat Homo", "Fiat Lux", and "Fiat Voluntas Tua". The parts are
separated by periods of six centuries each.
''A Canticle for Leibowitz'' 89

"Fiat Homo" (Let There Be Man)


In the 26th century, a novice named Brother Francis Gerard is on a vigil in the desert. While searching for a rock to
complete a shelter Brother Francis encounters a Wanderer, apparently looking for the abbey, who inscribes Hebrew
on a rock that appears the perfect fit for the shelter. When Brother Francis removes the rock he discovers the
entrance to an ancient fallout shelter[13] containing "relics", such as handwritten notes on crumbling memo pads
bearing cryptic texts resembling a 20th century shopping list.[14] He soon realizes that these notes appear to have
been written by Leibowitz, his order's founder. The discovery of the ancient documents causes an uproar at the
monastery, as the other monks speculate that the relics once belonged to Leibowitz. Brother Francis' account of the
wanderer, who ultimately never turned up at the abbey, is also greatly embellished by the other monks amid rumours
that he was an apparition of Leibowitz himself; Francis strenuously denies the embellishments, but equally
persistently refuses to deny that the encounter occurred, despite the lack of other witnesses. Abbot Arkos, the head of
the monastery, worries that the discovery of so many potentially holy relics in such a short period may cause delays
in Leibowitz's canonization process. Francis is banished back to the desert to complete his vigil and defuse the
sensationalism.
Many years later the abbey is visited by Monsignors Aguerra (God's Advocate) and Flaught (the Devil's Advocate),
the Church's investigators in the case for Leibowitz's sainthood. Leibowitz is eventually canonized as Saint
Leibowitz – based partly on the evidence Francis discovered in the shelter – and Brother Francis is sent to New
Rome to represent the Order at the canonization Mass. He takes the documents found in the shelter and an
illumination of one of the documents on which he has spent years working, a gift to the pope.
En route, he is robbed and his illumination taken. Francis completes the journey to New Rome and is granted an
audience with the pope. Francis presents the pope with the remaining documents and the pope comforts Francis by
giving him gold with which to ransom back the illumination; however, Francis is murdered during his return trip by
"misborn" people (the "Pope's children"), receiving an arrow through the head. The Wanderer discovers and buries
Francis's body. (The book then focuses on the vultures who were denied their meal; they fly over the Great Plains
and find much food near the Red River until a city-state, based in Texarkana, rises).

"Fiat Lux" (Let There Be Light)


In 3174, the Albertian Order of St. Leibowitz is still preserving the
half-understood knowledge from before the Flame Deluge and the
subsequent Age of Simplification. The new Dark Age is ending,
however, and a new Renaissance is beginning. Thon Taddeo
Pfardentrott, a highly regarded secular scholar, is sent by his cousin
Hannegan, Mayor of Texarkana, to the abbey. Thon[15] Taddeo,
frequently compared to Albert Einstein, is interested in the Order's
preserved collection of Memorabilia.
North America in 3174, showing Texark territory
At the abbey, Brother Kornhoer, a talented engineer, has just finished
in yellow. Texark expansion as described in this
work on a "generator of electrical essences", a treadmill-powered
story and in Saint Leibowitz and the Wild Horse
Woman marked in orange. electrical generator that powers an arc lamp. He gives credit for the
generator to work done by Thon Taddeo. After arriving at the
monastery, Thon Taddeo, by studying the Memorabilia, makes several major "discoveries", and asks the abbot to
allow the Memorabilia to be removed to Texarkana. The Abbot Dom Paulo refuses, stating he can continue his
research at the abbey. Before departing, the Thon comments that it could take decades to finish analyzing the
Memorabilia.

Meanwhile, Hannegan makes an alliance with the kingdom of Laredo and the neighboring, relatively civilized
city-states against the threat of attack from the nomadic warriors. Hannegan, however, is manipulating the regional
''A Canticle for Leibowitz'' 90

politics to effectively neutralize all of his enemies, leaving him in control of the entire region. Monsignor Apollo, the
papal nuncio to Hannegan's court, sends word to New Rome that Hannegan intends to attack the empire of Denver
next, and that he intends to use the abbey as a base of operations from which to conduct the campaign. For his
actions, Apollo is executed, and Hannegan initiates a church schism, declaring loyalty to the pope to be punishable
by death. The Church excommunicates Hannegan.

"Fiat Voluntas Tua" (Let Thy Will Be Done)


It is the year 3781, and mankind has nuclear energy and weapons again, as well as starships and extra-solar colonies.
Two world superpowers, the Asian Coalition and the Atlantic Confederacy, have been embroiled in a cold war for 50
years. The Leibowitzan Order's mission of preserving the Memorabilia has expanded to the preservation of all
knowledge.
Rumors that both sides are assembling nuclear weapons in space and that a nuclear weapon has been detonated
increase public and international tensions. At the abbey, the current abbot, Dom Jethras Zerchi, recommends to New
Rome that the Church reactivate the Quo Peregrinatur Grex ("Whither Wanders the Flock") contingency plans
involving "certain vehicles" the Church has had since 3756. A "nuclear incident" occurs in the Asian Coalition city
of Itu Wan: an underground nuclear explosion has destroyed the city, and the Atlantic Confederacy counters by
firing a "warning shot" over the South Pacific.
New Rome tells Zerchi to proceed with Quo Peregrinatur and plan for departure within three days. He appoints
Brother Joshua as mission leader, telling him that this is an emergency plan for perpetuating the Church on the
colony planets in the event of a nuclear war on Earth. The Order's Memorabilia will also accompany the mission.
That night the Atlantic Confederacy launches an assault against Asian Coalition space platforms. The Asian
Coalition responds by using a nuclear weapon against the Confederacy capital city of Texarkana. A ten-day
cease-fire is issued by the World Court. Brother Joshua and the space-trained monks and priests depart on a secret,
chartered flight for New Rome, hoping to leave Earth on the starship before the cease-fire ends.
During the cease-fire, the abbey offers shelter to refugees fleeing the regions affected by fallout, which results in a
battle of wills over euthanasia between the abbot and a doctor from a government emergency response camp. The
war resumes and a nuclear explosion occurs near the abbey. Abbot Zerchi tries to flee to safety, bringing with him
the abbey's ciborium containing consecrated hosts, but it is too late. He is trapped by the falling walls of the abbey
and finds himself lying under tons of rock and bones as the abbey's ancient crypts disgorge their contents. Among
them is a skull with an arrow's shaft protruding from its forehead (presumably that of Brother Francis Gerard from
the first section of the book).
As he lies dying under the abbey's rubble, Zerchi is startled to encounter Mrs Grales/Rachel, a bicephalous tomato
peddler and mutant. However, Mrs. Grales has been rendered unconscious by the explosion, and may be dying
herself. As Zerchi tries to conditionally baptize Rachel, she refuses, and instead takes the ciborium and administers
the Eucharist to him. It is implied that she is, like the Virgin Mary, exempt from original sin. Zerchi soon dies,
having witnessed an apparent miracle.
After the Abbot's death, the scene flashes to Joshua and the Quo Peregrinatur crew launching as the nuclear
explosions begin. Joshua, the last crew member to board the starship, knocks the dirt from his sandals, murmuring
"Sic transit mundus" ("Thus passes the world"). As a coda, there is a final vignette depicting the ecological aspects of
the final human war: seabirds and fish succumb to the poisonous fallout, and a shark evades death only through
moving to particularly deep water, where, it is noted, the shark was "very hungry that season."
''A Canticle for Leibowitz'' 91

Major themes

Recurrence and cyclical history


Scholars and critics have noted the theme of cyclic history or recurrence in Miller's works, epitomized in A Canticle
for Leibowitz. David Seed, in discussing the treatment of nuclear holocaust in science fiction in his book American
Science Fiction and the Cold War: Literature and Film (1992), states, "it was left to Walter M. Miller's A Canticle
for Leibowitz to show recurrence taking place in a narrative spanning centuries."[16] David N. Samuelson, whose
1969 doctoral dissertation on Canticle is considered the "best overall discussion of the book", calls the "cyclical
theme of technological progress and regress ... the foundation-stone on which A Canticle for Leibowitz is built."[4] [7]
A Canticle for Leibowitz's circular structure – and the cyclical history it presents – support a number of thematic and
structural elements which unify its three sections. Although the novel's events take place in a fictional future, the
three parts allegorically represent crucial phases of Western history. The first section, "Fiat Homo", depicts a Church
preserving civilization, a counterpart to the "Age of Faith" after the Fall of Rome. The action of the second part,
"Fiat Lux", focuses on a renaissance of "secular learning", echoing the "divergences of Church and State and of
science and faith". "Fiat Voluntas Tua", the final part, is the analog of contemporary civilization, with its
"technological marvels, its obsessions with material, worldly power, and its accelerating neglect of faith and the
spirit."[17]
In her analysis of Miller's fiction, Rose Secrest connects this theme directly to one of Miller's earlier short fiction
works, quoting a passage from "The Ties that Bind", published in the May 1954 edition of If magazine: "All societies
go through three phases.... First there is the struggle to integrate in a hostile environment. Then, after integration,
comes an explosive expansion of the culture-conquest.... Then a withering of the mother culture, and the rebellious
rise of young cultures."[18]

Church versus state


The third part, "Fiat Voluntas Tua", includes a debate between future Church and state stances on euthanasia, a
thematic issue representative of the larger conflict between Church and state.[19] Literary critic Edward Ducharme
claimed that "Miller's narrative continually returns to the conflicts between the scientist's search for truth and the
state's power."[20] Walter Miller, reclusive for years, committed suicide several decades after publication of his
novel.

Literary significance and reception


Initial response to the novel was mixed, but it drew responses from newspapers and magazines normally inattentive
to science fiction. A Canticle for Leibowitz was reviewed in such notable publications as Time, The New Yorker, the
New York Times Book Review, and The Spectator.[17] While The New Yorker was negative – calling Miller a "dull,
ashy writer guilty of heavy-weight irony"[21] – The Spectator’s was mixed. Also unimpressed, Time said, "Miller
proves himself chillingly effective at communicating a kind of post-human lunar landscape of disaster," but dubbed
it intellectually lightweight.[22] The New York Times Book Review, however, was solid in its praise—Martin Levin
hailed A Canticle for Leibowitz as an "ingenious fantasy".[23] The Chicago Tribune, gave the book unusual exposure
outside the genre in a front page review in the Chicago Tribune Magazine of Books, reviewer Edmund Fuller calling
the book "an extraordinary novel".[24] A decade later, Time re-characterized its opinion of the book, calling it "an
extraordinary novel even by literary standards, [which] has flourished by word of mouth for a dozen years."[25]
Sales of the hardcover publication were significant enough to justify two additional reprints of the book within the
first year, and the novel was recognized with a Hugo Award by science fiction and fantasy fans as the best science
fiction novel of 1960.[2]
''A Canticle for Leibowitz'' 92

In the years since, praise for the work has been consistently high. It is considered a "science-fiction classic ... [and] is
arguably the best novel written about nuclear apocalypse, surpassing more popularly known books like On the
Beach".[26] A Canticle for Leibowitz has also generated a significant body of literary criticism, including numerous
literature journal articles, books and college courses.[27] Acknowledging its serialization roots, literary critic David
N. Samuelson writes that A Canticle for Leibowitz "may be the one universally acknowledged literary masterpiece to
emerge from magazine SF."[28] Fellow critic David Cowart places the novel in the realm of works by Evelyn Waugh,
Graham Greene, and Walker Percy, stating it "stands for many readers as the best novel ever written in the
genre."[29] Percy, a National Book Award recipient, declared Canticle "a mystery: it's as if everything came together
by some felicitous chance, then fell apart into normal negative entropy. I'm as mystified as ever and hold Canticle in
even higher esteem."[30] Scholars and critics have explored the many themes encompassed in the novel, frequently
focusing on its motifs of religion, recurrence, and church versus state.[31]

Adaptations
A 15-part full-cast abridged serial of the novel was adapted for radio by John Reed and broadcast in 1981 by
National Public Radio (NPR). Directed by Karl Schmidt, it was produced by Karl Schmidt and Marv Nunn. Carol
Collins narrated the production.[32] [33]
In 1993 the BBC broadcast a 90-minute dramatisation of the first two books, "Fiat Homo" and "Fiat Lux," with
Andrew Price as Brother Francis and Michael McKenzie as Dom Paolo. The adaptation was by Donald Campbell
and it was directed by Hamish Wilson.
In 1998 Books on Tape, Inc. released an unabridged audiobook of A Canticle for Leibowitz, read by Jonathan
Marosz.
Richard P. Felnagle 1987 stage play Dramatic Publishing Company.
Robert D. Manning The Abbey screenplay ISBN 978-1-895507-88-1

Sequel
Toward the end of his life, Miller wrote another installment of the Abbey of Saint Leibowitz saga, Saint Leibowitz
and the Wild Horse Woman. A full-length novel (455 pages) significantly longer than its predecessor, it is set in AD
3254, seventy years after the events of "Fiat Lux" but several centuries before "Fiat Voluntas Tua"; it is thus, strictly
speaking, a midquel to A Canticle for Leibowitz. Suffering from writer's block and fearful the new work would go
unfinished, Miller arranged with author Terry Bisson to complete the work. According to Bisson, all he did was go
in and tie up the loose ends Miller had left.[34] The novel tells the story of Brother Blacktooth St. George of the
Leibowitzan abbey who, unlike Brother Francis, wants to be released from his holy vows and leave the abbey. In
addition to recounting his travels as Cardinal Brownpony's personal secretary, the book describes the political
situation in the 33rd century as Church and empire (Texark) vie for power. Miller died before the novel's
publication.[34]
Saint Leibowitz and the Wild Horse Woman has been called "Walter Miller's other novel." Reviewer Steven H. Silver
points out that this "... is not to say that Saint Leibowitz and the Wild Horse Woman does not deserve to be read. It is
a fantastic novel, only suffering in comparison to Miller's earlier work."[35]
''A Canticle for Leibowitz'' 93

References

Footnotes and citations


[1] http:/ / worldcat. org/ oclc/ 1451434
[2] "Bibliography: A Canticle for Leibowitz" (http:/ / www. isfdb. org/ cgi-bin/ title. cgi?2283). The Internet Speculative Fiction Database. 2007.
. Retrieved 2007-12-02.
[3] Seed, David (Fall 1996). "Recycling the texts of the culture: Walter M. Miller's 'A Canticle for Leibowitz". Extrapolation (Kent State
University Press) 37 (3): 257–71.
[4] Samuelson, David N. (March 1976). "The Lost Canticles of Walter M. Miller, Jr.". Science-Fiction Studies (DePauw University) 3 (26).
[5] "A Canticle for Leibowitz falls into a well-known subgenre of science fiction, the "post-disaster" story, like John Wyndham’s The Chrysalids
(1955), Algis Budrys’s Some Will Not Die (1961), and many more. The use of nuclear weapons to end World War II naturally set many
writers speculating on the possibilities of future war, mutation, and rebirth.": Shippey, T.A. (2000). "A Canticle for Leibowitz". Masterplots
II: American Fiction Series, Revised Edition. Salem Press, Inc.
[6] Garvey, John (1996-04-05). "A Canticle for Leibowitz: A Eulogy for Walt Miller". Commonweal (Commonweal Foundation) 123 (7): 7–8. "I
went to war with very romantic ideas about war, and I came back sick.".
[7] Roberson, Williams H.; Robert L. Battenfeld (1992-06-30). Walter M. Miller, Jr.: A Bio-Bibliography. Bio-Bibliographies in American
Literature. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0313276514.
[8] Percy, Walker (1991). "Rediscovering A Canticle for Leibowitz". Signposts in a Strange Land (Farrar, Straus and Giroux): 227.
ISBN 0-312-25419-9.
[9] Olsen, Alexandra H. (Summer 1997). "Re-Vision: A Comparison of A Canticle for Leibowitz and the Novellas Originally Published".
Extrapolation (Kent State University Press) 38 (2): 135.
[10] Scholes, Robert; Eric S. Rabkin (1977). Science Fiction: History-Science-Vision. New York: Oxford UP. pp. 221.
[11] Percy, Walker (1971). "Walker Percy on Walter M. Miller, Jr.'s A Canticle for Leibowitz". Rediscoveries (Crown Publishers).
[12] "A canticle for Leibowitz; a novel" (http:/ / worldcat. org/ oclc/ 1451434?tab=details). OCLC. 2007. . Retrieved 2007-12-08.
[13] Brother Francis believes that "a Fallout" is some variety of monster, which he imagines as being half-salamander and half-incubus, and he
thinks that the shelter was home to fifteen Fallouts, due to the sign on its entrance.
[14] Other relics include an electrical engineering blueprint with Leibowitz's name on it and the apparent skull of wife Emily Leibowitz, who was
apparently caught in the outer chamber of the shelter when the bomb fell.
[15] A title comparable to our "Professor".
[16] Seed, David (1999). "XI The Signs of War: Walter M. Miller and Russell Hoban". American Science Fiction and the Cold War: Literature
and Film. Routledge. pp. 158. ISBN 978-1579581954.
[17] Cowart, David; Wyner, Thomas L. (1981). "Miller Bio-Bibliography". Dictionary of Literary Biography. Volume 8: Twentieth-Century
American Science-Fiction Writers. The Gale Group. pp. 19–30
[18] Secrest, Rose (June 28, 2002). Glorificemus: A Study of the Fiction of Walter M. Miller, Jr.. Lanham, Maryland: University Press of
America. pp. 47. ISBN 978-0761822578.
[19] Rowland, Stanley J. (1960-05-25). "With Moral Passion". The Christian Century LXXVII (21): 640–1.
[20] Ducharme, Edward (November 1966). "A Canticle for Miller" (http:/ / jstor. org/ stable/ 812735). English Journal (National Council of
Teachers of English) 55 (8): 1042–4. doi:10.2307/812735. .
[21] "A Canticle for Leibowitz". The New Yorker 36: pp. 156. 1960-04-02
[22] Mixed Fiction (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ magazine/ article/ 0,9171,939646,00. html). Time, Inc.. 1960-02-22. . Retrieved 2007-12-08.
"Author Miller proves himself chillingly effective at communicating a kind of post-human lunar landscape of disaster. His faith in religious
faith is commendable but not compelling. It is difficult to tell whether he believes that better bomb shelters or more Roman Catholics are the
hope of the world. On the flyleaf of Canticle for Leibowitz, Novelist Miller writes, "A dedication is only a scratch where it itches."
Intellectually speaking, so is his book.".
[23] Levin, Martin (1960-03-27). "Incubator of the New Civilization; A Canticle for Leibowitz". New York Times. pp. BR42 (Book Review).
[24] Fuller, Edmund (1960-03-06). "An Extraordinary Tale Speculating on Man's Destiny". Chicago Tribune. pp. B1.
[25] Sheppard, R.I. (1971-03-29). Future Grok (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ magazine/ article/ 0,9171,944340-1,00. html). Time, Inc.. .
Retrieved 2008-06-21.
[26] Rosenberg, Paul (1997-11-20). "Apocalypse Avoided, Revisited" (http:/ / www. csmonitor. com/ 1997/ 1120/ 112097. feat. books. 4. html).
The Christian Science Monitor.
[27] "The Infography about Walter Miller, Jr. (1923–1996)" (http:/ / www. infography. com/ content/ 040281001962. html). Fields of
Knowledge. 2007. . Retrieved 2007-12-09.
[28] Samuelson, David N. (1981). "Twentieth Century American Science-Fiction Writers". Dictionary of Literary Biography (Gale) 8.
[29] Cowart, David (1975). "A Canticle for Leibowitz". Contemporary Literary Criticism. The Gale Group. "Unfortunately, it is little known
outside science-fiction circles, even though it compares favorably with the work of such mainstream Catholic writers as François Mauriac,
Graham Greene, Evelyn Waugh, and Walker Percy."
[30] Garvey, John (1996-04-05). "A Canticle for Leibowitz: A Eulogy for Walt Miller". Commonweal (Commonweal Foundation) 123 (7): 8.
[31] Shippey, T.A. (2000). "A Canticle for Leibowitz". Masterplots II: American Fiction Series, Revised Edition. Salem Press, Inc.
''A Canticle for Leibowitz'' 94

[32] "A Canticle for Leibowitz (Log)" (http:/ / www. old-time. com/ otrlogs2/ cfl. log. txt). Old Time Radio. . Retrieved 2010-12-25.
[33] "Crazy Dog Audio Theatre Masterpiece Gallery" (http:/ / www. crazydogaudiotheatre. com/ fame. php). Crazy Dog Audio Theatre -
www.crazydogaudiotheatre.com. . Retrieved 2010-01-12.
[34] Bisson, Terry (1998). "A Canticle for Miller; or, How I Met Saint Leibowitz and the Wild Horse Woman but not Walter M. Miller, Jr."
(http:/ / www. sff. net/ people/ TBisson/ miller. html). TerryBisson.com. . Retrieved 2007-06-03.
[35] Silver, Steven H. (2007). "Saint Leibowitz and the Wild Horse Woman" (http:/ / www. sfsite. com/ 10b/ leib19. htm). Saint Leibowitz and
the Wild Horse Woman. . Retrieved 2007-12-05.

Sources
• Roberson, Williams H.; Robert L. Battenfeld (1992-06-30). Walter M. Miller, Jr.: A Bio-Bibliography.
Bio-Bibliographies in American Literature. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0313276514.
• Wagner, Thomas M. (2005). "A Canticle for Leibowitz" (http://www.sfreviews.net/cfl.html). SF Reviews.net.
Retrieved 2007-06-03.

External links
• A Canticle for Leibowitz (http://www.isfdb.org/cgi-bin/title.cgi?2283) publication history at the Internet
Speculative Fiction Database
• A Canticle for Leibowitz (http://www.conceptualfiction.com/a_canticle_for_leibowitz.html), reviewed by Ted
Gioia (Conceptual Fiction)
''The Road'' 95

The Road
The Road

First Edition hardcover of The Road


Author Cormac McCarthy

Country United States

Language English

Genre(s) Post-apocalyptic fiction

Publisher Alfred A. Knopf

Publication date September 26, 2006

Media type Print (Hardcover)

Pages 256 pp

ISBN 0307265439

OCLC Number 70630525 [1]

The Road is a 2006 novel by American writer Cormac McCarthy. It is a post-apocalyptic tale of a journey taken by a
father and his young son over a period of several months, across a landscape blasted by an unnamed cataclysm that
destroyed all civilization and, apparently, almost all life on earth. The novel was awarded the 2007 Pulitzer Prize for
Fiction and the James Tait Black Memorial Prize for Fiction in 2006.

Plot summary
The Road follows an unnamed father and son journeying together across a grim post-apocalyptic landscape, some
years after a great, unexplained cataclysm has destroyed civilization and almost all life on Earth. Realizing that they
will not survive another winter in their unspecified original location, the father leads the boy south, through a
desolate American landscape along a vacant highway, towards the sea, sustained only by the vague hope of finding
warmth and more "good guys" like them, and carrying with them only what is on their backs and what will fit into a
damaged supermarket cart.
The setting is very cold, dark and filled with ash and the land is devoid of living vegetation. There is frequent rain or
snow, and electrical storms are common. Many of the remaining human survivors are cannibalistic gangs or nomads,
scavenging the detritus of city and country alike for human flesh, though that too is almost entirely depleted.
Overwhelmed by this desperate and apparently hopeless situation, the boy's mother, pregnant with him at the time of
the cataclysm, commits suicide when the boy is about five or six; the rationality and calmness of her act being her
last "great gift" to the man and the boy. The father coughs blood every morning and eventually realizes he is dying,
yet still struggles to protect his son from the constant threats of attack, exposure, and starvation. The revolver they
''The Road'' 96

carry, meant for protection or suicide if necessary, has only one round for most of the story. The boy has been told to
use it on himself if capture is imminent, to spare himself the horror of death at the hands of the cannibals.
In the face of these obstacles, the man and the boy have only each other. They repeatedly assure one another that
they are "the good guys," who are "carrying the fire." On their journey, the duo scrounge for food, encounter roving
bands of cannibals, and contend with horrors such as a newborn infant being roasted on a spit, and people being kept
captive as they are slowly harvested for food. The vast majority of the book is written in the third person, with
references to "the father" and "the son" or to "the man" and "the boy."
Although the man and the boy eventually reach the sea, neither the climate nor availability of food has improved.
The man succumbs to an illness and dies, leaving the boy alone, though not long before he dies, the father tells the
boy that he can continue to speak with him in his imagination after he is gone. The boy holds wake over his father's
corpse for three days, with no idea of what he is to do next. On the third day, the grieving boy encounters a man who
has been tracking the father and son. This man, who has a woman and two children of his own, a boy and a girl,
invites him to join his family after convincing the boy that he is indeed one of the "good guys" like the boy and his
dead father. A brief epilogue following meditates on nature and infinity in this altered environment.

Development history
The novel was released by publishing house Alfred A. Knopf, Inc. on September 26, 2006. In his interview by Oprah
Winfrey, McCarthy indicated that the inspiration for The Road came during a 2003 visit to El Paso, Texas, with his
young son. Imagining what the city might look like in the future, he pictured "fires on the hill" and thought about his
son. He took some initial notes but did not return to the idea until a few years later, while in Ireland. Then, the novel
came to him quickly, and he dedicated it to his son, John Francis McCarthy.[2]

Literary significance and criticism


The Road has received numerous positive reviews and honors since its release. The review aggregator Metacritic
reported the book had an average score of 90 out of 100, based on 31 reviews.[3] Critics have deemed it
"heartbreaking", "haunting", and "emotionally shattering".[4] [5] [6] The Village Voice referred to it as "McCarthy's
purest fable yet".[4] In a New York Review of Books article, author Michael Chabon heralded the novel. Discussing
the novel's relation to established genres, Chabon insists The Road is not science fiction: although "the adventure
story in both its modern and epic forms… structures the narrative", Chabon says, "ultimately it is as a lyrical epic of
horror that The Road is best understood".[7] Entertainment Weekly in June 2008 named The Road the best book,
fiction or non-fiction, of the past 25 years.[8]
On March 28, 2007, the selection of The Road as the next novel in Oprah Winfrey's Book Club was announced. A
televised interview on The Oprah Winfrey Show was conducted on June 5, 2007 and it was McCarthy's first, though
he had been interviewed for the printed media before.[2] The announcement of McCarthy's television appearance
surprised those who follow him. "Wait a minute until I can pick my jaw up off the floor", said John Wegner, an
English professor at Angelo State University in San Angelo, Texas, and editor of the Cormac McCarthy Journal,
when told of the interview.[9]
British environmental campaigner George Monbiot was so impressed by The Road that he declared McCarthy to be
one of the "50 people who could save the planet" in an article published in January 2008. Monbiot wrote, "It could
be the most important environmental book ever. It is a thought experiment that imagines a world without a
biosphere, and shows that everything we value depends on the ecosystem".[10] This nomination echoes the review
Monbiot had written some months earlier for the Guardian in which he wrote, "A few weeks ago I read what I
believe is the most important environmental book ever written. It is not Silent Spring, Small Is Beautiful or even
Walden. It contains no graphs, no tables, no facts, figures, warnings, predictions or even arguments. Nor does it carry
a single dreary sentence, which, sadly, distinguishes it from most environmental literature. It is a novel, first
''The Road'' 97

published a year ago, and it will change the way you see the world".[11] Entertainment Weekly put it on its
end-of-the-decade, "best-of" list, saying, "With its spare prose, McCarthy's postapocalyptic odyssey from 2006
managed to be both harrowing and heartbreaking."[12]

Awards and nominations


On April 16, 2007, the novel was awarded the 2007 Pulitzer Prize for fiction.[13] It also won the 2006 James Tait
Black Memorial Prize for fiction, and was a finalist for the 2006 National Book Critics Circle Award for fiction.[14]

Film adaptation
A film adaptation of the novel, directed by John Hillcoat and written by Joe Penhall, opened in theatres on
November 25, 2009. The film stars Viggo Mortensen and Kodi Smit-McPhee as the man and the boy. Production
took place in Louisiana, Oregon, and several locations in Pennsylvania.[15]

References
[1] http:/ / worldcat. org/ oclc/ 70630525
[2] Michael Conlon (2007-06-05). "Writer Cormac McCarthy confides in Oprah Winfrey" (http:/ / www. reuters. com/ article/
entertainmentNews/ idUSN0526436120070605?pageNumber=1). Reuters. . Retrieved 2009-11-28.
[3] "The Road by Cormac McCarthy: Reviews" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080119030232/ http:/ / www. metacritic. com/ books/ authors/
mccarthycormac/ road). Metacritic. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. metacritic. com/ books/ authors/ mccarthycormac/ road) on
January 19, 2008. . Retrieved 2008-02-15.
[4] Mark Holcomb. "End of the Line -- After Decades of Stalking Armageddon's Perimeters, Cormac McCarthy Finally Steps Over the Border"
(http:/ / www. villagevoice. com/ books/ 0636,holcomb,74342,10. html). The Village Voice. . Retrieved 2007-04-23.
[5] Jones, Malcolm (September 22, 2006). "On the Lost Highway" (http:/ / www. msnbc. msn. com/ id/ 14958729/ site/ newsweek;) Newsweek.
[6] Warner, Alan (November 4, 2006). "The Road to Hell" (http:/ / books. guardian. co. uk/ reviews/ generalfiction/ 0,,1938954,00. html).
London: The Guardian. . Retrieved March 27, 2010.
[7] Michael Chabon (2007-02-15). "After the Apocalypse" (http:/ / www. nybooks. com/ articles/ 19856). The New York Review of Books. .
Retrieved 2009-11-28.
[8] "The New Classics: Books. The 100 best reads from 1983 to 2008." (http:/ / www. ew. com/ ew/ article/
0,,20207076_20207387_20207349,00. html). Entertainment Weekly. . Retrieved 2009-06-10.
[9] Julia Keller (March 29, 2007). "Oprah's selection a real shocker: Winfrey, McCarthy strange bookfellows" (http:/ / pqasb. pqarchiver. com/
chicagotribune/ access/ 1246151131. html?dids=1246151131:1246151131& FMT=ABS& FMTS=ABS:FT& type=current& date=Mar+ 29,+
2007& author=Julia+ Keller& pub=Chicago+ Tribune& edition=& startpage=1& desc=Oprah's+ selection+ a+ real+ shocker+ ). Chicago
Tribune. .
[10] Close (January 4, 2008). "50 people who could save the planet" (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ environment/ 2008/ jan/ 05/ activists.
ethicalliving). London: Guardian. . Retrieved 2010-02-04.
[11] George Monbiot (October 30, 2007). "Civilisation ends with a shutdown of human concern. Are we there already?" (http:/ / www. guardian.
co. uk/ commentisfree/ story/ 0,,2201594,00. html). London: The Guardian. .
[12] Geier, Thom; Jensen, Jeff; Jordan, Tina; Lyons, Margaret; Markovitz, Adam; Nashawaty, Chris; Pastorek, Whitney; Rice, Lynette;
Rottenberg, Josh; Schwartz, Missy; Slezak, Michael; Snierson, Dan; Stack, Tim; Stroup, Kate; Tucker, Ken; Vary, Adam B.;
Vozick-Levinson, Simon; Ward, Kate (December 11, 2009), "THE 100 Greatest MOVIES, TV SHOWS, ALBUMS, BOOKS,
CHARACTERS, SCENES, EPISODES, SONGS, DRESSES, MUSIC VIDEOS, AND TRENDS THAT ENTERTAINED US OVER THE
PAST 10 YEARS". Entertainment Weekly. (1079/1080):74-84
[13] "Novelist McCarthy wins Pulitzer" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ entertainment/ 6563291. stm). BBC. April 17, 2007. . Retrieved
2007-09-08.
[14] The National Book Critics Circle 2006 finalists (http:/ / www. bookcritics. org/ ?go=finalists)
[15] "Mortensen, Theron on The Road to Pittsburgh" (http:/ / www. usatoday. com/ life/ movies/ news/ 2008-01-16-the-road_N. htm). USA
Today. January 16, 2008. . Retrieved January 7, 2010.
''The Road'' 98

Further reading
• McCarthy, Cormac (2006). The Road. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 0307265439
• Cates, Anna (February 2010). "Secular Winds: Disrupted Natural Revelation & the Journey toward God in
Cormac McCarthy's The Road" (http://www.irosf.com/q/zine/article/10637). Internet Review of Science
Fiction VII (2). Retrieved 7 November 2010.

External links
• Juan Asensio/Stalker review (http://stalker.hautetfort.com/archive/2008/12/11/
the-road-by-cormac-mccarthy.html)
• NPR review (http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=6449817)
• The New York Times review (http://www.nytimes.com/2006/09/25/books/25masl.html?ex=1316836800&
en=77d97481acea1b63&ei=5088&partner=rssnyt&emc=rss)
• The Washington Post review (http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/09/28/
AR2006092801460.html)
• Sunday Telegraph review (http://www.telegraph.co.uk/arts/main.jhtml?xml=/arts/2006/11/05/bomcca205.
xml)
• Booklist review (http://booklistonline.com/default.aspx?page=show_product&pid=1720552)
• The New York Review of Books review (http://www.nybooks.com/articles/19856) (fee required to read entire
text)
• Slate review (http://www.slate.com/id/2151300)
''The City of Ember'' 99

The City of Ember


The City of Ember

Author Jeanne DuPrau

Publication date May 2003

Media type Print (Hardcover and Paperback)

Pages 288

ISBN 0375822739

OCLC Number [1]


50166630

Dewey Decimal [Fic] 21

LC Classification PZ7.D927 Ci 2003

Followed by The People of Sparks

The City of Ember is a post-apocalyptic novel by Jeanne DuPrau that was published in 2003. Similar to Suzanne
Martel's The City Under Ground published in 1963, The story is about Ember, an underground city that is slowly
running out of power and supplies due to its aging infrastructure. The young protagonist, Lina Mayfleet, and her
friend, Doon Harrow, manage to decode a message and follow clues left behind by the original builders of the City
of Ember that would lead them to safety in the outside world.
It is the first book in the Books of Ember series, which also includes The People of Sparks, The Prophet of Yonwood,
and The Diamond of Darkhold. The book was adapted into a film by Walden Media and Playtone and released on
October 10, 2008. City of Ember was released on DVD on January 20, 2009.[2]

Plot summary
Unidentified architects and engineers, referred to as "the Builders", designed an underground city with supplies for
its inhabitants to survive for 200 years. During that time, the Earth would be uninhabitable for an unspecified reason.
After completion of the city, the Builders give the first mayor of the city a locked box that was to be passed down
from one mayor to the next. Unknown to the mayors who were to pass it down the line, the box was set to open after
200 years and provide instructions to the city's inhabitants on how to return to the surface.
For several generations, the box is faithfully passed down from one mayor to the next until the seventh mayor who,
hoping that the box might contain a cure for the deadly cough that was infecting many citizens of the city at the time,
takes the box home and tries to break it open. He fails, and dies before he is able to return the box to its rightful
place, or inform anyone else of its importance.
The story moves forward to the year 241 where the town is running out of supplies and the massive generator that
provides the light and power for the city is on its last legs. At a graduation ceremony where young people are
''The City of Ember'' 100

assigned their jobs, Lina Mayfleet is assigned the job of “Pipeworks Laborer", while Doon Harrow gets to be a
“Messenger.” Both are unhappy with their assignments, and the two decided to switch jobs.
At home, Lina finds an old piece old paper she savaged from inside a box. Unknown to her, it is the box that was
passed from governer to governer. Lina attempts to decipher the letter, but it is too messy. Finally, she asks Doon to
look at the message and they realize it is instructions to escape the city.
Doon and Lina explore the tunnels in the Pipeworks, trying to find the exit. Soon, they find an underground river,
where they discover boats meant to be used by the community. When the boat finally stops, they climb a long set of
stairs up to the surface of the natural world and find an old journal explaining the history of Ember. The Builders
decided to protect 100 adults and 100 children to ensure that the human race would survive. Peering through an
opening in the earth, the friends are shocked to see the dim, glimmering lights of the city far below. They never
knew they were living underground.
Doon and Lina know they can never return to Ember, but want the others to survive. They write a note explaining
how to exit the city using the underground river. They throw the note into the hole so that it will fall down into
Ember. The novel ends with Mrs. Murdo, finding the bundle containing the note.

Critical reception
The City of Ember was praised for its setting and main character, Lina and Doon. Kirkus Reviews praised the
characters finding them "likable" for their courage, but also for their flaws of human pride. The reviewer noted how
"their weaknesses often complementing each other in interesting ways".[3] Sally Estes from Booklist commented how
readers would be able to connect on how Lina and Doon's courage despite amidst the conflicts.[4] Robert Sutton from
Horn Book Magazine compared the novel the Gathering Blue by Lois Lowry, noting how "the darkness of Ember is
essentially literal" with generator failing and running out of power. Sutton noted how DuPrau does not explain the
history of Ember all at once, which would confuse and overwhelm the reader and instead, "allows the events of the
story to convey the necessary information". Lina and Doon were described as "good sorts" that are "deeply
etched".[5] Dian Roback from Publishers Weekly also praised the "full blooded characters as bit as good as the plot
which would hook readers until the end.[6] While Jones Johns from School Library Journal found that the setting
isn't as ingenious as the ones in Joan Aiken's Is Underground and Lois Lowry's The Giver, he found that the
characters and pace of the plow will keep readers hooked.[7]

Film adaptation
A film adaptation of the novel was produced by Walden Media and Playtone with Bill Murray as the mayor, Saoirse
Ronan as Lina, and Harry Treadaway as Doon.[8] Filming was finished in October 2007 and the film was released a
year later on October 10, 2008. City of Ember was released on DVD on January 20, 2009.

Awards
• 2006 Mark Twain Award[9]

References
[1] http:/ / worldcat. org/ oclc/ 50166630
[2] "City of Ember" and "Igor" are among this week's DVD releases (http:/ / seattletimes. nwsource. com/ html/ movies/
2008643863_zmov20newdvds. html)
[3] {{cite journal|journal=[[Kirkus Reviews[[|publisher=EBSOhost|volume=71|issue=10|page=749|issn=00426598}}
[4] Estes, Sally (April 15, 2003). Booklist (EBSCOhost) 99 (16): 1466. ISSN 00067385.
[5] Sutton, Roger (May/June 2003). Horn Book Magazine (EBSCOhost) 79 (3): 343. ISSN 00185078.
[6] Roback, Diane (March 10, 2003). Publishers Weekly (EBSCOhost) 250 (10): 72. ISSN 00000019.
[7] Peters, John (May 2003). School Library Journal (EBSCOhost) 49 (5): 150. ISSN 03628930.
''The City of Ember'' 101

[8] "City of Ember (2008)" (http:/ / www. imdb. com/ title/ tt0970411/ ). .
[9] "Mark Twain Award: Previous Winners" (http:/ / www. maslonline. org/ awards/ books/ MarkTwain/ PrevWin. php). Missouri Association of
School Librarians. .

External links
• Jeanne DuPrau's website (http://jeanneduprau.com/)
• The Map of the City of Ember (http://www.mce.k12tn.net/reading52/map2.gif)
• Original Builders' instructions image (http://www.yourprops.com/
City-of-ember-map-other-replicas-movie-props-City-of-Ember--2008--prop-25284.html)
• Original production notes and Ember's oath (http://press.foxwalden.com/content/title/20/asset/documents/
COEpressnotes-pdf.pdf)
Article Sources and Contributors 102

Article Sources and Contributors


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Aldawalda, AlexR, Alison9, Alphaboi867, Alpine boarder, AncientNova, Andman8, Andreach, Andycjp, Angleofdarkness99, Antaeus Feldspar, Anville, Arb, Arthur Rubin, AsaRoast, Asatruer,
Astudent, Atlant, Atomofish, Ausir, Axeman89, BHenry1969, Barsoomian, Battle Ape, Baumfabrik, Beetstra, Beland, Benjaminlobato, Bewitchedyegor, Bigbadbyte, BitterMan,
Blooddragon1088, Bogdangiusca, Boonewightman, BrainyBabe, Briangotts, Brown Shoes22, Bryan Derksen, C mon, CDN99, CPWinter, Calibanu, CanisRufus, Carbonix, Carl.bunderson,
Cazsim83, Cburnett, Cbustapeck, Chowbok, Chrajohn, Chris the speller, Chris9086, ChrisG, Christopher Parham, Ciaran skye, Cjewell, Ckatz, Clagg, Clare Nicholas, Cloud of Yourlife, Cls14,
Codenamecuckoo, Colfer2, Colonelboris, Colonies Chris, Coralys, CoyoteOfTruth, Croatoan1, Cuchullain, Cute koala, CyberSkull, Cyster, Czolgolz, Dalen talas, Dampinograaf, Danheac,
Darzbor, Dawg338, Dawn Bard, Dbenbenn, Debuskjt, Decumanus, Deicidium, Deiz, Deller108, Depherios, Desk Jockey, Devatipan, Dexter Nextnumber, Dino, Dlohcierekim, Dodger,
Dogru144, Download, Dp462090, Dpotter, Dr Black Knife, Drakon09, Dralwik, Drayess, DreamGuy, Drecology, Dunning, Earendur, Edfan32, Edg2103, Edgeworth, Edward, Eekerz, Egan Loo,
El-topo, Ellsworth, Elmmapleoakpine, Enmerkar, Eoinomahony, Eptin, Error, Evan1975, Evice, Exeunt, Extreme Unction, FigmentJedi, Finlay McWalter, Fojxl, Franzeska, Fredbauder, Fru1tbat,
Funnies91, GRAHAMUK, GWhitewood, Gadfium, Gaius Cornelius, Gazjo, Geniac, Gioto, Gizzakk, Gonzonoir, Graf Bobby, Grahamdubya, Granpuff, Grendelkhan, Grogan675, Gtrmp,
Hardyplants, Hayford Peirce, Hektor, Heron, Hob, HollyI, Hyperionsteel, I'm me 101, ISandusky, Ian Pitchford, Ianblair23, Iceberg3k, Icekiss, Iggugikuk, Ihavenolife, Ihcoyc, Inky, Isequals,
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JonathanDP81, Jonesfelice1, Jooler, Jtir, Juansmith, JustPhil, Jwrosenzweig, KF, Kbgeek, Kbh3rd, Kelly Martin, Kenaz13, Kevin Ryde, Kevinalewis, Khaosworks, Kitch, Kjoonlee, Kleiner
Junge, Korny O'Near, Koyaanis Qatsi, Kross, Kuralyov, Kurrupt3d, Lady Aleena, Latecapitalism, Lefty, Lemonv1, Leversofpower, Licon, Liftarn, Lightmouse, LilHelpa, Lilmexicanman12,
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Article Sources and Contributors 103

Dying Earth subgenre  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=342728166  Contributors: ***Ria777, Abductive, Ahasuerus, Alvis, Antepenultimate, Baduin, Clarityfiend, Cmadler,
Corvun, Donreed, EvaXephon, Fairsing, Freakytiki34, Ganryuu, Gothbag, Hydrargyrum, Impaciente, Iridescent, JDspeeder1, JMLofficier, Jj137, Karada, Kelly Martin, Kevinalewis, Kookyunii,
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Shiftnoise, Signinstranger, Thaddeus Slamp, The Anome, UnexpectedBanana, Voidampersand, Wereon, Yobmod, 106 anonymous edits

Risks to civilization, humans and planet Earth  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=407979886  Contributors: 8doodles, A3 nm, AOC25, AaronM, Abbail, Abce2, Abi79,
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Nuclear holocaust  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=405318228  Contributors: 68Kustom, Ace Oliveira, Acs4b, Adam Keller, Aitias, Al Fecund, Andreas Kaganov, ArielGold,
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Apocalypse  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=407664032  Contributors: 1timesign, 21655, 666anonymous666, 9s, A8UDI, Absideal, AbsolutDan, Acesmoore, Acroterion,
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The Last Man  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=408302569  Contributors: 23skidoo, Acoustikid11, Awadewit, Brown Shoes22, Cbustapeck, Cheetsc, Count de Ville,
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On the Beach (novel)  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=406240316  Contributors: 2tuntony, Amberroom, Angela26, Antepenultimate, Baylink, BigrTex, Bigturtle, Brecchie,
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Alas, Babylon  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=407943189  Contributors: 23skidoo, 4twenty42o, Ajh16, Andreas Kaganov, Animum, AnotherArmchairCritic, Antandrus,
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Tim!, Tim1965, Tony1, True Pagan Warrior, Tsiaojian lee, Tuxedo junction, Varlaam, Verne Equinox, Vicki Rosenzweig, Winston365, Woohookitty, Wsiegmund, Wwoods, Xihr, Xophist,
Yahnatan, Yerpo, Yllosubmarine, Zoe, Zombie Hunter Smurf, 190 anonymous edits

The Road  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=407560637  Contributors: A Stop at Willoughby, Acbistro, Adamc714, Aelfthrytha, Ahtih, Al Lemos, All Hallow's Wraith,
Ameliorate!, AnAbsolutelyOriginalUsername42, Anaxial, Antonrojo, Aradek, Arloz, Avoided, Banjaloupe, Bikoyski, Black Falcon, Blacksun1942, Blue Haze, Bluedustmite, Bobo The Ninja,
Bobo192, Boccobrock, Bongomanrae, Boylo, Callie.hoon, Calmer Waters, Calvin 1998, Captain Cheeks, Chanlyn, Chuck Sirloin, Cian1989, Claudia51881, Clintville, CommanderCool1654,
Croos, Cszponce, Cuchullain, Dangerusdave, Daniel J. Leivick, Darhink, Darth Panda, Ddelapi, Discospinster, DocWatson42, Dom Kaos, DreamGuy, Dvd1991, Dyslexic agnostic,
ElectricValkyrie, Elmmapleoakpine, Erik, Escape Orbit, Esprit15d, Estemi, Excirial, Ezeo23, Fauncet, Faweekee, Ferengi, Fern44014, Fi11222, Flandrensis, Folajimi, Foolman89,
Fountainhead82, FourTildes, Fourinthemourning, Freeman1208, Freezerburningman, FruitSalad4225, GVOLTT, Gabbe, Geoff B, GoRight, Goochelaar, Graag, GrahamHardy, Guy Harris,
Haphazardjoy, Henry Merrivale, Heroeswithmetaphors, Indiff3r3nc3, Infrogmation, Insanity Incarnate, Iridescent, J.delanoy, JCDenton2052, JKBrooks85, Jackbrown, JamieS93, Jcreed,
Article Sources and Contributors 105

JohnHDeery, Jonxwood, Josh a brewer, JoshDuffMan, Joshfriel, Joshua Scott, Julia Rossi, Keilana, Kevinalewis, Khayman, Klubbit, Kookyunii, Kuralyov, Laplacian, Larry Dunn, Leuko,
Lew19, LiamUK, LilDice, Little Mountain 5, Loganberry, Lolliapaulina51, Longsnout, Lykantrop, MAnnB, Magicflyinlemur, Maire, Max Kelvin, McSly, Mco5t4, Meile, Meredyth, Miko3k,
Misterkillboy, Mk5384, Moncrief, Mstarli, My76Strat, Mygerardromance, Neespee, Newspaperman, Noneforall, NovaSTL, NuclearWarfare, Orangemike, Orion 37, Peterih, Petero9, Pilot expert,
Postdlf, PringleX, RJHall, Red Bulls Fan, Remember, RepublicanJacobite, Rfc1394, Rich257, Rigolaux, Rjwilmsi, RobJ25, Rugby007, Runtime, Rurik, Sadads, Sam Blacketer, Saravask,
SausageLady, Scandum, Sdornan, Sergio Ubiretta, Sertrel, Skysmith, Slagathor, Slon02, Soporaeternus, Steve, Steve Pastor, StevieKoteff234, Submachine139, Sunwin1960, Supervidin,
T.Randall.Scales, Tangent747, TastyCakes, Tbonnie, TerriersFan, Thatguyflint, Thismightbezach, Thumperward, Tim!, Tklein27, Tony Sidaway, Treybien, Tyrannum, UDScott, Ufoboy90,
UnitedStatesian, WTM, Wasted Time R, Weavrmom, Wikievil666, WikipedianMarlith, WookieInHeat, Wprlh, Wtmitchell, Yamamoto Ichiro, Yiazmat, Yllosubmarine, Zafiroblue05,
Zombiewarlord, Zybez, 561 anonymous edits

The City of Ember  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=408453727  Contributors: 2D, Aardnavark, Airplaneman, Aitias, Al Wiseman, Alan 620, Alansohn, Alexkin, AlphaEtaPi,
Anthony Appleyard, AnthonyTambash, Antrinkle, Applesinatra, Arcanedude91, Ashley Pomeroy, Atif.t2, Avjoska, BarretBonden, Benjaminkovacs, Bet90, Beyond My Ken, Biker Biker, Blu
fire104, Blueglobe, Bluemoose, Bobo192, Bookshelf000, BoomerAB, Brilliant Pebble, Caltas, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, CanadianLinuxUser, CardinalDan, Cassioli, Catgut, Chasingsol,
Christian75, Ciaccona, Ckatz, Cmdrjameson, Cnilep, Coolman43, Courcelles, CrussianObadagus, Cute koala, D, DanielEng, Darth Newdar, Darth Panda, David Gerard, DeadEyeArrow,
Deflagro, DerHexer, Derild4921, Dethme0w, Dillard421, Discospinster, Dkanem, DoubleBlue, Dpmuk, Dutchmonkey9000, Earle Martin, Ecthelion83, Ed Fitzgerald, Edward321, Einbierbitte,
Ejosse1, Elipongo, Ember of Light, Enuja, Epbr123, Erik, Erik9, Euchiasmus, Exeunt, Explicit, Falcon8765, Fastily, Figureskatingfan, Flame of Azarath, Flyingidiot, Frazzydee, Fritzpoll,
Froeter, GB fan, GLaDOS, GeneralBelly, GregorB, Grey Shadow, Griffinofwales, Gökhan, HappyUser, HexaChord, Hmrox, Houiostesmoiras, Infoman99, Interrobang², Iridescence, Iridescent,
Itzeky18, J.delanoy, JForget, JQF, Jeff G., Jennavecia, Jivee Blau, John Reaves, Johnnywalterboy, Jonh smith, Jonomacdrones, JukoFF, K1Bond007, KJS77, Keilana, Kevin94choi, Kevinalewis,
Kiara.bine, King of Hearts, Kitia, Kizor, KnightLago, Konczewski, Kuralyov, Larklight, LeaveSleaves, LemonairePaides, Leo Fitzpatrick, Leszek Jańczuk, Limetolime, Lomn, Lotje,
Lublahblahlu, Luna Santin, MARKOPO, Mademoiselle Sabina, MakeRocketGoNow, Malinaccier, Mannafredo, Marcasireland, Marek69, Maurreen, McSly, Mcmonkeyburger, Mcstoopid8,
Miguel.mateo, MikeAllen, Minna Sora no Shita, Miquonranger03, Mr. Absurd, N5iln, Nagy, Nakon, Nanobowers, Nascar1996, Nick3109, ONEder Boy, Odie5533, OnBeyondZebrax, Oob4ever,
Otolemur crassicaudatus, Ottawa4ever, Ow my brain!, Oxymoron83, Paxsimius, Pegship, PhilKnight, Pinkadelica, Pittsburghmuggle, Pixeljedi, Poeloq, QuackOfaThousandSuns, Quartermaster,
QueenCake, Quietly Confident, Radiant!, Raichu2, Rebrane, Reliableforever, Ronhjones, Rsx321, Rtkat3, Sadads, Sam Korn, SchfiftyThree, Shannon1, Shawnhath, Sionus, Sjwk,
Sleepyjackthefiredrill, Smalljim, Soc8675309, Soetermans, Sonicsuns, Soren121, Station1, Susana.aquino, Tamnoon, Tassedethe, Tcncv, Tempodivalse, The Canadian Roadgeek, The Thing That
Should Not Be, TheSuave, Thingg, Tide rolls, Tjic, Tommy2010, Tony0596, Torchwoodwho, Troy 07, Tsubasa wings, Tuxedobob, Tyrol5, Useight, Veraladeramanera, Versus22, Vipinhari,
Waacstats, Water78, Western Pines, WoodyWerm, Xcaliber14, Zzuuzz, 923 anonymous edits
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 106

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors


File:H G Wells pre 1922.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:H_G_Wells_pre_1922.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Andreagrossmann, JasonAQuest, Lupo, 2
anonymous edits
File:Jules Verne.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jules_Verne.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Chris 73, Editor at Large, G.dallorto, Henry Merrivale,
Kaganer, Makthorpe, Marcok, Nixón, Olivier2, Pfctdayelise, Romary, Sparkit, Wknight94, Yann, 10 anonymous edits
File:TheLeftHandOfDarkness1stEd.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:TheLeftHandOfDarkness1stEd.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Antepenultimate, Skier
Dude, Yobmod
File:Neuromancer (Book).jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Neuromancer_(Book).jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: User:Ghepeu
Image:Frankenstein13.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Frankenstein13.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: JDG, Skier Dude, Yobmod
Image:Sfcon-reading-ddb.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sfcon-reading-ddb.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: David
Dyer-Bennet
Image:1967. На Луне.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:1967._На_Луне.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Post of Soviet Union
Image:The dying earth by jack vance.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:The_dying_earth_by_jack_vance.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: User:MamaGeek
Image:Castle romeo2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Castle_romeo2.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: United States Department of Energy
File:Orthodox-Apocalypse-Fresco.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Orthodox-Apocalypse-Fresco.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Edal
Image:St-john.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:St-john.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Dread83, EDUCA33E, Mattes, Micione, Mylius, Razr, Shakko,
Xenophon
Image:Apokalipsis XVI.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Apokalipsis_XVI.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Alex Bakharev, Shakko
File:Wikisource-logo.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wikisource-logo.svg  License: logo  Contributors: Nicholas Moreau
File:PD-icon.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:PD-icon.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Duesentrieb, User:Rfl
Image:Durer Revelation Four Riders.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Durer_Revelation_Four_Riders.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Akinom,
Andreagrossmann, Homonihilis, Jarekt, Pko, Stw, Thuresson, Trockennasenaffe, Warburg, Wst, Zapyon, 1 anonymous edits
Image:William Miller.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:William_Miller.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Nk, Rat at WikiFur
Image:BritLibAddMS35166ApocalypseFolio003rAngelApeardToJohn.jpg  Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:BritLibAddMS35166ApocalypseFolio003rAngelApeardToJohn.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Dsmdgold
File:Joseph Martin Kronheim - The Sunday at Home 1880 - Revelation 22-17.jpg  Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Joseph_Martin_Kronheim_-_The_Sunday_at_Home_1880_-_Revelation_22-17.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Joseph Martin
Kronheim (1810-1896)
File:Apokalipsis XVI.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Apokalipsis_XVI.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Alex Bakharev, Shakko
Image:ShelleyLastMan.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ShelleyLastMan.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Mary Shelley (1797-1851)
File:Richard jefferies.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Richard_jefferies.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Unknown, irrelevant due to age. Original
uploader was Malcolm Farmer at en.wikipedia
Image:Coatefarm.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Coatefarm.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: N p holmes
Image:jefferies1872.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jefferies1872.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: N p holmes
Image:Jefferies' Anemone.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jefferies'_Anemone.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: unknown
Image:OnTheBeach.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:OnTheBeach.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: GrahamHardy
File:On The Beach66.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:On_The_Beach66.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Graham1973
File:AlasBabylon(1stEd).jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:AlasBabylon(1stEd).jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Pat Frank
File:AlasBabylon.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:AlasBabylon.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Pat Frank
Image:A Canticle for Leibowitz cover 1st ed.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:A_Canticle_for_Leibowitz_cover_1st_ed.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors:
Cschmieg, Jacqke, JimDunning, Skier Dude, 1 anonymous edits
Image:A Canticle For Lebowitz.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:A_Canticle_For_Lebowitz.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Bkell, Jacqke, 1 anonymous edits
Image:Fiat Lux Canticle map.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Fiat_Lux_Canticle_map.png  License: unknown  Contributors: Briangotts, Marcok
Image:The-road.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:The-road.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Larry Dunn, Marcok, Warburg, Yllosubmarine
Image:The City of Ember.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:The_City_of_Ember.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Anakin101, DanielEng, Kitia, 3 anonymous
edits
License 107

License
Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported
http:/ / creativecommons. org/ licenses/ by-sa/ 3. 0/

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